PLENARYSESSIONS ACM ISBN l-581 13-028-7 CHI 98 018-23 APRIL 1998 Codex, Memex, Genex: The Pursuit of Transformational Technologies Ben Shneiderrnan Professor, Dept. of Computer Science, Head, Human-Computer Interaction Laboratory University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 [email protected]

ABSTRACT shaping the applications of our maturing technology and in Handwritten codexes or printed books transformed society dealing with many serious problems facing our civilization. by allowing users to preserve and transmit information. Today, leather-bound volumes and illuminated manuscripts Early transformational technologies include paper and are giving way to animated image maps and hot links. printing, which are referred to by the term “codex” in the Vannevar Bush’s memex has inspired the World Wide title of this essay. Durable books and movable type Web, which provides users with vast information resources reshaped science, religion, politics, and daily life in many and convenient communications. In looking to the future, ways. Ensuing information technology innovations we might again transform society by building genexes -- included photography, telephony, radio, and television. generatorsof excellence -- to support creative exploration Then, in July 1945 President Roosevelt’s science adviser, of ideas. Thesauri are to words, as genexes are to ideas. Vannevar Bush described memex, for “memory extender.” Such inspirational environments would empower personal In his essayon grand projects that scientists might work on and collaborative creativity by enabling users to: as World War 11 was coming to an end, he proposed a . collect information from an existing domain of personal desktop system, based on microfilm technology, knowledge, that would provide accessto historical sourcesfor domains 0 such as patents, legal citations, or scientific papers. The create innovations using advancedtools, vision of memex as a personal workstation was a powerful . consult with peersor mentors in the field, and then force in shaping the development of personal computers, l dissetinate the results widely. our work on hypertext, and the emergence of the World- This paper describeshow a framework for an integrated set Wide Web. of software tools might support this four-phase model of creativity in science, medicine, the arts, and beyond. Later visions from J. C. R. Licklider helped launch digital Current initiatives are positive and encouraging, but they libraries, which he saw as a centralized resource that could do not work in an integrated fashion, often miss vital be accessed electronically. Licklider was profoundly components, and are frequently poorly designed. A well- influenced by Bush’s vision and dedicated his book to conceived and clearly-stated framework could guide design Bush. Douglas Engelbart’s powerful notions of efforts, coordinate planning, and speeddevelopment. intelligence augmentation by advanced user interfaces and Computer Supported Cooperative Work were key Keywords inspirations for the personal computer and groupware. The Genex, memex, World-Wide Web, advanced graphical theme of collaborative tools to support scientific research user interfaces, computer supported cooperative work, stimulated William Wulf to coin the term “collaboratories” information visualization in his 1989 white paper.

INTRODUCTION Personal computing and network access have already Computer professionals have much to be proud of in the become widespread in some countries, and will spread past fifty years. We have developed a scientific discipline, further as prices decline, user interfaces becomemore well a remarkable technology, and a thriving industry. designed, and services become more relevant. Universal Computing, information, and communications technology service is an important goal to pursue, so that the benefits have transformed aviation, automobiles, medicine, of computing and communications are available to all who publishing, banking, and many more areas. These seek them. There is a growing risk that advancing transformations will continue but as we look forward to the technology will widen the gap between rich and poor, and next fifty years, we may consider a more planful processin produce further disadvantagesfor poorly educatedcitizens. Progress is needed in low-cost manufacturing techniques, convenient public services, improved training, and effective support. But even as these improvements are being made, it may be useful to think further ahead to grander goals that may constructively transform society.

