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Volume 2, Issue 1V, Fall 2002 CREATIVITY in FASHION Pammi

Volume 2, Issue 1V, Fall 2002 CREATIVITY in FASHION Pammi

Volume 2, Issue 1V, Fall 2002

CREATIVITY IN

Pammi Sinha UMIST

ABSTRACT

Fashion consumption, ever contradictory in nature, requires product to achieve, among a variety of facets, both quality and value for money, individuality as well as identity. Hines (2002) draws attention to the relationship between manufacturers and retailers and, in particular, information sharing. With increasing complaints of new collections on the shopfloor being ‘unimpressive’ or ‘unattractive’, the issue of as part of a strategic response by companies must be examined, in particular in the relationship between buying and designing new fashion items. This paper will examine the process of as practiced by fashion and aims to offer insights and highlight issues that should be considered when examining how ‘designerly thinking’ might be incorporated at the strategic of management.

Key words: creative thinking, fashion , strategic management.

Introduction derivative of market leaders, rather than innovate has become a key part of their Creativity is a very emotive issue in work (Carter 2002). At the same the lack of fashion and fashion designers themselves trend spotting does have its problems (as at cannot agree what it is, or, indeed, if there William Baird, Anderson, 2002). It appears, can be too much of it as a recent article therefore, that the problem is not that voicing the opinion of two well-known designers are trend spotting and adapting but designers demonstrated (Wood 2002). that, as lead times decrease and the practice Inappropriate or dull were blamed as of changing product ranges every few weeks major causes of the troubles for Marks and rather than every season is adopted by most Spencer and Laura Ashley and it is the same levels of the fashion market in the UK, complaint for the lack of sales this season newness is no longer a competitive for William Baird Group’s advantage in fashion retailing. Advantage is Windsmoor, Planet and Precis Petite, where gained by understanding the increasingly lack of trend spotting was raised as an issue fragmenting target markets, ensuring that the (Anderson, 2002). right amount of newness/adaptation is on the shopfloor so as not to scare or bore the Part of the problem is the role of the customer (Butler, 2002). Information has designer in many UK high street stores. become key, specially sharing it between Fashion designers are increasingly finding manufacturers and retailers (Kilduff 2002, that their ability to spot trends and be Hines, 2002, Birnbaum, 2002). Access to

Article Designation: Scholarly 1 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 trend information for the fashion consumer Matlin (2002) has observed that of all the has become easy. This prompted one retail various approaches to the study of creativity, consultant to surmise that retailers could no two have been particularly significant: longer remain ahead of the customer in terms of trends but would have make design · Divergent production: emphasizes the an integral part of the buying process, take importance of divergent thinking style risks and allow designers to create trends and measures creativity in terms of the and design appropriately (Binns in Carter, number of variety of responses made to 2002,). a given problem or test (Guilford, 1967, Finke, 1992, Mayer 1999). Divergent The question then is one of how to use thinking is still considered an important designers effectively. Designers are aspect of creativity. increasingly viewed having an important roles in defining how companies use · Investment theory of creativity: sees information, how production information is creativity as a complex combination of documented and communicated (Lawson attributes and maintains that five 1990, French 1994, Vossoughi 1998). This attributes are essential: intelligence, is not a new concept but appears to still need knowledge, motivation, encouraging tackling in the fashion industry, particularly environment, appropriate thinking styles the large high street retailers. Building on and appropriate personality. This Porter’s (1985) value chain concept, it has approach is attractive to researchers been noted that creates interested in the social element, such as value at three different levels: management business, design, etc. as of design activities, integration of the design there is a strong emphasis on factors function into all the business processes and within and outside of the person, such as integration of the and motivation, the working environment decisions to the design vision within the (Sternberg and Lubart, 1995, Amabile, company mission and strategy (Cooper and 1990). Researchers in design, notably Press 1995, de Mazota 1998). The upturn in , engineering and the Finnish fashion firm Marimekko Oy’s computation have been drawn to this fortunes when the designer was given a approach as the interests are in how the more strategic role (Ainamo 1998) designer thinks and effort has been illustrates that management directed towards computer software that requires “a thorough knowledge of the aids or mimics the decision making activity of design… an understanding of process (Lloyd and Scott, 1994). design thinking in terms of its cognitive structure.” (Borja de Mazota in Bruce and Scientific study of creativity in fashion Jevnaker, 1998, p. 248). This understanding is sparse. More often than not there are might create opportunities for incorporating glimpses into well-known fashion designers’ “designerly thinking” and design decisions sources of inspiration through anecdotal into organizational strategy. evidence contained in biographical accounts (Jouve and Demornex, 1989; Palais Galleria, 1 Background 1991, McDowell 1997) or reportage in style (Wood, 2002). The study of creativity in Puccio (1997) described 12 reasons for fashion conducted to date have included an the scientific study of creativity, among examination into the environment that them contribution to effective leadership and designers may work within (Greenberg discovering new and better ways of solving 1994) and of communications in working problems, the effective use of human studios to help create computer languages or resources and the rapid growth of software to either aid communication competition in business and industry. between designers (le Pechoux et al, 2001)

