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En Sosialt Engasjert Sangha En sosialt engasjert sangha Kontinuitet og endring i den burmesiske sangha som følge av dagens politiske reformprosess Eline Haraldstad Follesø Master i religionshistorie 60 studiepoeng Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk UNIVERSITETET I OSLO Vår 2014 I II En sosialt engasjert sangha Kontinuitet og endring i den burmesiske sangha som følge av dagens politiske reformprosess Eline Haraldstad Follesø Master i religionshistorie 60 studiepoeng Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk UNIVERSITETET I OSLO Vår 2014 III IV ©Eline Haraldstad Follesø Våren 2014 En sosialt engasjert sangha Kontinuitet og endring i den burmesiske sangha som følge av dagens politiske reformprosess Eline Haraldstad Follesø http://www.duo.uio.no Forsidebilde av munken er tatt av Kristine Maria Sandvoll Lindebø© våren 2014 Trykk: Copy Cat, Sentrum V Sammendrag De siste årene har Myanmar gjennomgått store politiske og sosiale forandringer. Landet har gått fra å være et autoritært militærstyre til å bli et gryende demokrati. I denne prosessen er de religiøse lederne generelt, og de buddhistiske munkene spesielt, sentrale. Temaet for oppgaven er kontinuitet og endring i munkenes sosiale engasjement i dagens Myanmar, fra 2007 og frem til i dag. Det er en kvalitativ studie av sosialt engasjerte munker i Myanmar (tidligere Burma), som bygger på tolv intervjuer med munker som alle engasjerer seg på ulike måter i det burmesiske samfunnet. Et overordnet mål for analysen av munkenes aktivisme, har vært å forstå hvordan reformprosessen utspiller seg innenfor dagens buddhistiske modernitet. Buddhistisk modernitet blir her forstått som former for buddhisme som har oppstått i samspill med de kulturelle og intellektuelle kreftene i det moderne samfunnet. Oppgaven begynner med å legge til grunn at den burmesiske sangha i dag fungere som et sivilsamfunn og utgjør en betydelig makt og autoritetsfaktor i det burmesiske samfunnet. På tross av at munkene skal forsake, og ikke ta del i denne verdens aktiviteter, viser oppgaven at det ligger et maktpotensial i denne forsakelsen som gir en moralsk autoritet. Munkenes politiske maktpotensial ble tydelig under Safranrevolusjonen i 2007, selv om det brutalt ble slått ned. Munkenes potensial som sosiale aktører ble tydelig i etterkant av syklonen Nargis herjinger, da munkene mobiliserte sitt brede nettverk og samarbeidet med andre religiøse organisasjoner for å koordinere nødhjelpen. Men, munkene er en sammensatt gruppe og spekteret av meninger innad i sanghaen varierer. Siden landet startet en liberalisering og åpnet opp for større ytringsfrihet i 2011, har det vokst frem en xenofobisk etno-nasjonalisme innad i sanghaen med klare fundamentalistiske trekk. Den kan i verste fall utgjøre en trussel for hele reformprosessen, hvis den kommer ut av kontroll. Oppgaven viser at den buddhistiske moderniteten er mangfoldig og lokalt forankret. Munkenes ulike former for sosialt engasjement kan beskrives som et kontinuum av meninger, der munkene som tar opp arven fra samarbeidet etter Nargis er den ene motpolen, mens de nasjonalistiske munkene utgjør den andre. Flere av munkene fra safranrevolusjonen tar i dag del i den etno-nasjonalistiske tradisjonaliseringen, samtidig som det er en begynnende mobilisering på gang blant moderate munker for å kjempe for en dialog mellom landets religiøse minoriteter. VI VII Forord Nå begynner tiden på Blindern nærmer seg slutten og masteroppgaven er ferdig. I den sammenheng er det mange som fortjener en stor takk! Først vil jeg takk alle burmeserne og spesielt informantene jeg møtte på feltarbeidet i Myanmar. Uten deres tid og vilje til å deles deres kunnskaper og refleksjoner om Myanmar og utviklingen som nå pågår, ville ikke oppgaven vært mulig å skrive. Takk til alle på Norsk Folkehjelp og Kirkens Nødhjelpskontorer i Yangon. Deres kunnskap, råd og kontakter, var uvurderlige. Takk til alle på Phaung Daw Oo skolen, for å ha latt meg bo der og for spennende og opplysende samtaler. Takk til min tålmodige veileder Hanna Havnevik som har pløyd seg i gjennom mine, til tider usammenhengende utkast og hjulpet meg på rett vei. Du vet hvilken jobb du har gjort! Takk til alle på IKOS-lesesalen, som har gjort det umåtelig lettere å komme seg på Blindern hver dag. Takk for hyggelige lunsjer, for all støtte og oppmuntring når dagene var lange og frustrasjonen stor. Takk til alle gode venner utenfor lesesalen, som har lyst opp hverdagen med gode og oppmuntrende samtaler. Takk til mamma og pappa for at dere alltid har hatt troen på meg og støtter meg i det jeg tar fatt på. Spesiell takk til mamma for korrekturlesing og oppklarende samtaler. Takk til tante Hilde, som introduserte meg for den spennende og utfordrendekulturen i Myanmar og ga meg gode kontakter å starte med. Det ble en reise jeg er takknemlig for å ha begitt meg ut på. Siste men ikke minst. takk til deg Petter. Du har vært en fantastisk støtte gjennom hele prosessen. Takk for at du er akkurat den du er! Eline Haraldstad Follesø Oslo, mai 2014 VIII IX Kart over Myanmar (Burma) Hentet fra: http://www.un.org/depts/Cartographic/map/profile/myanmar.pdf 20.5.2014 X Innholdsfortegnelse 1 Innledning ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Buddhisme og politikk i Myanmar ........................................................................................... 