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The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities (JIABU)

Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Aims and Scope The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities is an academic journal published twice a year (1st issue January-June, 2nd issue July-December). It aims to promote research and disseminate academic and research articles for researchers, academicians, lecturers and graduate students. The Journal focuses on , Sociology, Liberal Arts and Multidisciplinary of Humanities and Social Sciences. All the articles published are peer-reviewed by at least two experts. The articles, submitted for The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities, should not be previously published or under consideration of any other journals. The author should carefully follow the submission instructions of The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities including the reference style and format. Views and opinions expressed in the articles published by The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities, are of responsibility by such authors but not the editors and do not necessarily refl ect those of the editors.

Advisors The Most Venerable Prof. Dr. Phra Brahmapundit Rector, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, The Most Venerable Xue Chen Vice President, Buddhist Association of & Buddhist Academy of China The Most Venerable Dr. Ashin Nyanissara Chancellor, Sitagu International Buddhist Academy,

Executive Editor Ven. Prof. Dr. Phra Rajapariyatkavi Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand ii JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Chief Editor Ven. Phra Weerasak Jayadhammo (Suwannawong) International College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand

Editorial Team Ven. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phramaha Hansa Dhammahaso Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand

Prof. Dr. D. Philips Stanley University, USA

Prof. Ven. Dr. Khammai Dhammasami University of Oxford,UK Prof.

Dr. Tamas Agocs Gate Buddhist College, Hungary

The Most Venerable Dr. Ching Hsing Ching Cheuh Buddhist University, Chinese-Taipei

Ven. Prof. Chisho Namai Koyasan University, Japan

Ven. Prof. Jinwol Lee Dongguk University, Korea

Ven. Prof. Dr. Yuanci Buddhist Academy of China, China

Prof. Dr. Takahide Takahashi Rissho University, Japan Prof. Dr. Le Mahn That Buddhist University, Vietnam

Senior Prof. Sumanapala Galmangoda University of Kelaniya,

Ven. Dr. Phramaha Somboon Vutthikaro Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand

Dr. Rabindra Panth Deemed University (Nalanda Mahavihar), JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) iii

Assistant Editors Ven. Dr. Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Ven. Dr. Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University H.E. Janos Jelen Dharma Gate Buddhist College, Hungary Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya Universit Dr. Soontaraporn Techapalokul International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Dr. Pintong Mansumitrchai (Chatnarat) International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University

Staff Phramaha Prayuddha Bhūripañño Phra Sitthichai Khampeero Ms. Naowarat Bhurahong Ms. Orawan Topathomwong Ms. Sudtida Padrit Ms. Sirinad Pimsanao Mr. James Featherstone Samaneri Daria Mikheeva

Cover Design Ms. Ubonwanna Klinjuy

Content Designer Mrs. Bussakorn Sabpakijjanon

Owner International Association of Buddhist Universities

Offi ce International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC) Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University IABU Offi ce, IBSC Building, MCU, 79 Moo1, Lamsai, Wang-noi, Phra Nakorn Si Ayutthaya 13170, Thailand Tel: (6635)248-000 ext.7210 Email: [email protected] Editorial Message

At the International Association of Buddhist Universities, we have several principles that we take as our guidelines in moving forward in our engagements. Here is a reminder of how we progress:

IABU Vision: • Motivate future generations to gain and apply profound understanding of the Buddhadhamma in every aspect of life • Raise the quality of scholarly work within Buddhist Studies and across other academic endeavors • Contribute to meeting the challenges that face human society worldwide

IABU Mission: • Support and collaborate with members to ensure humanity can benefi t from the richness and variety of the multi-dimensional Buddhist traditions • Provide a framework towards better understanding diverse policies and activities • Collaborate in administration, teaching, research and outreach • Recognize each other’s qualifi cations

IABU Goals: • Propagate the Buddhadhamma through collaborative academic channels • Eliminate Buddhist sectarian, national, and institutional barriers • Raise the academic standards throughout the Buddhist world • Maximize academic potentials and abilities

Volume XI Number I:

This publication of volume 11 No.1 could not have been possible without the persistence, hard work, and dedication of MCU’s scholars, Buddhist’s Scholars worldwide and IBSC staff. Ven. Prof. Dr. Phrarajapariyatkavi and his team supervise JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) v

communication and collection of the paper. Director of the IABU Secretariat Office, Venerable Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phramaha Hansa Dhammahaso and his team produce a decent format and design. We wish to also thank all members of the Executive Council and the Editorial Committee for their devotion. We are also grateful to our many sponsors of the last Conference during 25-26 May 2018, the IABU Executive Secretary Venerable Khammai Dhammasami, the academic team of IABU- MCU for their assistance, particularly Ven. Phra Weerasak Jayadhammo – for his kind dedication and editing,we would also like to welcome James Featherstone and Samaneri Daria Mikheeva who joined the team for an Internship in Academic Works at JIABU.

Editorial Team vi JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Table of Contents

Editorial Message iv

Insight in Myanmar and Thailand Based on Venerable Mahāsi ’s Teaching 1 Venerable Paññā Sāra, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahattanadull, Dr. Veerachart Nimanong

A Study on the Methods of Extinguishing Anger in Buddhism 17 Ven. Thach Pa, Ven. W. Piyaratana, Dr., Dr. Veerachart Nimanong

The strategies of King Nguyen Phuc chu to Vietnamese social development through the Buddhism thoughts (1691 – 1725) 30 Ven. Phan Thanh Dang, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Ven. Walmoruwe Piyaratana, Dr.

Truc Lam School in Vietnam: an Analytical Study of the Way of Practice 44 Bui Thi Thu Thuy, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull

Analysis on Theravāda Upasampadā and the ways of Vietnamese Life 59 Phra Huynh Minh Thuan, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr.

Infl uences of Buddhism on the Festivals of the Ta’ang Ethnic Group in Myanmar 73 Ven. U Vinayapala, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull.

A Comparative Study of the Therapeutic Method between Psychoanalysis and Buddhism 90 Ven. Kumbukkandanwala Gnanaratana, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Ven. Walmoruwe Piyarattana, Dr. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) vii

The Influence of Storehouse Consciousness (Ālayavijñāna) on The Ch’an School 102 Pham Thi Tuyet Tam, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Phramaha Somboon Vuḍḍhikaro, Dr.

Duc Son Orphanage Center (DSOC) and its Role in Promoting the Youth Education in Vietnam 115 Bhikkhunī Hoang Thi Ha, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Dr. Veerachart Nimanong.

The Success of “Helping Parents” Training Course for Vietnamese Children Based on the Buddha’s Teachings 130 Bhikkhuni Nguyen Thi Hien, Phrarajapariyatmuni, Prof. Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull.

An Analytical Study of the in Theravāda Buddhism 147 Indanyani, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull

A Study Of Concentration (Samādhi) In The Light of Myanmar Theravāda Teachers 161 U Dhammaisara, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Ven. Walmoruwe Piyarattana, Dr.

The Way Of Application Of The Four Sublime States (Brahmavihāra) Doctrine To The Daily Life of Nuns 178 Thukhavati, Dr. Poonsuk Masrungson, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull

The Buddhist Education System in Southern Vietnam and Its Contribution to the Society 192 Ven. Dao Minh Van, Phra Rajapariyattimuni, Asst. Prof. Dr, Ven. W. Piyaratana, Dr.

The concept of right (sammā-diṭṭhi) according to the perspective of buddhist scholars 205 Bhikkhuni Tran Thi Vy, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahattanadull, Dr. Veerachart Nimanong

The Notion of Bodily Recognition: An Examination of Early Buddhist and Xu Fuguan’s Perspective 217 Asst. Prof. Gyan Prakash viii JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

A Study on Managing Emotions Through Buddhist Teaching 231 Zhang Jingting

Mindfulness for Acceptance and Commitment 248 Sailesh Maharjan

Deconstructions of Identity: An Examination Based on The Ethnic Diversity Context in Sri Lanka 256 Rev. Unapana Pemananda (Msc.)

Buddhist Contribution to the Development of Asian Healing Traditions w.s.r. to Āyurveda and Sowa 265 Asst. Prof. Dr. Akhilesh Kumar Singh

Learning and Memory Techniques In Buddhist Education: Relevance For Youths 275 Prof. Binodini Das

Buddhist Contributions to Human Development and the Challenges of an Economy of Ananda: Critique of Political Economy, Moral Economy, Moral Sociology and Spiritual Ecology 290 Prof. Dr. Ananta Kumar Giri

Brahmavihāra in Practical Life 315 Ven. Mokesh Barua

Engaged Buddhism for social welfare: worgking with the disabled youth in Srilanka and East Europe 324 Dr. Leena Seneheweera

Anicca and the Arrow: A Comparison of Zeno’s Paradox and Buddhist Temporality 331 Dr. Seth Evans

Buddhism and Religious Environmentalism: A case study of Sikkim through Buddhist myths, legends and folk lore 345 Asst. Prof. Dr. Sangmu Thendup

Buddhism and Transcending towards New Identity Perceptions in 21st Century 361 Prof. Dr. Milada Polišenská JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) ix

Buddhist Psychology: A Study based on Mental Cultivation to Establish Harmonious Society in the Digital Era 377 Miss. Tran Thi Nghia (Bhikkhunī: Thich Nu Lien Hoa)

Buddhism and the Ecology in the Digital Age 390 Anthony Le Duc

The Relationship between the Brain and the Base of the Mind from the Perspective of Yogācāra Buddhism 404 Ven. Hui Chen

The Legacy of : A Reflection on Textual, Historical and Doctrinal Developments to Enrich Buddha Dhamma from the Azimuth of Vikramśilā to Modern Era 414 Sanjoy Barua Chowdhury

Insight Meditation in Myanmar and Thailand Based on Venerable Mahāsi Sayadaw’s Teaching

Venerable Paññā Sāra, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahattanadull, Dr. Veerachart Nimanong MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Thailand was greatly infl uenced by the new meditation technique from Myanmar, through Thailand alone has its long history of meditation tradition. Myanmar has produced a few great historical fi gures in Theravada Buddhist tradition who played a very important role in meeting the fundamental meditational needs of monks and lay followers. Among all those great fi gures, is one of those who had reintroduced the Vipassanā technique in Myanmar and immediately obtained high recognition and acceptance by the Buddhist practitioners and scholastic world. This article describes the historical background of meditation, mainly and Vipassanā, as practiced by the Buddha himself, its development in different time periods and contemporary popular meditative traditions in Theravada Buddhist countries.

Keywords: Insight Meditation, Venerable Mahāsi Sayadaw, Myanmar, Thailand 2 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

The meditation techniques taught by the Buddha can be generally classified as Samatha and Vipassanā, which has been translated as concentration meditation and insight meditation. One, samatha, is the development of mental concentration, or one-pointedness of mind (cittekaggatā). This kind of meditation is simply concentrating the awareness.1 The term “Vipassanā” originally came from Pāli language. The “vi” is an intensifier and the word “passanā” means “to see”. Therefore, it is seeing with greater intensity or depth. Here, it means seeing the world and its nature in its depth. According to Buddhism, this world or loka has three characteristics of , suffering and non-self. Vipassanā meditation is primarily concerned with giving rise to the realization of these three realities of world, as Vipassanā is the primary tool to gain wisdom and attain enlightenment.2 This new development in the practice of Vipassanā meditation and the whole movement started and gained strength in 19th and 20th centuries. It was introduced by U Nāradha and popularized by Mahasi Sayadaw. Mahasi Sayadaw’s method is known as new Burmese method as opposed to the method taught by teachers preceding him, such as , Mogok Sayadaw, and We Bu Sayadaw.3 In recent years the practical method of Ledi Sayadaw and popularized the practice of Vipassanā in modern time, especially among the western audience, and shaped the worldwide movement.4 These masters used the teaching found in Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta and developed it further in order to gain insight in to the true nature of reality. Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta speaks of the awareness of the body and its movements, feelings (pleasant, unpleasant and neutral), mind and mental qualities, and ultimately awareness of Dhamma.5 In the Sutta6 of Anguttara Nikāya, the Buddha taught that by practicing mindfulness one comprehends the dhamma clearly and

1 Piyananda Bhikkhu, Gems of Buddhist Wisdom, (Taipei: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 1993), p. 371. 2 Bodhi, Bhikkhu. The , (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1984), p. 14. 3 Joseph Goldstein & . Seeking the Heart of Wisdom, (Boston: Pub- lication, 2001), p. vii. 4 Joseph Goldstein & Jack Kornfield, Seeking the Heart of Wisdom, (Boston: Shambhala Pub- lication, 2001), p. vii. 5 Majjhima Nikaya. Vol- I, p. 55. 6 Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trs), Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, (Anguttara Nikāya), (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012), p. 1229. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 3

develops the sense of moral shame and moral dread. One restraints the sense faculties and eventually develops virtuous behavior, which leads the practicioner to right concentration to gain knowledge and vision of things as they really are. The aim of this research is to study Mahasi Sayadaw’s teaching on Vipassanā meditation and its significance in Myanmar and Thailand. Mahasi Sayadaw made a significant influence on the teaching of Vipassanā in the Western countries as well as in many of the Southeast Asian countries. His teaching on Vipassanā is known as the new Burmese Vipassanā method. An important feature of Mahasi Sayadaw’s approach is its dispensing with the traditional preliminary practice of fixed concentration or tranquilization. Instead, the meditator practices Vipassanā exclusively during intensive periods of silent retreat that can last several months.7 Two key elements in Mahasi Sayadaw’s method for developing mindfulness are the careful labeling of one’s immediate experience together with the cultivation of a high level of sustained concentration known as “momentary concentration.”8 Mahasi Sayadaw heavily emphasized on the practice of four basic meditation techniques from Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta. 1) Newcomers have to concentrate on the abdomen, noting the movements of rising and falling. 2) If meditator imagines or thinks of something, he or she must make a mental note on it. 3) If meditator intends to move his hand or leg, there should be a mental note on intending. This research will examine the existing Vipassanā method according to the teaching of Mahasi Sayadaw and its practices in contemporary Thailand and Myanmar based on the material available in English and Burmese as well as the translation of Pāli canonical texts. The author used the works of Mahasi Sayadaw, his immediate disciples as well as western scholars written onVipassanā as the primary source of information.

7 Phra Thepyanmongkol, A Study Guide for Samathā Vipassanā Meditation Based on the Five Meditation Techniques, (: The National Coordination Center of Provincial Meditation Institute of Thailand, 2012), pp. 3-6. 8 Mahāsi Sayadaw, Practical Insight Meditation: Basic and Progressive Stages, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1991), p. 22. 4 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Vipassana Meditation Taught by Mahasi Sayadaw

The uniqueness of this Vipassanā practice mainly consists in the observation of the abdomen as an object of concentration, mental noting technique, mindfulness and slowdown of activities. Mental noting is an important technique that is used for the development of Vipassanā in Mahasi Sayadaw meditation technique. Traditionally, the prescribed object of meditation for calming the mind has primarily remained the breath or rather observation of the sensation of breath. Observation of the breath naturally brings calmness to the mind and the breath as an object of meditation is very natural and easily available. There are number of places in which people feel the sensation of the breath more acutely, such as the nostrils or the upper lip; rising and falling movements of the chest or the abdomen are also valid objects of meditation. However, Mahasi Sayadaw prefers the observation of abdomen. Furthermore, the observation of the abdomen is similar to that of slow walking; as we can observe the foot rising and falling, it is possible to also experience abdomen rising and falling. Mahasi Sayadaw did not recommend to pay attention to the breath while walking as it leads to the tendency of losing contact with the body. Therefore, observation of the breath in the area of nostrils is a popular and effective way of achieving higher state of absorption or jhāna. If the mind is focused on a single object, the concentration effectively suppresses everything else, including the emotions. But when you emerge from the concentration you know that during the absorption the mind was very clear and it was all the time one with the object of concentration, the circle of light.9 However, it is also true that without a certain level of concentration one will not be able to engage in the sustained contemplation of the insight meditation. Therefore, such concentration is useful. Although Mahasi Sayadaw did give preference to the observation of abdomen, he did not discourage anyone from taking up the breath and sensation of the breath at the nostrils as means of achieving concentration. The framework of Mahasi Sayadaw’s teaching on Vipassanā meditation is largely based on satipaṭṭhāna and the seven stages of purification or satta-visuddhi from the (The Path of Purification) written by Acariya . Working on

9 Venerable , Essentials of Insight Meditation Practice, (: Buddhist Wisdom Centre, 2000), p. 165. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 5

these stages of purification gradually gives rise to insight knowledge or vipassanā-ñaña and ultimately leads to liberation. Mahasi Sayadaw adopts the approach of ‘bare insight’ (sukkha-vipassanā) in which the practitioner directly observes one’s physical and mental processes. One learns to see with increasing clarity the three characteristic of conditioned existence, which are impermanence, non-self and suffering. The practice begins with the contemplation of the body, which remains till then end of all stages. Through practice, as the strength of mindfulness increases, the insight knowledge gets deepened, ultimately culminating in liberation. This practice gives rise to the insight into three lakhana without the development of the full range of jhanas or absorptions, therefore, it is also known as bare insight. However, the higher level of concentration is mandatory for the practice of Vipassanā. Furthermore, as the teaching of Mahasi Sayadaw is based on Mahasatipaṭṭhāna, it focuses on the four foundations of mindfulness as means to alleviate the suffering of mind and overcome mental defilements. This is how the sutta describes it. If one wants to be born into the realms of men, devas, and brahmas, and ultimately to read the Path and attain nibbāna, one must practice charity, morality, and mental development. One who aspires to the Path and its Fruition, and ultimately nibbāna, must practice insight meditation.10 “This is the sole way for the purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, for the destroying of pain and grief, for reaching the right path, for the realization of nibbāna, namely, the four foundations of mindfulness. The four foundations of mindfulness are: (1) contemplation of the body; (2) contemplation of feelings; (3) contemplation of mind; and (4) contemplation of mind objects.”11 Further, Mahasi Sayadaw also focuses on the need of a teacher for the development on the path.

The New Burmese Method of Vipassana

The “New Burmese Method” was originally introduced and developed by Venerable U Nārada and later on it was being popularized by his disciple Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw. Venerable Nyañaponika Thera also did much to popularize this new movement among the

10 U Htin Fatt (trs), On the Nature of Nibbāna by Mahāsi Sayādaw of Burma (First printed and published in the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma, 1981), p. 28. 11 M. Kāyagatāsati Sutta, p. 119. 6 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

English speaking audience. Many American teachers such as Joseph Goldstein, Jack Kornfield and studied with Mahasi Sayadaw and his disciple U .12 One of the key features of this new method is that it dispenses with traditional stage of Samatha focusing on the concentration and instead focuses exclusively on the practice of Vipassanā. One goes through the rigorous practice of meditation for months on end, with some meditation teachers designing schedules that demand most of the day starting from 3am to 11pm in silence and in meditation practice. Mahasi Sayadaw focuses on the development of mindfulness with the careful labeling of one’s experience together with high level of sustained concentration or Khanika .13 Robert H. says that Buddhist practices are aimed at the attainment of “correct view, no just bare attention.”14 Although Mahasi Sayadaw was a great Pāli scholar and was very familiar with the Abhidhamma teaching, the practice of Vipassanā that he popularized does not requires the knowledge of the philosophical teachings found in Abhidhamma or for that matter the strict observance of the or monastic discipline. 15The method as introduced by Mahasi Sayadaw also promised a quick result. This was made possible due to the interpretation of the sati as the “bare awareness” or the unmediated, non-judgmental perception of things as they really are. The interpretation of sati slightly varies from the traditional Buddhist explanation of the term. The traditional Buddhist practices are geared toward cultivating the “right views”. Mahasi Sayadaw lived in a village of Seikkhun in upper Burma. At a very early age he received monastic education under U Adicca and got ordain as novice monk. He received his higher in 1923.16 He was also a remarkable student and passed all the three Pāli scripture examinations. Later on in his life he became deeply interested in the study of Mahasatipaṭṭhāna Sutta. It was due to his interest in the Mahasatipaṭṭhāna sutta and the Vipassanā practice that he decided to go to Thaton and practice Vipassanā under Mingun Jetavan Sayadaw. It was under him that Venerable Sobhana, as he was named

12 Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka, The Faces of Buddhism in America, (California: University of California Press,1998), p. 163. 13 Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka, Op. cit., p. 165. 14 Robert Sherf, Op. cit., p. 89. 15 Ibid., p. 91. 16 Mahasi Sayadaw, The Progress of Insight, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1994), p. 47. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 7

at the time, took his first serious practice of Vipassanā. He practice it very diligently for four months before he started teaching his first three disciples at his village in Seikkhun during 1938.17 Unfortunately, his teacher Taik Sayadaw passed away and the responsibility to continue teaching and practicing meditation at Thaton was passed to him. In the meanwhile, he was also set for an examination of Dhammacariya or teacher of Dhamma and passed it with distinction during 194118. Due to the Japanese invasion, Venerable Sobhana had to leave Thaton for his village at Seikkhun. He started teaching and practicing Vipassanā there to local community. Since then he became known as Mahasi and the where he started teaching as Mahasi monastery at Seikkhun.19 It was also during this period that he started writing his first “Manual of Vipassanā Meditation”, which became an authoritative and comprehensive guide to the Vipassanā meditation, exploring both doctrinal aspect as well as practical side of the Satipaṭṭhāna meditation.

Development of Meditation Movement by Mahasi Sayadaw and his Mission to Abroad

Mahasi Sayadaw has gained fame as a meditation teacher in the upper Burma which brought him the attention of a wealthy Buddhist named U Thwin who wished to make the Buddha Dhamma and the practice of meditation available to more people. After attending one of the discourses by Mahasi Sayadaw he made up his mind that Mahasi Sayadaw was the right kind of teacher for teaching meditation. He set up the Buddhasasana Nuggaha Association at Rangoon and donated five acres of land to the association for establishing the meditation center.20 By the end of 1978, the meditation center had acquired 19.6-acre land with vast complex of buildings to support the needs of meditators. It was not until 1949 after the independence of Burma that Prime minister of Burma requested Mahasi Sayadaw to take on the teaching of Vipassanā at Sasana Yeiktha at Rangoon.21

17 Jack Kornfield, Modern Buddhist Masters: Living Buddhist Masters, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication society, 1977), p. 53. 18 U Nyi Nyi, Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw: A Biographical Sketch, (: Myanmar Bud- dhasasana Nuggaha,1978), p. 3. 19 Ibid., p. 4. 20 Jack Kornfield., Op. cit., p. 54. 21 Ibid., pp. 55-56. 8 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

There are numerous other meditation centers were opened in many parts of Burma under the guidance of Mahasi Sayadaw by his trained disciples. Due to the popularity of Mahasi Sayadaw, large number of people turned to meditation and it became too difficult for Mahasi Sayadaw to personally give initiations talks to all the meditators, therefore, the meditation center started playing a recorded tape of Mahasi Sayadaw’s talk for all the meditators in year 1951.22 Mahasi Sayadaw also started training the Sangha members as teachers to teach in Burma. The meditation movement started by Mahasi Sayadaw became so popular that neighboring Theravada countries such as Thailand, Sri Lanka and started similar meditation centers under the guidance of Mahasi Sayadaw and his senior disciples. According to some estimate in 1972, about 700 thousand people were trained under Mahasi Sayadaw’s guidance in Burma and abroad. Mahasi Sayadaw was honored by the Prime Minister of Burma for his service and received the title of “Aggamahapandita” or the Exalted Wise One. He also played an important role in the Sixth Buddhist Council or Sangayana as an editor and questioner.23 At the request of the Government of Sri Lanka a special mission was formed during 1955 to teach Satipaṭṭhāna meditation in Sri Lanka under the guidance of Mahasi Sayadaw. The mission opened up 12 permanent and 17 temporary meditation centers in Sri Lanka. Mahasi also ordained an Indonesian man called Mr. Bung as Venerable Jinakakkhitta and initiated him into progress of insight. Mahasi Sayadaw also sent a mission to Indonesia at his request to start a meditation center there. Together with 13 other monks, Mahasi Sayadaw ordained many disciples as monks and novices, gave a number of Dhamma discourses and taught Vipassanā meditation.24 At the request of Thai Minister for Sangha Affairs, Mahasi Sayadaw sent a mission to Thailand consisting of his senior disciple U Asabha and U Indavamsa to teach meditation and promote the practice of Vipassanā in 1952.25 It was due to their effort that Vipassanā meditation has become widely known and popular among Thai people. Numerous meditation centers were opened and many teachers benefited more than 100,000 people in Thailand

22 U Nyi Nyi, Op. cit., p. 6. 23 Jack Kornfield., Op. cit., p. 59. 24 U Nyi Nyi, Op. cit., p. 7. 25 U Nyi Nyi, Op. cit., pp. 7-8. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 9

through the practice of Mahasi Sayadaw’s method during the first 10 years of this mission. Despite his ill health, Mahasi Sayadaw undertook five more missionary visits to Britain, Europe, America, India and . At the request of Masoeyein Sayadaw who then presided over as Sanghanayaka of the executive Board at Sixth Buddhist Council, Mahasi Sayadaw taught two commentaries on Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga and Venerable Dhammapala’s Visuddhimagga Mahatika which are mostly concerned with Buddhist meditation theory and practice. Mahasi Sayadaw also translated Visuddhimaga Mahatika; altogether he produced some 67 volumes of Burmese Buddhist literature most of which is on Vipassanā meditation and related topics as well as sutta studies.26 Mahasi Sayadaw attracted many visitors interested in meditation and seeking enlightenment. One of the first disciples who came to practice under Mahasi Sayadaw was British Rear-Admiral E.H. Shattock who came to Sasana Yeikta in 1952. He also published a book called “An Experiment in Mindfulness” after his return to England. Mr. Robert Duva, a French born American man, came to practice meditation at his center and later also ordained as monk. He also published a book in French about his experience in Satipaṭṭhāna Vipassanā method.27 A well-known teacher from India called Anagarika Shri Munindra came from to learn and practice meditation under Mahasi Sayadaw and became a very close disciple and spent several year learning and practicing Vipassanā. Joseph Goldstein, another American, also came to practice and later wrote a book on insight meditation called “The Experience of Insight: A Natural Unfolding”. Following these early works many more people came to practice and later on wrote about Vipassanā meditation.28

Criticism of Mahasi Sayadaw’s Method of Vipassana Meditation

Mahasi Sayadaw, despite his popularity also received criticism from certain quarters for his unorthodox method of noting the rising and falling of the abdomen in Vipassanā meditation. It is more often assumed that such a practice was an innovation of the Sayadaw

26 Ibid., p. 8. 27 Jack Kornfield., Op. cit., p. 61. 28 Ibid., pp. 61-62. 10 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

himself and had no canonical ground for it, but the truth is it has been adopted before Mahasi Sayadaw by Mingun Jetavan Sayadaw and is not contrary to the Buddha’s teaching on the subject of meditation.29 Mahasi Sayadaw adopted this method because the beginners find it easier to note the manifestation of the element of motions or Vayudhatu or air element. However, Mahasi Sayadaw did not impose this method to people who come to practice meditation at his centers if hey preferred, for example, the practice of and observing breathing instead of the rise and fall of abdomen. Mahasi Sayadaw did not engage in such criticism. Later on two of his disciples gave some explanation of this method for critics to examine and see the if they wished so.30 Controversies of this nature arose among the members of Sri Lankan Sangha; critical articles against the Mahasi Sayadaw’s method were published in English newspapers and journals. Since such articles were written in English the audience was far larger and the necessity to address such misunderstanding became acute. Therefore, Sayadaw U Nanuttara of World Peace responded to the criticism in Sri Lankan Buddhist periodical called ‘World Buddhism’.