Article Designation: Scholarly 2 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 or between designers and their technical practical, or symbolic. Design problems are team members (Eckert, 2000, 2002). difficult to define and have been classified according to the level of definition. The 2 Creativity is a form of problem “well-defined” (Newell, Shaw and Simon solving and is a problem 1967), or “tame” (Rittel 1972) problems are those where goals are already prescribed and Creativity has been regarded as a type apparent (Rowe, 1991), e.g., algebraic of problem solving (Matlin, 2002). Work in equations with two unknown values, computers helped to bring cognitive crossword puzzles, chess moves, - psychology to a heightened level of planning problems in architecture. Rowe examination in the 1950’s and 1960’s (1991) described the “ill-defined” problems (Evans in French and Coleman 1995). as the typical architecture problem. Newell, “Computers are general purpose information Shaw and Simon (1967) and Bazjanac processing systems… Once you equate (1974) (in Rowe 1991) described it as where thinking with information processing, then the solution is an unknown quantity and a lot the task of the modern cognitive of time is spent in clarifying the problem psychologist is clear: understanding thought with the client. Reflecting on this, Lawson is the problem of discovering the software of felt that it suggested that "... design involves the human brain” (Evans in French and finding and identifying problems as much as Coleman 1995, p. 60). According to Ömer solving them." (Lawson, p.136, 1994). Akin (1989), the study of design problems Lawson (1990) reasoned that the very arises out of Simon’s (1944) work in difficulty of stating the problem implied decision making and Newell et al’s (1957) many solutions to the same problem, i.e. the work in ‘heuristics’. Problem-solving interrelated state of the design problem and theories with regard to design problems date solution. The final type of problem is also from the end of the nineteenth century ill-defined but so much so that they defy full (Rowe 1991). definition and further questions about the problem can always be asked leading to Psychologists have distinguished “continual reformulation” (Rowe 1991, between different types of mental processes p.41). These problems have no stopping involved in problem solving. Deterministic rule, there are no right or wrong solutions mental processes at no stage call for choices and they are called “wicked problems” to be made (e.g. numbers used to multiply (Churchman 1967, Rittel 1972, Bazjanac with determine the outcome of long 1974 in Rowe 1991). multiplication). Design problems require mental processes that involve choice and As the products of fashion design are freedom of will (Johnson-Laird in Sternberg consumer items, they are a means of 1988). Characteristics of design problems constructing and communicating identity. are that they are constrained, difficult to Fashion sign values do not have any define and are interrelated with the solution. meaning in the form itself, only in relation to each other (Baudrillard 1981, Wilson Constraints on the design problem are 1987 and Davis 1994). The fashion design two-fold: problem-orientated (external) and problem (what to design) appears to be as related to the problem itself, they are much about the intended consumer as it is imposed by the clients, the user, legislation, about the product (the design solution) itself, etc. as well as autonomous or independent implying that the fashion design problem (internal) and are imposed by the designer and solution are interrelated. It would also (Simon 1970, 1973, Lawson 1990). These appear that the intended consumer (part of constraints serve the functions of ensuring the design problem) defies full definition that a design solution meets the because of the constant changes in society, requirements of the problem, whether styles and tastes. Fashion social

