Society for thetheStudy Study of Pali and Buddhist Culture

The Nikayas of the Burmese Sangha

in the Context of Contemporary

Burmese Buddhism

HEINZ BECHERT

Though the T,.heravada Buddhists are in possession ef a uniform

ecclesiastical codex comprising the canonical Vinayapitaka together

with the corresponding commentaries and sub-commentaries in Pali,

there are quite significant differences in the stucture of the Sangha

in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and the other Theravc--Lda regions. In

this context, the varieus so-ca!led Buddhist sects have always been

"sects" of particular interest to researchers. The existence of these is

in its turn closely related to the prablem of the organizational

structure o!" t'hese comrnunities, i.e. of the interdependence of the

individual monastic communities, the hierarchy and the ecclesiastical

j'urisdiction.

The most detailed and informative study presently available on the

structure of the Sangha in Burma is E. Michael Mendelson's Sang'ha

and State in･ Burma : A Study of Monastic Sectarianism and Leadership

(Ithaca, N. Y., 1975), edited by John P. Ferguson. For Mendelson

sociological and historical questions take first priority; questions of

Buddhist ecclesiastical law are not always taken into consideration in

his work. Furthermore, evaluation of the older Western source materF

al presented him with some di'fficulty since the accounts of John Nsi-

bet (1901), J A. Stewart (1949) and Maung Htin Aung (1966) partial-

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ly contradlct each other. Part of the information and interpretations

given by Mendelson must therefore be revised.

In 1979 and 1980, the Burmese government macle an attempt at a re-

form and reorganization of the Sangha. Formally, the principle of the

separation of state and religion was upheld. But it was conceded that

for the actual implementation of the planned reform of the Order, the

assistance of the state was indispensable. Minister of the Interior and - Religion Brig. Gen. Sein Lwin who later on beeame notorious for

- his role in the events of 1988 , his deputy and other leading offi-

cials were entrusted with the preparation of a general Sangha Conven-

tion ("Congregation of the Sangha of all Orders for Purification, Per-

petuation and Propagation of the Sasana"). With the approbation of

"the the cabiRet the ministry responsible adclressed itself to eminent

Ieading Sayadaws" (Elders of the Order), requesting them to support

"Purification, this task of Perpetuation and Propagation of the

Sangha". A Sangha Conventicn wa$ elected by the monks of the

country which had the task of creating a constitution for the Sangha.

In this way the Sangha was to be radically reformed and, in addition,

an unified and centralized administration for all Buddhist religious ins-

titutions created. A centralized administration had existed during the

period of royal rule in Burma, though, strictly speaking, it weuid be

more correct to say that the Burmese of colonial and post-colonial

times project the existence of such a centralized organizational struc-

ture into the period of the monarchy. The convention discussed and

passed the laws submitted by the Sangha Working Committee concer-

ning a centralized organizational structure for the national Sangha

and the creation of an effective ecclesiastical jurisdiction. In future

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The Nilgayas oi the Burmese Sangha 3

only those who were ready to submit to the authority o'f these regula-

tions would be recognized as bhifekhu (fuily ordained Buddhist monk).

"sects" The nine Nik2yas or so-called represented at the convention

were given official reeognition. The formation ef new Nikayas was,

however, banned. Furthermore, provision was made for the re.cristrati-

on of all monks and for their being supplied with identity cards which

were to be issuecl in close cooperation between ecclesi'astical and secu-

lar administration. The registration of the inonks had always been one

of the most effective tools of the government for controlling the

Sangha, but earlier attempts to implement relevant laws had been

successfully prevented by large sections of the Sangha in the 1950s

and 1960s.

The within the Sangha which are named in Pali as niha'va groupings J

``gaing" and in Burmese ("group") (derivedfrorn Pali .aana) are

``Buddhist often erroneously described in Western literature as sects".

The abvove-dpvscribed reorganizvA+tion Df the ･qvanghb]. refqi..,ired a definte

clarification of the Nikaya formations existing within the Burmese

Sangha, because criteria were necessary gor ascertaining the validi-

ty of monastic erdination. This provides us with a much clearer

picture of these groupings than was hitherto available.