The System of Insight Meditation in Thailand

There are many schools of Vipassanā meditation, however, there are also great deal of concentration oriented meditation. There are systems of meditation in Thailand which emphasize the development and the practice of Vipassanā meditation. There are various traditions, some paying more attention on the preliminary concentration practice at the beginning while others directly emphasize on the practice of Vipassanā from the start. There are meditation systems that vary in their emphasis on the Vipassanā meditation in Thailand. The Samatha tradition of Northeast Thailand is famous for its approach to meditation that focuses on the practice of samadhi or concentration. This approach is also referred to as Forest tradition; Thammayuta Nikaya does pay greater emphasis on this system of meditation.31 This system involves the development of some stage of samadhi but also

29 U Nyi Nyi, Op. cit., pp. 8-9. 30 U Nyi Nyi, Op. cit., p. 11. 31 Cousins L.S., The Origin of Insight Meditation, The Buddhist Forum, Vol. IV, 1994-96, (London: University of London), p. 9. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 11

brings the element of insight meditation at early stage of its meditation system. This method also employs the practice of Buddha with mindfulness of breathing together with the meditation on the 32 parts of the body.32 This approach can be considered a more conservative and reformist at the same time; it can also equate to that of Bhikkhu’s tendency toward ultimatums. Paknam’s approach to meditation is more traditional and involves concentration on various centers of the body, in particular one slightly above the navel, and the recitation of the mantra samma araham. Dhammakaya is an offshoot of this kind of meditation with similar kind of meditation practice with strong tendency toward modernization, however, it is rather in presentation and not so much in its essential principles and ideas. There are several kinds of meditation systems that are present in Thailand. They are as follows 1) The Triple Gem Meditation, 2) Mindfulness of Breathing, 3) Observing Rising and Falling, 4) Observing Mind-Body, and 5) . These types of meditation systems present in Thailand cover both Samatha and Vipassanā forms of meditation or present the combination of both. Let us briefly examine them in turn.33

The Development of Thai Forest Meditation Tradition

The practice of Vipassanā in Thailand comes from Mahasi Sayadaw’s system of meditation in most part apart from few other sources within Burma. Therefore, it would not make sense to go over the same material as gone before while explaining the Mahasi Sayadaw’s practice of meditation. However, I would recount the few essential points followed within Thai tradition of Vipassanā meditation. The four foundations of mindfulness, or satipaṭṭhāna, are an integral part of the practice. The practice of concentration or Samadhi is also encouraged within this meditation system. Beside the practice of sitting meditation, is also given due its importance.34 is largely a monastic meditation movement, that being said,

32 Cousins L.S., The Origin of Insight Meditation, The Buddhist Forum, Vol. IV, 1994-96, (London: University of London), p. 11. 33 Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakaram, A Study Guide for Samatha Vipassana Meditation Based On the Five Meditation Techniques, (Rajchaburi: The National Coordination Center of Provincial Meditation Institute of Thailand,2012), pp. 6-11. 34 Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Insight Meditation: Basic and Progressive Stages, (Kandy : Buddhist Publication Society, 1971), p. 16. 12 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

it also has impacted lay meditation movement immensely, the development of Thai forest monastic community was in response to the growing perception that Buddhism was in a state of decline. The practitioners in this tradition live in remote areas, which are mostly forest dwellings or remote wilderness and training grounds for the practice of meditation and monastic life in general. This monastic community is widely known of its austerity and strictness in practicing Vinaya or monastic discipline.35 Chah is perhaps the most well-known figure in Thai Forest Tradition. Today Vipassanā meditation has taken roots in the western counties, especially in the United States. Jack Kornfield, who is one of the foremost meditation teacher, was trained under Thai forest tradition with . Another famous figure is , who is the senior Western representative of Thai forest tradition, was the abbot of the Amaravati Buddhist Monastery. , the abbot of in San Diego County, also was trained in Thai Forest Tradition. Western followers of the tradition teach meditation in the as well as lay meditation centers.36

Kind of Meditation in Thailand

Mindfulness Mind - Body The Rising and of Breathing (Nāma-Rupa) Falling Method Method

35 Ajahn Chah, Being Dharma: The Essence of the Buddha’s Teachings, (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2001), pp. 2-5. 36 Jack Kornfield, Op. cit., p. 35. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 13

Similarities and Differences between Insight Meditation in Myanmar and Thailand

Vipassanā meditation as we know it today was in most part derived from one or another tradition in Southeast Asia and especially from Burma in majority of the cases. That being said, within Southeast Asia there are many Buddhist countries with their own distinctive features when it comes to meditation method and its practice. Among all the countries in Southeast Asia, Myanmar is perhaps the most important center for the development of the Vipassanā meditation. Alike Myanmar, Thailand too has a long but it was not until the modern period that meditation began to be popular. Myanmar has influenced Thailand when it comes to Vipassanā meditation and it is particularly true of the Mahasi Sayadaw system of meditation, which is generally well recognized and widely practiced among the moni sayadawastic community as well as the lay community. Besides Mahasi, there are many more famous meditation teachers and meditation techniques both in Thailand and in Myanmar. Not all of those meditation methods emphasize on the Vipassanā like Mahasi Sayadaw; some of them focus on the practice of Samatha or tranquility meditation, which is calming the mind. In some cases, teachers focus on the Samatha and Vipassanā practices together and again other teachers focus on the practices that exclusively does not focus on the Vipassanā and are less known, such as the meditation on the Three Jewels or the meditation on six elements. However, more often the meditation teacher focuses on the practice of mindfulness of breathing, which again forms a foundation for Vipassanā practice in many traditions. Vipassanā meditation practice takes its origin in the 19th century during the end of colonial period as movement against the colonial powers and as revival of the Buddhist root practices. The practice of meditation till this period was hardly unheard among the Buddhist communities of Thailand of Myanmar. However, starting from the 19th century interest in meditation practice grew on a much larger scale. The practices that evolved were largely based on the Pāli Canon and additional canonical texts such as Visudhimagga. This is especially true for the Mahasatipaṭṭhāna sutta and Anapanasati sutta, which have become the foundation for most of the Vipassanā meditation practices in general.37

37 Mahasi Sayadaw, Op. cit., p. 11. 14 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

However, in this context, there will be an comparative examination of the Mahasi Sayadaw’s method of Vipassanā or New Burmese Method and that of the famous Vipassanā mediation systems found in Thailand, to be more precise, the one that derives from the Mahasi Sayadaw and his disciples in particular. Both Mahasi Sayadaw and Buddhadasa Bhikkhu take the Mahasatipaṭṭhāna Sutta as an ultimate manual for training the mind for the full and complete liberation or nibbanā within this lifetime. The Buddha in the Mahasitipaṭṭhāna sutta says, “Now, if anyone would develop these four frames of reference in this way for seven years, one of two fruits can be expected for him: either gnosis right here & now, or if there be any remnant of clinging- sustenance. If anyone would develop these four frames of reference in this way for seven days, one of two fruits can be expected for him: either gnosis right here & now, or if there be any remnant of clinging-sustenance non-return. This is the direct path for the purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrow & lamentation, for the disappearance of pain & distress, for the attainment of the right method, & for the realization of Unbinding.”38 This sutta forms the philosophical foundation for the practice of meditation as well as acts as the practical meditation manual. According to this passage the attainment of enlightenment is sure for those who practice the four foundations of mindfulness diligently spanning from the period of seven years to seven days. This statement of the Buddha gives this sutta a central importance in the Buddha’s teaching. Later on, the sutta also goes into the details of systematic training and many forms of reflection on the dhamma or reality. It is beyond any doubt that the four foundations of mindfulness forms the central teaching of the Mahasi Sayadaw and many other teachers within Thai or Burmese meditation tradition. The work of Bhikkhu Buddhadasa stresses on the 16 steps of Anapanasati which are nothing but the elaboration or the different stages of the four foundations of mindfulness: body, feelings, mind and dhamma. The same goes for the teaching of the Mahasi Sayadaw on the practice of the four foundations of mindfulness. As far as practical instruction are concerned, Mahasatipaṭṭhāna sutta acts as the manual for most of the teachers in Burma or in Thailand. Most meditation teachers in Thailand and Myanmar equally emphasize on the importance of the practices and conditions that are conducive to meditation. Most meditation teachers recognize the importance of suitable place, which should enable one to concentrate

38 D. II., 290. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 15

on the practice and avoid worldly distractions. Therefore, most of the teachers also ask the meditators to leave behind all the worries and connections with outside world for the time being. The meditation centers are located in more remote and peaceful places in the midst of nature and away from the hustle and bustle of everyday life. The practice of observing silence is equally stressed by most meditation teachers as idle talk leads to dissipating of the mental energy.39 One must recognize the Noble Eightfold Path leading to nibbāna as the dhamma that is to be sought after, cultivated, and revered. Such an attitude is a prerequisite for strenuous effort in meditation. One must fully appreciate the value of insight meditation and know how to practice it.40 One may also recall the practice of mindfulness in everyday activity as an integral part of the meditation practice and indispensable preparatory stage in the practice of Vipassanā. The practice of general mindfulness is emphasized by the majority of teachers either in Myanmar or Thailand. Such an emphasis arises based on the Mahasatipaṭṭhāna sutta. This is what the Buddha says about awareness of the body: Furthermore, when walking, the monk discerns, ‘I am walking.’ When standing, he discerns, ‘I am standing.’ When sitting, he discerns, ‘I am sitting.’ When lying down, he discerns, ‘I am lying down.’ Or however his body is disposed, that is how he discerns it. “In this way he remains focused internally on the body in & of itself, or focused externally... unstained by anything in the world. This is how a monk remains focused on the body in & of itself.41 This passage very well illustrates the importance of the general mindfulness with regard to the body and the advice is taken seriously by major Buddhist teachers of meditation as mandatory preparation for the further development of Vipassanā or Samatha for that matter.

39 Mahasi Sayadaw, Op. cit., p. 23. 40 U Aye Maung (trs.) A Discourse on Dependent Origination By Ven. Mahasi Sayadaw, (Bangkok: The Buddhadhamma Foundation, 1999), p. 9. 41 M., I., 55. 16 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Conclusion

Although insight meditation arose in Southeast Asia, to be more precise in Burma in most part, but also in Thailand and to some extent, today it is worldwide phenomena. Among all the major schools of traditions of insight meditation it would not be far fetch to say that “New Burmese Method” has gained prominence among all. It began with U Narada who introduced the practice and developed later on when Mahasi Sayadaw popularized and widely propagated it. Apart from Mahasi Sayadaw, there are also other well-known teachers of Vipassanā such as Ledi Sayadaw. One of the prominent figures in Ledi of Vipassanā, S.N. Goenka is the most well-known teacher of this tradition. Then there is Venerable Pa Auk Sayadaw whose teaching is based on the Vissudhimagga. He emphasizes the development of the four jhanas before going on to practice the four element meditation, that is to say, the earth, water, fire and air elements that make up the body. Another well- known teacher, Mogok Sayadaw, focuses on the practice of insight meditation with special emphasis on conditionality as well as the awareness of the feeling and mental states. Insight meditation in Thailand and Myanmar has more similarities then differences, although one cannot ignore many unique features of the insight meditation that were developed in Thailand. There are five well known practices found in Thailand. The most well-known is that of Mahasi Sayadaw’s “New Burmese Method”. On the other hand, there is the Forest meditation tradition which is largely based on Mahasatipatthana Sutta and other texts from the Pāli Canon. Here one can also include the Anapanasati practice as taught by Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. There are also other meditation systems which are less known outside Thailand, such as Buddha mantra recitation of “Buddho”. There is also a meditation system that focuses on the mind-body observation and that of reflection on the Three Jewels of Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha. A Study on the Methods of Extinguishing Anger in Buddhism

Ven. Thach Pa, Ven. W. Piyaratana, Dr., Dr. Veerachart Nimanong MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This research article has three objectives, namely: (1) to study the causes and ef- fects of anger in Buddhism in general, (2) to study the methods of extinguishing anger in Buddhism, and (3) to study the benefi ts of extinguishing anger in Buddhism. During this research, it was found that there are many causes and effects of anger according to Buddhism. Concerning the causes of anger, it is mostly caused by unwhole- some roots (akusala mūla), worldly conditions (lokadhamma), defi lements (kilesa), craving (taṇhā), etc. Moreover, concerning the effects of anger, anger directly affects one’s self and others. Furthermore, the researcher found that there are two benefi ts of extinguishing anger in Buddhism, those are benefi ts for oneself and benefi ts for others. In addition, there are some more benefi ts, which are: one not destroys one’s life, is shameful to do evil, knows the advantages of Dhamma, and experiences a cool mind all the time. On the other hand, the benefi ts of extinguishing anger for others are: one respects and is kind to all beings, lives together with others in peace and harmony. The paper also discusses the meaning and the problems of anger in Buddhism in general, and discusses the methods of extinguishing anger in Buddhism. In the research, it was found that there are several methods of extinguishing anger in Buddhism. Particularly important is the refl ection method, which is the refl ection on the Buddha’s teachings, and refl ection on many different objectives in order to extinguishing anger.

Keywords: Anger, management, defi lements, extinguishing. 18 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

Some people easily get angry over minor matters while others are able to tolerate intense situations before they get to a point where they cannot take it any longer and the anger breaks free through speech or action. However, the root cause of anger is defilement of the mind and a lack of mindfulness and wisdom to restrain anger with patience. People allow their minds to dwell on unwholesome thoughts and this becomes the cause for anger outbursts. We need to realize how dangerous anger is. The Buddha said, “Na hi sādhu kodho,”1 meaning “anger is not good.”2 If we cannot see the disadvantages of anger and the harm it causes, then we will not be able to restrain our anger. We will not be able to purge it from our minds. When anger dominates our minds, all it produces is suffering for us and harm for others.3 A man conquered by anger is in a mass of darkness. He takes pleasure in bad deeds as if they were good, but later when his anger is gone he suffers as if burned with fire. He is spoiling, blotted out like fire enveloped in smoke. When a man becomes angry, he has no shame, no fear of evil, is not respectful in speech, and for a person overcome with anger nothing gives light.4 However, ‘loving-kindness’ (mettā) has a major rival which is ‘anger’ (kodha). Anger is an enemy of mettā, always preventing loving-kindness from developing. People prone to anger, once anger arises, handle things very roughly, including throwing things out or using harsh language. They even destroy important properties; if they are not able to do anything, they sit still and keep quite with an ugly face. They are furious and they are burning their own mind.5 Wise men know how the angry person feels; therefore, they try to show various ways to extinguish it. Some techniques of extinguish anger will be mentioned in this paper. It will benefit not only those who are prone to be overwhelmed by anger, but also offer a

1 V., Fausboll, (tr). The Jātaka: Together With Its Commentary Being Tales of the Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha, Vol. III, (London: Trübner & Co., 1883), p. 233. 2 H. T., Francis, M.A., and R. A, Nell, M.A., The Jātaka, Vol. III, (Cambridge: The University Press, 1897), p. 154. 3 Venerable Luang Por, Plien, A Dhamma talk: The Abandoning of Anger, (Wat Aranyavivek, Bahn Pong, Ampher Mae Taeng, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand, 2003). pdf, p. 3. 4 E.M, Hare, (tr). , Vol. IV, (Oxford: Pāli Text Society, 2006), p. 61. 5 Agga Pandit, But Savong, Ways to Appease Anger, (Phnom Penh: Phnom Penh Printing House, 2009), p. 1. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 19

source of inspiration, awareness of the demerit of anger, and the merit of loving-kindness.6 If we want to get rid of our enemies we should first kill our anger, which is the greatest enemy within us. On the other hand, if we be perturbed hearing from our enemies, it means we are fulfilling the wishes of our enemies by unknowingly entering into their trap. We will not be able to get rid of our enemies by returning evil for evil. If we do that then we will be inviting only more enemies. The best and the most correct method of overcoming our enemies is radiating our kindness towards them. When we know that there is someone, who is very angry with us, we should first try to find out the main cause of that enmity; if it is due to our mistake, we should admit it and should not hesitate to apologize to him or her.7

The Meaning and the Problems of Anger in Buddhism in General

Anger itself is unskillful. Whatever an angry person fabricates by means of body, speech, or intellect, that too is unskillful. Whatever suffering an angry person experience, his mind perceives it wrongly and inflicts damage on another person through beating, imprison- ment, confiscation, placing blame or banishment, with the thought of ‘I have power. I want power,’ that too is unskillful. Thus, it is that many evil, unskillful qualities born of anger, caused by anger, originated through anger. A person with mind overcome with evil, unskillful qualities born of anger dwells in suffering right here and now, feeling threatened, turbulent, feverish and at the breakup of the body, after death, can expect a bad destination.8

The Methods of Extinguishing Anger in Buddhism

Some people may try to share loving-kindness and their merit with others, but still cannot eliminate their anger for enemies. Some methods of extinguishing anger are as following:

6 Agga Pandit, But Savong, Ways to appease anger, Op. cit., p. 2. 7 Ven., K., Sri, Dhammananda, How to Overcome Your Difficulties, view on 4th October,2013. http://www.Dhammatalks.net/Books6/Bhante_Dhammananda_How_to_Overcome_your_Difficulties. pdf, p. 10. 8 F.L., Woodward, M.A., (tr).The Book of The Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara Nikāya) or More- Numbered Suttas, Vol. I, (London: The Pāli Text Society, 1932), p. 183. 20 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

1. Reflection on Mental Impurities of the Anger The Buddha explained that the mind filled with anger is unwholesome, “when anger-bound, man Dhamma cannot see; when anger conquers man, blind darkness reigns”9. Whereas the anger of people who have no sense of Dhamma is extending and expanding, their bad conduct make it more intensive and longlasting. Therefore, Buddha’s disciples should be mindful, thinking “I must not be either a bad person or worse than any person at all.” If some people are angry with us, we should not react angrily toward them. This behavior considered as a victory over a battle, which is hard to win. Knowing immediately that other person is getting angry with you, you can appease your anger; not to react angrily means to achieve advantages for oneself as well as for others.10 Furthermore, in any event, you should train thus: ‘my mind will be unaffected and I shall utter no evil words; I shall abide compassionate for his welfare, with a mind of loving-kindness, without inner hate’.11

2. Reflection on Demerit of Anger Regarding this point, the Buddha expounded various teachings, which are: angry people have ugly complexion, sleep in pain, lose friends, lose honor, etc. One who is angry is not aware that anger is a fear arising in his body. Angry people do neither know about advantages nor see the Dharma. One who is controlled by anger encompasses only dark- ness. Angry persons do unwholesome things easily thinking that they had performed good actions. When they are free from anger, they feel so regretful as if they are on fire. At the beginning, anger manifests itself through facial expressions, which are like smoke that comes before the fire. When anger reaches its highest point, an angry person is not afraid of anything. He is shameless and does not respect anybody. He destroys everything like a bushfire that burns the whole village. Person filled with anger can kill anybody, be it his own parents or an Arahant, and even take his own life.12

9 EM, Hare, (tr). The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara Nikāya), (London: PTS, 1978), vol. IV, p. 61. 10 , (tr). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Saṁyutta Nikāya, (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2000), p. 256. 11 Bhikkhu Nanamoli & Bhikkhu Bodhi, (tr). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, A New Translation of The , (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1995), p. 218. 12 Bhikkhu,Thanissaro, (tr). Handful of Leaves: An Anthology from the Aṅguttara Nikāya, Vol. III, (Metta Forest Monastery, Valley Center, USA. 2003), p. 233. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 21

3. Reflection on Goodness of Others By nature and in general, each of us human beings has some good and some bad habits. It is not possible to find someone who is perfectly good without having any defects. There are some things we see as good, whereas other people find them bad; and the reverse is possible. We might dislike some people as they are, with their weaknesses and negative traits. We should not always focus on others’ shortcomings or things that do not please us, but also look for their goodness in physical and verbal actions.13 Moreover, we should not think that they are not good and they make us angry. Anger and dislike are generating from within; and it is due to our own greed, anger and delusion that we find them bad in this way or that way. No matter how terrible or brutal a person is, if greed, anger and delusion are eliminated, that person will become an Arahanta, achieving self-salvation, worthy of respect. Thus, we should learn and reflect to see the true nature of greed, hatred and delu- sion as they really are. We should realize that they are defilements of our mind. This sort of understanding helps ourselves to reduce our dissatisfaction in other people.

4. Reflecting that Self-Punishment is Just a Form of Fulfilling Enemy’s Wishes Usually a person has ill-will and desire to harm his enemies. He does not need to do any harm to an angry person because such a person is already doing much harm to himself. For example, if an enemy wishes such an angry person to be ugly, to have a bad complexion, not to have a good sleep, to have all his benefits and belongings destroyed, to be devoid of honor, to lose all friends and to suffer in hell after death, the angry person does all these to himself as expected by his enemy.14 Owing to this belief, a skillful enemy can find ways to incite the other party to feel angry or to create division within the group by using different means. For this reason, one shall not offend oneself by being angry. In reverse, when one can control his mind to react to things which incite hatred with a calm mind and a smiling face, this will send a clear signal to the enemy that you are not affected at all. This will hurt the enemy’s mind to its utmost; while as a man without anger, you will earn many benefits and avoid destruction.

13 Steven Collins, Kalyāṇamitta and Kalyāṇamittatā, in Journal of The Text Society, Vol. XI, edited by K. R. Norman, (London: , 1985), pp. 52- 53. 14 But Savong, Agga Pandit, Ways to Appease Anger, Op. cit., p. 9. 22 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

5. Reflection on Anger as Causing Pain to Ourselves If attacked by a robber, people suffer from physical abuse. Anger caused by robbery deals another blow, which affects the mind. It burns people’s mind. In this case, it is better to have loving kindness toward others, but if it is not possible, people should develop pity and loving-kindness toward themselves. They should not burn their heart and should not let the mind be tormented by anger. We feel sad and discontented because someone abuses us or atrociously attacks us. How about ourselves? We burn our own heart and mind as well as destroy our own virtues. How savage we are by committing such cruelty to ourselves. When anyone wants to harass us, he will use different tricks to make us angry. Therefore, anger is one of our own weaknesses that make them fulfill their wishes. When we get an- gry, whether we intend to harm others or not, we do harm ourselves. Normally we adore ourselves very much, but when we are overwhelmed by anger, we are so ignorant that we blindly harm ourselves.15

6. Reflection on Inheritance of Kamma The Buddha taught that, “One is owner of his deeds, heir of his deeds; he will become the heir of whatever deeds he does”.16 For this is said by the Blessed One: “When a fool hates a man that has no hate, is purified and free from every blemish, such evil he will find comes back on him, as does fine dust thrown up against the wind.”17 We should reflect that we all have kamma as our inheritance. We reap what we have sown. We should consider that if we are angry, no matter what we are doing, our action stems from anger, which is one of the unwholesome roots. Our present kamma resulted from bad actions will produce bad result full of frustration and lack of benefit for this life. In addition, when we perform bad kamma that stems from anger, before we harass and do harm to others, we have already harmed and burnt ourselves. This process of self-harm is like using both hands to pick up a burning ember or excrement with the intention to throw it at the others. It first burns our both hands or makes them dirty. When we reflect on ourselves this way, we should reflect on others in the same manner. If a person gets angry, he will do bad things and will reap bad kamma. This bad kamma will not help them receiving any good result

15 But Savong, Agga Pandit, Ways to Appease Anger, Op. cit., pp.11-13. 16 Bhikkhu Nanamoli, (tr). Visuddhimagga: The Path of Purification, (Kandy: Buddhist Publica- tion Society,1991), p. 297. 17 Ven. Thanissaro, Bhikkhu : A Translation, (CA: Buddha Dhamma Education Association Inc., 1997), p. 57. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 23

or peace. He will get only bad result including irritation and burning inside his mind. We should not bother our minds, but we should have a strong resolve to cultivate wholesome behavior.18 However, if a tiny banyan seed is planted, a big banyan tree will grow up bearing innumerable fruits in more than thousand years. Similarly, if a mango seed or a jackfruit seed is planted, big mango trees and big jackfruit trees will grow and bear more than a hundred thousand fruits for many years. Thus in the case of trees, a small seed is able to produce more than a hundred thousand fruits, leaves, branches and twigs. Similarly, a seed of wholesome kamma, such as alms-giving, moral behavior, and meditation practiced at one time, can produce more than a hundred thousand good results in successive future ex- istences. A seed of unwholesome kamma, planted by killing a being, can produce evil and painful results in numerous following existences.19 Therefore, the Buddha declares ‘sabbe sattā kammadāyādā’20 ‘all beings are the heir to their actions’.21

7. Reflection on Past Life Stories of the Buddha The Buddha, before gaining enlightenment, took a long time to accomplish the ten perfections. He provided benefits and advantages to public. In some instances, he was harmed, but he never got angry. He replaced anger by non-violence. During his life, there were attempts to kill him, but he never thought of revenge or even had any ill will towards those perpetrators at all. He tried his best to help people in danger, sometimes what he got in return was not gratitude but aggression. In spite of this, he was not irritated. He kept doing good things to them. One of the Buddha’s life stories (Jātakas) related to patience and compassion goes as follows: Once the Bodhisatta was the Great Monkey living in the forest. He helped pull a cowboy out of the chasm. As the Great Monkey was so tired, he lied down and fell asleep, while that man, who had an intention to kill him for food, took a big stone and dashed it

18 Bhikkhu Nanamoli & Bhikkhu Bodhi, (tr). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, A New Translation of The Majjhima Nikāya, Op. cit., p. 1053. 19 Ledi Sayadaw, Mahā Thera, The Manuals of Buddhism, (Yangon: Mother Ayeyarwaddy Publishing House, 2004), p. 399. 20 Prof. E. Hardy, Ph.D., DD, The Aṅguttara Nikāya, part III, (London: Oxford University Press, 1896), p. 72. 21 Bhikkhu Nanamoli & Bhikkhu Bodhi, (tr). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya, Op. cit., p. 1054. 24 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

right away on the monkey’s head. The Bodhisatta did not die, because the man was not strong enough. The Great Monkey was not angry but afraid that man would get lost and not find his way out of the forest. In great pain, he jumped from one branch to another in order to show the way out.22

8. Reflection on Relatives in Saṁsara, Endless Cycle of Life Transmigration We should review the suttas that deal with the beginningless round of rebirths. Here it is said by the Buddha: “, it is not easy to find a being who has not formerly been your mother … your father … your brother … your sister … your son … your daughter”.23 Consequently, we should think about that person thus: “This person, it seems, as my mother in the past carried me in her womb for ten months and removed from me without disgust, as if it were yellow sandalwood, my urine, excrement, spittle, snot, etc., and played with me in her lap, and nourished me, carrying me about on her hip. This person as my father went by goat paths and paths set on piles, etc. to pursue the trade of merchant, and he risked his life for me by going into battle in double array, by sailing on the great ocean in ships and doing other difficult things, and he nourished me by bringing back wealth by one means or another thinking to feed his children. In addition, as my brother, sister, son, daughter, this person gave me such and such help. So it is unbecoming for me to harbor hate for him in my mind.”24

9. Reflection on the Merit of Loving-Kindness The opposite of anger is mettā or loving-kindness. While anger produces its most vicious results, loving-kindness bears great virtues and provides its highest and impressive results too. For that reason, we should quench anger and instead develop loving-kindness. This loving-kindness will help wiping out anger, and prevent it from occuring until it van- ishes forever. Endowed with loving-kindness, people can win the heart of others. It is a paramount victory. These types of people create two benefits. The first is for oneself and the

22 H.T. Frencis M.A., and R.A. Neil, M.A., (tr). The Jātaka or Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births, Vol. III, (Cambridge: University Press, 1897), pp. 225-227. 23 Bhikkhu, Bodhi, (tr). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha (Saṁyutta Nikaya). Vol. I, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 693. 24 Bhikkhu, Ñānamoli, (tr). The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), (Kandy: BPS, 1991), p. 300. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 25

second is for others. Loving-kindness should be developed first towards oneself by mentally repeating the following formula in Pali or one’s own tongue.

Ahaṁ avero homi May I be free from enmity Abyāpajjho homi May I be free from ill will Sukkhī attānaṁ pariharāmi25 May I keep myself happy.26

Having developed loving-kindness for oneself repeatedly, one then extends the wish to other beings by mentally repeating the following statement: “May all beings be free from enmity, ill will, and distress, and may they keep themselves happy”.27 One should review the advantages of loving-kindness. Thus has been said by the Buddha: “Bhikkhus, when the mind-deliverance of loving-kindness is cultivated, developed, much practiced, made the vehicle, made the foundation, established, consolidated, and properly undertaken, eleven blessings can be expected.”28

10. Reflection on the Division of Elements Contemplating elements is a kind of practice, which is close to Vipassana (meditation for insight). Employing Vipassana for one’s benefit is to contemplate on our present life. Contemplating on beings is to see that they are aggregates or the living saṅkhārā. Human beings, males and females, and animals are living aggregates or the formed. It is not pos- sible to pinpoint or to substantiate what we call human beings and animals. In the context of an absolute truth, we can find only elements, which are hard corporal elements, feeling, perception, formation, and Viññāna (the knowing). Besides these there are the five sense organs: eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body with the corresponding external objects which are images, sounds, smells, etc… in all what we call nāma and rūpa, or nāma dhamma (mental aggregate) and rūpa Dhamma (physical aggregates).29 At the end, we cannot find

25 Arnold C. Taylor, M.A. (ed). Patisambhidāmagga, Vol. II, (London: Pali Text Society, 1907), p. 130. 26 Bhikkhu, Ñānamoli,( tr). The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), Op. cit., p. 292. 27 Ibid., p. 292. 28 F.L. Woodward, M.A., The Book of Graduate Saying (Aṅguttara Nikāya), Vol. V, (Oxford: Pali Text Society, 2003), p. 219. 29 Bhikkhu Nanamoli & Bhikkhu Bodhi, (tr). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, A New Translation of the Majjhima nikāya, Op. cit., pp. 148-150. 26 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

or locate the target of our anger. There is nothing for our anger to cling. We, human beings keep quarreling, hating, nourishing ill will because we do not see through the real elements constituting our body.30

11. Reflection on Causes and Effects, and Practice of Generosity One should try the giving of a gift. It either be given by oneself to the other or accepted by oneself from the other. However, if the other’s livelihood is not purified and his requisites are not proper to be used, it should be given by oneself. People should use their own possessions as a gift for people to whom they hate or dislike. They should accept what they get in return from the person they hate. Therefore, they should give away things with good heart and with friendly words. Donation means to fight a war against avarice and anger that is inside our heart. Normally, we can give donation to any person whom we do not hate or are not angry. If we are not stingy, we can simply make such a donation. However, for a person we hate or are angry with, it is difficult for us to apply this approach. Therefore, we should remember that the real enemy is our anger. We fight a war with anger by giving dāna or donation. Giving dāna is a remedy to appease anger that brings better results as well as providing various approaches to solve other pending problems. Donation can appease a long-standing vindictiveness and turn enemy into good friends.31 ‘Bālāhave nappasanti dānaṁ’32 foolish people never appreciate dāna.33

12. Reflection on Buddhist Proverbs The Buddha said, ‘Bhikkhus, even if bandits brutally severed limb from limb with a two-handled saw, he who entertained hate in his heart on that account would not be one who carried out my teaching”.34 If we want to liberate ourselves from something, we must know what the dangers of those things are. Therefore, there are stanzas about demerits of anger, for instance:

30 But Savong, Agga Pandit, Ways to appease anger, Op. cit., pp. 28-30. 31 Ibid., pp. 31-33. 32 Dhp. 177. 33 Ven., Weragoda Sarada Thero, Treasaury of Truth Dhammapada (Text), (Taiwan: The Cor- porate the Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 1993), p. 584. 34 Bhikkhu Nanamoli & Bhikkhu Bodhi, (tr). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, A New Translation of The Majjhima nikāya, Op. cit., p. 1016. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 27

“To repay angry men in kind is worse than to be angry first; repay not angry men in kind and win a battle hard to win”.35 “I am not one afflicted in mind, nor easily drawn by anger’s whirl. I never become angry for long, nor does anger persist in me”.36 “When I’m angry I don’t speak harshly and I don’t praise my virtues. I keep myself well restrained out of regard for my own good”.37 “Na hi sadhu kodho.38 Anger is not good”.39 “Kodho satthamalaṁ loke.40 In the world anger is a rusty sword”.41 “Kodho dummedhagocaro42 Anger characterizes a fool.”43 “Doso kodhasamuṭṭhāno44 Anger breeds fury.”45 “Natthi dosasamo gaho46 There is no grip equal to hatred.”47 “Natthi dosasamo kali.48 There is no crime like anger.”49

35 Bhikkhu Bodhi, (tr). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Saṁyutta Nikāya, Vol. I, (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2000), Op. cit., p. 256. 36 Ibid., p. 338. 37 Ibid., p. 339. 38 V., Fausboll, (tr). The Jātaka: Together With Its Commentary Being Tales of the Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha, Vol. III, (London: Trübner & Co., 1883), p. 233. 39 H. T., Francis, M.A., and R. A, Nell, M.A., The Jātaka, Vol. III, (Cambridge: The University Press, 1897), p. 154. 40 M. L éon Feer, (ed). The Saṃyutta-Nikāya of the Sutta-Piṭaka: Sagātha-Vagga, (London: Pali Text Society, 1884), p. 43. 41 Bhikkhu Bodhi, (tr). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Saṁyutta Nikāya, Vol. I, (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2000), p. 136. 42 V., Fausboll, (tr). The Jātaka: Together With Its Commentary Being Tales of the Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha, Vol. IV, (London: Trübner & Co., 1887), p. 26. 43 W. H. D. Rose, M.A., (tr). The Jātaka or Stories of The Buddha’s Former Births, Vol. IV, (Cambridge: University Press, 1901), p. 16. 44 V., Fausboll, (tr). The Jātaka: Together With Its Commentary Being Tales of the Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha, Vol. III, Op. cit., p. 11. 45 W. H. D. Rose, M.A., (tr). The Jātaka or Stories of The Buddha’s Former Births, Op. cit. p. 7. 46 John Ross Carter, The Dhammapada, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 292. 47 Ven., Weragoda Sarada Thero, Treasaury of Truth Dhammapada (Text), Op. cit., p. 794. 48 John Ross Carter, The Dhammapada, Op. cit., p. 256. 49 Ven., Weragoda Sarada Thero, Treasaury of Truth Dhammapada (Text), Op. cit., p. 655. 28 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Conclusion

Anger is the unwholesome root, the deferment of mind, and the enemy of loving- kindness. It always prevents loving-kindness from developing in people’s minds. Whatever an angry person does by body, speech, or thought is also unwholesome. Whenever the mind of a person is overcome by anger, anger badly affects himself and affects people around him. Thus, many evil deeds are committed through verbal and physical actions. However, an angry person before doing harm to others is harming himself fi rst. By any possible ways, we should endeavor to quench our anger and at last be able to extend our loving-kindness towards every being in the world. When we are able to curb our anger and control our mind, we should extend from ourselves boundless love as far as we can imagine throughout every direction pervading and touching all living beings with loving-kindness. We should practice this meditation every day at regular times without any break. Because of this practice, we will be able, one day, to attain the jhānas or meditative absorptions, which entail the control of sensuality, ill will and many other passions, bringing at the same time purity, serenity and peace of mind.