Article Designation: Scholarly 3 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 psychologists and marketers have been has been recognized that the designer must increasingly using personal identity know their customer needs and wants construction and generating and (Lawson 1994, Cooper and Press 1995), communication of sign values to understand understand market statistics as well as the consumer-buying behavior (Williams 1981, social, cultural, economic and political Engel et. al, 1990, Kotler and Armstrong, environment (Frings 1991, Carr and 1990, Kaiser et al, 1995). It appears to be Pomeroy 1992, Atkinson in Easey 1995 and appropriate to understand the fashion design Stecker 1996). The amount of research and problem as a “wicked one” (Churchman analysis of many similar areas often results 1967, Rittel 1972, Bazjanac 1974 in Rowe in different fashion houses producing 1991). collections with similar underlying themes, even though the work was conducted 2 What are fashion designers separately and in secrecy (Carr and Pomeroy supposed to do? 1992). The fashion designer is also an analyst (Potter, 1989) making predictions for Ginny Frings described the fashion trends and moods and acting as a conduit for designer as creating fashion ideas and expressing current moods (Sheila Atkinson supervising pattern-making and sample in Easey, 1995). Carr and Pomeroy making (Frings 1991). The UK Fashion elaborated on the role of the fashion Report described the fashion designer as designer within the industry suggesting that being “…involved in creative and individual they take part with internationally renowned, collections …characterized by high value, trend-setting designers, the media, retail low volume sales and mainly small-scale buyers and the consumers in a “…large enterprise” where “the names had attained a marketing system which acts as a pluralist certain cachet” and were regarded as decision-making process” (Carr and “inspiring trends and refreshing the look on Pomeroy, p.27, 1992). the high street” (EMAP, p.435, 1997). In contrast, Pamela Stecker reasoned that any 3 Method definition of the modern fashion designer is dependent on the designer’s experience, the Multiple case studies following Yin company, the type of garments produced (1989) and Miles and Huberman (1994) and the constraints upon the design (Stecker were conducted with five companies to 1996). Norman Potter (1989), noting the compare the design processes of several difficulties attached to defining the term designers working across different market ’designer’, described the skills required of a levels in the women’s wear clothing industry designer as: (Sinha, 2000). Cases were sampled on market segmentation features that i. The ability to exhaustively establish differentiated them. Company information and agree a best course of action, came from company and marketing reports ii. To provide instructions, and literature (Key British Enterprises 1996, iii. To be able to work as a team KeyNote 1997, EMAP 1997, Drew 1992). member and All case study companies were located in iv. To be particularly able to analyze London except Company A, which was and gather information relating to located near Nottingham. Data was gathered the design ‘problem’. through taped interviews, current relevant literature, office memos, field notes and In short the fashion designer must be a photographs or photocopies of activities and market researcher of visual and qualitative work in progress through a collection, e.g., data, an analyst of the collected data, an moodboards, conceptual designs and designs interpreter of meanings and a negotiator in (toiles, etc.). Interviews took place at an expansive decision-making process. It intervals of three or four weeks over the

Article Designation: Scholarly 4 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 preparation of a collection or range for a outerwear designer. Company B was a season between 1996-1998. manufacturer as well as retailer.

The designers gave their own account Company C also manufactured as well of their activities, significant issues/phases retailed and employed about ten designers. and their sequence of occurrence were They were well known for their mid-priced, identified and described, flowcharts and eveningwear and special occasion wear. validated by the designer. From the They divided their brands according to the validated flowcharts, case study reports and types of customers who bought the label: the interviews, information about the design original label, a label for the younger, more processes was categorized to facilitate fashion conscious customer, another label IDEF0 modeling (Wu, 1994, Aziz, 1989 and for the large sizes and a fourth label McConnelly, 1993). The IDEF0 charts were dedicated to dressing the mother of the compared in conjunction with the case study bride. The designer interviewed designed for interviews and literature review for: process the original brand label and described her structure, differences and similarities target customer as being 30 plus. The between the activities, time scales for number of retail outlets varied as they sold phases, decision points in the process, stages through concessions in department stores as of the process that the designer was actively well as through independent retailers. involved in. Events, activities and issues important to all the processes were identified Company D employed one designer to distinguish variables in the design and retailed through 4 concessions in a processes and then compared to identify specialist high street multiple retailer as well how they varied across market levels. These as through warehouses. Their target variables have not been tested for their customer was aged between 15-29 for whom predictive validity or significance. following fashion was very important.