How are these Nikayas defined and hovLr did they originate? It is

well known that the early Buddhist Order had no head. The Bud-

dha refused to designate a successor, declaring that his teaching shou--

ld be the only guide for the Sangha after his death. The early Sangha

was thus organized in autonomous local communities; the hierarchi-

cal structures existing today are of much later origin. Even today

individual communities may form a sangha in order to carry out the

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-V 4 i･C C}Ets va )t (. tl;'t-

legal procedures of the monastic cemmunity (dhammakam7･na. sangha-

hamma, or vinayakamma)prescribed by Buddhist' eccleslastical Iaw, They

must be carried out in assemblies in which the complete (sa7nagga>

"boundary" Sangha, i. e. all rnonks resident vLrithln a certain fixed

(sima) must participate. Otherwise the legal proceedings are not valid.

"split In the canonical Vinaya Zext a schism (sa･n.ahabheda, in the

Order") is recorded which was caused by the apostate Devadatta. Such

"split a in the Order" is, as is quite clear frorn the text, the split of a

particular local Sangha into tvtio or more parties, which no longer con-

duct their legal proceedings together, although they belong to the same

residential area (a-va-sa). Such divisions were generally caused by dif-

ferences of opinion about the application of･ the rules of rnonastic

discipline and of Buddhist ecclesiastical law. To be responsible for such

"split a in the Order" (san.ohabheda) is conslderecl a most serious vio-

.lation of monastic discipline. But if there are differences of opinion

between separate local Sanghas who make unanimous decisions within

"split their ovtrn boundaries (simaM), this is not consiclerecl a in the

Order" (sanghabheda), but a nikdyabheda, i. e. the formation of sepa-

"groups" rate of monks for wich the above-mentioned term niha-.va is

used. This fact was not known to Mendelsen, and thus he could not

"Weluwun S`sects understand the remark by monks ef the Sect" that'

grew up only for disciplinary purposes and without any alm of split-

ting the Sangha" (Mendelson, Sangha and State, p. IO3).

It is important that, as a rule, monks belonging to dif/ferent Nikayas

do not conduct joint legal proceedings in matters pertaining to the

Order (vinayakamma). Though they do not in principle dispute the

validity of each other's monastic ordination (uPasamPada-), they do

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The NikTayas oi the Burmese Salg.he 5

not necessarily recognize it as being beyond dispute. But if there were

doubts about the validity of the ordination of the monks participating,

the validity of the legal proceedings conducted by them would be

questionable. Tl]e ordination of monks must be considered the most

important legal proceedings of this kind. If its valiclity is called in

question, the legitimation of the Sangha as such is endangered.

For these reasens the monks in TheravEda countries attach the grea-

test importance to a thorough scrutiny of al! the conditions to be com-

plied with in the conduct of erdinations. This requires not only that

all the menks participating are members of the same Nikaya, but also

the assurance that the fixation of the community boundary (simd) is

valid beyond all doubt. Disputes abeut slmaM-questions have frequently

led to splits in a Nikanya in both the Burmese as well as the Sinha-

lese Sangha.

It is the exception rather than the rule for interpretations of dog.ma

to differ in the varieus Nika'yas. At any rate, the Nikfiyas in existence

"groupings" today are within Theravada, i. e. within one and the same

Buddhist persuasion, and they all regard one and the same corpus of

sacred texts as authoritative. This has not prevented minor differences

"t'exts in the exegesis of these from having led to slightly different

regulations, not just as regards monastic discipline, but also in the li-

turgy. There are even instances where new Nikayas originate not

as a result of differences of opinion, but simply from the fact that a

group ef monks finds itself so remote from other members of the

same Nikaya that mutual supervision of the correctness ef legal proce-

dure is no lon.rrer guaranteed. In such a case release from the asso-

ciation of a particular Nikaya (so-called .aaztavimutti or .ffa"avinzofeleha,

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"release frem the group") may be agreed upon. This procedure was

apparently used for resolving conflicts within the hierarchical structure

of the Sangha.

The following survey of the nine Nikayas of the Burmese Sangha is

based on a study by Dhammaghosaka U Maung Maung which was

akropt;"); published in 1981 in Rangoon (``SarpJghq- gitin. ip krik (9) .ot･tin. Iz

a more detailed German versien of m.y･ survey was published in

A]lumen 35 (/L988), pp. 24-56 ("Neue buddhistische Orthodoxie: Be-

merkungen zur Gliederung und zur Reform des Sangha in Birma").