References

Arnold C. Taylor, M.A. (ed). Patisambhidāmagga, Vol. II, (London: Pali Text Society), 1907. Mahathera, Aggamahāpaṇḍita, English – Pali Dictionary, (Oxford: The Pali Text Society), 2002. But Savong, Agga Pandit, Ways to appease anger, (Phnom Penh: Phnom Penh Printing House), 2009. Bodhi Bhikkhu, (tr). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Saṁyutta Nikāya, Vol. I, (Boston: Wisdom Publication), 2000. Dhammananda K., Sri, Ven., How to Overcome Your Diffi culties, view on 4th October, 2013. http://www.Dhammatalks.net/Books6/Bhante_Dhammananda_How_to_Over- come_your_Diffi culties. p. 10. Frencis, H.T., M.A., and Neil, R.A., M.A., (tr). The Jātaka or Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births, Vol. III, (Cambridge: University Press), 1897. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 29

Fausboll,V., (tr). The Jātaka: Together With Its Commentary Being Tales of the Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha, Vol. III, IV, (London: Trübner & Co.), 1883 and 1887. Hardy, E., Prof., Phd., DD, The Aṅguttara Nikāya, part III, (London: Oxford University Press), 1896. Hare, E.M, (tr). The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara Nikāya), Vol. IV, (Oxford: Pāli Text Society), 2006. John Ross Carter, The Dhammapada, (New York: Oxford University Press), 1987. Ledi Sayadaw, Mahā Thera, The Manuals of Buddhism, (Yangon: Mother Ayeyarwaddy Publishing House), 2004. M. Léon Feer, (ed). The Saṃyutta-Nikāya of the Sutta-Piṭaka: Sagātha-Vagga, (London: Pali Text Society), 1884. , (tr). The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), (Kandy: Buddhist Pub- lication Society), 1991. Nanamoli Bhikkhu & Bodhi Bhikkhu, (tr). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, A New Translation of The Majjhima Nikāya, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society), 1995. Bhikkhu, (ed). Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Term & Doctrines, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society), 1980. Plien, Venerable Luang Por, , A Dhamma talk: The Abandoning of Anger, (Wat Aranyavivek, Bahn Pong, Ampher Mae Taeng, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand), 2003. Rose, W. H. D., M.A., (tr). The Jātaka or Stories of The Buddha’s Former Births, Vol. IV, (Cambridge: University Press), 1901. Steven Collins, Kalyāṇamitta and Kalyāṇamittatā, in Journal of The Pali Text Society, Vol. XI, edited by K. R. Norman, (London: Pali Text Society, 1985), pp. 52- 53. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Dhammapada: A Translation, (CA: Buddha Dhamma Education As- sociation Inc.), 1997. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, (tr). Handful of Leaves: An Anthology from the Aṅguttara Nikāya, Vol. III, (Metta Forest Monastery, Valley Center, USA), 2003. Woodward, F.L., M.A., The Book of The Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara Nikāya) or More-Num- bered Suttas, Vol. I, V, (tr). (London: The Pāli Text Society), 1932 and 2003. Weragoda Sarada Thero, Ven., Treasaury of Truth Dhammapada (Text), (Taiwan: The Cor- porate the Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation), 1993. The Strategies of King Nguyen Phuc Chu to Vietnamese Social Development Through The Buddhism Thoughts (1691 – 1725)

Ven. Phan Thanh Dang, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Ven. Walmoruwe Piyaratana, Dr. International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

In order to establish a powerful government and comfort the people, the Nguyen dynasty chose Buddhism as the spiritual backbone of Dang Trong society. Under the pro- tection of the Nguyen lords, the Buddhism in Dang Trong gradually fl ourished, and the development of Buddhism had a repercussion on the Nguyen dynasty’s rule policies. The spirit of Buddhism became one of the important prerequisites for the reign of the Nguyen Kings and successful implementation of the process of expanding and development of the country. Under the reign of King Nguyen Phuc Chu, Buddhism fl ourished as a state religion of the Nguyen dynasty, and he used its as the standard for social morality, and his contributions positively to the national development and it helped him make great things in Vietnamese social history at that time. So this article showed the context of Vietnamese society in Middle Seventeenth to Last Eighteenth Century. And fi nally the artical proceeds the strategies of King Nguyen Phuc Chu for Vietnamese society’s development through the Buddhism thoughts, and his contributions for the development of Vietnamese Buddhism.

Keywords: Nguyen Lord, Nguyen dynasty, King Nguyen Phuc Chu, Dang Trong (Southern Vietnam), the Buddhism in Dang Trong. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 31

Introduction

In the process of development, any dynasty has its own historical contexts, so plac- ing a historical figure on the objective changes of the times is an opportunity to return to history something close to really. Particularly in the process of opening the territory from king Nguyen Hoang (1524 - 1613) to King Nguyen Phuc Chu (1675 – 1725)1, historians have agreed upon the basics of this process, that is shaping to be a political, cultural and religious life based on Buddhist thoughts; including a sufficient society, a flexible and har- monious policy, and most important is a well-defined development territory. In 1691, King Nguyen Phuc Chu had reigned the country, He was the 6th King of nine Kings of the Nguyen dynasty (1558 -1777) in Southern Vietnam. He was the King devout Buddhism very high compared to the previous and later Kings, who took the Triple Gems and observed precepts with Thach Liem. Nguyen Phuc Chu who has keen political vision plus the ideological influence of , helped his imperial executive, made great achievements in the political sphere as well as in religious activities (for Buddhism), and was a clement virtue man, was political leaders talented. He represents the Nguyen dynastry developing country to become powerful and prosperous both economic and political, and peaceful society. At that time, Buddhism became the center point, the sight of the Nguyen kings. It has a position and an important role that can determine the fate of the Nguyen dynasty in its early days, because the Buddhism has the role establishing peacefulness and national unity power. Therefore, the Nguyen kings chose Buddhism as a strategy in the process of establishing and expanding their territory2. Since then, Buddhism has received strong protec- tion from the Nguyen kings, and it has grown steadily. The development and prosperity of Buddhism under the reign of King Nguyen Phuc Chu, it has recorded the great contributions of the predecessor kings in general and King Nguyen Phuc Chu in particular3. So what is the influence of Buddhism on the strategies of King Nguyen Phuc Chu on economy, politics and social development in Cochinchina (Vietnamese southern)?

1 Danny Wong Tze Ken & Champaka Monograph 5. (2007). The Nguyen and Champa During 17th and 18th Century – A Study of Nguyen Foreign Relations, France: International Office of Champa Publishing House. p. 37. 2 Nguyen Lang. (2014). A Complete Work of Historical Interpretation of Vietnamese Buddhism, (Vietnamese Version), Ha Noi: Literature Publishing House. p.584. 3 Nguyen Tai Thu, Minh Chi, Ly Kim Hoa and Ha van Tan. (2006). The History of , USA: Institute of Philosophy – Vietnamese Academy of Social Science Press. p.185. 32 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

1. Research Objective 1. To study the historical background of Vietnamese society in 17th and 18th cenn- turies. 2. To study the strategies of King Nguyen Phuc Chu for the development of Viet- namese society through the Buddhism thoughts. 3. To study the basic contributions of King Nguyen Phuc Chu to the development of Vietnamese Buddhism.

2. Research Method This article is a documentary research, and it is studying the data from both pri- mary and secondary sources from the Mahāyāna Buddhist Tipiṭaka, commentaries and the related historical books. And then all data collected are used to analyze and appreciate the influence of Vietnamese Buddhism to the strategies development of king Nguyen Phuc Chu on Vietnamese society.

3. Research Results The article is a research of the contributions of king Nguyen Phuc Chu on the development of Vietnamese society in the last 17th and the middle 18th centuries. But the main scope of it focuses on the historical background of Vietnamese society at that time, the strategies of King Nguyen Phuc Chu for the development of Vietnamese society through the Buddhism thoughts, and finally the basic contributions of King Nguyen Phuc Chu to the development of Vietnamese Buddhism. Throughout this article, readers can understand more about the setting of the Bud- dhism and society in Vietnam before and after of the reign of king Nguyen Phuc Chu, the new methods and policies to help Vietnamese Buddhism overcome the darkest period, as well as the prosperous development of Vietnamese society, which opened a new turning- point for Buddhist and social development in Vietnam in the last centuries. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 33

The Context of Vietnamese Society in Middle Seventeenth to Last Eighteenth Century

At the time, Vietnam under the rule of the Latter Le dynasty (1428-1789), was also the time that the country is suffering from chaos by the civil wars and foreign invasion4. Especially the civil was took in the court of the Latter Le to scramble for power. As in 1522, General Mac Dang Dung held all the powers in the post – Latter Le dynasty5. From the dispute between the faction has been strained, leading to the establishment of hostility between to goverments: the Mac dynasty goverment in the North and in the South of the Latter Le dynasty (Thanh Hoa province to the South)6. Since then, the war between the Mac dynasty and the Latter Le dynasty lasted about 46 years (1546-1592). And Finally, Mac dynasty was destroyed by Le dynasty in 15927. So, from the chaos of country, and the division of the factions in the Latter Le dynasty, has created many internal contradictions, standing before these events, the Latter Le dynasty expressed helplessness and weakness. Therefore, for the safety and survival for himself, General Nguyen Hoang had suggested from the Le Royal for he went to the town of Thanh Hoa8 (southern Vietnam) to guard the frontiers in 1558. Afterward, he formed the Nguyen dynasty in 16009, here. To beautiful to history of the Nguyen dynasty, king Nguyen Phuc Chu was the sixth generation of the Nguyen dynasty, was a man who had many innovative strategies, especially for the society and religion (Buddhism) in the South of Vietnam, and he left many impressive achievement, stirred in the current political wave. He was regarded as a brilliant political leader, a clearsighted king of country, as a devout Buddhist.

4 Cao Huy Giu, tr. (2006). The Complete History of Dai Viet (Vietnamese Version), Vol.II, Ha Noi: Culture and Information Publishing House. p. 513. 5 Ibid., p.534. 6 Before the internal wars occurred in Vietnam, Latter Le dynasty established in Thang Long capital in Northern Vietnam. But after the struggle had happened between Latter Le and Mac dynasty, and Latter Le dynasty has been defeated by the adversary, therefore Mac dynasty had occupyed Thang Long capital and Latter Le dynasty had withdrawn from the North and they have occupyed in Thanh Hoa province (it was the south of Thang Long capital). 7 Cao Huy Giu, tr. Op.cit., p.647. 8 Thuan Hoa: including Quang Binh, Quang Tri and Thua Thien Hue province. 9 Cao Huy Giu, tr. Op.cit., P.687. 34 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Since above the social context, the Vietnamese Buddhism of the previous dynasties of Nguyen was impacted by that, and it had been declined, and was clearly showed in the period of the Latter Le dynasty (1428-1527) 10, and especially, last period of the Latter Le dynasty, due to two main reasons were discrimination and boycott of the Confucianism, at this time the Confucianism had great influence in politics, therefore, they did not hesitated to repress the Budhhism11, such as the depravation of few Buddhist monks. Thus, in those days, The Buddhism has just played an important of religious belief12. However, in king Le Chieu Tong dynasty (1573 -1599) in the North and king Nguyen Hoang dynasty (1558 -1599) in the South then the Buddhism began renaissant signal again, because it was sup- ported by the Nguyen Kings13. And, afterward there was king Nguyen Phuc Chu whom had the most Buddhism’s devotion rather than other Nguyen kings and he had play a part of the revival movements and development of Vietnamese Buddhism. In fact, Nguyen dynasties’s existence was over two hundred years in which king Nguyen Phuc Chu reigned 34 years, and his great contributions to Vietnamese society and Buddhism14. It was a vital hyphen of the recovery age between two stages of its before and after, those are from 15th to the 16th century and the 19th to the 20th century; these are the great declining periods of Vietname. So, the contributions of king Nguyen Phuc Chu was a great milestone, and thanks to it, Vietnamese Buddhism and society overcome many challenges and the darkest period.

10 The Latter Le dynasty (1428-1527). According the Vietnamese history. It is including two period. The first period (1428-1527), this dynasty has been declined by the internal war of Vietnam, and then, the second period (1528-1789), this dynasty beginning rehabilitated agian. See Venereble. Thich Mat The. (1970). Essays on The History of Vietnamese Buddhism (Vietnamese Version), Da Nang: Minh Duc Press. Pp. 171-175. 11 Nguyen Tai Thu. Op.cit., p. 168. 12 Venereble.Thich Mat The, Op.cit., pp. 172-173. 13 Thich Minh Tue. (1993). A Brief History of Vietnamese Buddhism (Vietnamese Version), Ho Chi Minh: Ho Chi Minh City Buddhist Association Press. p. 412. 14 Nguyen Tai Thu. Op.cit., p. 89 & p.147. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 35

The Strategies of King Nguyen Phuc Chu for Vietnamese Society’s Development Through the Buddhism (1691 – 1725).

When the Nguyen dynasty on the new takeover beginning Thuan Hoa and gradually expand in the south, the Nguyen dynasty confronted with a social context completely new, including many indigenous culture capital deeply influenced by India civization, Champa, Khmer and other ethnic minorities, and some migrants from the North to the South which has brought many cultural influences of confucianism15. First of all, Nguyen dynasty as well as king Nguyen Phuc Chu how to avoid the cultural and religious conflicts leading to conflict politics, to mobilize the power of national unity, and to ensure the country’s development. So, at this time, they must have suitable strategies for this resolutions. Only two elements most importance can decide existence and development of dynasty Nguyen, that are culture and religion (Buddhism). This is first strategies that dynasty Nguyen want to execute first of all, which showed as follows:

1. The Culture: The culture is national soul, to be a humanity’s ideology, if the culture was propa- gated successfulness and development but the economics – politics of a country have just developed. So, from the beginning of the Nguyen dynasty, they were recognized the impor- tance of traditional culture in Vietnam. It was the bridge to create the strength of national unity, and to impact of the development of the country. Therefore, the Nguyen dynasty encouraged the people to promote the spirit of traditional culture bearing bold Vietnamese identity (now there were many different cultures: Indian culture, Khmer culture, Champa culture, ect...) in which Buddhist’s culture given most prominence by the Nguyen Lords and king Nguyen Phuc Chu those promoted and created conditions for the development of Buddhism, it become a familiar religion of the Vietnamese people. Because the Buddhism has great impacted to Vietnamese society customs - habits at that time. King Nguyen Phuc Chu’s government has cleverly to know the times and preserving and developing the traditional culture of the people in their new territorial area. It is worth mentioning was the successor and promoted, that were flexible and highly creative power to make up the Vietnamese traditional culture more and more power and integration, a culture

15 Le Binh Phuong Luan. (2015) The Buddhism History of Hue Province Under Nguyen Dynasty (Vietnamese version), Vo.III, No.2, Science and Technology Review – Hue Science University, Press. Pp.98-99. 36 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

that is always bold ethnic Vietnam. Because, when Nguyen dynasty has just established on the early period, which has impacted by many other cultures, and the Nguyen dynasty con- fronted with a social context completely new and difficult16. However, the Nguyen dynasty has received skillful points or beneficial in indigenous culture for its development. Moreover, king Nguyen Phuc Chu has incorporated successfully the cultural ideas of Buddhism with and Confucianism in his ruling. The using of Mahayana Bud- dhism as the State Religion for the reing of king Nguyen Phuc Chu not only moral sup- port of Vietnamese traditional ideas on new land to expand the south but also the means to tolerated the ideology and the new culture, avoiding the cultural conflicts leading to conflict war17. With the doctrine of compassion and selflessness of buddhism which was easy pardon and to receive all other cultural traditions, and created harmonization between religion’s culture each other. Thus, Mahāyāna Buddhism is seen as a means to tolerate new ideologies and cultures and was the basis for ideology and spirituality in the reign18. Therefore, for the inheritable and selective responsibility, King Nguyen Phuc Chu brought Buddhist culture into the orthodox culture of the nation as well as folk culture to a climax and flourishing period, and created national unity power for the build and developments’ process of the country.

2. The Religion – Buddhism. At the time, in Dang Trong (the Southern Vietnam) has many other religions and cultures (as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, ect. Meanwhile, the Catholicism has banned spread), but to accord with the policy and customs – habits of new government of Nguyen royal family that only the Buddhism can be satisfy this things. Thus, the Buddhism has becom the orthodox religion of Nguyen dynasty, but its foundation and development was along the same process of expanding the southern border of Vietnamese. For the reign of King Nguyen Phuc Chu, this dynasty had a strong influence on the development of Bud- dhism, he made many important contributions to the Buddhist Renaissance at that time and on the contrary.

16 Le Binh Phuong Luan. Op.cit., Pp.98-99. 17 Historical Science Community of Vietnam. (2008). Nguyen Lords and The Nguyen Royal Dynasty in Vietnamese History From 16th To 19th Centuries (Vietnamese Version), HaNoi: The World Publishing House. Pp.45-46. 18 Historical Science Community of Vietnam, Op.cit., P.46. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 37

With three main reason that king Nguyen Phuc Chu has chosen Buddhism for his developing strategy as follows: Firstly, in this period Confucianism’s feudalism was decadent in the politics, the Later Le dynasty regime was also degraded because the Later Le dynasty adopted Confucianism to govern; so Nguyen Phuc Chu dynasty did not want to repeat the old path; Moreover, in the new land of the Nguyen dynasty, the follower Confucianism was very limited to compare the Buddhist, and it is not unsuitable for rule here. Because the Confucianism was said that Nguyen Government was a breakaway government, do not orthodox reign for the Later Le dynasty in the Northern Vietnam, that will reduce everyone’s faith for Nguyen dynasty in the Southern Vietname. So they decided to take Buddhism as the foundation for themselves developing strategies. Secondly, this was a new land, poor and flood victims by the war, so they needed comfort, refreshing spirit, and the Nguyen dynasty considered only to see Buddhism can do that and fitting in here. And thirdly, as the new completely territory was less Confucian; it was very dif- ficult to build community solidarity, while the majority of people had Buddhist beliefs here, which was a favorable feature for the Nguyen dynasty easily called upon the unity of the peasants19. Especially during this period, the Ming Dynasty was overthrown and created the Manchu Qing dynasty in China. The Qing dynasty’s defectors left the country, including the Zen masters, most of whom came to South Vietnam to establish oneself and to propagate the Buddhism20. The Zen master who came to Vietnam brought with them new spiritual forms, most notably was Lam Te Zen school and Tao Dong Zen school21. So, king Nguyen Phuc Chu want to found on prestige and influence of the Zen Master of this sects, to call upon the Chinese come back his government, to make more military and united power. The reception of Lam Te and Tao Dong Zen School was a strategy very wise and correctible of the government of king Nguyen Phuc Chu. Thereby, it was shown that from the beginning the Nguyen dynasty have identified Buddhism as the foundation for the building of national unity for the process of national

19 Nguyen Khac Thuan. (2010). The Cultural Course of Vietnam From Beginning to 19th Century (Vietnamese version), Ho Chi Minh City: Vietnamese Education Publishing House. Pp.635-636. 20 Li Tana, edit. Nguyen Nghi, tr. (2014). Nguyen Cochinchina – Southern Vietnam in 17th and 18th Centuries (Vietnamese version), Ho Chi Minh City: Young Publishing House. Pp. 115 – 119. 21 Nguyen Lang. Op.cit., Pp.608 – 621. And Nguyen Tai Thu, edit. Op.cit., Pp. 197 – 201. 38 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

expansion and development. Only Buddhism can build a philosophy of peace. Therefore, in order to establish a unity or peaceful society of the Nguyen dynasty, King Nguyen Phuc Chu also had to use Buddhism, and there was no other religion. Thus, Buddhism was re- ceived by the masses in new cultures as a new mental and spiritual nourishment, replacing the psychic dependence structure of monotheistic or polytheistic religions, which was heavy on superstition and fear. Afterward, King Phuc Chu was the one who made Buddhism of most developing and prosperous, was the first initiator in the Nguyen dynasty’s history of the Buddhist revival movement in the south during his reign. Also from first base that Nguyen dynasty chose Buddhism as its fulcrum for the benefit of the process of establishment and development of the country about both economics and politics.

The Basic Contributions of King Nguyen Phuc Chu to the Development of Vietnamese Buddhism

To be the responsibility to Lay devout Buddhist for Buddhism’s recovery after many years declined, king Nguyen Phuc Chu has supported devotion to the Buddhism through a lot meaning deeds in each of region of the Buddhist activity for the aim of Buddhist revival movement in Vietnam. So, during the reign of king Nguyen Phuc Chu, the Vietnamese Buddhism got the golden age in the last century.

1. For the Revival of Vietnamese Buddhism In the history of Buddhism in Vietnam, the main causes leading to the decadence of Buddhism as well as during the Latter Le dynasty (1428 - 1789) to the Nguyen dynasty (1558 - 1777) by the heavy stigmatization of Confucianism with Buddhism, to be called religious conflict, and in addition there were cases where Buddhism was abused and monks were serious depraved22. However, during the reign of King Nguyen Phuc Chu (1675-1725), Buddhism was strongly supported by the government as well as from prominent Zen masters such as Zen Master Nguyen Thieu, Thach Liem and Zen Master Lieu Quan in the South. And in the north, there was Zen Master Chan Nguyen, Chuyet Chuyet, Minh Hanh and Zen master Huong Hai, as well as the Le Kings and Trinh lords (at that time, the Le dynasty

22 Nguyen Lang. Op.cit., pp.486-488. And Nguyen Tai Thu. Op.cit., pp. 168-169. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 39

issued a decree prohibiting the spread of , and strive to support Buddhism)23. Therefore, Buddhism has had much better than before. For the reign of King Nguyen Phuc Chu, this dynasty had a strong influence on the development of Buddhism, King Nguyen Phuc Chu made many important contributions to the Buddhist Renaissance at that time, and here are some key points that Nguyen Phuc Chu has made in the Buddhist revival, as follows: (1) Interested in building infrastructure for Buddhist : This is the first thing King Nguyen Phuc Chu prioritized and executed when he became the king, and he had supported money for publishing Three Collections of Buddhist Canon from China to Vietnam over 1,000 books in 1714.24 (2) Calling upon and encouraging the prominent monks in the country and abroad to spread Buddhism, in which the most prominent were the three Zen Masters: Nguyen Thieu, Thach Liem and Lieu Quan25. (3) Development of educational facilities: The king cared about the training of monks and nuns to preserved and developing Buddhism. Thus, he combined with many Zen masters to regularly organized Buddhist events of educational nature and to create a learning environment for monks, for preparing personnel resources for the next step of the process revival of Buddhism. (4) The king encouraged people to study Buddhism for improving their lifestyle morals. And the king who became the link between Buddhism and Lay people. (5) Prioritizing the propagation and development of Buddhism: he banned Catholi- cism (1699), except the Confucianism and the Taoism, but these two religions were not encouraged as Buddhism. (6) The king issued many Buddhist protectionist policies: In order for Buddhism to be spread widely, the king issued policies to protect and opening for Buddhism, such as the non-payment of pagoda land taxes and grant land for the temples to plow, financial aid, the law to protect Buddhist monks, not to harm the pagoda’s properties, ect... And besides, he also did a lot of other meaningful things.

23 Nguyen Lang. Op.cit., p. 538 & p. 599. And Nguyen Hien Đuc. (2006). Vietnamese Buddhism History Under Trinh – Nguyen Dynasty: Buddhism History in Dang Ngoai (The North), (Vietnamese version), Vo.I, Vietnam: Ho chi Minh City of General Publishing House. pp. 611 - 613. 24 Nguyen Lang. Op.cit., p. 615 and p. 631 25 Le Thanh Khoi. Op.cit., p. 341. 40 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Thus, from the above characteristics, let us see that if the kings of the previous dynasties were the first to lay the foundation step of Buddhism in Cochinchina, then King Nguyen Phuc Chu was the one who made Buddhism the most developing and prosperous, was the first initiator for the Buddhist revival movement of the Nguyen dynasty’s history in the south during his reign. All created a unique appearance and identity of Buddhism in the South during this period.

2. For the Buddhist Education In order to maintain and develop the Buddhism of Cochinchina, as a foundation support for the process of developing the border and unifying the country for a long term ; One of the major Buddhist events emphasized by the Nguyen kings were the organization of Buddhist education events of great influential that open up the gospel-based training of monks to maintain the Buddhism system . As in 1695, King Nguyen Phuc Chu teamed up with Zen Master Thach Liem to organize the Buddhist events very large to train and purge monks over 1,000 people26. Besides, the king was encouraged by Zen Master Thach Liem, so he set up the National Study Center as a place for training and studying for everyone, including the monks27. For Buddhism, the spread of Buddhism, the selection of virtuous monks were con- sidered great Buddhist works, because it was the basis for promoting the inner strength of Buddhism in the spread of the truth Dhamma. Therefore, the problem and urgency for the development and revitalization of Buddhism in the South, King Nguyen Phuc Chu invited the eminent monks to teach and impart the Bhikkhu precepts to the monks. As a result, the Buddhist education was strongly rebellion against and promoted the development of Buddhism, especially two Zen schools: Lam Te and Tao Dong28. Thus, through the Buddhist events that took place in 1695 and later years, Bud- dhism under the reign of Nguyen Phuc Chu actually created a human resource to increase talented monks for Buddhism, to serve the spread of Buddhism at that time. On top of that, the Buddhist of Cochinchina have had the opportunity to interact with the Chinese Buddhist culture in the early stages. At the same time, the King began to create the Buddhist belief in the reassuring of people.

26 Nguyen Lang, Op.cit., p. 616. 27 Ibid., p. 627. 28 Thich Mat The, Op.cit., pp. 186 - 207. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 41

3. For the Buddhist Culture If the predecessors laid stones for the foundation of Cochinchina Buddhism, then King Nguyen Phuc Chu was the one who made Buddhism the most expanded and prosperous in the history of Buddhism in Vietnam during the reign of the Nguyen dynasty. With the merit of building temples, promoting Buddhism, supporting monks and nuns. All created new forward step of Buddhism in this period. With a lot of Buddhist rituals have also developed with spiritual philosophy that created a beauty in folklore and contributed to promoting the development of Vietnamese national identity. In general, asserting his supreme power, King Nguyen Phuc Chu has combined the cultural philosophy of the Buddhist with the culture of the nation into a sharp weapon in the governance of his country. As a result, it has had a tremendous impact on the dramatic and profound development of Buddhist culture in the south, including art architecture culture and spiritual culture.

4. For the Buddhist Sites First of all, he has developed and inherited the heritage before, and then he bulted very many the temples and organized the Buddhist events a lot of in his territory. As in 1691 has just ascended the throne, he built My An Pagoda (Tuy Van mountain – Hue province). In 1695, the king invited Zen Master Thach Liem from China to spread the Dharma and held the big festival in Hue province. This was a Buddhist event that made the country famous after he had been ruling for four years29. In 1710, King Nguyen Phuc Chu restored and found great copper Bell (over 3000kg) at Thien Mu Pagoda in Hue province30. In 1711, he built Van An Pagoda in Phuoc Tuy (Vung Tau city today). In 1715, the king restored the Kinh Thien in Thuan Trach (Quang Binh province). In 1716, the king restored and issued a sign for the Thien An Pagoda in Quang Ngai as “Sac Tu Thien An Temple”. In 1721, Giac Hoang Pagoda (Phong Dien-Hue) was built, and many well-known pagodas were built and restructured in Thuan Hoa31. Around 1708-1725 he built the Tam Bao Pagoda in Ha Tien province, ect .... From the tolerant and open policies of King Nguyen Phuc Chu, where many Buddhist pagodas were restored and built by himself quite beautifully spread the territory of the Nguyen dynasty.

29 Nguyen Lang. Op.cit., pp. 615 - 616 30 Ibid., p. 631. 31 Nguyen Hien Duc. Op.cit., p. 16. 42 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

And during the reign of King Nguyen Phuc Chu who a devout Buddhist, he devoted himself to the foundation of the new pagodas, translation centers, and Buddhist monks training center, to facilitate the development of Buddhism. And the movement to revive Buddhism was launched by King Nguyen Phuc Chu, many events as well as many Buddhist activities have been happening a lot and often32. On this basis, it has directed Buddhism to go a step further, that is, to expand the spread of Buddhism to the end of south Vietnam. In particular, with the encouragement and invitation of the Nguyen dynasty to the monks to the new land for evangelism and social comfort. So, when the Nguyen dynasty expanded its territory to how far the pagodas and monks were present there, this was also the opportunity for Buddhism to expand its vast base and scope of diffusion.