4 The case study companies Company E was owned by the designer and retailed through the design The companies are briefly described below studio and specialist independent retailers and table 1 displays the comparison: frequented by customers interested in new and directional designers. The designer did Company A employed approximately not envisage a customer age range and had 90 designers and deployed them to various three accounts at famous retailers in brands that they owned. The designers London. interviewed designed products solely for their host variety retailer that had the largest 5 What does the fashion designer do share of women’s wear market in the UK at within a company? the time. The designers were organized into teams that dealt with products in the manner From the case studies, it was noted similar to that which the retailer organized that as market share increased company size their own designers and selectors. The team increased and that the designers’ activities interviewed were responsible for ladies’ and, in particular, their level of involvement shirts, trousers and casual separates. in sample making varied across differing market levels and company size; as the Company B had recently been companies became larger, the designer acquired to be part of a conglomerate. They became less manually involved with the employed five designers at the head office sample-making process and more involved were responsible for specific product areas. in gathered and analyzing market and trend The designer interviewed was a coats and information and applying these conclusions

Article Designation: Scholarly 5 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 to update classic styles. Differences in the the designer’s activities and decision- synthesis, selection and manufacturing making varied according to market phases were due to the differences in market segmentation, these could be placed into the share and mode of distribution and, although Table 1: comparison of the case study companies

comparison of case study companies

company A B C D E

company age(years) 87 61 52 6 5

40000 (1467 in total employees 70,000 company B of the 210 25-30 3 conglomerate)

FU evening wear Coats and outerwear stretch seperates group interviewed T54, casual shirts and special designer designer designer occassionwear specialist specialist multiples specialist retailer type variety specialist multiple independents & and others independents department store concessions & own retail & agents and own distribution method retailer wholesalers/ retailers concessions concessions retailers

no. of UK retail outlets 280 (host retailer) 238 about 80 4-20 1-3

market segmentation factors retail price range 15-50 65-199 45-500 14-40 60-800

less than or equal to market share (@) 4% 1% up to 1.4% 0.02% 0.0225% consumer age 30+ 30-40 30+ 15-29 25+ consumer spending medium medium/high medium/high low/medium very high power fit, comfort, new the right"look", fashion details, consumer needs durability, appropriately toned reliance on certain latest trends, individuality appropriateness down brands fashionability same five phases indicating a generic styling and sales figures for the season just process. The necessary differences in the finished. Designers A, B, C and D were fashion design processes make suggesting a responsible for collecting and analyzing the “best practice” or prescriptive fashion design trends information (design audit) design process impracticable. The while the business functions were comparison between the processes is responsible for analyzing the sales figures displayed in figure 1. and assessing the organizational resources (business audit). All companies also 6.1 Research and Analysis Phase: analyzed their resources, in terms of finances available, current machinery and The type and amount of research equipment and skills within the conducted was linked to the type of organization, this was usually done through consumers in the market share. All the a “sales” or “production” function of the companies were involved in collecting and company. Designer E owned the company analyzing information about current and and was therefore responsible for all forthcoming trends in color , fabric and