I refer to this essay for the exact transliteration of the Burmese

names and titles which I have replaced here by the more generally

used conventional transcription as found in Mendelson's book. Mean-

while, the paper "Nine Sect's (gaings) of Theravada Buddhism in

Burma" by Zenno Ikuno in Bztrma and JaPa･n : Basic Stttdies .nn

Their Cultttral and Social Stntctztre, Tokyo 1987, pp. 117-132, carne

into my hands. It contains a list of these nine Nikayas in form of a

table, presenting detailed biographical and chronological information

on the founders of the Nikayas, etc. I refer readers to his study for

such detailed information which he has drawn from the above-

mentioned book by Dhammaghosaka (J Maung Maung. However.

Zenno Ikuno has not examined the place of these Nikayas in the

overall structure of the Sangha and their place in the history of

Buddhism so that it remains useful to include here a short survey of

these Nikayas:

1. Sudhamma GalRg or SndhawamanikEya ("Thudhamma Sect" ;

Maun.cr. Maung, pp. 3-5). This Nil

era) i. e. 1852 A. D. when King Mindon authorized the division ef the

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The Nikayas of the Burmese Sangha 7

Burmese Sangha, hitherto ene cohesive unit, into two Nikayas, sug-

gesting to the Sudhamrna Sayadaws, i. e. hierarchs of the Sangha of

those days, that they grant ga"avimzttti to the Shzvegyift IVifearrya. The

Sttdhammanikdya is thus simply the majority group that remained,

as before, under the jurisdiction of the traditional hierarchy of the

Sudhamma SayadavLrs. Throug'h the decllne in inE･luence of the tradi-

tional hierarehy the individual monastic units became largely autono-

motis. Within the Sttdhano.ma7zikalva, however, certain groupings ltave

"Pakkcku-Sect". formed, the best knowR probabl}r being the so-called

This group cannot be considered as a Nikaya but it is an association of

monasteries that cooperate closely, especially in the field of religious

education. They continue regarding themselves as belonging to the Sudhammanifea-ya.

2. Shwegyim Nikgya ("Shwegyin Sect"; Maung Maun.ff, p. 6-10;

Ikuno, pp. 129-132). This Nikaya originated in the time of King

Mindon as a result ef ganavimzttti. It advocated stricter attention to

"reform monastic disclpline. It is the oldest oLg the Burmese sects"

still in existence today and the one which has been discussed in

greatest detail in the available source material.

3. MahadvEra Nikaya GagR.cr etpt Dhammfinudiharr:Emantaha-

"Dwaya dvaranikEya (Mahadvaranikaya or Sect"; Maung Maung.

-].9 "sehool" pp.13 ; Il{uRo, pp. 125-128). Fotmder of f.his was the

Okpo Sayadaw (1].79-1267 B. E. i. e. 1818-1906 A. D.). This Nlkaya

was founded as an independent group as the result of a dispute in

Okpo in the year 1217 B. E. (1855 A. D.). The term Dva-ranifedya is

derived from the use of the vLrord dva-ra instead of the word kamma

at the beginning of an important recitation formula; this difference

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is based on a philosophically stricter interpretation of the law of Karma.

4. Mit1advara Nikfiya Gaing or "hammavinayfinulomadvara-

nikaya ("Ingapu Dwaya Sect"; Maung Maung, pp. 20-23;Ikuno,

p, l28), formed by the Ingapu Sayadaw after the death of the 0kpo

Sayadaw through separation form the AtZdhddvaHra A]ifedya.

5. Anaukchaung Dvara Nik5ya (Maung Maung, pp. 24-28; Ikuno,

pp. 128f.). ,a splinter gr,oup that broke away of the Mahadvara

Nikaya during the lifetime of the Okpo Sayadaw.

6. Weluwun Nikaya Gaing or VeluvaRanikaya ("Weluwun Sect";

Maung Maung, pp. 29-33 ; Ikuno, pp. 122f.), founded by the Weluwun

Sayadaw U Puntawuntha (Parpdavarpsa). It has existed independently

since 1281 B. E. (1919 A.D.).

7. Catuhkurnmoika MahEgatipatthEna NgettwiR GaiBg or Nge-

ttwin Nikaya ("Ngettwin Sect" ; Maung Maung, pp. 34-39 ; Ikuno, pp.