Conclusion

Vietnam, in the 16th to 18th centuries, was the existence of feudal corporations under the rule of the Latter Le dynasty in the North, the most prominent about social and political have the civil war between the feudal power to fight for power. And while a new dynasty was formed that is the Nguyen dynasty in the 17th and 18th centuries in South Vietnam, it created a new historical identity for Vietnam, although a newly established of dynasty independent with the Latter Le dynasty in the North, but it occupied a unique place in Viet- namese history. And they succeeded in the process of building and expanding its territory, contributing to the change of Vietnam’s appearance during the last two centuries and they have created a powerful country in terms of economy, culture, politics and education. All this things have achieved by wise strategies of king Nguyen Phuc Chu who seen the chance in the future for his reign through culture and religion on the foundation of Buddhism. And he left many impressive achievement, stirred in the current political wave. He was regarded as a brilliant political leader, a clearsighted king of country. Besides, king Nguyen Phuc who was very understanding the teaching of Buddhism and meditation thoughts. With his thinks on how to bring Buddhist morality into real life, in order to bring practical benefits and peace to the country, and he is doing so that.

32 Nguyen Lang, Op.cit., p. 616 & pp. 629 - 631. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 43

References

I. Primary Source:

Cao Huy Giu, Tr. (2006). The Complete History of the Dai Viet (Vietnamese Version), Vol.II. Ha Noi: Culture and Information Publishing House. Danny Wong Tze Ken & Champaka Monograph 5. (2007). The Nguyen and Champa During 17th and 18th Century – A Study of Nguyen Foreign Relations. France: International Offi ce of Champa Publishing House. Historical Science Community of Vietnam. (2008). Nguyen Lords and The Nguyen Royal Dynasty in Vietnamese History From 16th To 19th Centuries (Vietnamese Version). HaNoi: The World Publishing House. Li Tana. (1998). Nguyen Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. USA: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications. Le Binh Phuong Luan. (2015). The Buddhism History of Hue Province Under Nguyen Dynasty (Vietnamese version), Vo.III, No.2. Hue city: Science and Technology Review – Hue Science University, Press. Nguyen Tai Thu, Minh Chi, Ly Kim Hoa & Ha Van Tan. (2006). The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. USA: Institute of Philosophy – Vietnamese Academy of Social Science Press. Nguyen Lang. (2014). A Complete Work of the Historical Interpretation of Vietnamese Buddhism (Vietnamese Version). Ha Noi: Literature Publishing House. Nguyen Khac Thuan. (2010). The Cultural Course of Vietnam From Beginning to 19th Century (Vietnamese version). Ho Chi Minh City: Vietnamese Education Publish- ing House, 2010.

II. Secondary Source:

Acharya Buddharakkhita, tr. (1996). The Dhammapada: The Buddha’s Path of Wisdom. Sri Lanka -Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. Le Manh That. (1973). Study on Situation of Vietnamese Buddhism in The Time of Struggling Against The Foreign Invaders, Vo.4. Saigon: Hai Trieu Am, Press. Phan Khoang. (1967). Vietnamese History in Dang Trong (The South) From 1558 to 1777: The Epic of Southward Movement of The Vietnamese People (vietnamese version). Ho Chi Minh City: Xuan Thu Publishing House. Thich Minh Chau. (1994). A Brief History of Vietnamese Buddhism. Vietnam: Ho Chi Minh Buddhist Research Institute, Press. Truc Lam Zen School In Vietnam: an Analytical Study of the Way of Practice

Bui Thi Thu Thuy, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This article aims, in general terms, to conduct a qualitative research and express the essence of Truc Lam Zen teaching, which cuts right to the core of the matter and can only be found by oneself, as the best answer itself is “practice”. One of the key points of Vietnamese Zen Buddhism is intuitive understanding. It leads one to break the ice of ignorance and attain naturally. For the fi rst objective, the author would like to go back and take a deep look at the origin and development of Truc Lam Zen school as to understand its past and present. As a result of this study, it was shown that the Truc Lam Zen school has been a spiritual way for earnest meditators to reach the higher realm of welfare and revive the golden period of Vietnamese Zen Buddhism for later generations, thus contributing to the Buddhist foundation, making it more universal and thriving.

Keywords: the way of practice, Truc Lam Zen School (TLZS), Vietnam, Zen, Buddhism. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 45

Introduction

Meditation lies in the heart of Buddhism and plays an important and meaningful role in promoting welfare and peace for all human beings. The true happiness of individual has to begin with one’s moral and ethics, and meditation is a significant training to help human beings to attain and harvest the sweet and fragrant fruits of Buddhist practice. Vietnamese meditation covers fundamental factors of Buddhist practice such as sitting, walking and lying meditation, providing comments and suggestions in which both daily activities and divine path can lead to enlightenment. The culmination of Zen Buddhism in Vietnam was the system and doctrine of TLZS, established by Tran Nhan Tong. It became a quintessence of Buddhism in Vietnam at that time. On the other hand, “the threads of the Prajñāpāramitā, Mādhyamaka and Zen with the Buddha himself were completed, no doubt, by Zen Masters themselves. Such attributions are based on the belief that the basic teachings of the Buddha remained unchanged until the time of Zen.”1 Reflecting on the hearth of Vietnamese meditation, the author decided to work on a thesis entitled “An Analytical Study of the Way of Practice of TLZS in Vietnam”. “The Way of Practice of TLZS in Vietnam” lets us understand how the national spirit and traditional treasures of the Vietnamese population were cultivated during the times of war and peace. Both this technique of meditation and the way of perfectly skillful living give a foundation not only to the Vietnamese, but also to people from other countries all around the world, who admired the way of a founder of TLZS for the dedication of his life to the Vietnamese nation and its population. These golden pages of history hopefully will stay alive inside of Vietnam forever. TLZS speaks up for the Vietnamese culture, identity and traditions that later generations have being protecting, glorifying and nurturing to make them more beautiful and meaningful.

1 David J. Kalupahana, Reflection on the Relation on the Relation between Early Buddhim and Zen in : A Historical Analysis, (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1976), p. 165. 46 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The Origin and Development of the Way of Practice in Truc Lam Zen School

After a thousand years of Chinese domination, Vietnamese religion was directly influenced by the philosophy and tradition of that country. According to the view of Professor Tran Hong Lien, China spread Mahayana Buddhism, which literally means the “Great Vehicle”. In the time of Zen schools under the Ly and Tran dynasties (1009-1400), there had been an opportunity to review Buddhism in Vietnam. The Vietnamese king Tran Nhan Tong was said to achieve the Buddhahood. He was a profound king who founded the TLZS – the first form of Vietnamese Buddhism – by the rational combination of Chinese and Indian teachings. In general, though Mahāyāna Buddhism appeared as a new phase of the religion about the 2nd or 1st century B.C. along with a vast literature on the subject, it may be stated that in the Nikāyas, dated about 487 B.C. and compiled from Buddha’s discourses at the , there are definite traces that Bhagvān Buddha had the philosophical outlook of Mahāyāna Buddhism at the back of his mind. Prof Keith2 and later Prof Venkataraman3 and Bhikkhi Jñānānda4 have drawn attention to this fact.5 In particular, Vietnamese Buddhism originally spread from India to Khuong Tang Hoi and included the original Mahāyāna meditation, called Dhyāna in India. From the 6th century on, three Chinese Zen schools (Vinītaruci, Vo Ngon Thong and Thao Duong) were established in Vietnam, flourished and developed to the 12th. The doctrine of Vietnamese Zen has in itself the essence of the Nikayas and is able to adapt to the current state of affairs. It lasted long period of time in a gorgeous and perfect condition. The climax of development of Zen schools in Vietnam was the complete formation and perfect spread of TLZS. Later, when Tran dynasty couldn’t keep their position and leadership, TLZS decayed as time went by. The formation of TLZS was based on the essence of previous Zen schools. The process of development of TLZS can be divided into following stages: Vinītaruci school (580 CE to 1213 CE), Vo Ngon Thong Zen School (820

2 Buddhist Philosophy, 1950. 3 The Central Philosophy of Buddhism (1954) 4 Concept and Reality (1971) 5 Nalinaksha Dutt, Mahāyāna Buddhism, (India: Shantilal Jain at Shri Jainendra Press, 1978), p.71. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 47

CE to 1291 CE), Thao Duong Zen School (1069 CE to 1210 CE) and then the complete formation and development of TLZS. During more than 700 years of decoration of buildings and physical protection of Vietnam, the TLZS had gone into the spirit of daily life: conducting a honored religious life and fulfilling a citizen’s responsibility for the welfare of Vietnam in particular and promoting the spirit of non-violence towards the world in general. Cultural researcher Nguyen Huu Son says: “Tran Nhan Tong opened the Truc Lam Zen sect based on the knowledge he acquired from his grandfather and father. The sect typifies the essence of harmony between religious and secular lives. Buddhism is connected with the country, the nation, the people and the social life. That’s the reason why Tran Nhan Tong’s ideal always mentioned a secluded life without isolation from the world”. Building and consolidating the ideological system of national independence, he built a new spiritual education system with particular identities of Vietnamese Buddhism. The Tran dynasty lasted for 174 years (1226-1400). The first king of the Tran dynasty, Tran Thai Tong, was an earnestly devout Buddhist, but the last king, Tran Thuan Tong, was a follower of Taoism. King Tran Nhan Tong was the founder of TLZS. According to Truc Lam, the land should be under the instruction of religious core. The shortcomings and disadvantages of the economic and political structure led to the reform of Ho Quy Ly. Many lands belonging to noblemen were seized and many bases of TLZS too. The role and duty of Tran dynasty wasn’t clear, so the influence of TLZS declined accordingly and dimmed in the soul of people at that time. Although the Tran dynasty collapsed, the huge ideological system of TLZS will influence the spiritual life of people for a long time.

The Way Of Practice Of Truc Lam Zen School

Needless to say, Buddhism did not escape from any of the evils of monasticism. The original ideal of a monk (bhikkhu) was very high; his social function was to act as a ‘guide, philosopher and friend to the community.’6 To adapt to the worldly life and bind together the sentient beings, TLZS rose the vows of Bodhisattva and looked through people’s nature in a practical and clear way for building better lives and establishing the in this world, without a need to wait for the next life.

6 Alan W. Watts, The Spirit of Zen, (NY: Grove Press, 1958), p.83. 48 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Bodhisattva’s Insight into the Worldly Life It is an obvious connection between the personalities of a Bodhisattva and a Noble Man which can produce Buddhist features according to the tradition of practice in the TLZS. The reason why a Bodhisattva’s completion of the six Perfections (Pāramitās) is also termed Golra-bhūmi is that the aspirant who develops and completes the Pāramitās is entitled to take up the course of spiritual progress as indicated in the ten Bhūmis, and is therefore qualified to take up the Adhimukti-caryā, i.e., complete progress in the ten Bhūmis.7 And Buddhism does not include non-Buddhist knowledge of any kind in turn to embrace and overview its own knowledge. Tran Nhan Tong did insist that “mind- precepts” and “form-precepts” were of an “Adorning Bodhisattva”. “Mind-precepts” or “nature-precepts” is a short form of the phrase “the precepts of Bodhi-mind,” or rather, “the precepts of Bodhisattva,” which are of a general type observed by both monastic and lay Buddhist practitioners. “He refrains from killing, lays aside the cudgel and the sword; full of kindness and compassion, he lives for the welfare and happiness of all living beings.”8 On the way, during the pre-Bodhisattva stage9, a general remark is found very often in the Prajñāpāramitā and other Mahāyāna works that a being, who has performed meritorious acts (avaropitakusa-lamūla), served many previous Buddhas (pūrvajina-kṛtādhikāra), and had many kalyāṇamitras (spiritual guides) is destined to attain the Bodhi.10 This basic foundation for attaining the Buddhahood goes the same way with the following idea: “in the Buddhist world, the word ‘Buddha’ is often synonymous with compassion and loving kindness. The deeds of a preacher are far more eloquent than his words. There are many incidents in the life of the Buddha that illustrate his gentle nature”. 11 Furthermore, in the Lotus , the pure white lotus rises from the waters of a muddy pond. This image illustrates beautifully the states of a pure and beautiful condition in the midst of the sometimes-worldly life which is full of the dust of lust, anger and illusion. The Bodhisattva never tries to escape from life, never leaves suffering people unsaved and overwhelmed by the impure waters of life, but insists on the effort to help each suffering person to get to a great realm of happiness.

7 Nalinaksha Dutt, op.cit., p. 83. 8 I, 63 9 Nalinaksha Dutt, op.cit., p. 89. 10 Mtu, I, p.57. 11 Susunaga Weeraperuma, , The Happiness, on Buddhist Issues, (India: Shri Janinendra Press, 1987), p.8. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 49

What may happen to Buddhism in the world cannot be ignored. Should Buddhism meet with any disaster or menace of destruction, its protection would count for Buddhists’ sake as well as for all sentient beings. There are many things in being a Bodhisattva, which are present in the spirit of TLZS and fundamental for every step on practice in Mahayana Buddhism, such as trying to be a Bodhisattva’s seed, spreading your compassion and practicing the Ten Meritorious Deeds. In short, the Bodhisattva, in contrast to the Arahant, is the ideal of person in Mahāyāna philosophy. The Bodhisattva is not content with the mere attainment of Nirvana; the Bodhisattva feels that he cannot enter eternal bliss while other beings suffer, because he feels that there is no essential difference between them and himself, and his Nirvana cannot be complete if they do not share it. Because he affirms all life as the self he regards all beings as himself, and for him Nirvana is a vanity and selfishness if there is a single creature still unenlightened. Therefore, he’s going through countless lives of painful striving, only to renounce the eternal bliss of Nirvana in order that he may work for the enlightenment of every living thing.12

Humans are Inseparable from Nature Humans and nature refer to the complete pattern of a unit that is typical of our species or our kind. All humans grow up and are subject to the rule of nature; they go hand in hand, if we know how to harness nature, we get more convenience to live and enjoy life. In the practice of TLZS, Zen masters never ignore the way of internal and external world, which symbolize humans and nature.

The mind is Buddha; Buddha is the mind. That profound meaning shines brightly since endless time. When spring comes, the spring flowers blossom naturally. When autumn comes, the autumn waters reflect the sorrow Removing the false mind while keeping the true nature is like searching for the reflections while missing the mirror. You don’t know that reflections come from the mirror,

12 Alan W.Watts, Eastern Wisdom: Zen in the West & Meditations, The Foundation. 2009p.28-29. 50 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

and that the false appear from the truth. That the false comes is neither real nor unreal. That the mirror reflects is neither wrong nor right.13

To live is to be nature, to breathe is to be nature, to eat is to be nature and to take a rest is to be nature. We can contribute to the foundation of happiness naturally without effort. The most important point in this case is the development of a strong and intensive desire to achieve the Buddhahood, but if we can’t harmonize and settle up the desire, it will be harmful. Though the desire includes the concept of “ego, I, self”, it is natural and in fact useful to develop self-confidence, patience and iron-will: “when one is negligent of insight meditation, once becomes negligent of the Buddha’s noble message in total14”. We need a sense of a strong self and “by refraining from busying ourselves unnecessarily, external frictions will be reduced and the internal tensions they bring will loosen up. Greater harmony and peace will pervade the life of every day, bridging the gap between normal life and the tranquility of meditation.”15 Tue Trung Thuong Si is the teacher of King Tran Nhan Tong. He praised Tue Trung thus:

“You stand higher for those who try to look high, Become hardwood for those who try to drill And appear suddenly in front then in rear of those Who try to portray you? That is called as the strong Zen From Tue Trung Thuong Si.16

13 Nguyen Giac (tr), Teachings and Poetry of the Vietnamese Zen Master Tue Trung Thuong Si (1230-1291), Song of Buddha Voice, Email: [email protected] -- California, 2007), p.12. 14 Venerable Uda Eriyagama Dhammajīva Maha Thero, (tr) Maha-Si Insight Meditation, (Srilanka: Mitirigala Nissarana Vanaya), www.vipassana.com, p2. 15 Ven. , The Power of Mindfulness, (Penang: Wheel Publication, 2001), p31. 16 Giac Nguyen (ed), The Wisdom Within: Teachings and Poetry of the Vietnamese Zen Master Tue Trung Thuong Si, (California: Thien Tri Thuc Publications), 2010, p.123. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 51

Each of us have our own stories, wishes, perspectives, beliefs and goals in life; and yet they are also same in a vast amount of higher realm and state. For Buddhists, to seek wisdom and Nirvana is the final point. We always try to look forward and struggle with whole obstacles for more happiness, but once we can let them go, let them be, we can throw ourselves into the realm of freedom of mind, a freedom born of wisdom, available to take refuge in every door of Dharma. According to nature, that is the fastest way and the simplest way for us to attain Nirvana.

The Voidness and Buddha Nature

An ancient Chinese book states: “In making things end, and in making things start, there is nothing more glorious than keeping still.”17 “Voidness” is a core of Mahayana Buddhism, but its true meaning is often misunderstood. This definition has spread alongside Buddhism all over the world. Through the works of Zen masters in Tran’s Dynasty, it is clearly defined and the practice goes without a wrong understanding of its meaning to confuse it and harm it: “in the remaining verses Upasva does not ask how this meditative practice leads to liberation, but instead questions the Buddha about the condition of the person who has attained the state of ‘nothingness’”.18 And destroying the belief in self (aṭṭanudiṭṭhiṁūmacca) refers to an intellectual practice: ‘The giving up of this seeing [belief] was very likely done by judging the constituents of a person as nonpermanent and therefore unsatisfactory and therefore non-self …’19 but there is no evidence to support this claim at

17 Ven. Nyanaponika Thera, op.cit., p.25. 18 Nakamura, Hajime, A Process of the Origination of Buddhist Meditation in Connection with the Life of the Buddha’. In Studies in Pali And Buddhism (A Homage Volume to the Memory of Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap), 1979, p 272. ed. Dr A.K. Narain, pp. 270–77, Delhi: B.R.Publishing Corp., this dialogue states that ‘in the primitive Buddhism, non Buddhist thought was adopted and the state of non-existence was a goal’. But the meditative state of nothingness is certainly not the goal in the dialogue with PosIla. Nakamura’s view depends upon taking the compound saññāvimokkhe in v. 1071–72 as the goal identi- cal to nothingness. In one place he translates this as ‘emancipation by thought’ (p. 272), but in another place (p. 273) he translates it as ‘deliverance from thought’, a translation that implies that the compound saññāvimokkha- refers to a state different from the meditative state of nothingness. It is hard to take Nakamura’s argument seriously considering these conflicting translations of saññāvimokkha-. See p. 80 n. 34 on Nakamura’s reading of the dialogue with Upasava 19 Vetter Tilmann, The Ideas and Meditative Practices of , (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1990), p39. 52 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

all.20 Abandoning oneself to the instinctive ego, even the tiniest unwholesome thought was refused by Zen master Tue Trung, in the account that this is enlightenment: “Buddha is Buddha,” replied Tue Trung. “And I am what I am. I don’t need to be the Buddha. And the Buddha doesn’t need to be me. You probably heard the words from old sages, ‘Manjusri is Manjusri; enlightenment is enlightenment.’21 Moreover, we want to practice detachment of prejudice of ego to get voidness, but it is important not to misunderstand that ‘detachment’ means to give up desire and wish. Desire must be there because how can we live our life without desire? If desire doesn’t exist, how can we attain the Buddhahood? We can ride our ship of fate forward the wholesome karma because ‘the idea of mind’ is really a mirage. In our everyday lives we have to use words such as “mind’ and ‘I’ as it facilitates communication between people, but philosophically speaking, both ‘mind’ and I’ have no real existence as abiding entities”.22

Looking into the Buddha Nature in Every Human Being Every sentient being, even an insect, has a Buddha nature. The seed of Buddhahood inside of them means consciousness, the cognitive power, the seed that can be cultivated towards the attainment of enlightenment because “the practice is simple and you have the Sangha around you.”23 For this purpose, all defilements must be removed and cleaned from both the surface and the depths of the mind. As each sentient being has such seed, there’s no reason to believe some sentient being cannot attain Buddhahood. Sinking into the faith of spiritual and mystical aspects is the practice in TLZS. The paradise is now and here, not in a future world. Then, we can say hello to “Buddhas” who live all around us, because there is the ability to see and accept the seeds of Buddhahood inside of us, and it’s so easy for us to see ourselves inside of others. This is also an essential and long process, the struggle we wage in our hearts against our inner delusion or darkness and the negative and chaotic forces within us. To break through the darkness clouding our

20 Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, (London: Routledge Taylor and Francis group), p 83. 21 Nguyen Giac (tr), Teachings and Poetry of the Vietnamese Zen Master Tue Trung Thuong Si (1230-1291), The Wisdom Within, Email: [email protected] -- California, 2007), p.5. 22 Susunaga Weeraperuma, Nirvana, The Happiness, Meditations on Buddhist Issues, (India: Shri Janinendra Press, 1987), p.172. 23 , All in One, One in All, The Nature of Interbeing, (Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation reprinted and donated, 2007)., p.25.1 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 53

Buddha nature and bringing forth the realm of Buddhahood through is the power of practice and the spirit of TLZS.

Sudden Enlightenment The phenomenal world and nature as they are are not different or separate: they are one. The biggest problem is the mind. With a calm mind we can see saṃsāra is nirvana; the mind is the Buddha.24 But with a bustling, unsteady mind we see that birth is birth and death is death. All are one or separated from the mind.25 As Master Tran Nhan Tong taught: “In the house, there is a gem, no need to look outside; in front of a landscape we have the empty mind; that is Zen mind.”26 Attaining enlightenment was a process which required overcoming the unfathomably deep chasm and dark hole between the honor states of a Buddha and ordinary people. However, we can actualize the principle of attaining Buddhahood in one’s present form as it is revealed in the . This kind of thought is what led us to elucidate the profound teaching of attaining Buddhahood in this lifetime.

The Influences of the Way of Practice of Truc Lam Zen School In Vietnam

Vietnamese Buddhism can be described as exuberant, and TLZS is the most exuberant school in the country. This Zen School gives us the reasons to tell apart right from wrong. In its name, communities were made and also the contribution and building of important value and endless pieces of art, culture, literature, ideas for education and establishing a happy society. Even now, this Zen school still fulfills that role.

Influences on Culture Culture is the core of the system of human society. Every individual is spending his or her life within a certain cultural community; in that way, frequently, it makes us able to define what kinds of person a man or woman is and what essential values will they hold dear. The cultural environment has a direct effects on the both form and content

24 Record of the lamp’s Transmission from the Jingle Era, vol 28, (Taisho Tripitaka, vol 5, no.2076), p.437, c19-20. 25 Le Ngoc Son, “A Study of the Zhulin Zen School during the Chen Dynasty in Vietnam, (MA Thesis, Fo Guang University, 2007), p.59-60. 26 Giac Nguyen (ed), op.cit., p.55. 54 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

aspects within a community for anthropology, psychology and sociology. In addition, in each historical stage, Buddhism has had typical opportunities to change. Buddhism plays an important role in shaping Vietnamese society. Under the Tran Dynasty, with the support and encouragement of powerful kings and mandarins and the emergence of the Truc Lam Chan sect, Buddhism developed strongly in the capital and rural areas.27 Material culture includes power, transportation, communication and others. The language itself is a material aspect of culture. Because of its influence, they can be said to had suffered a right and direct reflection of the values and nature of a certain Tran society or Dynasty. It could be said that Vietnamese and Chinese languages coexist in a relation of sub-culturality. The works “Awakened in the dust of life” and “Song of the Realization of the Way” were greatly enjoyed at the time and continued to be popular right up to the present time.28 Their great contribution to literature and poems in Nom language script have allowed the later generation enjoy and learn from the history, culture and tradition of that time. On the other hand, these works could support the art and architecture, protected cultural relics in the golden ages and enriched Dai Viet culture. Linguist Nguyen Tai Can remarked: The appearance of Nom language is considered as an outstanding landmark on the way of progress in history. The hoard of treasure of writing in Nom language, also the Nom language itself, is considered as a highly valuable cultural property of our nation.29

Influences on Literature All literature, whether poems, essays, or novels, help us address human nature and conditions which affect all labor and intelligence. These may be enough for our growth, for the reduction of doubts and fears of success and failure, for bonding friends and family, for the warm inspiration of compassion, empathy and trust, or for the realization of shortcoming and disadvantage. The theory of imperfection states that it isn’t always bad and that other way could be tedious. We learn that life must be lived to the extra-prosperous. Literature can help us to connect with our own humanity.

27 Nguyen Thanh Xuan, Religions in Vietnam, (Ha Noi, The Gioi Publishers, 2012), p.37. 28 Sinh Dao (tr), Tran Nhan Tong- A Biographical Study, (Ho Chi Minh city: Ho Chi Minh city General Press), p.257. 29 Institute of History, Studies on Vietnamese Society under the Ly and Tran Dynasties, (Ha Noi: Social Sciences Press, 1981), p.515-516. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 55

Tran Nhan Tong combined elements and features of Confucianism and Buddhism, to meet the system for skillful managing and building ideology of national independence. The Pāli word ‘bhāvanā’ has a broader meaning than meditation. It means ‘mental culture’, and includes all efforts to develop the spiritual side of life. Although Vietnamese Buddhism had many different Zen schools, the TLZS is seen as the first which new schools have to learn from and imitate.

Influences on Education Education, as it is easy to discern, includes the connection and transference of ideas, attitudes, skills and training in certain rules and laws. Moreover, education is seen as an active messenger of cultural and social values. Human beings are introduced to the cultural values by their family, community and, later on, by the school. Moreover, religion offers the best insight (pañña) in the human behavior and helps us to answer different complicated questions, for example, why people behave in this way and not in another. It doesn’t matter which religion a person belongs to or whether he is religious at all; those who practiced meditation trust in benefits and meanings it brought them. For its nature, meditation more or less leads us to have a happier and healthier life. TLZS itself arose in a golden time for transcendental meditation in Vietnamese history and so does it in a contemporary context. Scientifically, meditation’s effects and impacts on brain are still a great topic for scientists to work on. According to P.A. Payutto, meditation means “the base of work for the mind” or the mind’s working place. It may also mean the object used for developing meditation and training the mind, the meditation object.30

Influences on Establishing a Happy Society in Tran Dynasty Time Both Theravāda and Mahāyāna meditation are ways we can use to cultivate happiness because “one who practices meditation will be calm, will sleep well and awake happily; he is calm in the senses, calm in mind; endowed with strong faith, noble in intention, he is revered by his fellow beings. If he fails to attain Nibbanā in the present life, he is bound to have a happy destination in the next life.”31 Nature has harmonic correlations and relationships.

30 P.A. Payutto, Buddhadhamma Expanded and Revised (abridged), p. 509. 31 Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, Visuddhimagga: The Path of Purification, tr. by , p. 320. 56 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

According to local circumstance, habits and customs, the relationships between people are established by the community.32 This Truc Lam self-regulation technique is quite consistent with the theoretical model of Zen meditation (a behavioral analysis) described by Shapiro and Zifferblatt, where a person learns to observe his or her breathing without a reactive effect and without habituation. This meditative process serves a dual function: of desensitizing the individual to the thoughts (i.e. detached observation of thoughts) and eventually removing those thoughts by the continued focus on the competing response of breathing. In this way, the person feels relaxed, calm and with a “mind emptied of internal chatter”.33 This is also a common model for a perfect society. Most people in the world have an ultimate dream to live in an ideal society and to have a happy and meaningful life. However, in our minds, we have different ideas about what the perfect society would look like. There are three essential indicators that can operate and complete the perfect structure of a society in the modern world: religious spirit, proper production and suitable plans: ‘in modern science, the most interesting field for psychologists is psycho-physiological approach’.34 Moreover, Fromm and Suzuki claim that the aim of psychology and Zen is the same: total awareness and self-control: ‘If we would try to express enlightenment in psychological terms, I would say that it is a state in which the person is completely tuned to the reality outside and inside, a state in which one is fully aware of it and grasps it. One is aware of it – that is, not his/her brain, nor any other part of his/her organism, but he/she, the whole person’35.

Conclusion

Zen gradually develops the assertive theory and practice in system of Buddhism. The utmost spirit of adapting to life originated from the teaching on the monastic life for Tran Thai Tong: “In the mountains, there is no Buddha; Buddha is right in our hearts”. This idea leads a Buddhist follower to mind cultivation either far from home or at home.

32 Vien Minh, Living in the Reality, (Vietnamese version), (HCM city: Phuong Dong Press, 2001), p.225-226. 33 D.H. Shapiro, S.M. Zifferblatt, An Analysis of Variance Test for Normality, (Oxford Univer- sity: Biometrika Trust ), 1956, p. 519–532 34 B.K. Bagchi, M.A. Wenger, Electrophysiological Correlates of Some Exercises, “Elec- troencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology” 1957, no. 7, p. 132–149. 35 E. Fromm, D.T. Suzuki, R. De Martino, Meditation andPsychoanalysis, Nguyen Kim Dan, (trs), ( Ha Noi: Worldly Press), 2011, p. 162 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 57

According to Doctor Nguyen Huu Son, the spirit of joining this life has been upheld by generations of Truc Lam Zen sect’s disciples: “Truc Lam Zen sect is associated with famous pagodas including Vinh Nghiem, Con Son and Hoa Nghiem. These pagodas and the system of Buddhist books retain their vitality, showing the immortality of the sect. Many pagodas, which were built in Hue and Sai Gon and in the Vietnamese community areas in India and Eastern Europe, follow the TLZS”. Buddhist followers are basically the practitioners who are more able to understand the meaning and rules of life and the truth of the world. TLZS doesn’t only give us the fl exible techniques and access to beautiful works by late meditative masters. They also spent their lives to support national Buddhist development and assure that Vietnamese Zen Buddhism, by its own, is written in the golden pages of history for later generations to be proud of its superior system and excellent theory.

References

I. Primary Sources

Pāli Text Society, Dīgha Nikāya (The Dialogues of The Buddha), Vol.II, Oxford: Pāli Text Society, 1995. AnguttaNikāya (The Book of Gradual Saying), Oxford: Pāli Text Society, 1995. Taisho Tripiṭaka, The Mahāyāna Vaipulya Sūtra of Total Retention, vol 09, no.275.