Article Designation: Scholarly 6 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 research activities. The ‘confirmational’ and resulted in the specification of style strategy outlined the basics of the range numbers, their colors, sizes and numbers of, (core product areas) to be produced for the to be manufactured. This phase was season for all the companies and provided a extended for companies B and A because of framework for the designers for concept the process of making design modifications development (also termed ‘the brief’ by as required. The selectors from Company Company A). All case study companies, A’s clients had conducted their own regardless of their market positioning, went extensive research and analysis, produced through a process of outlining the their own color charts and specified colors proportions of new (but risky) to “repeat” and any modifications to the patterns used (but previously successful) designs for their for each selected sample from the supplier. new ranges for the season through an Company E and Company C had modified analysis of their sales figures. The flow of their samples for manufacturing processes stages within this phase was similar for all during the synthesis phase and did not companies, except Company A, whose close readily undertake further modifications. relationship with their supplier involved the Company D separated their samples into buyers prior to the ‘confirmational’ strategy those for the wholesale buyers and those for to share ideas about the new ranges, to their concessions. At the same time, because propose a strategy to the retailer and receive they undertook to provide a new range every an ‘individual supplier’s’ brief from them. month, the designer providing an amended or new range every four weeks after the first 6.2 Synthesis Phase range of the season had been shown. Only samples selected by the wholesalers were All companies produced samples of modified after selection. the designs that were to be considered for manufacture. Styles were only manufactured 6.4 Manufacturing Phase or bought after viewing as samples. This phase was distinguishable from the previous This phase was concerned with the phase at company A but became less distinct production of selected samples according to as the companies became smaller. The role the order specifications. This phase was of making in all of the fashion companies shorter for Company E and Company D as fell to the pattern cutter and the sample they produced in small quantities in machinist, the fashion designer took on a comparison with the other companies, managerial role. This phase was extended manufactured on site and provided fewer for companies C, D and E who distributed sizes and so did not go through a factory through retailers not part of their company. sampling stage. Companies B, C, and A They modified their samples for manufactured away from their studios and manufacturing purposes at this stage so that headquarters and so undertook a factory selectors could view the samples exactly as sampling stage for production quality. they would receive them. Company A Company A, because of their access to engaged in supplying according to their factories and the large production quantities retailer’s specifications and Company B required, undertook an extra route trialling retailed through their own stores made process to ensure smooth production and ‘conceptual’ samples, which were modified delivery of the garments. according to specifications after selection for manufacture. 6.5 Distribution Phase 6.3 Selection Phase Manufactured samples were delivered to the appropriate retail outlets for selling to All the companies prepared their the public. All companies collected their garments for showing to a group of selectors wholesale figures over the season.

Article Designation: Scholarly 7 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 Availability of retail figures, which provided about the definition and role of the fashion the most direct information about consumer designer as market and trends researcher, buying and success of the design, varied. analyst and team leader in the sample Company B retailed through it’s own sites making process. and so all retail figures were available to All designers recorded and them. The strength of their relationship with categorized their research either as simple their buyer gave Company A access to all magazine ‘tears’ and swatches of fabrics retail figures concerning their products. pinned to convenient spaces on the wall or Company C and Company D owned their moodboards or reports (complexity concession sites and so were able to track depended on how large a presentation would their designs’ success for a large proportion be required of the designer). This of their production but those sold through categorization has been referred to a source wholesalers and agents and independent of inspiration and a common language of retailers were harder to obtain. The updated design (Eckert 2000). This language of range at company D concession sites relied design, according to Eckert (2000) and Le on the retail figures from within the season Pechoux et al (2002) is a possible source of as well as previous seasons. Companies C, problems in communication as it is a D and E relied on their relationship with the language understood by designers or persons retailers as to how specific their feedback historically involved with them but not was. For company E, sometimes the only necessarily by an outsider. This way of feedback from a retailer was if they bought thinking is also kaleidoscopic as patterns are from him again. assembled and reassembled from a multitude of data. This type of thinking has 7 What ‘designerly thinking’ in been noted to be essential for the fashion may be used strategically? entrepreneurs or ‘change-masters’ who want to improve business (Kanter, 1999). The design activities in the case studies demonstrated that ‘designerly 7.2 Communication of vision thinking’ requires a balance between Communication of the analysis was rational (problem-solving) thought which is most evident at company A, which had the attentive to the demands of the external largest market share and who perceived their world and imaginative thinking which is core customer as requiring comfort and attentive to the demands of the inner needs durability in their clothing, was notable for that could be quite unrelated to the outside the amount of analysis of competitive world (Lawson 1990). These activities may comparative information for all the product be useful in strategic management. areas that they supplied to their client retailers. Indeed a large part of the analysis 7.1 Kaleidoscope thinking: Pattern was a deduction of “gaps” in the market that assemblage could be filled by their clients. This was The case study designers engaged in communicated to their clients through gathering evidence about their target presentations and meetings. customer and possible trends in the market. Drawing as a communication tool From the case studies it was clear that the became increasingly important as the size of designers’ understanding of the consumer the company grew and the number of people needs and wants, interpretation of this into involved in sample making increased. desirable designs and their ability to Drawing as an aid in designing, (“interactive communicate this to the relevant people imagery” Goldschmidt 1994), was observed efficiently in the sample making process at Company B and Company C where the were crucial to company’s success in terms designers recorded their first thoughts in of design confirming the literature review loose, fluid forms which became more