124f.), founded by the Ngettwin Sayadaw whose monastic name was U

Panclava;he lived 1193-1272 B. E. (1831-1910 A.D.) and propagated

radical reform ideas, especially the rejection of the practice of placing

Qfferings be'fore altars and statues of the Buddha. He also advocated

the compulsory instruction of all monks in meditation techniques as

a prerequisite for admission to orclination. The Ngettwin Sayadaw

was one of the most prominent advocates of a revival of the long-

forgotten practice of satiPa.t.tha-na meditation in Burma. '

8. Kanawimoke Kado Gaing or Ganynviuuuttikanikaya Kado

Gaing (Maung Maung, pp. 40-44; Ikuno, pp. i20-122). This group

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The N:akEyas ef the Burmese Sangha 9

was founded by ?itakattuik kyaung Sayadaw U Indavarpsa (1193-

]279 B. E./l831-1917A. Il}.), upon whose request it was granted

the then of the .ffauavl77mtti in 1258 B. E. (l.896A. D.) by head Sztdkammanifea-ya,

9. DhaTttagveayetti-ka Niknya SGahayinGaiRg(MaungMaung,pp.

45-49;Ikuno, pp. M9L). The lounder of t'he NikAya,the Mahayin Sa-

yadaw U Buddhavarpsa came frorn a Mon village in Thailand. }{Ie studied

"MahZ". in Bangkok xarhere he received the learned title In l236 B. E.

(1874 A. D.) Buddhavamsa iounded the monastery Mahayin kyaung-

taik, thereby introducing the Dhammayuttikanikaya (Thamayut Ni-

kay), the re'form movement which was initiat.ed in Thailand by King

Mongkut into Burma.

All these nine NikEyas are orthedox, L e. they recognize the textual

transrnission of Theravada Buddhism as authoritative. Besides the

Tipitaka texts this also includes the series of classical commentaries

(apthakalhan) as well as the sub-commentaries (lifea). For all these

texts only editions conforming to the text approveci bsr the Sixth

Council are officially regarded as authoritative by the Burmese Buddhists.

As we have seen above, the differences between the various Ni--

]{ayas pertain largely to the sphere of monastic discipline, which me-

ans that although monks of different observances cannat partlci-

pate in joint ordination ceremonies, there are otherwise practically no

limits to cooperation across Nikaya boundaries. Monks frorn different

Nikayas can often be found at joint recitations of the Paritta and

other festivities, and also on other occasions not strictly pertainin.v

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10 7<-Y\Mfasckee

te the prescribed Vinayakammas. The Buddhist laity generally takes

Xittle notice of Nikaya differences, the only exception being the

adherents of the Ngettwin Nil

practice affects the ritual practice of the laity as well.

While the nine Nikayas can be considered orthodox, there have also

been tradltions in the history of Burmese Buddhism whose doctrines

differ fundamentally from established Theravada tradition, for exam-

"Ari" ple the heretics of the Middle Ages knowns as and, in the 19th

"Paramats". century, the still relatively obscure movement of the The

orthodox monks have always opposed such heterodox movements and

in precolonial times they even sought the assistance of the state

authorities to this end. During the colonial period and since decolo-

nlzation the Sangha alone was responsible for taking proceedings

against heterodox teachings. Large monastic assemblies have frequ-

elltly declared certain monks to be excommunicated, in most cases. how-

ever, without really being able to give these decisions force.

With the re'form of the Order in 1980 the situation has changed

"special dramatically. The courts"' vi7hich had been set up in accor-

dance with the law pertaining to ecclesiastical jurisdiction were novir

"eradicating also entrusted with bogus monks'1 This means that

they were required to ascertain whether the doctrines (va-da) expoun-

ded by certain monks and groups of monks conformed to the Pali

texts and their interpretations as laid down in the Atthakatha -- and

Tika literature. And when-according to these criteria-it was a matter

of adhamma or heterodox teachings, they were forbidden by rule of

``false ceurL The monks were obliged to officially renounce these

doctrines" or leave the Sangha. It was also forbidden to disseminate

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The Nikayas of t･he Burmese Sangha 11

doctrines declared to be adha7nnzava-da, and even the possessior] of

sttch books was declared illega].