II. Secondary Sources.

Alan W. Watts, The Spirit of Zen, (New York: Grove Press, 1958), Dao, Sinh (tr), Tran Nhan Tong- A Biographical Study, (Ho Chi Minh city: Ho Chi Minh city General Press) B.K. Bagchi, M.A. Wenger, Electrophysiological Correlates of Some Yoga Exercises, “Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology” 1957, no. 7,. Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, Visuddhimagga: The Path of Purifi cation, tr. by Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu. Giac, Nguyen (tr).Teachings and Poetry of the Vietnamese Zen Master Tue Trung Thuong Si (1230-1291), Email: [email protected] -- California, 2007. Hanh, Thich Nhat.All in One, One in All, The Nature of Interbeing, Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation reprinted and donated, 2007. 58 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Institute of History, Studies on Vietnamese Society under the Ly and Tran Dynasties, (Ha Noi: Social Sciences Press, 1981). Kalupahana, David J. Reflection on the Relation on the Relation between Early Buddhim and Zen in Buddhist Philosophy: A Historical Analysis, Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1976. Le Ngoc Son, “A Study of the Zhulin Zen School during the Chen Dynasty in Vietnam, (MA Thesis, Fo Guang University, 2007). Nakamura, Hajime, A Process of the Origination of Buddhist Meditation in Connection with the Life of the Buddha’. In Studies in Pali And Buddhism (A Homage Volume to the Memory of Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap), 1979. ed. Dr A.K. Narain, Delhi: B.R.Publishing Corp. Vetter Tilmann, The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1990). Nalinaksha Dutt, Mahāyāna Buddhism, (India: Shantilal Jain at Shri Jainendra Press, 1978). Nguyen Giac (tr), Teachings and Poetry of the Vietnamese Zen Master Tue Trung Thuong Si (1230-1291), Song of Buddha Voice, Email: [email protected] -- California, 2007). Shapiro, D.H. Zifferblatt, S.M. An Analysis of Variance Test for Normality, (Oxford University: Biometrika Trust ), 1956. P.A. Payutto, Buddhadhamma Expanded and Revised (abridged). Record of the lamp’s Transmission from the Jingle Era, vol 28, (Taisho Tripitaka, vol 5, no.2076), p.437, c19-20. Venerable Uda Eriyagama Dhammajīva Maha Thero, (tr) Maha-Si Insight Meditation, (Srilanka: Mitirigala Nissarana Vanaya), www.vipassana.com. Vien Minh, Living in the Reality, (Vietnamese version), (HCM city: Phuong Dong Press, 2001). Watts, Alan.Eastern Wisdom: Zen in the West & Meditations, The Alan Watts Foundation. 2009. Weeraperuma, Susunaga, Nirvana, The Happiness, Meditations on Buddhist Issues, (India: Shri Janinendra Press, 1987). Wynne, Alexander,The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, (London: Routledge Taylor and Francis group). Xuan, Nguyen Thanh.Religions in Vietnam, Ha Noi: The Gioi Publishers, 2012. Analysis on Theravāda Upasampadā and the ways of Vietnamese life1

Phra Huynh Minh Thuan, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr. MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

There are eight types of Upasampadā according to the scriptures of Early Buddhism but only one type that is still available today, that is Ñatticatutthakamma Upasampadā (Upasampadā received by the formal act consisting of a motion and resolution). The results of the research work have shown the role of Upasampadā, the procedure of Upasampadā in Vietnam, and the perception of Upasampadā in Vietnamese society. The candidates receiving Upasampadā in Vietnam may have different purposes, including the purpose of ridding oneself of suffering, but regardless of the candidate’s aim, Upasampadā procedure must be held based on Vinaya Pitaka as the Buddha had mentioned according to the Scriptures. This research is aimed at promoting understanding of the meaning of Upasampadā, the different types of Theravāda Upasampadā practiced in Vietnam, and the impact of Upasampadā on Vietnamese people.

Keywords: Theravāda, Upasampadā, Ñatticatutthakamma.

1 This article is a part of a Master of Arts thesis, Theravāda Upasampadā in Vietnam: A Study Based on Vinaya Perspective, (Graduate School: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2017). 60 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

Upasampadā,2 the process of ordination for becoming a monk (bhikkhu) was described in Mahāvagga, which is the third of five books of Vinaya Pitaka (the Basket of Discipline). The Mahāvagga contains ten chapters from which the first records the key events of the Buddhasāsana at the beginning of its history when the Buddha was enlightened at the . It also mentions several types of Upasampadā conducted for disciples, as well as conditions necessary to complete the ordination. Two terms are used with reference to ordination, pabbajjā and upasampadā, both of which describe the candidate’s going forth. However, regarding the admission of novices (sāmaṇera), pabbajjā becomes a technical term specifically referring to the novice admission. The term upasampadā – which was earlier used in conjunction with pabbajjā as a dvandva, or a compound term, – takes on a technical sense of “ordination” or “higher ordination.”3 In 1939, the first establishment of a boundary (sīma) was conducted in Vietnam, marking the appearance of Theravāda Buddhism in the country. Since that time, the Viet- namese people have gradually come to know Theravāda Buddhism. Although Theravāda Buddhism is still a comparatively new religious movement in Vietnam, it gained recogni- tion of the Buddhist community thanks to the contributions of Ven. Buu-Chon (Ven. Naga Mahāthera), who was an outstanding Vietnamese Theravāda monk and a member of the World Buddhist Council. The Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhist Saṅgha Council took part in the Sixth Buddhist Council in Myanmar.4

The Establishment of Theravāda Upasampadā in Vietnam

When the French colonized Indochina (1864-1954), although the war has damaged the nation, Khmer Theravāda Buddhism in Southern Vietnam developed very much. This was one of the factors which gave a chance for Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhism to appear. At that time, the Vietnamese people who lived under the French colonial rule could

2 Mv.I.21. 3 , The Living Word of the Buddha The Buddha’s Teachings in the Oldest Texts, “Faith and Giving”. Pabbajjā: A very short history. How early monastics were admitted. (Series of Sutta discovery, translations, essays and notes 2014 Vol 45.16), p.136. 4 Nguyễn Văn Sáu, Bước Đầu Tìm Hiểu Phật Giáo Nam Tông Việt Nam - Beginning Study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam, (Ha Noi: Religion Publishing House, 2007), p.56. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 61

freely work in Laos or Cambodia in agreement with the French government. This was an opportunity for intellectual Vietnamese to come to know Theravāda or Cambodia. A special figure of this historical period was Venerable Hộ-Tông (Ven. Vamsarak- khito). In 1939, he was ordained (Upasampadā) as a Bhikkhu. This is a historical event which proved that Theravāda Buddhism was existing in Vietnam. He went back to Vietnam and helped to establish the first Theravada temple for Vietnamese Buddhists at Go-Dua, Thu-Duc (now a district of Ho Chi Minh City). The temple was named Buu-Quang (Ratana Ramsyarama). In 1949-1950, a new temple named Ky-Vien ( ) was built in Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City). This temple became the center of Theravada activities in Vietnam, which continued to attract increasing interest among the Vietnamese Buddhists. On December 18, 1957, The Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhist Saṅgha Congrega- tion (VTBSC, Giáo Hội Tăng Già Nguyên Thủy Việt Nam) was formally established and recognized by the Diệm government, with Venerable Hộ-Tông as its first president.5 When Theravāda was established in Vietnam, Upasampadā was introduced too. However, most of Vietnamese candidates were sent to Cambodia for their Bhikkhu ordination until 1939, when the first Sīma6 was founded in Vietnam with the great help of the Saṅgharāja and missionaries from Cambodia. Starting from that event people in Vietnam have an opportunity to get ordination (Bhikkhu Upasampadā) in Vietnam. The ceremony of Upasampadā in Vietnam is affected firstly by the Cambodian tradition and is similar to Khmer Theravāda ordination procedure in southern part of Vietnam. Later it was influenced by Kinh culture (Vietnamese culture) and developed towards an increased number of rituals, including the proclamation of aims or purposes of Upasampadā by those who are going to join the Saṅgha. Although some aspects of the ceremony were affected by national culture, the value of Upasampadā, which is still based on the instructions found in the scriptures of early Buddhism, remains unchanged.

5 Tỳ Kheo Thiện Minh, Lịch Sử Phật Giáo Nam Tông Việt Nam - History of Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhism, (B.A Thesis Ho Chi Minh City: Vietnamese Buddhist University, 1996), pp.51- 52. 6 Sīma is one of five fulfill conditions for ordination (Bhikkhu-Upasampadā). 62 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Upasampadā in Vietnam National Culture

According to population statistics, there are 54 ethnics in Vietnam including Kinh and . They have their own traditions, lifestyle, beliefs, faiths, and ways to practice them. As Khmer Theravāda settled in Vietnam since very early times of Funan period (from the missionaries of King Asoka on 3rd A.D), Khmer people had being faith- ful and followed Theravāda tradition for a long period. Under the Nguyen Court, several changes happened in the Mekong Delta. The government harshly forced Khmer population to abandon Theravada tradition. It included forcing Theravāda monks to become Mahāyāna monks. However, it seems that Khmer ethnics remained loyal to Theravāda Buddhism. Kinh Theravāda was founded not so long ago although Kinh people had a great chance to study and practice Theravāda Buddhism owing to their proximity to differ- ent cultures around the Theravāda Buddhist countries. Yet Kinh people did not followed Theravāda Buddhism even it appeared very early in the Khmer tradition. On the other hand, a language barrier between Kinh and Khmer people might be an obstacle for Kinh people, whose mother tongue is Vietnamese, to come to know Theravāda Buddhism.

1. Khmer Theravāda Upasampadā In Khmer Theravāda, in accordance with the Vinaya (monastic discipline), the Upasampadā is held to ordain a candidate who is older that 20 years, while Pabbajja is held to ordain a candidate as novice if he is younger than 20. Khmer Theravāda in Viet- nam originates from Cambodia and as so far, the Saṇgha members are living by observing the same traditions and standards of conduct. Therefore, the ceremonies of Pabbajja and Upasampadā are very similar in Cambodia and Vietnamese Khmer community. The tradi- tion of Royal ordination is not observed in Vietnam. Ordination in Khmer Theravāda is called ‘Buos’7. It can be conducted following different traditions, such as Mahanikaya and Dhammayutta, but is not so strongly emphasized in Vietnam as in Cambodia or Thailand. In addition, there are several types of ordination, some of which are aimed at getting merit, showing gratitude to one’s parents, education, as well as initiation before getting married or starting a career. Regardless they are ordained for a short or long period of time, it is a very beneficial tradition for Buddhist training and

7 Pin Vanda, An Analytical Study of Cambodian Buddhist Traditional Ordination, (M.A. Thesis. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Bangkok, 2010), p.73. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 63

merit making.

a. Buos-Songkung-Mdai-Aovpuk According to a particular view, through ordination as monk or novice a person can partly return his debt or show gratitude to his parents for their care and kindheartedness. This type of ordination is called ‘ordination out of gratitude to the parents’8. Having gratitude towards the parents, one tries to pay them back by caring for them and supporting them. Yet, according to the Buddha’s teaching, it is not enough to fully repay them. Parents can only be repaid by helping them to develop Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā through the Dhamma. Love and virtue of our parents is the greatest and most precious thing on earth. Parents take care of their children with greatest Mettā, protect and bring them up from young age to adulthood. Furthermore, the Buddha has mentioned three great characteristics of parents as follows: Firstly, parents are like Brahma (Brahmatimatapitaro) because of their loving- kindness (Mettā), compassion (Karunā), delight in other’s welfare (Muditā) and equanimity (Upekkhā). Secondly, parents are like the best and the first teacher(Pubbācariya Tivuccare). Children have to learn many things before they start going to school: sitting, walking, eat- ing, speaking, being polite and gentle with others. Thirdly, for the children, parents are the people most worthy of reverence (Ahuneyyaca puttanam). Because of their love and care, they should be highly respected by their children.

b. Buos-Mukh-Phleurng9 Buos-Mukh-Phleurng (ordination due to the death of parents or grandparents) is believed to benefit those who have passed away; the merit gained from ordination can be dedicated to the dead person by the ordained one during the funeral ceremony. According to the Buddhist teachings, merit can help the dead person to lessen the suffering or to be reborn in a higher plane. When the cremation is over, the ordained person can stay in the monastery for a while: up to 2-3 months depending on his and his family’s decision, but usually not more than 2-3 days for those who are married,

8 Pin Vanda, An Analytical Study of Cambodian Buddhist Traditional Ordination, Op Cit., p.93. 9 Pin Vanda, An Analytical Study of Cambodian Buddhist Traditional Ordination, Op Cit., p.96. 64 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

c. Buos-Lea-Bamnon Buos-Lea-Bamnon (ordination due to an unfortunate case happened in one’s life) can be taken in order to prevent misfortune in family, business, or community life in the future. However, it also happens that people make a vow before the Triple Gem to shave their head and be ordained as novice or monk for some days or weeks if they get success they wish or freedom from danger. In addition, Buos-Lea-Bamnon is also held for those who are often sick. In order to get rid of sickness and the fear of danger, people take refuge in Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha, since the Triple Gem is believed to ward of danger, bring benefits, eliminate suf- fering and deliver happiness.10

d. Bous-Abrum Bous-Abrum (educational ordination) is mostly given to students, both male and female, who are 15-25 years old. Younger children of 12-13 years are admitted to ordain as well. The aim of this ordination is to train young people to fulfill their responsibilities as sons and daughters, friends, and members of the society. Such programs aim to show them what is responsibility and how can they develop themselves and their families to serve the society. Bous-Abrum11 is usually held on public holidays and for those children who are willing and able to attend the ceremony. They are usually ordained as nov- ice monks and nuns, but sometimes they just come to observe the (atthasīla) without ordination. This ordination is very useful and beneficial for young people because it allows to obtain knowledge and gives an opportunity to understand more about Buddhism. They are trained in moral behavior and moral intelligence to be a worthy member of their family and society in general. All of these types of ordination (both Pabbajja for novices and Upasampadā for monks) have their own meanings and purposes, nevertheless, they are based on the Vinaya rules and require five conditions (sampatti) to be fulfilled in each case.

10 Ministry of Religious Affairs, The Teaching of the Buddha (basic level), (Yangon: unknown, 1998), p.134. 11 Pin Vanda, An Analytical Study of Cambodian Buddhist Traditional Ordination, Op Cit., p.100. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 65

2. Kinh Theravāda Upasampadā The event of establishing Kinh Theravāda Buddhism happened when the Vietnam- ese monks, who were ordained in Theravāda tradition in Cambodia led by the Most Ven. Ho-Tong (Mahathera Vamsarakkhita), together with the Cambodian Saṅgharāja, the Most Ven. ChuonNath (Mahathera Jotaññāno) and 30 Cambodian Bhikkhus, came to Vietnam to establish the Sīma for the first Kinh Theravāda temple. Since that time, Kinh people are gradually gaining faith in Theravāda Buddhism.12 Although Kinh Upasampadā ceremony originally came from Cambodian Theravāda tradition, some elements of it were changed and pruned down to suit the Vietnamese culture. The Upasampadā procedure of Kinh Theravāda is still conducted according to the Vinaya instructions, however, it is different from the ceremonies held in Cambodian Theravāda tradition and in the Buddha’s time. Upasampadā in the Buddha’s time was focused on the one who volunteers to renounce the world, leave the house, and become homeless to get rid of suffering and at- tain the final goal, Nibbāna. There were eight types of Upasampadā, some of them very simple, as recorded in Tipitaka and Aṭṭhakathā. and some held in the presence of the Bud- dha himself. In Vietnam, most people are not religious and do not profess any of the world reli- gions. However, being a good citizen, respecting one’s parents and older people in general is considered socially desirable. It is also known as ‘ancestor worship’. Until recently, ordination in Vietnam was seen as something meant for the old people who are retried from work or homeless. On the other hand, if young people left home to be ordained, in the public eye they were seen as someone who suffered in the family or failed in their love life. Nowadays, the perception of ordination in Vietnam is changed by opening people’s minds and offering an opportunity to study Buddhism and other religions. The introduction of Theravāda Buddhism to Vietnam gives people another view to realize the true meaning of ordination. In general, both Pabbajja and Upasampadā ordination can be given on the same day for adult candidates; for young people, there is usually a training period of 3 months, 6 months or a year before giving ordination. It is called a period of probation for the

12 Huynh Kim Lan, A Study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam, ( M.A Thesis at Thailand: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2010), p. 3. 66 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

candidate. During this period, the candidate is sent to a monastery for learning the basic Buddhist teachings, Buddhist rituals, chanting (protective ) and meditation. The candidate may shave his head and wear a special set of white- or gray-colored clothes; otherwise he may not shave his head and wear simple clothes such as school uniform. During this period the candidate will perform Veyyavacca.13 This Pāḷi term is used in the Vinaya Pitaka and means a set of various duties performed by the laity to serve the Bhikkhus: maintenance of the monastery, sweeping, dish washing, cleaning, preparation of meals, etc. The Veyyavatikas do help in providing better conditions for the Bhikkhus, for their practices and their studies. After the period of probation, the candidate can be given full ordination, both Pab- bajja and Upasampadā, in case he is more than 20 years old. The ceremony of ordination is held within half a day and includes the procedure of ordination in the morning, food offering (dāna) to the monks and newly ordained monks, and listening to a Dhamma-talk at noon. The whole program is held in the temple. Therefore, some people from candidate’s family, relatives and friends may gather together in the temple one day before the ordination to see the candidate and prepare for ceremony. They can give their hands to prepare foods and drinks, decorate the site, and prepare seats for monks and guests. There are two types of ordination in Kinh Theravāda Buddhism, namely ordination for a long period (xuất gia trọn đời) and ordination for a short period (xuất gia gieo duyên).

a. Ordination for a Long Period This kind of ordination is suitable for candidates who have a good understand- ing of the Buddha’s teaching, the role of ordination to become a monk and continue the Buddhasāsanā lineage, as well as the benefits of the monkhood in the way to get rid of suffering. People in this group are mostly young people who have not married yet or in some cases left their family, wife and children, to become monks. During his monkhood, he might change his mind again to disrobe and return to the society, however, the idea of ordination for a long period implies that, at the moment of ordination, the candidate has a wish to join the Buddhasāsanā till the end of his life no matter what would disturb him. He would try to overcome the obstacle to continue his monastic life. He have not thought that his ordination will last for 3 months, 3 years or

13 dhammadana.org: Pali English Glossary, ‘veyyavacca’. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 67

another definite period of time. He enjoys living in the Buddhasāsanā, is delighted in his ordination and volunteers for helping others.

b. Ordination for a Short Period14 Ordination for a short period or temporary ordination is common in several Buddhist countries, both in Mahāyāna and Theravāda traditions. The aim of this ordination is to give an opportunity for people who are not ready to offer their whole life to be ordained. They would like to enter the Saṇgha for a short time to experience he monastic life, observe the monastics rules, and join activities which they never joined before. In addition, this ordina- tion is considered as a seed of liberation which is planted by keeping the precepts, learning the Buddha’s teachings, listening to Dhamma-talks and meditating in order to improve their qualities through Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā. In Thailand and other Theravāda Buddhist countries, this ordination is commonly conducted on public holidays like New Year. During this time, people ordain as novices or monks for several days or weeks, after which they return to work or study again. In Vietnam this kind of ordination is new, and only some temples hold the ordination once a year for 10 days or a week. Sometime, it is held only for children of a certain age, so there is a separated course reserved to fit their level. However, in the Vinaya perspective, both ordination for a long and a short pe- riod should follow the same procedure. Although aims of ordination can be different, the ceremony remains quite the same. People must follow the discipline, 227 rules for monks (bhikkhu) and 10 rules for novices (sāmaṇera), and the rules of the temple while staying in the monkhood.

Benefits of TheravādaUpasampadā in Vietnam

Buddhism is the religion which for the first time in the world history revolted against the degrading caste system and taught that all human beings have the same qualities of their kind and opportunities to distinguish themselves in every walk of life.15 The Great

14 It is commonly a formal act in Theravāda countries such as Thailand, Burma and Cambodia (but not Sri Lanka). 15 Dr. K. Sri Dhammananda, Gems of Buddhist Wisdom, (: Publication of the Buddhist Missionary Society, second edition: 1996), p.31. 68 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Teacher declared that the gate to success and prosperity was opened to all who would care, seek and aspire for perfection, regardless of the current condition of life, whether high, low, blameless or criminal. Moreover, the Buddha was the first to proclaim that women are as much capable as men in terms of reaching Nibbāna.16 However, we can see that today there is no officially recognized Bhikkhuṇī Order in Theravāda Buddhism. There is a kind of nuns who observe either eight precepts (Atthasīla) or ten precepts (Dasasīla) and are wearing clothes according to the regulations in each particular Theravāda country.17 As what has been recorded in Vietnam, nuns appeared in Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhism in 1970. The first Vietnamese Theravāda nun was Sư Cô Diệu Đáng, who was ordained officially by the monks. At that time, Theravāda nuns wore a pink-colored garment according to the Burmese style of Mahasī Sayadaw’s school. After Vietnamese Theravāda monks came back from Thailand, they made changes to the regulations for Vietnamese Theravāda nuns, which are similar to those of the Thai Maechee, who wear white clothes. During this time, ordained women in Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhism had been recognized as Buddhist nuns under the management of the Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhist Saṅgha Congregation. When Vietnamese Buddhist Saṅgha was established in 1981, Theravāda nuns were not accepted as nuns in Vietnamese Buddhism. Women who would like to ordain as Theravāda nuns had troubles. Even in terms of education Theravāda nuns in Vietnam had to face many difficulties. In the Vietnam Buddhist Academy in HCMC, Session V (2001 – 2005), two Vietnamese Theravāda nuns, Ven. Huỳnh Kim Tuyết and Ven. Huỳnh Kim Lan, were expelled because they were not Bhikkhunīs as required by the office regulations.18 By the intervention of Professor Dr. Trần Tuấn Mẫn and Vietnamese Theravāda monks, the Ven. Bửu-Chánh and the Ven. Thích-Tăng-Định, who were lecturers of the Academy, their study could be continued. Finally, these two nuns received their Bachelor Degree in Buddhology on August 16, 2005. They are the first two Vietnamese Theravāda

16 Dr. B.R.Ambedkar, The Buddha and his Dhamma, (Taipet, 1997), p.195. 17 Ven. Huynh Kim Lan, A study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam, (M.A Thesis at Thailand: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2010.), p.57. 18 Huynh Kim Lan, A study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam, Op Cit., p.58. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 69

nuns who have graduated from Vietnam Buddhist Academy in HCMC. In order to solve the problems of Theravāda nuns in Vietnam, Vietnamese Theravāda monks made a proposition to the Vietnam Buddhist Saṅgha in 2008, requesting that ordained women have to be recognized as nuns in Theravāda Buddhism under the management of the Vietnamese Buddhist Saṅgha.19 As a result, some changes were made in the regulations. Starting from that moment, Theravāda nuns have to observe ten precepts and seventy-five Sekkhiyas. They have to wear a dark yellow garment and stay at temples, supported finan- cially by lay people.20

Different Views on Disrobed Monks

In Vietnam both Khmer and Kinh Theravāda monks may decide to stay in the monkhood for the rest of their lives. However, some people cannot continue their monastic life longer, thus they are disrobing and joining the lay community. Considering the purpose of disrobing, several reasons are given as follows: 1. When one thinks he had enough of monastic life, he may decide to return to laity. If there was no progress in one’s monastic practice, he stays ignorant of the Dhamma and neglects precepts and monastic discipline. 2. When one becomes romantically involved with a woman, he may become un- chaste or wish to marry. Incidents of this type happen occasionally regardless of age of the person in question. Some make a firm decision to leave the monastic order to get what they want. 3. One may decide to disrobe because of a family crisis. Some need to return to lay lives in order to help their families, for instance, if their parents are too old and no one is there to support and take care of them. 4. Some have problems (including disputes) in the monastery, which causes them to leave their monastic lives. 5. Some often encounter problem related their poor health. They are hardly able to bear the monkhood even for one rains retreat. Hence it causes them to leave the com- munity.

19 Ibid., p.60. 20 Huynh Kim Lan, A study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam, Op Cit., p.58. pp.62-64. 70 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

It is allowed to disrobe according to the Buddhist code. Monks who are going to disrobe must look for a monk or an elder to be their witness on their disrobing and inform him that from now on, they will no longer be a monk.21 This is done in order to avoid any accusations brought against them about their future conduct. To disrobe, a Bhikkhu with a firm intent states in the presence of a witness words to the effect that he is renouncing the training. The validity of the act depends on four factors:22 (1) the Bhikkhu’s state of mind, (2) his intention, (3) his statement, and (4) the witness to his statement. These four factors cover all that is absolutely necessary for an act of disrobing to be valid. After that the person should face the assembled Bhikkhu and then recite the fol- lowing Pāḷi passage: Sikkham Paccakkhami: I give up the training. Gihi’ti nam dharethi: May you hold me to be a laymen.23 According to the Vinaya perspective, it is impossible to disrobe by oneself. But based on Mahavagga, Vol.I, it is found that a monk who had committed a serious offense, such as a sexual intercourse, taking what is not given, depriving a living being of life and proclaiming the state of further-men,24 loses his monastic status and is not considered a monk anymore, thus he is rejected from the Saṇgha community. It is a social problem in Kinh Theravāda in Vietnam that the majority perceives a disrobed person as an outcast. People do not look favorably on those who have disrobed. It happens similarly to disrobed men in Sri Lanka, a Theravāda Buddhist country. This attitude would condemn a disrobed monk in the society and even among Buddhist laypeople. Many other Buddhist countries in Asia including Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos hold a different view on disrobing. In these counties people regard it as an added qualification if someone has been ordained as a monk even for a short time. It shows that a person has undergone a special training and can be disciplined in life. People would rather have respect for a person who has sacrificed his lay life even for a short time.

21 Somdet Phra Mahā Samaṇa Chao Krom Phrayā Vajiraññāṇavarorasa, The Entrance to the Vinaya, Vinayamukha, ( Bangkok, 2535/1992), Vol.I, p.127. 22 , Buddhist Monastic Code I, Chapter 3 ‘Disrobing’, (2013), p. 19. 23 Somdet Phra Mahā Samaṇa Chao Krom Phrayā Vajiraññāṇavarorasa, The Entrance to the Vinaya, Vinayamukha, Op Cit., p.128. 24 I. B. Horner, tr., The Book of Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), Op Cit., pp.124-145. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 71

Although there are negative comments about the former monks, some people are strong enough to overcome the contempt of others. However, people are gaining a bet- ter understanding of Buddhism in Vietnamese society and show greater enthusiasm and open-mindedness for the disrobed. On the other hand, disrobing monks should encourage themselves to get more confident in order to start a new life in lay community.

Conclusion

Studying the historical events of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam helped us to recognize there are two groups of Theravāda Buddhists, the Khmer Theravāda group and the Vietnamese Theravāda group. The characteristics of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam were also studied. They have been influenced by both the Vietnamese and the Khmer culture. The findings tell us about the Upasampadā ceremony, which specific depends on the culture. Although there may be different cultural influences and steps in the procedure, Upasampadā is always based on the Vinaya instructions. That is reason why all Theravāda Buddhist monks from various countries and cultures are accepted by other Saṅghas around the world. The present study of Theravāda Upasampadā in Vietnam shows that Theravāda Buddhism was adopted by Khmer people in the South before this land was transferred to Vietnam. Vietnamese Upasampadā originates from the Cambodian tradition. When some Vietnamese officers got a chance to work and travel around Southeast Asia, they met Buddhist monks and studied Theravāda doctrines in Cambodia.25 Afterwards they decided to become ordained and brought Theravāda Buddhism to Vietnam. When Theravāda Buddhism has already taken roots in Vietnam, monks, nuns and lay Buddhist people got the opportunity to learn a new Buddhist tradition. After ordination, some of them went to study in other Theravāda Buddhist countries such as Cambodia, India, Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand. Some of them went to study abroad and got ordained in foreign countries as in the case of the researcher. Upasampadā, the procedure of ordination, is an important evidence to prove the origin of Theravāda Buddhism as well as a factor to continue the lineage of Buddhasāsanā. Without Upasampadā there would be no more Buddhist clergy and without a Saṇgha, there is no one to preserve and spread out Buddhism.

25 Huynh Kim Lan, A Study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam, Op Cit., 106. 72 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

References

I. Primary Sources:

Chanmyay Sayadaw Ashin Janakabhivamso. The Ordination Procedure and Some Vinaya Rules. Yangon: Chanmyay Yeiktha Meditation Center, 1997. Somdet Phra Mahā Samaṇa Chao Krom Phrayā Vajiraññāṇavarorasa, The Entrance to the Vinaya, Vinayamukha, ( Bangkok, 2535/1992). I.B. Horner. The Book of The Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), Vol. IV tr. from Pāli. London: Luzac & Company Ltd, 1951.

II. Second Sources:

Thich Minh Chau. Vietnam Buddhism and Its Activities for Peace. HCM City, 1990. Lê Mạnh Thát. Lịch Sử Phật Giáo Việt Nam. Tập I. Viện Nghiên Cứu Phật Học Việt Nam. Xuất Bản, 1996. The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. Vol. I. Saigon: The Viet- namese Buddhist Study Institute, 1996. Nguyễn Văn Sáu. Bước Đầu Tìm Hiểu Phật Giáo Nam Tông Việt Nam. NXB. TP.HCM. 2002. Beginnings Study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam. HCMC: Ho Chi Minh City Publishing House, 2002. Sayadaw Chanmayay Ashin Janakabhivaṃsa, “The Ordination Procedure and Some vinaya rules”, Yangon, Chanmayay Yeiktha Meditation Center, 1997.

III. Theses:

Candamukha, Venerable, “An Analysis of The Upasampadā In Theravāda Buddhism”. M.A Thesis, Yangon: International Theravāda Buddhist Missionary University, 2006. Ven. Pin Vanda, “An Analytical Study of Cambodian Buddhist Traditional Ordination”, M.A Thesis. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya Unitersity, Bangkok, 2010. Ven. Huynh Kim Lan, “A study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam”, M.A Thesis at Thai- land: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2010. Influences of Buddhism on the Festivals of the Ta’ang Ethnic Group in Myanmar

Ven. U Vinayapala, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This is a qualitative research that has three objectives, namely, 1) to study the historical and geographical background of Ta’ang community in Myanmar, 2) to study Buddhism in Ta’ang community in Myanmar, and 3) to analyze the infl uence of Buddhism on the festivals of Ta’ang Ethnic Group Ta’ang in Myanmar. This article touches upon the history and geography of Myanmar, examines the origin of Palaung or Ta’ang community, and includes a brief explanation on the Ta’ang’s geographic background. Concerning the , the researcher will describe two historical periods of the country: Daung and Bagan. The researcher will show the origin and different branches of Ta’ang from a historical perspective, and further describe the special features of Buddhism in Ta’ang community. In particular, the origin of Bud- dhism, the beginning of Yuan Buddhism, types of Myanmar Saṇgha, the characteristics of Buddhism in Ta’ang region, and the doctrines of Buddhism that are practiced in the Ta’ang community will be described. In the fi nal part of the study, the researcher will analyze the infl uence of Buddhism on the festivals such as New Year festival, festival, Pavarana Festival, Thadinguyt festival, and Lucknii festival celebrated in Ta’ang community of Shan State in Myanmar.