Article Designation: Scholarly 8 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 clearly defined and less loose and fluid as avoided much of the styling research, the design process progressed towards preferring to source fabrics, gardening and manufacture. Indeed designers at Company interiors’ magazines for color and texture B and Company C stated that they kept back inspirations. This suggests that intuition is drawings that were not used for a given perhaps being a strong element of the season as possible ideas for the future, a designer’s thinking. Intuition has been policy recommended to engineering linked to a way of decision making that is designers by McGowan et al (1998). It was different to the rational decision making extremely difficult to locate any sketches process and has been regarded as being that might be termed “interactive imagery” worthy of serious study since the 1980’s at company A. The design manager at (Agor, 1999, Murnighan and Mower, 2002). Company A described the sample Intuition has been linked to knowledge built development as a series of discussions with up over a number of years, which has been the relevant selectors and ‘sketch and swatch highlighted as one of the essential facets to boards’. A “process of elimination” decided the investment theory of creativity as possible fabrics for mainly the basic shapes, outlined in section 2. which were previously successful garments Knowledge and expertise while an which had been constructed using clients’ important element has been regarded as a pattern blocks that suppliers were required double- edged sword. Prior knowledge or to use. Company A, thus, searched for ways experience and heavy periods of of introducing new styling details into a concentration upon an area of special classic shape without looking old-fashioned interest have been noted to be important after three or four seasons. factors in creative thinking (Simon 1981, The significance of communication as Walberg, 1989, Weisberg 1989, Malim a necessary component of creating 1994). That is, creative ideas do not always environments where flourished occur through a "eureka" type of inspiration. (Kanter 1999) was made clear by the case of The Open University described past sales company C. Designer C had commented figures as ‘experience’ of customer reaction throughout the case study about the to the garment designs (Open University difficulties of designing through the book 6,1992). Rational decision making indecision over new fabrics, as this using experience gained from sales figures hampered (sometimes terminated) the results in the outlining the proportions of process of sample making for new styles. new (but risky) to “repeat” (but previously Lack of communication, she felt, had led to successful) designs for their new ranges for high levels of stress within the organization the season, allowing for a degree of ‘feel and a high turnover of technical staff safe’ but can lead to complaints about mass (pattern cutters mainly). This loss of tacit manufacturers playing too safe with clothing knowledge about samples created items that have sold well (Kingswell, 1998). difficulties for her as she not only had to go 7.4 Switching between divergent and through the process of how a style had been made with a new pattern cutter but she also had to constantly build new relationships Designers moved from an convergent with skilled staff on whom she relied. All style of thinking to a more divergent one the designers acknowledged that they were throughout the creative phase of the process judged on the samples made of their designs, in research and analysis to producing as not the designs on paper. many different ideas as possible within the limits of the brief and ratio of new/repeat 7.3 Knowledge either by drawing/sketching and sample Designer E perceived his customer as making. This switching ability has been requiring individuality and stated that he noted to be an important faculty in creative