"The According to these reports publish.ed in Light of the Dhamma"

and elsewhere at least ten .q.uch cas.es were collducted bet'ween 198i± and

1984. The detcr"`ils published so far are rather limited, but from what i.s

already known about earlier publications of the monks concerned,

we may conclude that these cases were directed pr-imarily a.crainst

proponents of radically modernistic views, including the teaching of

"Lu- monks with Marxist a"d other materialistic tendencies. The

"Sammaditthl thay Lu-phyit U ekkahta Vada", the Sutesana Vada"

"Shwe . and the Abhidharnmii Vada"were accordingly officially declared

to be adhamma on May 13, 1981. The 65' O page verdicdk' was read before

the Vinayadhara court of jurisdiction from October 24-29, 1981. The

accused renounced their here$ies. Tl}e:i' were found guilty on tlte fol-

"rejected lowing charges: they the belief of kamma and the results

it/he of kamiAita, reSected tlJie 31i icfitiv'odes of existence preacheai by Bu'L"i-

dha, slandered the Buddha's Omniscience, did not accept the fact of

freedom from Sarpsara and rejected Samatha and Vipassana practices,

branded the Vinaya Rules as superstitl,ous and ignored thern, aiu'used

the Sangha, coml)ared Buddha's hair with the horse's tail, compared

the monk's robe with xKromen's longyi, and rejected good practices such

as reciting parittas, keeping uposatha, performing rneritorious {ieeds",

"materialistic etc. Such views are and against the teaching of the Pali

Canenical Texts".

Through these and a number of other cases the orthodox teachings

of the Theravadins were meant to be reinstated as the doctrine

binding on the whole Sangha. This was achieved only at the cost of

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freedom of discussion about the content of dogma among the mem-

bers of the Sangha, At the same time numereus monks were excom-

"Sangha municated by newly formed regional Vinicchaya Courts",

because they had violated fundamental Vinaya rules. Several of the

monl{s implicated were famous charismatie monks who, according to

their supporters, possessed supernatural powers. These monks had

been prominent ln circles of popular mystic Buddhism. Mendelson has

"messianlc coined the term Buddhism" for this kind of Buddhist cult.

"gaing" "troop", Such ritual communities which are also known as (iit.

"band'1 "group"), a term already familiar to us in another context,

had always been viewed vgTith suspicion by both the orthodox monks

as well as the government, not least because of the political aspira-

tjons of several such groups. Among the most prominent of the monks

excommunicated is U Paramavannasiddhi, who had resided in a monas-

tery on the Popa mount.ain, sacred to the Nat cult.

Any judgement of the impact of the Sangha Reform of l980 has to

take into consideration the overall political and socio-economical si-

tuation of Burma. Beyond doubt, some of the reform measures have

been popular with a considerable percentage of the Buddhist population,

particularly with the educated elite, to the extent that they are con-

cerned with a remedy for obvious rnalpractices in the Sangha. After

1980, the formerly common sight of monks in cinemas and stadiums or

similar abuses disappeared. As far as the above-mentioned expulsion

"heterodox" of monks was concerned, the opinion was much more

divided, because some of their modernistic views had been quite popu-

lar. The expulsion of influential charismatic rnonks under the pretext

"bogus of declaring them monks" was hardly a popular rneasure eith-

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The Nikayas of the Burmese Sangha 1'3

er, particularly when monastic property was confiscated by the

state, as was t.he case in some instances.

One major motivatien behincl Ne Win's religious policy had been tthe.

inteBtion to keep th.e monks out of pol!ti.cs. For the lasting success.

of the Sangha reform-particul.rly in thi･s respect-there would have

had to be popular support･ for Ne Win's policy in general, but in fact

"L'kere was a growing dissatisfaction which finally exploded in a general/

peopl'e's uprisintt i･n 1988. From practically all reperts on the event･s

during the period from M("Lrch to September- l988 vyre learn tkat tbo

Buddhist menks have piayed a decisive role in the develepment's of 1988.

The Sangha Reio' rm of 1980 as such was, in princ2ple, nothing new.

but a revival. oi old traditionbr in a superficially tnodernized form.

At the same time, it was designed for political ends in the context of･

the Burmese situation during the Ne Vk]ln era. It may be still too early

tor an actequate assessment ofits various long-term cQnsequences, but

it is eviden'L' that it has failed to achieve its political obj'ectives. V!rhile

in Thailand it is the government which controls the monkhGocl, the

Sangha of BurrriLa has rernalned a strong pot'ential force in politics,

and it is obviously capable of bei'ng reactivated in times ef crisis. It

will be one of the cruciai tests for the survival of any future

elected Burmese government if and hovLr it will be able to handle the

political influence of the Sangha.

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