Keywords: Buddhism, Festivals, Ta’ang, Palaung. 74 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

Geographically, Ta’ang tribes are to be found in small hill villages in both Northern and Southern Shan State in Myanmar through to the west and southwest of Yunan in China and Chiang Mai in Northern Thailand. In 1921, during the British rule, Ta’ang people had migrated thence to another place; there was a particularly large movement from China to Tawnpeng.1 Ta’ang ethnic communities have their own history and language, which belongs to the branch of Mon- system2, however, these days there are still no records to teach Ta’ang history and Ta’ang language to the young generation. Therefore, the author of this thesis must do research on the history of Ta’ang in Myanmar in order to identify the true history, culture, life style, beliefs, spirit-worship cults, economic, social work and Buddhism of Ta’ang tribe for the young Ta’ang generation to study. Majority of Ta’ang tribes had a strong cult of spirit worship before Buddhism was introduced to Ta’ang region. After the introduction of Buddhism, most Ta’ang people converted to Buddhist devotees. In 601 B.E., Mang Gyi-Mindaya Gyi3 known as king of Burma sent a Buddhist monk to Tawngpen to introduce Myanmar Buddhism among Ta’ang. On the other hand, Yuan Buddhism was also practiced in Ta’ang region. Yuan Bud- dhism was introduced by a monk from Wat Dood in Chiang Mai (1923-1975). Yuan Bud- dhism also influenced Ta’ang’s festivals such as New Year, Vassa, Pavarana day, and Luchni. Yuan Buddhism was also practiced in the area of northern Thailand, Laos, Southern China and some areas of Namhsan, Kyoutme, Manton, and Kengtung, Shan State. It could be said that there are some similarities and differences between Theravāda Buddhism and Yuan Buddhism in Ta’ang region. The researcher believes that, even though Buddhism has influenced Ta’ang festivals, many of Ta’ang people still do not know where Buddhism is coming from, how to practice it, and how to apply the teaching of the Buddha in their daily life, because most of Ta’ang ethnics are not Buddhist but being born to Buddhist parents.

1 Leslin Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clam A Study of the Palaung of the Shan States, Oxford: Clarendon press, (1924), p.23. 2 Daw Tin Yi, professor, Socio- Economic life of Wa Ethnic Group, Yangon, (1999), p.81. 3 Sean Ashley, Exocising with Buddha Palaung Buddhism in Northern Thailand, Canada, Press, (2004) p. 34 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 75

Historical and Geographical Background of Ta’ang Community in Myanmar Ta’ang people were spreading to different parts of Asian countries. Most of them are living in Yunnan (China), Shan State (Myanmar), and some parts of Northern Thailand. The researcher will only focus on describing the existence of Ta’ang in China, Myanmar, and Thailand as different parts of Asia. The term Ta’ang has a very wide meaning and describes people of the Ta’ang tribe. This term refers to De’ang in China, Tala’ang in Thailand, and Palaung in Myanmar. Ta’ang tribe spread from Yunnan province, China, across Southeast Asia region. In Myan- mar, there are only three sub-ethnic groups of Mon-Khmer tribe. They are Mon, Wa and Ta’ang. The Ta’ang or Palaung people are the second largest ethnic minority in Shan State, northern Myanmar.4 Ta’ang or Palaung tribe is divided into nineteen different ethnic sub- groups in Myanmar. They are (1) Hsamlone Ta’ang, (2) Kwanhe Ta’ang, (3) Ngutyot Ta’ng, (4) Taungma Ta’ang, (5) Rujin Ta’ang, (6) Rugwan Ta’ang, (7) Ruhkel Ta’ang, (8) Rupo Ta’ang, (9) Rumai Ta’ang, (10) Pannim Ta’ang, (11) Ruho Ta’ang, (12) Ruman Ta’ang, (13) Ruling Ta’ang, (14) RubrarnTa’ang, (15) Ruhkit Ta’ang, (16) Runa Ta’ang, (17) Ruleng Ta’ang, (18) Rutrar Ta’ang and (19) Rubrong Ta’ang.5 According to old Ta’ang or Palaung people’s saying, all Ta’ang belong to the same tribe, not being different from each other. However, Ta’ang people spread to different places in Burma.6 Based on their region and the name of their village, they might be called with different names. The first part of their ethnic name (in front of Ta’ang) identifies their geographical location.7 In Ru Mai Ta’ang, Ru and Mai refer to the region’s name. According to Chinese historians who studied Ta’ang ethnic group, originally there were only four Ta’ang sub-ethnic groups, namely Bulie, Liang, Rumia, and Raojin.8 However, the nineteen

4 Leslie Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clan: A Study of the Palaungs of the Shan States, Oxford, p. 15. 5 Ashin Sujat, The Culture and Tradition of Ta’ang Ethnic Group in Namhsan, Yangon: Press, (2013), p.21. 6 Tin Yin, Daw, The Lfe of Wa, Yangon University, 1999, p. 80. 7 Barbara A. West, Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, (USA, 1967), p. 185. 8 Zhipeng Cheng, Journey Through the World of De’ang Enthnic Minorirty: The collection of pictures of De’ang minority in English and Chinese, (Kunming, China, 2008), p.1. 76 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

subgroups of Ta’ang can be identified by some distinctive features, such as the ethnic dresses of the women.9

Origin of Ta’ang The background of Ta’ang should be clearly understood to identify the origin of their ethnicity. That is why the researcher describes the differences of history of De’ang people who lived in China and Ta’ang who existed in Myanmar. In the Han dynasty (206 B.C - 220 A.D.), De’ang and Va minorities were belonging to Pu people.10 In that time, Pu people formed the majority of population in Yunnan province. Pu people governed the country. De’ang and Va were known under the name of Pu people.11 Hence, the name of Pu here refers to Pyu. In China the term Pu is used as Pyu officially.12 There were many different tribes being controlled by the Pu government. Un- fortunately, these tribes were not allowed to use to term De’ang in order to describe their original name as they deserved officially. According to the history, this De’ang tribe was not a branch of Mon-Khmer tribe but they claimed that they speak Mon-Khmer language known as Palaungic.13 The people of Ta’ang tribe in Myanmar claim themselves as a branch of Mon-Khmer group and their language as a Mon-Khmer language.14

Buddhism in Ta’ang Community in Myanmar

In 1144 B.E. (1782 A.D.), King Mong Ta Ra Gyi known as Bodawpaya sent a Buddhist monk to Tawngpeng to introduce Buddhism among the Ta’ang group. This was one of his many acts of expiation for having put to death many Buddhist monks at the beginning of his reign. Monks teach the Ta’ang people about the the Buddhist command

9 Leslie Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clan: A Study of the Palaungs of the Shan States, Oxford, p. 60. 10 James B. Minahan, Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia, (California 2014, p. 57. 11 Ian G. Cook, China’s Third Revolution: Tensions in the Transition Towards a Post-communist China, (China 2001), p.120. 12 Nai Zaw, Pyu Civilization: The Regions and the Peopple, (yangon, 2011), p.113. 13 Jeremy H, Austroasiatic Languages, (London, 1991), p. 67. 14 Leslie Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clan: A Study of the Palaungs of the Shan States, (Oxford: Clarendon press,(1924), p. 15 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 77

ments which form their moral code; they are as follows: do not destroy life; do not steal; do not lie; commit no unchaste act; do not drink intoxicating liquors.15 On the other hand, Yuan Buddhism was also practiced in Ta’ang region. Yuan Buddhism was introduced by a monk from Wat Dood, Chiang Mai, northern Thailand, in 1923-1975. Yuan Buddhism also influenced Ta’ang’s festivals such as Myanmar New Year, Vassa, Pavarana day, Kathina and Luchni. Recently, Yuan Buddhism was also practiced in the area of northern Thailand, Laos, Southern China and some areas of Namhsan, Kyautme, Manton, and Kengtung, Shan State. Therefore, it could be said that there are some similari- ties and differences between Theravāda Buddhism and Yuan Buddhism in Ta’ang region.

Main Nikāyas of the Ta’ang Community

In Myanmar, monastic distinctive orders have emerged and formed nine official nikāyas, which are Sudhamma nikaya, Shegying nikaya, Mahadvara nikaya, Muladara nikaya, Anaukhaung dvara nikaya, Weluwun nikaya, Catubhummika Mahasatipatthana nikaya, Kanawimoke Kado nikaya and . However, the Yuan nikaya that is accepted by most of Ta’ang people of Shan State is still not addressed as an official nikaya by the government. Actually, there are two nikayas, namely the Rāmañña nikạ̄ya16 and the Yuan nikaya. These two nikayas were not included in the government reforms on Buddhism. The former is still practiced by the group of people in the , especially by , while the latter is widely practiced by Ta’ang people of Shan State. Yuan Buddhism or Yuan nikaya is the major religion practiced in Ta’ang region while Ramanna nikaya or Ramanna Buddhism is the major religion in Mon State practiced by the Mon tribe. Sudhamma and Yuan Saṇgha sects are the prevalent sects in Ta’ang community. They have different styles of developing and propagating Buddhism. As for the Yuan Saṇgha sect, it is developed trough the efforts of Ta’ang people themselves. Yuan at the present day is a major sect among Ta’ang people, however, the Suddhammā sect is supported by Myanmar Saṇgha community.

15 Leslin Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clam A Study of the Palaung of the Shan States, (Oxford: Clarendon press,(1924), pp.132-3. 16 Nain Pan Thar, Ramanna Nikaya and history of Mon Buddhism, (Yangon, Myanmar, 2016), P. 25. 78 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Sudhammā Nikāya

Suddhamma nikaya has a long history in Myanmar. This nikaya was supported by the king Mindon. When king Mindon ascended the throne on February 17, 1853, he was determined to help the Buddhist religion to prosper. On the other hand, he used the religion as a guide to all his political programs. Perhaps it was to atone for his sin in usurping the throne by a revolution. During the time of king Bagan, the second Anglo-Myanmar war broke out in 1852 and lower Myanmar was ceded to the British Indian Empire on Decem- ber 22, 1852.17 Since that time, Sudhammā nikāya was practiced in Ta’ang region, where it was known as “Paiman.”18 During the time of king Mindon, the supreme leader and Sudhammā Chartoaus decided only the cases sent to them. They were accusations of any kind. Some monks spent their time in alchemy, which was forbidden. Some were found guilty of several kinds of sex crimes, some indulged in profit making through trade or money lending. The Vinaya instructs that each Saṇgha representative should keep himself away from doing wrong, and if a monk broke the precept, his fellow monks should admonish him. The supreme leader and Sudhammā Charatoaus used nothing but the Vinaya to decide all cases of the monk.19

Yuan Nikāya

Yuan nikaya has its own literature. Yuan literature is still learned by Yuan people in the region of Ta’ang of Shan State, Northern Myanmar. When the researcher went to Mahachulalongkorn University Campus in Chiang Mai, he saw books belonging to Yuan literature, also known as Lanna literature, in the University’s library. Yuan Buddhism or Yuan nikaya are practiced in areas from Chiang Mai to Ta’ang region of Shan State. Yuan Buddhism was introduced to Ta’ang region by Ven. Yonathiddhi and Ven. Yonathi who used to teach Yuan Buddhism in Yawnarattha division, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, and Kengtung. At the present time, Yuan Buddhism is common in many Ta’ang regions. Unfortunately, Yuan Buddhism disappeared from Chiang Mai already. Now, Yuan Buddhism

17 Thaung, Dr., Burmese Kingship in Theory and Practice During the Region of Mindon, (Yangon, 1959), P. 12. 18 Paiman refers to Theravāda Buddhism brought by King Mindon to the Ta’ang region. 19 Shwezin Hpon Naing, History of the Sudhamma Buddhist Order of Monks, (Yangon, Myanmar, 2004), p. 46. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 79

entered Ta’ang region through Yunnan, China. Ta’ang people still use Yuan language to record Tipitaka in Ta’ang region.20 Yuan Buddhist disregards the highest authority of the “three jewels” (tiratana) of Buddhism – the Buddha, the Buddhist “law” (Dhamma), and “the clergy” (Saṇgha). There is no fundamental Buddhist concern for retribution (kamma or the liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara). Instead, emphasis is made on the supreme power of the ruler, moral judgment, and obedience of the ruled: these views touch upon traditional Chinese thought. Yuan traditions, beliefs, language and literature are, thus, quite the same. Yuan script is called by various names today such as Khuen, Lue, Yua, Dhamma, Lanna, and Merng according to the place where it is used, for instance, Laos, Kegtung, Lanna or Sip- songpanna. This script was used for the religious writings by Shan people in Shan State in the early days.21 Yuan Buddhism in China and Yuan Buddhism in Shan State have significant dif- ferences because Yuan Buddhism in China places a special emphasis on moral judgment and worshiping the king and the law. For Yuan Buddhism in Shan State however, traditions and the belief in Dhamma and Scriptures are of vital importance. Yuan Buddhism in this area was apparently influenced by Theravāda Buddhism. It was, thus, introduced in Eastern Shan State first during the time of King Mang Mai.22 The researcher believes that people who follow Yuan try to develop it in the way of Theravāda Buddhism. In Ta’ang region, Theravāda Buddhism and Yuan Buddhism are practiced similarly by Ta’ang people. This tribe follow Yuan Bud- dhism according to their own unique understanding. It is in name only they believe in Yuan Buddhism. Actually, they follow the traditions of Theravāda Buddhism. It is believed that Theravāda Buddhism practiced in Shan State and Ta’ang region today has reached the Ta’ang people by two main ways. The first way is from Yuan Buddhism as Theravāda Buddhism and the second way is from Sudhammā nikāya. That is why Buddhism in Ta’ang region must be called Theravāda Buddhism. In Ta’ang region, there are two ways to develop in

20 The researcher tr., The History of Ta’ang Palaung, (Yangon, 2017), p.75. 21 Kham Mong, Sa, The History and Development of the Shan Scripts, (Chiang Mai, Thailand, 2004), p.129. 22 Saimong Mangrai, Sao, The Padaeng Chronicle and the Jengung State (Chronicle Translate. United States of America: 1981), p.146. 80 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Theravāda Buddhism. The first way is learning and the second way is training. The method is exactly the same as in Yuan Buddhism.

The Buddhist Doctrine Practiced in Ta’ang Community

Buddhist doctrine can be practiced by everyone, however, sometimes the doctrine is very hard to understand for the people. The researcher believes that Buddhist monks in the area of Ta’ang use simple words to explain the doctrine in Dhamma talks so the people can develop themselves in the Buddha’s teachings such as the , kamma and , the four noble truths, and the noble eightfold path.

Buddhist Five Precepts

Buddhist five precepts are vitally important to Ta’ang Buddhist people. They fol- low the teaching of five precepts such as to abstain from taking the lives of living beings, to abstain from taking what is not given, not to engage in substance abuse, to abstain from telling lies, to abstain from distilled and fermented intoxicants, which are a cause of carelessness (which also includes drugs) in their daily lives because they understand moral teachings of Buddhism as a way to build a peaceful life.23 The researcher found that the Ta’ang people keep with the five precepts by under- standing that the first precept, based on compassion, prohibits killing, hurting and torturing; the second forbids stealing, actions supporting stealing and actions analogous to stealing (to secure observance of other’s rights regarding their property); the third is meant as a guide against perverse sexual actions (unchastity) and unfaithfulness in marriage life; the fourth emphasizes truthfulness and includes avoidance of telling direct and indirect falsehoods and the breaking of promises; the fifth is to prevent substance abuse. They can make their actions and their mind wholesome based on the five precepts teaching. These precepts are the basics of moral life for Buddhist and non-Buddhist people alike.

23 Leslin Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clam A Study of the Palaung of the Shan States, Oxford: Clarendon press, (1924), p.133. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 81

Kamma and Rebirth

The researcher has found that kamma and rebirth are hard to understand for the Buddhist people in Ta’ang region. The local people have a strong faith in these concepts and mostly understand kamma and rebirth according to the sayings of their elders. They believe that when a man dies his spirit goes out of his body and seeks another habitation. This belief is held by all Palaung, even by those who are little more than spirit-worshipers, though I do not know whether they held this belief before they accepted Buddhism. A man or woman may be reborn as the spirit of a human baby, or, if his life on earth has been extraordinarily good, he may be transported to a paradise.24

The Triple Gem

Buddhism has influenced Ta’ang people, which now have a strong faith in the Bud- dha, the Dhamma, and the Saṇgha. Most of Ta’ang people respect the Triple Gem. Before the researcher describes the faith of Ta’ang people in the Triple Gem, it should clear how important faith is the lives of human beings. The Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṇgha are three objects of highest veneration in Buddhism and also in the Ta’ang community. They are called the Triple Gem (Triratana) which implies they are very precious and invaluable. The Ta’ang people believe that being Buddhist25, one should take refuge in the Triple Gem. In the Ta’ang region, before Ta’ang Buddhist people take the five precepts, they must take refuge in Buddha, Dhamma and Saṇgha. The Triple Gem influence their everyday life. Some of Ta’ang people recite the Pali verses of dedication to Buddha, Dhamma and Saṇgha as their daily practice. They believe that taking refuge in the Buddha is about being powerful, taking refuge in the Dhamma is about gaining wisdom, and taking refuge in the Saṇgha is about helping the Saṇgha. The Ta’ang missionary monks always explain what is the Buddha, what is the Dhamma and what is the Saṇgha in the Dhamma talk section. Their explanations about the Triple Gem influence the lives of Ta’ang people. Ta’ang people put the sign of the Triple Gem in front of their houses in order to protect their homes, properties and families. When someone in

24 Sean Ashley, Exorcising with buddha: Palaung Buddhism in Northern Thailand, Simon Fraser University, 2004, p. 313.

25 The Researcher., tr., Ta’ang Culture and Daily Life, Yangon, 2013, P. 42. 82 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

the family is ill, the mother or father comes to the monastery, then invites monks to their house to recite the Dhamma to the one who is ill. They feel safe with the Dhamma. It could be said that the Triple Gem affect their everyday lives in the case of illness, search of protection, and leading them to gain wisdom.

Influences of Buddhism on Festivals of Ta’ang Ethnic Group in Myanmar

There are many Buddhist festivals in the Ta’ang community. As we know most of the Ta’ang tribes believe in Buddhism, and the culture and traditions of Ta’ang are influ- enced by Buddhist tradition. Whenever Ta’ang people celebrate some occasions, they follow the Buddhist tradition in the celebration. No matter how big or small the activities are, the influence of Buddhism exists in the activities of the Ta’ang tribe. Ta’ang also believe that Buddhism significantly influences and is of much importance in their lifestyle.

Influences of Buddhism on New Year Festival

At the beginning of the water-feast in April, children pour water on the hands of their parents, and the parents wash their faces with their wet hands. This is a ceremonial washing, and when it is finished, the parents with their children carry bamboo joints full of water, in order to pour it over the Buddha images in the monastery. All images of the Buddha that are not too heavy are carried out of the image-house for the occasion, and all day a long procession of people of all ages may be seen climbing to hill from the spring or stream. They pour the water over the images, then go down the hill again for more.26 Ta’ang had no Thingyen before Myanmar Thingyen was introduced to Ta’ang region. Sean Ashley has mentioned the origin of Thingyen in his thesis research, saying that “the Palaung or the Ta’ang themselves do not have their own myth concerning the festival, and recount an abbreviated version of the lowland myths. In Burma, the origin myth for the Thingyen festival is similar to that given by Rajadhon. However, myth has a preface wherein the king of the gods.”27 In the Ta’ang tradition, there is no record on

26 Leslie Milne, Leslin Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clam A Study of the Palaung of the Shan States, (Oxford: Clarendon press,(1924), p.239. 27 Sean Ashley, Exorcising with Buddha: Palaung Buddhism in Northern Thailand, Simon Fraser University, 2004, P. 49. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 83

Thingyen festival. This festival comes from Burmese tradition. Thingyen does not belong to their own culture but it was introduced by the Burmese people. However, nowadays the tradition of celebrating the Thingyan festival became a part of Ta’ang culture.

Influences of Buddhism on Vassa Festival

The Waso (vassa) festival is a good mean for reminding Ta’ang to abstain from drinking alcohol because during this festival young Ta’ang people are busy making dona- tions to the monks and elderly people. Khin Myoe Chit mentions in her book that “Waso is the time when people do meritorious deeds, especially dāna (generosity), sīla (moral conduct), and bhāvanā (mental cultivation), dhammassavana (listening to the Dhamma), practicing contemplation and self-restraint. People make it a point of fasting and observing special precepts one day in the week. Even habitual drinkers take a vow of abstinence, for the season, at least. It is good in a way for people to be reminded of the need for self- discipline. However, the Lenten season is not as dull as it sounds. Even as the senior citizens are making preparations for offering to the monasteries, the young people busy themselves with organizing music troupes. On the full moon day people flock to the monastery with offerings, and of course, there will be music troupes in attendance.”28 According to the statement of Daw Khin Myoe Chit, the culture of Waso festival in Myanmar is similar to the culture of Vassa festival in Thailand and other Theravāda Buddhist countries.

Influences of Buddhism on

In Ta’ang region, from the time of Vassa or Waso until Thadingyut, marriage activities are not allowed to be celebrated. Thadingut occurs at the end of rainy season in middle of October according to the English calendar. Most of people celebrate only Bud- dhist festivals on the full moon days. On the full moon day of the month, the elders of Ta’ang come to stay at the monastery to take meditation from five in the morning until eight in the evening. During the Thadingyut festival, there are many ceremonies to be celebrated, such as Kathina offering ceremony, lighting the candle ceremony, and Pavarana ceremony. Here

28 Daw Khin Myoe Chit, Flowers and Festival Round the Myanmar Year, (Yangon, 199), p. 36. 84 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

the researcher will describe Kathina ceremony in the festival of Thadingyut. Kathina offer- ing ceremony is very interesting for the Buddhist people. Ven. Sengindra mentioned that “Kathina ceremony is a festival of offering robes to Buddhist monks who have stayed in the temple for the whole rainy season. The background of this tradition accounts that at the time of the Buddha, thirty monks from Pava were journeying to see the lord while the Blessed one was staying in Savatthi city but they were unable to reach Savatthi in time of vassa (day of entering the Buddhist lent) was approaching. They, thus, enter vassa on the way.”29

Influences of Buddhism on Luckni Festival

Buddhism has strong roots in Ta’ang region, and it has greatly influenced Ta’ang Luckni festival. Luckni festival is a New Year festival that is celebrated exclusively by the Ta’ang people. During the festival, people keep five precepts and pay respect to the Triple Gem. In some areas, “they even abstain from picking up the fruits and vegetable for the curry. The festival is an important occasion for the Ta’ang or Palaung to see friends, family, and for some younger men and women, to find romance.”30 There are some similarities and dissimilarities between Luckni and Myan- mar New Year festivals which are usually held in the Ta’ang region. Because the Ta’ang people adapted many Burmese traditions, there are similarities such as paying respect to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṇgha. On the Luckni festival, young Ta’ang people go to the elders to receive some advices. Moreover, the traditional Luckni day is influenced by the Buddha’s teachings such as the tilakkhana, the noble eightfold path and the four noble truths. However, dissimilarities like abstaining from picking up the fruits form the plant originate from a belief that plants are living creatures just like human beings. On the other hand, New Year festival which is the Myanmar New Year, was in- troduced to Ta’ang by the Burmese. Every year, when new year is about to begin, Ta’ang people follow the custom of the Burmese people. For example, during the festival, people

29 Ven. Sengindra Suvannasiri, A Study of the influence of Buddhism on the life Sha People in Eastern Shan State of Myanmar, (Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Bangkok, Thailand, 2010), p. 60. 30 Sean Ashley, Exorcising with buddha: Palaung buddhism, (Canada, simon fraser University 2004), p. 42. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 85

go to the monastery for cleaning the temple compounds and washing pagodas with water. They take precepts from the preacher who is senior of those temples and for the young, they offer food and water to the elderly people. When they go to play with the water, in their mind they always wish that people who will be douched with water will be happy and can enjoy a long life. They strongly believe that doing good is for the benefit of the good life while doing bad will cause bad things to occur.

Influences of Buddhism on Ta’ang Culture

Ta’ang or Palaung people value and respect their customs and culture, both mate- rial and spiritual. The Buddhist teachings, such as five precepts, Triple Gem, dana, sīla and , have influenced both material and spiritual culture. The Buddhist teachings can be expressed in language, songs, music, literature, architecture, law, traditions, moral standards, and philosophy. On the other hand, the researcher believes that Ta’ang ethnic communities in Myanmar are constantly maintaining their own culture by what they do. Explaining why the Ta’ang people hold on their , Leslie Milne wrote that, through Bud- dhism, people hope to get rid of the evil and go to the paradise after death. If there is no belief in Buddhism or commit the idea of sin, people shall be in the hell after they die, so people usually value good deed highly and believe in Buddhism with piety.”31 The traditional wedding of Ta’ang or Palaung lasts for several days and should be attended by all the villagers. On the first day of wedding ceremony, the host pours wine to the elderly villagers which means that the wedding ceremony begins. After the meal, the bridegroom will offer cigarettes to the guests. But the guest will not accept the cigarettes until they are satisfied with the relating of the romance which told by the newly-weds. At midnight, a singing group composed of young men will move to the bride’s home to pick her up. When the bride is talking with her parents, she will be very reluctant and hug her parents crying. After they arrived at the bridegroom’s house, all the young people at the wedding ceremony will be engaged in singing overnight.32 Comparing to the wedding

31 Lesline Milne, Leslin Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clam A Study of the Palaung of the Shan States, (Oxford: Clarendon press, (1924), pp. 313-334. 32 Zhipeng Cheng, Journey Through the World of De’ang Ethnic Minority, Kunming, China, 2008, p. 86. 86 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

ceremony of Ta’ang in China, Myanmar has a slightly different tradition: the bride and the groom pay respect to the elderly people without offering them wine, and the young people go to the bride’s house in the daytime but not midnight.

Influences of Buddhism on Education

In the Ta’ang region, it was very hard to find a monastic school for children to study, especially in the periods of King Mindon’s reign and during the British rule. Ta’ang or Palaung youth had to study Yuan Buddhism brought from Kying Tung.33 In the present time, the founder of monastic educational schools provides schools for non-government education. That means it is free of charge to the new generation of Ta’ang or Palaung, which is important for those who cannot afford to attend the government schools. More- over, Buddhist education is available both in monasteries and in secular schools.34 In the Ta’ang regions, there are many government schools and universities for young students to attend without payment.

Influences of Buddhism on Ta’ang Traditional Beliefs

Religious belief is one of the most important parts of the Ta’ang people’s lives. In Ta’ang region, several religions such as Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and are followed and propagated, however, some people of the Ta’ang or Palaung tribes believe in their own traditional religion, which includes the belief in gods (kanam in Ta’ang) and ghosts (kabu in Ta’ang). In Nam Hsan, where 90 percent of the population belongs to Ta’ang, they pray to the gods and some ghosts for calling back the soul of the person whose soul is lost. As the Ta’ang or Palaung people live in the highest mountains surrounded by forests, whenever they get sick, they mostly bring some rice, flowers, smaller stones and sometimes meat to offer to gods or ghosts in order to get free from sickness. In the last thousand years, Ta’ang or Palaung people believed in gods and ghosts.35 They still think that this is their own traditional religion.