This summary is extracted from the full paper that appears in hternatiomdJournal of Mman-Computer interaction 10. 2 (1998). 98 CHI 98 l 18-23 APRIL 1998 ACM ISBN l-581 13-028-7 PLENARY SESSIONS

Foundational Beliefs 1Creative Phases 1Genex Tools 1) New knowledge is built on Collect information from an Digital libraries, Searchservices, Dynamic queries, previous knowledge existing domain of knowledge Information visualization, Multimedia search 2) Powerful tools can support Create innovations using Document assemblers,Art, design & architecture creativity advancedtools tools, User interface builders, Simulations, Models, Templates,History, Macros 3) Refinement is a social process Consult with peers or mentors Listservs, Newsgroups,Conferencing, Groupware, in the field Presentation,Annotation, Tele-democracy 4) Creative work is not complete Disseminate the results widely Email, Electronic publications, Narrowcasting, until it is disseminated: Affiliation networks, Niche lists, E-communities Table 1: Genexframework Foundational beliefs are tied to creativephases and existing tools that canbe refinedand integrated into a genex. We should move beyond the modest goal of getting a current user interfaces to the next stage. The rapidly computer to perform as well as the best human being, and growing World-Wide Web is already a remarkable pursue tools that enable humans to perform. a thousand resource, but in the next fifty years it might grow by a times better than the most capable human. Printing factor of a thousand more users (from lo7 to lOlo) and a presses,photography, and electronic mail satisfy this test, million times in data volume (from lo8 pages to lOi but foreseeingthe next innovation is difficult. pages). These changes plus the increased expectations of usersmeans that more effective designs will be needed. The first steps towards building new tools may already be appearing in advancedsoftware packagesand on the World CONCLUSION AND CAUTION Wide Web. Creative designers are introducing Creativity is often described as a rare experience for elite environments that go well beyond the vision supplied by workers, but genexescan promote contributions from more Bush, Licklider, Engelbart, and Wulf. They prefigure tools diverse individuals to ever widening domains of that are more than a digital library or intelligence knowledge. Initial stepsare appearing on the World Wide amplifier; they support creativity. I might call such a tool Web, there is little coordination and many designs lack memex 2.0, to suggestan expansion of Bush’s memex, but I vital components. prefer genex, to indicate an orientation towards generating excellence. (Note: The closenessof genex to genetics and Many versions of genex are likely to be built, capturing the to generation-X is coincidental.) This may be an optimistic history of each domain, tailored to the needs of each field, expectation, but it conveys my belief that well-designed and in harmony with the working styles of diverse technologies can promote excellence. Users who individuals. Some genexes are likely to be too restrictive experience empowering designs that are comprehensible, in their support of creativity or too limited in their predictable, and controllable, may be inspired to pursue functionality, but the examplesof excellence should help to quality in their work products. promote quality. Progressin implementing a genex will be measuredby the number of adoptersand their productivity, A genex would be an integrated family of tools that but progressas a civilization will be harder to measure. supports users in creating innovations in art, science, engineering, etc. A genex would help users initiate hopes, No one can guarantee that genex technologies will be fabricate plans, and implement dreams in a highly social applied in positive ways, but novel social structures that framework. It would facilitate dialog with peers and encourage participatory design and open discussions may mentors, and then dissemination to potential beneficiaries. more regularly lead to higher societal benefits. Each The current initiatives are positive and encouraging, but professional’s contribution to societal transformation they do not work in an integrated fashion, often miss vital becomesan inspiration and he or she becomesa role model components, and are frequently poorly designed. A well- for others. Every story we tell about one person making a conceived and clearly-stated framework could guide design difference inspires the next constructive contribution. efforts, coordinate planning, and speeddevelopment. We live in a troubled world, with immense problems that Appropriate genex designs would enable problem solvers are not caused by technology: conflict and oppression, to locate and build on previous work easily, explore poor health and nutrition, inadequate housing or sewage, numerous alternatives rapidly, consult conveniently, and illiteracy and poor education, and many more. Computing propagate solutions widely (Table 1). Inevitably there will and communications technology may contribute to be many genexes; oriented towards different domains and solutions by enabling people to explore a wider set of tailored to the needs of different users, such as eager alternatives, consult easily with peers and mentors, and students acquiring a domain, methodical workers in record their successes(and failures) so others can learn existing domains, or visionary explorers of new domains. from them. Our greatest resource is human creativity. Appropriate technology can empower more people to The four phasesof creativity-- collect, create, consult, and experience the thrill of creative work and enable each of us disseminate -- can stimulate a research program to take to make a difference.

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