Article Designation: Scholarly 9 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 problem solving and creative leadership being one of the five core characteristics of (Rickards, 1997). motivating work and that its relationship with creativity as being critical. In line with Fahr and Scott (1983), Greenberg (1994) 7.5 Visual and spatial imaging described autonomy as freedom of choice in The process of sample making was vital selecting problems or projects on which to because it enabled the following: work, freedom from overzealous (i) Visual appearance of the design supervision, the privilege of setting one’s could be assessed for suitability of own deadlines and variations from the fabric, color and style. traditional organizational constraints such as (ii) The look of the design was viewed punching time clocks or accounting for absences. Greenberg ’s study was, as stated as it would look like when bought. (iii) The appropriate amount of fabric for earlier, with students and so did not examine the appropriate price point could be the variables of interdependence or assessed. independent work, which would exist in the (iv) Quality control tests for the fabric business environment. and manufacture possible on the sample. The case study designers indicated during the interviews how their design (v) Further sizes could be graded from the sample. decisions (repeats, color, fabric and new All the companies produced about two styles) were made and were asked to score or three times as many samples required for them arbitrarily on a scale of 1-5 according approval for buying and, or, manufacturing. to how influential to the company they felt The method in which the samples were their design recommendations to be. A score made depended on their sales record. A style of 5 indicated that they felt their decision was extremely influential and a sense of that had previously sold well and was being repeated for the coming season would be autonomy prevailed in freedom to take the made up in more versions than a new style initiative. A score of 1 indicated that the that had previously not been shown. The decision was specified for the designer. The designers interviewed stated that although results are displayed in table 2. this was expensive in terms of finance, time and fabric, this was normal practice and may It was noted that the designers felt that be regarded as reasonable when considering their influence increased as the size of the project increased and more finance was the psychological aspects of buying, whether retail or industrial (Easey, 1995). How required to fund the sampling process. As fashion buyers select ranges for their ranges expected, the designer E ranked the highest, should be of concern to retailers trying to as he was the company director as well as stave off complaints of designs being designer. Designer E had gained success shocking or boring by customers. through peer review is evidenced through being awarded the New Generation Designer Award 1993 and profiled in 7.6 Autonomy Ekvall’s (1991) study on creative magazines with wide circulation numbers climate found that freedom to take initiatives (Armstrong, 1995, and Marie Claire, 1993). and independent work, humorous mood, Designers A and C (where the company insightful listening to problems that could be employee numbers were about 70,000 and aired openly without fear of reprisal and 210 respectively) ranked lowest among the acceptance of failures within work were case studies for their influence in the among some of the important ingredients decision making process, indicating that the steering role of the designer is not merely a necessary for creativity in the workplace. Greenburg (1994) described autonomy as factor of the company size.

Article Designation: Scholarly 10 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 Table 2: design decisions taken by the designer

conceptual manufacturing scale colour fabric style total score range range

5 E E E E E=21 4 B, D B=16 3 B A, B, D B W D=12 2 C, D C A, C A, C, D C=9 1 A A, C, D, E A=8

It was noted that the designers felt that ideas about the range as the season their influence increased as the size of the progressed towards the fashion show. project increased and more finance was Although this may be due to interviewee required to fund the sampling process. As bias, the interviews revealed a lack of expected, the designer E ranked the highest, understanding of the role of the designer in as he was the company director as well as the company. The somewhat stressful designer. Designer E had gained success working environment and the quick turnover through peer review is evidenced through of pattern cutters in the designer’s team being awarded the New Generation seemed to be indicative of this lack of Designer Award 1993 and profiled in understanding. This would appear to be an magazines with wide circulation numbers area of concern because all the designers (Armstrong, 1995, and Marie Claire, 1993). interviewed tended to rely to some degree on Designers A and C (where the company the pattern cutters skills, specially their tacit employee numbers were about 70,000 and knowledge about patterns they had originally 210 respectively) ranked lowest among the cut for which the designer was now case studies for their influence in the amending. There appeared to be a lack of decision making process, indicating that the designer involvement in both the thorough steering role of the designer is not merely a examination of the company’s strategy and factor of the company size. degree of autonomy in concept selection, even though there were the weekly meetings Although all the case study companies with the design manager or head designer to had gained commercial success, company A, discuss progress. As noted earlier in this in particular had been successful for a section the designer’s degree of autonomy number of years through their very strong influences the quality of work produced. relationship with their clients. However, since 1995, they have had some fluctuations Conclusions: implications for in their fortunes, culminating in an operating incorporating ‘designerly thinking’ into loss for 1999, which was partly blamed on “a strategy material reduction in sales” to their clients. While the design management at company A This paper has sought to highlight issues was a text-book example of good design regarding creativity in fashion with management (Cooper and Press, 1995) in particular emphasis on the role of designers that it allowed for improved relationships and ‘designerly’ thinking at strategic levels with the clients and between team members, in an organization. A comparison of the case the loss of sales to their clients suggests that study design processes has identified that it may still not have been appropriate for the designers adopted a number of approaches designers. At company C, the designer to ‘designerly thinking’: described her feelings of frustration as she · kaleidoscopic thinking (pattern felt that she had to constantly argue to assemblage through categorizing maintain small details of her designs and that visual images), the management constantly changed their