33 Leslin Milne, Leslin Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clam A Study of the Palaung of the Shan States, (Oxford: Clarendon press, (1924), p.23. 34 Helen James, Governance and Civil in Myanmar: Education, health, and environment, (New York, 2005) p. 78. 35 Zhipeng Cheng, Journey Through the world of De’ang Ethnic Minority, (Kunming, China, 2008), p. 86. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 87

Local doctors mention that the reason why Ta’ang or Palaung people still resort to gods and ghosts in order to cure the sickness is that there are no hospitals or clinics in the Ta’ang region.36 Ashin Thuzata, the author of the book on culture of Ta’ang in Namhsan, described the belief in gods and ghosts as a faith, but not only a mean to cure the sickness.37 Currently in the northern Shan State, 80 percent of the population’s religious beliefs are grounded in the Buddhist teaching. Beliefs in gods and ghosts make out about 20 percent of religious beliefs. The researcher thinks that Buddhism in northern Shan State is not a pure form of Buddhism, but is still mixed with traditional religion and activities such as preparing offerings for the gods in a Buddhist ceremony. In the thesis of Sean Ashley it is mentioned about the spirit of Buddhism in Nam- hsan region. Ta’angs or Palaungs believe in a personal spirit known as Karphraw, which remains continuously throughout rebirth cycles.38 A belief in a personal spirit is similar to the Ta’ang or Palaung belief in gods and ghosts. When local people get sick, a traditional healer draws a symbol of the spirit by a bamboo stick or any other tool in order to appeal to the gods and the ghosts.39 The lo- cal people address this spirit not only to cure their sicknesses. However, as the researcher observed, a traditional local healer will appeal to the spirits to cure only simple sicknesses. Nowadays, most of young people learn about the teaching of Buddhism from middle and lower parts of Myanmar such as , Yangon and Ayeyawady. The theory of Buddhism is brought to the Ta’ang region, the Dhamma practice is developed in the places where the Ta’angs live. The government builds hospitals, primary schools, high schools, universities and monasteries in every city of Ta’ang region.40

36 Paul Hattaw, People of Buddhist World: A Christian Diary, (, 2004), p.218. 37 Ashin Thuzata, The culture of Ta’ang or Palaung in Namhsan region, (Yangon, 2013), p. 46. 38 Sean Ashley, Exorcising with Buddha: Palaung Buddhism in Northern Thailand, (Mount Allison University, 2004), p. 34. 39 Paul Hattaw, People of Buddhist World: A Christian Prayer Diary, (Singapore, 2004), p..218. 40 Helen James, Governance and Civil Society in Myanmar: Education, Health and Environ- ment, (London, 2005), p. 157. 88 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Conclusion

This research has shown the influence of Sudhammā nikāya and Yuan nikāya Buddhism on Ta’ang festivals. Through this research, we became acquainted with culture, traditional beliefs, rituals, education, and the customs of Ta’ang. Firstly, the researcher touched upon some historical events starting from the period of Pyu country and Bagan. This is because Myanmar people mostly accept that Burmese history begins with the Pyu people and Bagan period. The findings show that originally Ta’ang people came from Yunnan province in China; this tribe spread over several Myan- mar provinces including the Shan State. The religion of Ta’ang people is originally from Kyington, eastern Shan State. Secondly, it was shown that Buddhism is the major religion of the Ta’ang community. Theravāda Buddhism has a long history in the region of Thahton. Buddhism was brought by missionaries from different areas, such as India, China, and several regions of Myanmar. According to some Myanmar folklore beliefs, Buddhism came to Myanmar first among the Asian countries. Some people believe that Thathon, which is known as Suvaṇṇabhūmi, is the first place where Buddhism had been introduced to Myanmar. In the Ta’ang region there are two Saṇgha sects (nikayas), namely Sudhammā nikaya and Yuan nikaya. Finally, both Theravāda Buddhism and Yuan Buddhism had influenced Ta’ang culture, festivals, rites and rituals. Before Theravāda Buddhism and Yuan Buddhism had influenced the Ta’ang community, Ta’ang people followed their own traditional beliefs such as belief in ghosts (“karbu”) and gods (“karnam”). After Buddhism had influenced their lives, most of Ta’ang people gained faith in Buddhism and started to apply the teachings of Buddhism in their everyday lives. At the present time, Ta’ang people develop Buddhism in their region by learning Pāli and setting up Buddhist schools for the young generation. In Ta’ang region, there are many novices, monks, and nuns who graduate from Buddhist schools held by Myanmar government. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 89

References

Leslin Milne, The Home of an Eastern Clan: A Study of the Palaung of the Shan States, (Oxford: Clarendon press,1924, Khin Myo Chit, Colorful Myanmar, Yangon: Parami Sarpay Publishing, 2016. Mai Aik Kaw, History of Ta’ang (Myanmar version), Mandalay: Sein Sein Oo Publishing, 2017. Ahsin Thuzata, The Culture of Ta’ang (Palaung in Burmese) Ethnic Group in Namhsan Region. Yangon, 2013. Daw Tin Yi, The Life of Wa (Myanmar version), Yangon: Universities Campus Press, 1999. Sean Ashley, Exorcising with Buddha: Palaung Buddhism in northern Thailand. Mount Al- lison University Canada, 2004. Phudthipatra Tangkuptanon, The Infl uence of Buddhism On Thai Culture: A Study of Sekhi- yavatta In Patimokkha On Thai Conduct And Etiquette, Mahidol Universty, 2001 Maung Htuang Sayadaw, History of Buddhism. Yangon, 2009. Geertz, Clifford The Interpretation of Cultures Selected Essay, New York: Basic Books, 1973. Gold, R., “Role in Sociological Field Observation” Social Forces, 1958. Gombrich, Richard F, Precept and Practice Traditional Buddhism in the Rural High Land of Ceylon. Oxford Clarendon Press. 1971: Goody, Jack, “Literacy and Classifi cation” in Jain RK, Text and Context. Philadelphia institute for the Study of human Issues,1977. Bangkok Post “Government loses another campaign to slash holiday road casualties.” 2003. MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities Regular 14.2, 2011. Bauer, Robert S. Review of the Book China’s Mon-Khmer Languages and the Austroasiatic Language Family. MKS, 1998. Davies, Henry R. Yunnan: The Link between India and the Yangtze. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1909. Grimes, Barbara. Northern Mon Khmer Languages. In International Encyclopedia of Lin- guistics (Vol.3). Oxford: Oxford University Press.2003. Banerjea, JitendraNath, The ‘Webbed Fingers’ of Buddha, in Indian Historical Quarterly 6, no.4 (1930): 717-27. A Comparative Study of the Therapeutic Method between Psychoanalysis and Buddhism

Ven. Kumbukkandanwala Gnanaratana, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Ven. Walmoruwe Piyarattana, Dr. MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This article is about a comparative study of the therapeutic method between psycho- analysis and Buddhism. This article has focuses on two objectives: to study of the way to recover mental illnesses in psychoanalysis and to comparative study of the way to recover mental illnesses between psychoanalysis and Buddhism. The mental illnesses have been taken the special attention of the world, because the way people live in the society is caused to increase the mental illnesses. In early pe- riod, although the western people did not pay special attention on mind in the present time it is popular topic. Since the 19th century, the studying about mind was increased. As the result, there are many healing methods appear in Western psychology under the topic of psychotherapy. Buddhism is mainly focuses on mind, because the way to attaining the goal of Buddhism is overcoming the all of defi lements completely. According to the Buddhism until eradicate the defi lements, cannot recover the mental illnesses. Because of these reasons, in the Buddhism, the way to be free from mental illnesses has been explained in detail. The Western psychologists take a look for this in another way. In this article mainly focuses on psychoanalysis’ psychotherapy and supports to make an understanding the differences and similarities of Buddhism and this method.

Keywords: Psychotherapy, Psychoanalysis, Buddhism, Psychopathology. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 91

Psychoanalysis

After the 19th century psychotherapy was a famous field of psychology and many psychologists involved to this field. They tried to analyze the mental disorders and tried to find the healing methods. As a result, psychotherapy was more developed and many mental hospitals also have been started. The neuropsychiatric hospitals established by the Veterans Administration after the second world war were generally superior to the average state supported hospital and served as an impetus for the improvement of state hospitals. Treatment may also include physical recreation to help relieve tensions and educational therapy to prepare the patient for a job on release from the hospital. Many mental hospitals are located near universities and medical schools so that research and training programs can be undertaken jointly. Under this sub topic, will examine about famous psychotherapy methods since the 19th century to present. Sigmund Freud is the founder of this school. Psychoanalysis is a system of psy- chological theory and therapy that aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the in- teraction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association. Psychoanalysis designates concomitantly three things: 1. A method of investigating the mind and especially the unconscious mind 2. A therapy of neurosis inspired by the above method 3. A new self-standing discipline based on the knowledge gained from the applica- tion of the investigation method and clinical experiments. Psychoanalysis is a specific technique of investigation of the mind and a therapy inspired by this technique. After his experiments, he was led to a new conception of the structure of personality: the Id, Ego and Superego. The Id is the reservoir of drives and impulses derived from the genetic background and concerned with the preservation and propagation of life. The Ego in contrast to the Id, operates in the conscious and precon- scious levels of awareness. It is the portion of the personality concerned with perception, cognitive and executive actions. The third portion of the personality structure, Freud called the superego. In this rests the individual’s accumulated ideals and values and the mores of his family and society; the superego serves as a censor on the ego functions.1

1 Kolb, L. Coleman, “Psychiatry”, Encyclopedia Britannica,Vol. 18 (1964): 665. 92 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The description of mind makes the psychoanalysis as special. Although the psy- chologists paid attention on mind, until 19th century there was not a specific division of mind. Freud divided mind into three parts as Id, Ego and Super Ego. Freud explained that the part of mind and the task of those parts.

Classification of Mind in Psychoanalysis

The psychoanalysis school has been especial one because of this classification of mind. That is the first time what appear the classification of mind in western psychology. The classification of mind has been based for psychoanalysis’ principles and psychotherapy.

Id

Freud used Id, the Latin word for “it,” as the label for a particularly powerful force in the unconscious mind of everyone. The Id is a tremendous storehouse of energy, and it is entirely submerged in the unconscious.2 It is the source of all passions, instincts and habits. And it strives continually to gratify them. The drive of the Id to achieve satisfaction in the life of the individual is often complicated. This is because it seeks to gratify its needs without any regard for morals or even logic. The id knows nothing of reality, as that word is commonly used. Its exclusive interest is the satisfaction of its own demands, no matter what the cost. It is completely dominated by the pleasure principle. In attitude, the Id might be compared with an especially obstreperous infant, it is entirely uncivilized, very demanding, and not the least bit interested in anything but its own needs and desires. There is a driving, untamed power about it, and it is not disposed to listen to reason. The demands of the Id are largely anti-social, and it hammers away constantly to make itself felt in the life of everyone. It plays a prominent role in influencing a person’s life and character. But despite its importance in the average person’s life, he is likely to be totally ignorant of either its presence or its power.

2 Joseph Rosner, All about Psychoanalysis, (New York: Collier Books, 1962), p. 36. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 93

Ego

In ordinary conversation, when we speak of a person’s ego, we refer to his vanity or sense of self-importance. When psychoanalysis mentions the Ego, it is referring to something quite different. The Ego like the Id, is an extremely powerful factor in the personality of everyone. In contrast with Id, which is essentially lawless by nature, the Ego is primarily a civilized product. It is a kind of control room in each of us which tries to keep us leading generally law-abiding lives. It listens to the demands of person environment and sees that we try to conform to them. It acts as the agent, in the mind, of the world of reason and sanity. Like the Id, it is self-centered, but it is much more realistic. The Ego, in effect, can tell the difference between right and wrong, while the Id cannot.3 The ego is partly conscious and partly unconscious. Consciously, for instance, it tries to make us moral persons. The married man who is attracted to his secretary may never let her know his feelings for her. Unconsciously, the Ego represses certain aspects of our character which it regards as immoral. The man who is attracted to his sister-in-law may be completely unaware of this attraction, through the pressures of his Ego, he may be convinced that he actually detests the woman. The Ego works in each of us even while we are asleep. When our more unpleasant thoughts assert themselves in a dream, it is the ego which censors them. It forces these perhaps threatening ideas to appear in disguise. They show themselves in the dream in the form of symbols. In every person, the lawless desires of the Id clash head-on with the moral sense of the ego. As a result, the two forces are continuously engaged in a kind of invisible tug of war with each other. In Freud’s own image the Id produces the driving power, while the ego handles the steering wheel in order to reach a desired goal. Basically, the Ego acts as an intermediary, or compromiser, between the impractical demands of the Id and the practical demands of environment.

Superego

A person’s superego is roughly identical with what we normally call his conscience. In his mental life, it represents the combined force of all the do’s and don’ts picked up during his lifetime. These have become part of him through contacts with his parents, his

3 Ibid., p. 37. 94 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

teachers, religious influences, and other forms of moral authority. The Superego is largely unconscious in the personality. It is the mechanism which tells each of us what is morally right and what is morally wrong. Acting as a sort of overseer, or monitor, it tries to direct the Ego along the path of what is right. It also has the power to punish the Ego for yielding to the more reckless demands of the Id. When we have done wrong, for instance, we tend to feel guilty. This is the punishment that most of us know as the pangs of conscience. Few psychotherapy methods have been introduced by Sigmund Freud in the psy- choanalysis school such as: free association, transference, Interpretation. Under this topic, has been examined about those psychotherapies and another few therapies.

Free Association

Freud let patients to talk anything freely. Observing that most of his patients talk freely without being under hypnosis, Freud evolved the technique of free association. In treatment, he advised the patient to speak freely and to say anything that came into his mind, without regard to its assumed relevancy or propriety. In free association the patient is taught the basic rule: Say everything that enters your mind, without selection, without editing.4 His free association technique provided him with a tool for studying the meaning of dreams, slips of the tongue, forgetfulness and other mistakes errors in everyday life. With this practice, he gradually brings to consciousness ideas and feelings that have been deeply repressed. A person, unconsciously repress or resists the recall of certain thoughts and feel- ings because he fears that to acknowledge them will threaten or degrade. The therapist aids the patient in overcoming this resistance. Sometimes a patient has a free flow of associations until something blocks him. Then his mind seems to go blank, and he can think of noth- ing to say. This blankness is judged to be resistance to the recall of something effectively repressed. Sometimes, after a particularly revealing session, the patient may forget his next appointment, another indication of resistance to revealing what is hidden.

4 Hilgard R. Ernest, Introduction to Psychology, (New York: Oxford and IBH Publishing Com- pany, 1953), p.498. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 95

Interpretation

Interpretation is a basic process in psychoanalysis and psychotherapy by which old information of the patient is translated into a new syntax of self-understanding by a therapist. It is a fundamental element of the process of psychological healing.5 The psychoanalyst attempts to overcome the patient’s resistance and to lead him to fuller self-understanding through interpretation. The interpretation is likely to take two forms. First, the analyst calls the attention of the patient to his resistances. The patient often learns something about himself when he discovers that a train of associations is suddenly blocked, that he forgets his appointment that he wants to change the subject, and so on. Second, the analyst may privately deduce the general nature of what lies behind the patient’s statements and by imparting a hint may facilitate further associations.6 The patient may say something that seems trivial to him and half apologize for its unimportance. Here the analyst may point out that what seems trivial may in fact allude to something important. This hint may lead, if the interpretation is appropriately timed, to significant associations. It should be noted that the analyst is careful not to suggest just what it is that is important to the patient; this the patient must discover for himself. The analyst gives somewhat different interpretations in the early and late stages of analysis. Early in the analysis the interpretations are to help the patient understand resis- tance. The analyst may encourage association pointing out the importance of the seemingly trivial or by noting connections in the patient’s associations between thoughts that at first seemed totally unrelated. But, as the analysis moves on, the analyst gives more complex interpretations of the content of the patient’s associations.

Transference

Transference describes a situation where the feelings, desires, and expectations of one person are redirected and applied to another person. Most commonly, transference refers to a therapeutic setting, where a person in therapy may apply certain feelings or emotions toward the therapist.

5 Wayne T. Downey, “Interpretation”, Encyclopedia of Psychotherapy, Vol. 2, (2002): 49.

6 Hilgard R. Ernest, Introduction to Psychology, (New York: Oxford and IBH Publishing Com- pany, 1953), p. 499. 96 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Transference is the tendency for a client in psychotherapy, known as the analysand, to transfer emotional responses to their therapists that reflect feelings the analysand has for other significant people in his or her life.7 This process may occur in therapy, when a person receiving treatment applies feelings toward or expectations of another person onto the therapist and then begins to interact with the therapist as if the therapist were the other individual. Often, the patterns seen in transference will be representative of a relationship from childhood. The term transference was first used by Sigmund Freud, who discovered the phe- nomena in the course of his earliest treatments.8 The concept of transference was first described in Freud’s 1895 book Studies on Hysteria, where he noted the deep, intense, and often unconscious feeling that sometimes developed within the therapeutic relationships he established with the people he was treating. Transference is a common occurrence among humans, and it may often occur in therapy, but it does not necessarily imply a mental health condition. Transference can also occur in various situations outside of therapy and may form the basis for certain relationship patterns in everyday life. The transference, which, whether affectionate or hostile, seemed in every case to constitute the greatest threat to the treatment, becomes its best tool.9 There are few types of transference. Paternal transference, when an individual looks at another person as a father or an idealized father figure. The person may be viewed as powerful, wise, and authoritative, and an individual may expect protection and sound advice from this person. Maternal transference occurs when an individual treats another person as a mother or idealized mother figure. This person is often viewed as loving and influential, and nurture and comfort is often expected from them. Transference may be positive or negative. Both types can benefit therapy in differ- ent ways. Positive transference can lead the person in therapy to view the therapist as kind, concerned, or otherwise helpful. Negative transference might cause a person in therapy to direct angry or painful feelings toward the therapist, but the therapist may be able to use

7 Bonnie R. Strickland, ‘Psychotherapy’, The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, (2001): 650. 8 Eric R. Marcus, “Transference”, Encyclopedia of Psychotherapy, Vol. 2, (2002): 851. 9 James Strachey, Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 1989), p. 496. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 97

these emotions to help the person achieve greater understanding. When transference uses as a therapy, a person’s social relationships and mental health may be affected by transfer- ence, as transference can lead to harmful patterns of thinking and behavior. The primary concern is generally the fact that, in the case of transference, an individual is not seeking to establish a relationship with a real person but with someone onto whom they have pro- jected feelings and emotions. When transference occurs in a therapeutic setting, a therapist may be able to come to a better understanding of an individual through an understanding of the projected feelings and, through this understanding, help the person in therapy to achieve results and recovery. By understanding how transference is occurring, a mental health professional may be bet- ter able to understand both a person’s condition and aspects of the person’s early life that affect that person at present. The 19th century was a brilliant period for the psychotherapy. From the late part of 18th century many psychologists experimented on mental disorders and found some therapeutic methods. Sigmund Fried was great one among them and his psychoanalysis method was a good progress of psychotherapy. Mostly they paid attention to understand the process of mind. As a result of analyzing mind they found some therapeutic methods. Sigmund Fried used the methods of Free association, Interpretation and Transference. Later on, many psychologists also introduced many methods. In this chapter have been explained main psychotherapeutic methods.

Psychoanalysis and Buddhism

Sigmund Freud could get a remarkable place in the psychological field by establish- ing the psychoanalysis school. It has caused to change the traditional direction of mental disorders and the treatments. Therefore, it was a comparatively new and revolutionary branch of psychology. In the psychoanalysis, especially focuses on unconsciousness. The belief that there is an unconscious part of the mind, and that it is vitally important in the lives of each of persons, is the cornerstone of the psychoanalysis. It accounts for the major difference between psychoanalysis and all theories of psychology that came before it. In every one of persons, the unconscious makes up by far the largest and most powerful part of the personality. It is a constantly humming powerhouse of mental processes, of which we are generally unaware. This crucial area of the human mind lacks a sense of time and of place, 98 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

of right and of wrong. Like an unruly child, it knows only its own demands, and seeks to satisfy them, regardless of the cost.10 When concern about the treatment method of psychoanalysis, they mainly focus on the mind. The causes of mental disorders appear in the unconsciousness part of mind. According to the division, it calls as Id. According to the psychoanalysis principles, the sexual feelings are the fundamental causes for abnormal behaviors. Sex, in the broad Freud- ian interpretation is the single most powerful force in determining our feelings, thoughts and actions.11 According to the psychoanalytic theory, there are five stages of psycho-sexual development that everyone goes through: the oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, and genital stage. Mental disorders can be caused by an individual receiving too little or too much gratification in one of the psycho-sexual developmental stages. When this happens, the individual is said to be fixated in that developmental stage.12 According to the final picture of mind which he worked out, he says man is impelled by three basic instincts, the sexual instinct, the Ego instinct and self destructive urge.13 According to the Buddhism, it mentioned that three main roots for every kinds of mental illnesses as crav- ing, hatred and delusion. That is main deference between psychoanalysis and Buddhism. When interpret the idea of psychoanalysis, explanations that the causes of mental illnesses come from outside into our unconsciousness. According to the Buddhism, the defilements are origin in the mind. In the objects of outside does not have defilements. In the method of psychoanalysis, the main purpose is studying the unconscious part of mind and find out the causes. Freud focused his attention on symptoms of mental illnesses and believed that symptoms come up from the unconscious of the mental patient. Further he stated that root causes of mental illnesses are to be found in the unconscious.14 It has been said of the psychoanalyst that he drives deeper, stays down longer and comes up dirtier.15

10 Joseph Rosner, All about Psychoanalysis, (New York: Collier Books, 1962), p. 34. 11 Ibid., p. 18. 12 Drew Westen, ‘The Scientific Legacy of Sigmund Freud Toward a Psychodynamically Informed Psychological Science’, American Psychological Association, Vol. 124, (Washington: American Psycho- logical Association, 1998), p. 3. 13 Padmasiri De Silva, An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1979), p. 101. 14 H.S.S. Nissanka, Buddhist Psychotherapy, (Dehiwala: Buddhist Cultural Cntre, 2002), p. 22. 15 Joseph Rosner, All about Psychoanalysis, (New York: Collier Books, 1962), p. 82. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 99

As the way to discover the hidden causes in the unconscious that related to abnormal behavior, follows few methods as mainly free association, transference and interpretation. As explained in the second chapter, the free association is let patient to speak of anything that comes into his mind. The real feelings and thoughts about particular people, situations and things, lie hidden beneath the surface of our minds. Like germs in one’s blood stream, these feelings may be out of sight, but they are still, so to speak, in one’s system. They find ways to make themselves known to us, and the slip of the tongue is one of those ways. The repressed feeling has been enabled to express itself by associating itself with some conscious and more acceptable idea. In everyday life, incidents of free association serve no constructive purpose, and there are occasions, of course, in which they may produce situations which are extremely embarrassing. But no matter how striking the example may be, the average person rarely recognizes the unconscious motive behind it. In the course of analysis, however, free association serves as a useful tool for digging into the unconscious mind. In the method of transference also use to take out the hidden reasons from the un- conscious part. In the course of treatment, the analyst serves as the perfect sounding board for all such repressed feelings. In the privacy of professional surroundings, the patient comes to realize, unconsciously, that nothing he is likely to say or feel will be considered in any way shameful or evil. The attitude of the analyst is expressed in the remark of the Roman playwright Terence, “I am a man, and nothing human is to me.”16 The atmosphere in the room is therefore permissive. And as time goes on, the patient feels himself more and more free to relieve himself his real feelings. The interpretation also uses for the same purpose. In the method of interpretation, interpret like dreams and then try to analyze the reasons. As the summary of the therapeutic methods of psychoanalysis, can mention that they use few ways to take out the causes for the abnormal behavior or mental disorders from the Id. Using those ways, try to makes understanding him about himself. It names as self understanding.17 By means of psychoanalysis, the patient is able to re-live, at times emo- tionally, the situations which touched off his deepest problems. It is this re-enactment of his problems, under the guidance of the analyst that helps the patient to real self-understanding. And it is this real self understanding, achieved through psychoanalysis, which makes for a cure and try to prop up patient’s sense of self esteem.

16 Ibid., p. 67. 17 Ibid., p. 82. 100 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

When compare the psychoanalysis therapy and Buddhist way, some similarities and differentiations can be seen. The main similarity is the both of way have been based on mind. As mentioned in third chapter, the way to reach the main goal of Buddhism based on mind. And it is the eradication of all kinds of roots of mental disorders. In the psycho- analysis, divided mind into three parts and pay attention on unconsciousness part. But the division of mind in psychoanalysis and Buddhism is different. The psychoanalysis lets patient for the self understanding. All of these psychothera- pies hope that to recover mental illnesses by making self understanding. It uses many ways for that like free association, transference and interpretation. As mentioned in third chapter, there is Buddhist way in the sabbasawa sutta. Although did not appear psychotherapy same like western psychology, it has successful ways. In Sabbasawa sutta has mentioned seven methods. The first method of sabbasawa sutta is same with psychoanalysis. In the psycho- analysis also lets him to see his mind. Taints to be abandoned by seeing is the first method in that sutta. By seeing, being can make right understanding. When concern the goal of Buddhism and psychoanalysis can see the differences. Unconscious occurrences may include, for example, individuals, vulnerabilities, motives, tensions, impulses, guilt, fantasies or urges. One of the goals of psychoanalysis is to help the patient develop insight into his or her unconscious processes. In briefly, the can say that the goal of psychoanalysis is to overcome the mental disorders which caused by sexual instinct, the Ego instinct and self destructive urge. The thing is although overcomes the illness, can be appear another illness. In the Buddhist way, leads to overcome completely. The main purpose is to overcome the sufferings. In the Western method, they focus only to some extent. According to the Buddhist analysis, it analyze until the main roots. Buddhism mentioned that for all kinds of mental disorders as greed, hatred and delusion. By eradicating these three roots, can be heal completely.

Conclusion

There are few methods in psychoanalysis and has compared generally. Sigmund Freud has taken a big progress by introducing psychoanalysis. He believed that the cause of mental illnesses has been established in the deep part of mind and it is very difficult to recognize. So, he introduced methods like free association, transference, interpretation and psychodynamic. Through those methods he tried to discover the cause for the mental illness which was in the deep part of mind. And then, he lets pertinent to understand the self. The JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 101

Buddhist aspect of this has explained in Sabbasawa sutta. There are seven methods such as (Dasssanā pahātabbā) taints to be abandoned by seeing, (Saṃvarā pahātabbā) taints to be abandoned by restraining, (Paṭisevanāpahātabbā) taints to be abandoned by using etc. In conclusion, the main purpose of Buddhism is to attain Nibbana. To attain Nib- bana have to eradicate every kinds of defi lements. Because of this reason, Buddhism has analyzed defi lements until to the end. Buddhism mentioned three main roots for the every kind of defi lements and has explained the way to eradicate those roots. According to the Western psychology, they recognize defi lements as mental illnesses. But there is not analyz- ing as Buddhism, because the purpose of Buddhism is to fi nish the birth. Buddhism sees illness as the sufferings. The interpretation of illnesses is deferent between . According to the Western psychology, they just want to heal from illness. They do not have purpose like Buddhism to fi nish the birth. Although have similarities between Western psychology and Buddhism, according to the main purpose it has big difference.

References

Coleman, L. Kolb, Encyclopedia Britannica, London: William Benton Publisher, 1964. De Silva, Padmasiri, An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology, London: 1987. Downey, T. Wayne, “Interpretation”, Encyclopedia of Psychotherapy, 2002. Drew Westen, ‘The Scientifi c Legacy of Sigmund Freud Toward a Psychodynamically Informed Psychological Science’, American Psychological Association, Vol. 124, Washington: American Psychological Association, 1998. Ernest R. Hilgard, Introduction to Psychology, New York: Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, 1953. Marcus, R. Eric, “Transference”, Encyclopedia of Psychotherapy, 2002. Rosner, Joseph, All about Psychoanalysis, New York: Collier Books, 1962. Strachey, James, Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 1989. Strickland, R. Bonnie, ‘Psychotherapy’, The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2001. The Influence of Storehouse Consciousness (Ālayavijñāna) on the Ch’an School

Pham Thi Tuyet Tam, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Phramaha Somboon Vuḍḍhikaro, Dr. MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The aim of this paper is an attempt to present the meaning of Storehouse Con- sciousness (ālayavijñāna), how it can have an infl uence on Ch’an School practice and the abodes that are associated with the attainment of meditation. Concerning to the character- istics and functions of storehouse consciousness the writer would interpret them based on their manifestations. According to the Yogācāra school, Ch’an is a method to understand our mind by looking directly into the nature of mind’s function, and fi nding a way to pu- rify our consciousness. From the Yogācāra point of view, it infl uenced the Ch’an school by its methodology including its treatment of the existence of ālayavijñāna in arūpa and saṃapatti states.

Keywords: Storehouse Consciousness, Ch’an, Formless Realms, No-mind stages. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 103

Introduction

Ālayavijñāna (storehouse consciousness) is a repository or a place that preserves all activities of the mind, is referred to two meanings such as attachment or fundamental consciousness that developed by Yogācāra school. There are three characteristics: depen- dence, imagination, consummation, two functions: general function, inter-relative function of storehouse consciousness. It is always associated with five universal mental formations: contact, attention, feeling perception and volition. Based on these natures ālayavijñāna plays an important role and influences many Mahāyāna practices especially in the Ch’an (Zen) school. The mind becomes defiled through not guarding the six senses gateways and the doing unskillful actions. We can attain a critical distance from objects of phenomena. Though there are many methods of practice in order to purify our mind, Ch’an is a most fundamental practice in the way of transformation. In doing so, the storehouse consciousness also manifests the effects of wholesome actions. That good way is to show good deeds that help realize the true nature of phenomena. In the arūpa (formless realms) and the samapatti (No-mind) stages, the roles of ālayavijñāna is to be a conscious nutriment that maintain and nourish of the body of the yogi. Therefore, Storehouse consciousness is the most fundamental mind of human being. Storehouse Consciousness is a repository or a “place” that preserves all activities of the mind in its meditative stages. This article will describe an influence of store consciousness on the Ch’an school by its practice, and by discussing the existence of ālayavijñāna in the meditative stages arūpa and saṃapatti states. This article is the idea of self-discovering that describes how can one see his mind’s working under the control of storehouse con- sciousness by applying Ch’an practice. Most of daily mind’s working uses the storehouse consciousness as the behind intention but one does not know how it evolves to six senses door. Thus, it is the contribution of storehouse consciousness to the practitioners for his motivation towards the best goal, nirvana in this very life. 104 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Ālayavijñāna (Storehouse Consciousness)

Ālayavijñāna literally has two components Ālaya and Vijñāna which two meanings the storehouse and fundamental consciousness. According to this, the term Ālaya describes from prefix “ā” means “to, toward or from”, and the root “√lī” has two meanings: fun- damental base (ālayaka) and attachment (ālayasamudhāto).1 And the word Vijñāna (Skr) means consciousness.2 In Lankavatara Sutra, the Buddha defines:

The world as we see it exists not, pluralities of things rise from the mind being seen externally, body, property, the abode are manifested to us as of the Ālayavijñāna.3

Store consciousness is always associated with neutral feeling and the five universal mental formations named contact, attention, feeling, perception, and volition to maintain, and to support each other in its own way. Both object and subject are all unobstructed and indeterminate, changing and constantly flowing. So “every seed, every object, every perception are like the drop of water in the river of store consciousness, and they take the nature of that consciousness”.4 The threefold characteristic of storehouse consciousness is dependent characteris- tic which is the basic for designations, the imagination characteristic and the consummate characteristic, the pervade. These also called the nature of ālayavijñāna because it bases on the cause and effect theory. Storehouse consciousness functions is of two kinds: general function is to “receive and maintain seeds and their habits energies, so they can manifest in the world”.5 And inter-relative function towards seven modes of consciousness is divided into two paths: to

1 T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, (ed.), Pali-English Dictionary, (Oxford: Pali Text Society, 2004), p. 109. 2 Ibid., pp. 618-9. 3 Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, The Lankāvatāra Sutra: A Mahāyāna Text, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999), p. 49. 4 Thich Nhat Hanh, Understanding Our Mind, (Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press, 2006), p. 71. 5 Tansen Sen, (ed.), Buddhism across Asia: Networks of Material, Intellectual and Cultural Exchange, Vol. I., (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2014), pp. 315-318. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 105

six senses consciousness and to seventh consciousness. The general function strong influents to other seven consciousnesses. Thus, ālaya consciousness “neither separate from storehouse consciousness, nor do they disturb the stillness of its depths”.6 Storehouse Consciousness as planted seeds to karma. The new seeds come to fruition in each moment until the time of enlightenment while we continue to believe in the reality of perceptual framework. This process creates seeds that will ripen into further delusion. Ālayavijñāna serves as “the basis or container for the connection between the action and the result”7, which plays the role of twofold condition related to the active minds. Traleg explains:

“A latently present, at an unconscious level of consciousness, it is a repository of all our karmic traces and dispositions.”8

The resultants or the power to produce an effect is called seed (bīja) or habit energy (sankhara) because it contains in the store of seed. Throughout the time of sprout when a cause of condition from this store the seed which universal discovers correspond to recognize manifestation and past action. This storehouse consciousness is released by Arahants and Enlightened One when it transforms into a great mirror wisdom (ādarśa-jñāna).