1 1.2 Forskningshistorie ......................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Safranrevolusjonen ........................................................................................................................ 2 1.4 Sanghaen som sivilsamfunn ........................................................................................................ 4 1.4.1 Tragedien Nargis ..................................................................................................................................... 5 1.4.2 969-bevegelsen ........................................................................................................................................ 5 1.5 Problemstilling ................................................................................................................................ 6 1.6 Tidsavgrensning og oppbygging ................................................................................................ 7 1.7 Tidligere forskning ........................................................................................................................ 8 1.8 Begrepsavklaringer ..................................................................................................................... 10 1.8.1 Den burmesiske sangha .................................................................................................................... 10 1.8.2 Typologi over munker. ...................................................................................................................... 11 1.8.3 Regimet .................................................................................................................................................... 12 1.8.4 Presisering av språkvalg og terminologi.................................................................................... 12 1.8.5 Burma eller Myanmar? ...................................................................................................................... 13 2 Teori og metode ...................................................................................................................... 14 2.1 Religionsbegrepet......................................................................................................................... 15 2.2 Religiøs endring ............................................................................................................................ 15 2.2.1 Modernisering ....................................................................................................................................... 16 2.2.2 Modernitet, makt og handling ........................................................................................................ 17 2.3 Refleksivitet .................................................................................................................................... 18 2.4 Kvalitativ metode.......................................................................................................................... 19 2.5 Tilnærming til tema ..................................................................................................................... 19 2.6 Informantene ................................................................................................................................. 20 2.6.1 Kontakt med organisasjoner ........................................................................................................... 21 2.7 Materialet ........................................................................................................................................ 21 2.7.1 «Lost in translation» ........................................................................................................................... 22 2.7.2 Observasjon og uformelle intervjuer ........................................................................................... 23 2.8 Forskningsetiske utfordringer ................................................................................................ 24 2.8.1 Skepsis og støtte ..................................................................................................................................
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