Article Designation: Scholarly 11 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 1,Winter2002 · communication of vision in a visual · communication skills; verbal and non- manner verbal (e.g. image making and · knowledge (about one’s own sketching) knowledge), using intuition to guide · ability to contribute to sales revenue decision-making · self confidence · switching between divergent and convergent thinking in the process Competitive advantage is gained by · visual and spatial imaging during ensuring an appropriate creative vision and sample making strategy for an appropriate mix of · seeking autonomy during the newness/adaptation both in new product creative decision-making process development and in the retail buying process. Creative thinking is using the The report ‘Design In information available to solve a problem, Britain 2000’ noted that the top-performing draw conclusions or make a decision (Matlin companies regard design as a valuable 2002). Perhaps lessons might be learnt from strategic tool. The Design Council’s report those fashion organizations that have placed emphasized the importance of placing the fashion designer at a strategic and high design at the heart of strategy and embracing profile level, such as Roberto Menichetti the creativity and for success, but at Burberry when it achieved this has to be managed. The most recent the 110% increase in their profits following available research from the Center for the revamp of their image and design Economic Forecasting, London Business (Arlidge 2000). School showed that the value of design to the UK economy was some £12 billion, with The comparison of the case study 300,000 people employed in the field. As fashion design processes identified attributes economic success becomes increasingly of the design process that helped the dependent upon the creative use of participating companies compete in the information, the importance of design as a marketplace. The attributes may be business process has never been greater. categorized as sub-processes; the means Understanding design thinking might create with which to achieve the sub-process (the opportunities for design in corporate variables/issues of the design process with strategy planning. As designers attempt to respect to their marketplace) are listed in understand and express our post-modern table 3 and may be surmised to be areas society to create desirable consumer where creative (designerly) thinking should products, strategic decision-makers may find be applied with respect to the fashion design that understanding the skills and knowledge process. of designers may help effective decision- making. From the comparison of the fashion design processes, the expert skills and knowledge that a fashion designer brings to the business may be described as: · the ability to recognize new trends · the ability to source relevant manufacturers of fabrics and trimmings · the ability to analyze and interpret new trends · a knowledge of market requirements for production · presentation skills for new ideas · time-management skills · team leadership qualities

Article Designation: Scholarly 12 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002 Table 3: attributes of the fashion design process

sub-process variable/issue efforts into market trends understanding of consumer access to retail figures requirements analysis of market trends size of individual designer's project "steering role" of the designer innovation skills scope of the designer's project prior knowledge about team members brief formulation designer' s expert knowledge and skills design skills design process organisation time taken for all samples to be prepared for selection flexibility of production ease of access to manufacturing locations use of CAD/CIM speed of manufacture number of quality checks number of sizes in garments offered level of standardisation of garments relationships with retailers method of distribution relationships with fabric suppliers access to/feedback about retail figures internal (internal magazines, fashion shows and events) promotional activities external (magazine features or editorials, advertisments, shop window displays, P.R. assistance)

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Article Designation: Scholarly 16 JTATM Volume 2, Issue 1V,Fall 2002

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