Zen School

Zen is Mahayanists meditative method derives from original meditative practice of the Buddha. The ideal and practical method of Zen is not based on the theories. Nevertheless, Zen is directly showing to one’s mind so that can be recognized the Buddha-nature reality within oneself with seeing the truth and become enlightenment.9 Due to the suffering of one’s mind, the Buddha teaches the four noble truth to heal human’s suffering.

6 , (tr.), The Lankavatara Sutra: The Translation and Commentary, (Berkeley: Counterpoint, 2011), pp. 46-48. 7 Ulrich Timme Kragh, Early Buddhist Theories of Action and Result: A Study of Karmaphala- sambandha Candrakirtis Prasannapada, Verses 17.1-20, (German: Wien, 2006), pp. 304-5. 8 Traleg Kyabgon, Karma: What It Is, What It Isn’t, Why It Matters (USA: Shambhala Publication, 2015), p.61. 9 Shifu Nagaboshi Tomio, The Bodhisattva Warriors: The Origin, Inner Philosophy, History, and Symbolism of the Buddhist Martial Art within India and China, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000), p. 329. 106 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The mind plays an important role in meditative practice in which three feeling appear, that leads a yogi to happiness, suffering or indifferent state. The mind untrained is dangerous, this is why guiding one’s mind through practice of Zen is important. Thus, the science affirms good health by one who practices meditation.

Influence of Storehouse Consciousness on Zen School

Yogacāra school emphasizes on spiritual meditative practice. This school shows the importance of the consciousness that encompasses and creates not only wholesome planes but also unwholesome abodes. Consciousness knows the ultimate reality, because “reality is beyond the senses to which consciousness is bound”. 10 In order to transcend this bondage, one needs to acquire spiritual states by refining one’s mind by means of meditation. The Yogācāra grasps Tatha (suchness) ultimate reality in Mind Only (Cittamatra). The consciousness in each human, contains storehouse consciousness or Buddha nature, which we can discover through meditation. To explain the quality of this storehouse con- sciousness some Buddhists point to the “ocean as the universal consciousness of Nirvana and that the Buddha nature is a person like a drop in this ocean”.11 Practice is “not purification but recognition of that state”.12

Separation of Mind

Learning the Buddha’s teaching to collect and remember so that one can calm the mind is the manner of nourishing the Ālaya consciousness onto the right path. When one enters the gate of practice there is no need to read books anymore, but one only observes his mind as Ālaya consciousness becomes aware of the six senses consciousness. To keep mindful in the present moment, one must attain deep reflection of phe- nomenal things, he is the gate keeper of his mind. The yogi accumulates understanding of his mind into the Ālaya consciousness to make the way clearer. As Ch’an Master Han Shan has commented in the Sūraṇgama Sūtra:

10 Carl Olson, The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrative Historical Introduction, (London: Rutgers University Press, 2005), p.97. 11 Erika Wilson, Emotions and Spirituality in Religions and Spiritual Movements, (USA: University of America Press, 2012), p. 138. 12 Shardza Tashi Gyaltsen, Heart Drops of Dharmakaya: Dzongchen Practice of the Bon Tradition, 2nd ed., (USA: Snow Lion Publications, 2002), p. 43. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 107

“Though the saintly and the worldly differ, and the field of vision is either large or limited, all this pertains to the Direct Perception of the eighth consciousness (ālayavijñāna).” 13

Master Hakuin teaches that “lower your sword right into the middle of the eighth consciousness field.” 14 By saying so, Master Hakuin must have meant that we should stop the operation of the eighth consciousness in order to realize its emptiness and selflessness.

Protection of Six Senses

When we see something, this is our own seeing that has nothing to do with us. This is not our seeing that penetrates throughout the real nature. The seeing of true perception appears when one possesses concentration at certain stages. In the Śūraṇgama, the Blessed One pointed out:

A knot must be untied according to a certain sequence, And when the six have been untied, the one will vanish too. Choose one perceiving faculty and realize your breakthrough. Enter the current. Realize the true enlightenment. From subtle ādāna, storehouse consciousness The energy of habits can burst forth into the torrent.15

Collective seeds in daily practice is based on active consciousness of eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and central sense consciousness. Looking forward to another aspect of seeing, the ālayavijñāna is seen in every appearance of the world, the nature of seeing, seeing in ultimate truth. The distinguishing and reflection of mind is really difficult for a yogi. It is only through the study and the practice of Zen that one is able to understand and perfect one’s wisdom.

13 Upasaka Lu K’uan Yu, (tr.), The Sūraṇgama Sūtra, Commentary by Han Shan, (Taiwan: Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc., 2006), p. 65. 14 Omori, Introduction to Zen Training, (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), pp. 100-2. 15 Ronald Epstein, David Rounds, (ed.), Śūraṇgama sūtra: With Excerpts from The Commentary by Venerable Master Hsūn Hua, (USA: Buddhist Text Translation Society, 2012), p. 194. 108 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Coming for practice, the Buddha had advised to choose one faculty, such as seeing through eyes, so the practitioners can choose new Karma with new habits by keeping mind- fulness through six senses doors in order to collect new information into the Ālaya mind. Mindfulness is needed when one comes to practice, one gradually cognizes objects again in order to realize the nature within the things (object seen) as they really are. Re- moving the old habitual tendencies and adapting new habits is done through mindfulness. The new habit will be kept in the storehouse consciousness from the pure energies. When one is awakened, the storehouse consciousness operates with the other six faculties, will breakthrough and give great knowledge. Storehouse consciousness as the cause of this false construction is to be extin- guished. Mind consciousness arises through being attached to the distinguishing of the external objects and it nourishes the storehouse consciousness by its perfumes or the result of its activities. Seventh mind (māna) then follows with its attachment to the idea of me and mine and its reflection thereon.

The Arūpa States

The formless realms (Arūpabhūmi) are only formless to considerations by the hu- man intellect, because of the relative density of the substance of mind utilized. There four stages of Arūpa are the unlimited of space, infinite consciousness, nothingness and neither conceivable nor inconceivable. The Daśabhūmika states “All the existences of the threefold world and all the destinies are the result of this consciousness.”16 In the formless realms the mental series do not cease. The theory of Ālayavijñāna in Yogacāra school is proved for this situation, because it is the world in the certain places of formless realms, though the realms has no form, it still insists in the three worlds. , in his MahāyānaSaṃgraha pointed out:

16 Asanga, Mahayana Samgraha, Vol. II., Gelongma Karma Migme Chodron, (tr.), (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 1994), p. 62. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 109

In certain places and at certain world, at a certain time, at certain moments. In the formless world (ārūpyadhātu), all matter is interrupted…but the seeds of matter and of mind contain in the storehouse consciousness can never be interrupted as long as the path that counteracts them do not arise.17

It is the force of meditation on formless absorption (samāpatti) that incapacitates the seeds that produces appearances of form in the ālayavijñāna. For as long as the person remains in the formless realm, nothing which has form can appear. It is like the force of the meditation on the absorption of the thought process which incapacitates the seeds of the six consciousnesses in the ālayavijñāna. For as long as “the absorption does not wane, the six consciousnesses cannot arise”.18 The absorption in formless absorption realm (samāpatti) is really absorbed in en- ergy fields and patterns. The energy fields are an “objective support” for the existence of consciousness in the arūpa realms. The highest of the formless realms represents entering into the Śūnyatā Eye.19 With manifestation latent deep within unconscious ālaya, being in the arūpa is very powerful in his mind.

The Saṃapatti stages

Saṃapatti is a steady state of “No-mind” which refers to the absence of all state of mind. 20 At the time, sixth consciousness is not available in the state. The Yogacāra tradition thus opposed Storehouse Consciousness exists in Samapatti. There are two cessa- tions (Samāpatti), asaṃjñi-saṃāpatti (no conceptual thoughts) and -saṃāpatti (the cessation of perception and feeling).21

17 Asanga, Mahayana Samgraha, op.cit., p. 50. 18 , (tr.), Ocean of Eloquence: Tsong Kha Pa’s Commentary on the Yogacara Doctrine of Mind, (US: State of New York Press, 1993), p. 54. 19 Bodo Balsys, Considerations of Mind - a Buddhist Enquiry: A Treatise on Mind, Vol. II., (: Universal Dharma Publishing, 2006), p. 313. 20 R. McRae John, (tr.), Essential of the Transmission of Mind, (Taishō Volume 48, Number 2012-A), (BDK America: Numata Center, 2005), p. 15. 21 Wi Van Den Dungen, Thirty Verse on Consciousness Life, (USA: POD Publication, 2015), p. 87. 110 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

(a) Asaṃjñā-saṃapatti (Absorption of Non-identification) Āsaṃjñā-samāpatti in means “the equipoise of non-perception” or uncon- scious state, a meditative state wherein no perceptual activity remains.22 It is a form of meditation with varying, even contradictory, interpretations. Some account for entering into this type of meditation in order to rest himself, others recover from illness. According to Yogacāra school, asaṃjāsamāpatti is the attainment of fourth dhyāna, and is reborn in the Asaṃjñika heaven, the corresponding abode of this state after death located in the realms of subtle materiality.

(b) Nirodha-saṃapatti (Absorption of Cessation) Nirodhasamāpatti in Sanskrit and Pāli means equipoise of cessation,23 also known as the cessation of perception and sensation (saṃjñāvedayitanirodha). It is accessible only to the saints24 and constitutes the ninth and highest level of meditative attainment in the mainstream Buddhist schools. This is achieved after the fourth meditative absorption of the immaterial realm absorptions (rūpavacaradhyāna) and four immaterial absorptions (ārūpāvacaradhyāna) or a form of happiness of freedom25 (vimuttisukha).

Influence of Storehouse Consciousness on Samapatti Stages

The body matures by nutriments. An impression of this statement is taught by the Buddha in the Four Nutriments of life, as there are four kinds of food that maintain the body: edible food, sense-impression, volition, and consciousness.26 In this state the yogi is in cessation of thought in order to attain peace in thoughtlessness, so volitional nutriment is excepted.

22 E. Buswell Jr. Robert, S. Lopez Jr. Donald, The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, (USA: Princeton University Press, 2014), p. 67. 23 Ibid., p. 588. 24 Dr Youxuan Wang, Buddhism and Destruction: Toward and Comparative Semiotics, (New York: Routledge, 2013), p. 24. 25 Pra Theyanmongkol, A Study Guide for Samatha Vipassana Meditation Based on the Five Meditation Techniques, (Thailand: The National Coordination Center of Provincial Meditation Institute of Thailand, 2012), p. 22. 26 Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Connected Discourse of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, (USA: Wisdom Publication, 2000), p. 540. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 111

The characteristic of the nutriment of consciousness (vijñānavihāra) is maintenance. It is the only nutriment maturing the body of one who enters into āsaṃjñi-saṃapatti and nidrodha-sampatti. Because of ceasing the mind and its mental states the presence of store consciousness is permitted for maintaining the body. In the attainment of cessation, there is still an awareness, this awareness can only be the storehouse consciousness.27 Only the presence of ālayavijñāna serves as the conscious nutrition that supports and matures the body keeping the yogi alive. Furthermore, one who enters into Nirodha sampatti halts all formations (sankhāra) of feeling and perception. Due to the three characteristic of ālayavijñāna as a vipākaviñāna, it is a retributive consciousness. Thus, The Bhagavat said: “when the body factors are suppressed, there is still another cause for the subsistence of the body: food (āhāra), drink (pāna), the vital organ (jivitendriya), consciousness (vijñāna), etc. Thanks to these, although the in breath and outbreath may have disappeared, the body persists.”28 In “The Complete Tradition from Sutra to ”, Choying Tobden Dorje pointed out:

“A state without thoughts, which is unrelated to sensory fields, is the expe- riential context of the storehouse of all dualities experience itself. A state without thoughts, which is related to sensory fields, is the experiential context of the store- house consciousness.” 29

These statements show how Yogacāra traditional idealism allows the presence of ālayavijñāna in subtle mental consciousness states as in the formless realms, or the attain- ment of the two samapattis. Thus, this mind (ālayavijñāna) can be included in the three worlds. Since the retributive consciousness (vipākavijñāna) remains in this absorption, the vijñāna does not leave the body and it is from this vijñāna supplied with all the seeds that the coming out of absorption (pravṛttivijñāna) arises. This is why the store consciousness necessarily exists in this state of attainment of extinction, nirodha-samāpatti.

27 H. Potter Karl, (ed.), Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 A.D, (Delhi: Motilal Banasidass Publication, 1999), p. 465. 28 Asanga, MahayanaSamgraha, op.cit., p. 102 29 Choying Tobden Dorje, The Complete Nyingma Tradition from Sutra to Tantra, Book 1 to 10: Foundations of the Buddhist Path, Ngawang Zangpo, (tr.), (US: Shambala Publications, 2014), p. 312. 112 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

This attainment can neither be said to be a state or not a state, nor can it be said to be purely a concentration attainment or an insight attainment30 as it lacks a basis for analysis because there is no experience that can be analyzed. Therefore, this is the state of the Blessed One or Arahant accessing during lifetime after being tired in daily works, it is the of Nirvāna.

Conclusion

According to Yogācāra school, Storehouse consciousness is a fundamental base of human’s mind latent in deep subliminal unconscious. As the seeds that lie in the earth, waiting for the right time, it sprouts as a tree appearing in conjoin with the earth. It is a collective habitual karma action in daily life. Though storehouse consciousness is a latent tendency but it plays an important influent on the working of mind. The underlying founda- tion of Ālayavijñāna is the domain of consciousness. It is the base of all meritorious minds arising and also the main base of almost all Mahāyāna schools such as Zen school. Within three worlds, Ālayavijñāna plays an influential role in daily Zen practice such as removing the old bad habits, to be aware of the objects and maintains wholesome deeds in order to produce good wholesome habits. In the state of formless realms, and stage of no-mind absorption such as the the attainment of unconscious (Āsaṃjñā-samāpatti) and the attainment of extinction (Nirodha-samāpatti).

30 M. Ingram Daniel, Mastering the Core Teaching of the Buddha: An Unusually Hardcore Dharma Book, (London: British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, 2008), p. 389. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 113

References

Bodhi, Bhikkhu. The Connected Discourse of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. USA: Wisdom Publication, 2000. The Sūraṇgama Sūtra, Commentary by Han Shan, Upasaka Lu K’uan Yu, (tr.). Taiwan: Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc., 2006. Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. The Lankāvatāra Sutra: A Mahāyāna Text. Delhi: Motilal Ba- narsidass, 1999. Asanga, MahayanaSamgraha. Vol II. English Translation by Gelongma Karma Migme Chodron. Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 1994 John, R. McRae. (tr.). Essential of the Transmission of Mind, (Taishō Volume 48, Number 2012-A). US: Numata Center, 2005. Dungen, Wi Van Den. Thirty Verse On Consciousness Life, UK: POD Publication, 2015. Olson, Carl. The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrative Historical Introduction. London: Rutgers University Press, 2005. Gyaltsen, Shardza Tashi. Heart Drops of Dharmakaya: Dzongchen Practice of the Bon Tradition, USA: Snow Lion Publications, 2nd ed. 2002. Wilson, Erika. Emotions and Spirituality in Religions and Spiritual Movements. UK: University of America Press, 2012. Omori, Introduction to Zen Training. London and New York: Routledge, 1996. Epstein, Ronald. Rounds, David. (ed.), Śūraṇgama sūtra: With Excerpts from The Commentary by Venerable Master Hsūn Hua. CA: Buddhist Text Translation Society, 2012. Trungpa, Chogyam. The Path of Individual Liberation: The Profound Treasury of the Ocean of Dharma. Boston: Shambala Publication, 2013. Balsys, Bodo. Considerations of Mind - A Buddhist Enquiry: A Treatise on Mind, Vol. II. Australia: Universal Dharma Publishing, 2016. Sparham, Gareth. (tr.). Ocean of Eloquence: Tsong kha pa’s Commentary on the Yogacara Doctrine of Mind. US: State University of New York Press, 1993. 114 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Robert, E. Buswell Jr. Donald, S. Lopez Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. USA: Princeton University Press, 2014. Theyanmongkol, Pra. A Study Guide for Samatha Vipassana Meditation Based on the Five Meditation Techniques, Thailand: The National Coordination Center of Pro- vincial Meditation Institute of Thailand, 2012. Wang, Dr Youxuan. Buddhism and Destruction: Toward and Comparative Semiotics, New York: Routledge, 2013. Karl, H. Potter. (Ed.) Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 A.D. Delhi: Motilal Banasi- dass Publication, 1999. Dorje, Choying Tobden. The Complete Nyingma Tradition from Sutra to Tantra, Book 1 to 10: Foundations of the Buddhist Path, Ngawang Zangpo, (tr.). USA: Sham- bala Publications, 2014. Daniel, M. Ingram. Mastering the Core Teaching of the Buddha: An Unusually Hardcore Dharma Book. London: British Library, 2008. Davids, T. W. Rhys, Stede, William. (ed.). Pali-English Dictionary. Oxford: Pali Text Society, 2004. Nhat Hanh, Thich. Understanding Our Mind. CA: Parallax Press, 2006. Tansen Sen. (ed.). Buddhism across Asia: Networks of Material, Intellectual and Cultural Exchange, Vol. I. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2014. Kragh, Ulrich Timme. Early Buddhist Theories of Action and Result: A Study of Karmaphalasambandha Candrakirtis Prasannapada. Verses 17.1-20. German: Wien, 2006. Kyabgon, Traleg. Karma: What It Is, What It Isn’t, Why It Matters. USA: Shambhala Publication, 2015. Tomio, Shifu Nagaboshi. The Bodhisattva Warriors: The Origin, Inner Philosophy, History, and Symbolism of the Buddhist Martial Art within India and China. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000. M. Ingram Daniel, Mastering the Core Teaching of the Buddha: An Unusually Hardcore Dharma Book, (London: British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, 2008), p. 389. Duc Son Orphanage Center (DSOC) and its Role in Promoting the Youth Education in Vietnam

Bhikkhunī Hoang Thi Ha, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Dr. Veerachart Nimanong MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The youth constitutes the most signifi cant section of Vietnamese society. However, it is very unfortunate that a large percentage of children and teenagers do not (a) have access to proper education. There are a number of causes behind this phenomenon. Being deprived of proper education, these children (b) fail to realize and use their abilities and potential to develop themselves and the society. Moreover, they (c) become prey to many detrimental effects such as drugs, corruption, criminal activities and various juvenile problems that lead their life to destruction. If these juveniles do have access to proper education with the neces- sary moral and secular training, they can become the strongest element of the society. There are important implications in Buddhism regarding the strengthening of youth education. Duc Son Orphanage Center (DSOC) has been successfully implementing Buddhist principles to educate youth, especially underprivileged children, since its establishment in 1986. The aim of this paper, fi rstly, is to analyze problems (a), (b), and (c) and to discuss how Buddhist institutions can be helpful in dealing with problems of youth education, and hence, can be benefi cial in advancing the measures taken by the government. Secondly, considering DSOC as a model, my current research paper will study the principles and activities of DSOC to strengthen the youth education in Vietnam.

Keywords: Duc Son Orphanage Center (DSOC), Buddhism, youth education. 116 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

The access to education for all children of Vietnam has been a very significant issue for a long time. Scholars have been discussing the subject at various platforms. A number of significant projects aiming at providing education to all children have been adopted by the government and non-government organizations as well. Noticeable achievement has also been attained as a result of such projects. Enrollment and literacy rate has consider- ably increased. Yet, a large number of children and young people do not have access to education. Scholars and policy makers have detected various reasons behind it. The most important issue repeatedly discussed is poverty along with other important reasons. This paper looks into the problems and emphasizes on how Buddhist institutions can be helpful in dealing with problems of youth education. It focuses on how Buddhist institutions can be helpful in advancing and helping the measures taken by the government.

Projects Adopted for the Development of Education in Vietnam

According to the article 28 of the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child, “education is the fundamental right” and its achievement is to be ensured progres- sively and on the basis of equal opportunity”1. Education has always been emphasized as the most important aspect for the national development of Vietnam. Special focus has been given to the development of child education. As it is reported, “Viet Nam has long valued the importance of education, and the Vietnamese government invests a high proportion of its national budget towards educational services for children”2. The under-privileged children are the central concern of these projects. In order to develop them Vietnam has taken significant measures, such as “building new schools, abolishing primary school fees and making textbooks available without charge for poor children in highland areas”3. Most importantly, it has made primary education universal and is in the process of universalizing lower secondary education”4. As a result, it has been able to increase literacy and enrolment rate5. Nevertheless, a significant number of children have no access to education. Most of

1 [10], p. 116 2 [33], p. 14 3 [36], p. 1 4 [11], p. 87 5 ibid JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 117

these children are from poor families and remote areas6. In this sense, the goal has not been completely achieved. The children who are deprived of their right of education are poor children, children with disabilities and the children from ethnic minority groups”7. Therefore, to provide equal access to these three categories of children has become a huge challenge8. Following section briefly discusses the problems encountered by these three categories of children. Poor Children: Childhood poverty has always been considered as a central cause that hinders children’s access to education. Although Vietnam has been undergoing a rapid economic growth since Doi Moi (renovation) started in late 1980s9, child poverty has not been completely erased from Vietnam. Rather, it “is almost certainly more prevalent and severe than is commonly believed”10. Consequently, “education poverty has been identified as a significant domain of child poverty11. It is reported that one-third of the Vietnamese children under 16 years of age (comprising about seven million) are considered poor12. This huge section of the children does not have access to education because their family cannot afford the education costs. While it is difficult for the students and their family to pay the regular school fee, they also have to pay the “informal fees” that includes “school safety and infrastructure maintenance… costs of uniforms, textbooks and school supplies”, “stationary, “transport”.13 “Moreover, the impact of poverty becomes more pronounced towards higher school levels… the school dropout rate is high between the ages of 12 to 16, low at 17 to 18 years and high again at the age of 19. This corresponds to the three education end points: primary, secondary and high school”14.

6 [7], P. 8 7 [12], p. 3; [34], p. 20-24; [10], p. 44; [15], p. 5; [20]; [16] 8 [21] p. 4 9 [3] p. 4 10 [10], p. 43 11 [3], P. 8 12 [3], p. 44; [24], P. 4; [34], p. 10; [15], p. 5 13 [24], p. 3; [20]; [34], p. 24. 14 [20] 118 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Children with disabilities: Reports shows that “there are approximately one million children with disabilities”15. Another statistics shows that the number of children with dis- abilities is much more, about three million”16. Of this huge number, only a small percentage has the opportunity to go to school whereas a major section has no access to education. According to “The Rights of Children with Disabilities in Vietnam”, “the Vietnamese gov- ernment invests a high proportion of its national budget towards educational services for children. However, a large percentage of children with disabilities receive no education at all”17. A number of laws and policies related to the rights of children with disabilities and access to education in Viet Nam18 have been introduced. But, “a significant gap in access to education for children with disabilities”19 is still prevalent. The most important reason lies in the weakness in implementing the laws and policies”20. Children of Ethnic Minorities: Children from ethnic minority groups lag far behind in terms of education. The low enrolment rate of the ethnic minority children has been a significant concern in many reports and literature related to child education. “As reported by the World Bank (2009), almost one in every three ethnic minority households has a child who quits school in the middle of a grade, whereas the same thing happens to 16 percent of the majority Kinh families”21. A similar opinion is provided in the article entitled “The Rights of Children with Disabilities”, “the primary school completion rate among ethnic minority children is significantly lower than that of Kinh and Hoa children: 79.8 percent and 103.1 percent, respectively”22. Various reasons are conspicuous behind this issue but poverty is identified as the most important cause. As we are informed in research materials, “children from ethnic minority families, accordingly, face a high poverty risk of 62-78 percent, while the corresponding rate for the majority Kinh children is 24-28 percent”. Born with an ethnic minority background, one is vulnerable to poor education and dropping out of school, just like the

15 [24], P. 5 16 [16], 17 [33], p. 14 18 [33] p. 28 19 ibid 20 [34], p. 27 21 [24], p. 7 22 [34], p. 24 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 119

general situation of 53 ethnic minority groups throughout the country.”23 Other rea- sons are “financial barriers, the need to work (child labor), the poor quality of teaching in schools, and long distance to school coupled with inadequate classroom infrastructure”24.

Role Played by DSOC in Promoting Youth Education in Vietnam

Various organizations and institutes work for the development of education among these three categories of children. DSOC is one such institutions that has been performing very significant role in sheltering and offering education to these three categories of children. Following is a brief description of the contribution made by DSOC.

Children living at DSOC: following categories of children live at DSOC.

1. Poor children who live at Duc Son Center These children are born in poor families. Their parents cannot afford education and other necessities for them. Therefore, they are brought to Duc Son Center. Most of these children come from the rural and mountainous areas.

2. Children with physical and psychological disabilities Apart from the above categories, there are another group of children who have certain bodily or mental defects such as blindness, deafness, or cerebral palsy25 due to the effects of Agent Orange.

3. Poor children who live at their home Apart from the children who live at Duc Son center, there is another group of children who live at their home with parents and/or relatives. Duc Son Center also help this type of children. These children are mainly from ethnic minorities who live in the mountainous areas. Their parents or guardians cannot afford the fundamental necessities

23 [24], p. 6; [34], p. 24 24 [24], p. 7; [20]; 25 “Cerebral palsy (CP) is the term used for a group of non-progressive disorders of movement and posture caused by abnormal development of, or damage to, motor control centers of the brain. CP is caused by events before, during, or after birth. The abnormalities of muscle control that define CP are often accompanied by other neurological and physical abnormalities”. Retrieved on March 08, 2017, http:// medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/cerebral+palsy. 120 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

to these children. They suffer from chronic malnutrition26. In these cases the guardians of the children approach the local government authorities who confirm the case and ask Duc Son Center for necessary help. Duc Son has several schemes to nurture such children till their adulthood.

Training and Teaching Offered to the Children

In order to help the children with overall development in their life, DSOC provides both religious and secular training and education. In fact, such a vision is evident in the following statement by Nun Minh Tu, the director of the center,

“We are aware of the proper enactment of the measures in taking care of and nurturing the orphans and abandoned children; helping those who are poor and studious; providing special education and vocational training is also directly contributing to improve their education. It will help the children to fulfill their dreams”27.

The children living at DSOC study at various levels of education ranging from pre-school or kindergarten to university. All the children of DSOC are sent to respective education institutions. They are also provided with the requirements necessary for their education. In order to succeed with the goal, the institution offers the following training to the children along with formal education at school and temple: a. Gardening: One of the significant aspects of the training is to teach them garden- ing. There is a clear purpose behind providing this training. Recently, food poisoning has become a challenging problem in the country. Fresh food, meat, and fish are infected with various germs. Therefore, Duc Son Center has taken measures to make a fresh vegetable and fruits orchard of about 10,000 m2. There are twofold objectives of making this garden; first, to produce enough vegetables and fruits for the children and thus tackle the nutrition problem and second, to teach the children how to grow vegetables and make fertilizer. This kind of training helps them to spend their time on a fruitful task. Most importantly, it teaches

26 Interviewing with Nun Minh Tu, The founder of Duc Son, 10/03/2017 at Duc Son Temple, Vietnam. 27 Interview with Nun Minh Tu, the Director of Duc Son Temple, Vietnam, December 28, 2016. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 121

them to value the importance of agriculture, respect laborious work, and be self-dependent in future. b. Physical exercise: Another important part of the training is physical exercise. Duc Son Center has created a playground where the children do various kinds of exercises and play games such as swimming, football, Kung Fu, Karate and different types of sports. It helps them to keep fit and healthy. c. Other extra-curricular training: The children are also involved in various other extra-curricular training such as: dancing, learning computer skills, tailoring, handcrafts and so on.

Protection of the Children in Special Circumstances

In order to take care of the children who are in special conditions at Duc Son Or- phanage Center, the authority of the center has established several important methods and rules that are appropriate with each case of children. Such rules and methods help them develop in the best way and acquiring necessary efficiency in leading their lives. The chil- dren who fall under these special conditions are divided into two groups: a. normal children and b. children with disabilities. Normal children: The children who have the ability to learn are taught a set of skills that may help them to overcome probable obstacles in their life and to survive in different adverse circumstances. The most significant responsibility in providing such skills is to ensure their normal and healthy growth. At the same time they are also taught and familiarized with the practicalities of the external world so that they can gain the abilities to handle any hostile experiences that may come in their way. Psychological and emotional counselling: The children who come to Duc Son center are from various places. They already have a very bitter experience about life. Many of them do not have parents. Hence, it is very important to teach them how to survive in different circumstances. They are provided with both mental and physical care so that they can tackle their bad psychological and emotional experiences and feelings of frustration that they had in the past. This kind of support is important for them to grow up as normal human being. They are also taught how to control themselves, take responsibility and learn from their mistakes. Time management: They are also taught how to manage their time properly. The children learn how to identify the activities that they participate in and how to manage their 122 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

time every day following the daily routine. It prepares them with the skill and awareness of time management which will be very fruitful in future when they will enter into differ- ent careers. Collective living: Another very significant aspect is to teach them how to live in community. It is necessary for them to develop the habits of collective living among the chil- dren who come from various places because they have to spend their everyday life together like family members. They have to study, eat, sleep, work and play together. Therefore, it is necessary to learn to live in a group. It teaches them consistency and uniformity, the sense of caring for themselves and others, the skill of interacting with people and so on. They also learn how to respect the elders and love the youngers like real brothers and sisters, being polite to everyone and refraining from quarreling with each other. Discipline: There is a set of rules that are applied equally to all the children liv- ing at the center. It is essential for them because by following these rules they learn to be disciplined and aware of their behavior. Besides, they become self-conscious about their individual and collective duties and responsibilities, such as: performing their regular du- ties, keeping their room neat and clean, doing homework timely, getting ready for school in time, arranging their belongings properly etc. Privacy and independence: Although the children are monitored and controlled to some extent according to the disciplinary rules when they are very young, the strictness of the rules is made lenient when they become matured enough. They are given due respect and are allowed their rights to be independent and self-reliant in some cases. When they grow up enough and become careful about their life, understand the safety and appropriateness of their attitude and behavior. They are allowed to follow their dreams. They are granted complete freedom to make their own choices and decisions. At this stage of their life, they are just reminded to follow the right direction and advised to have enough courage to take responsibility for themselves and the society as well without committing any error which would endanger their life. Children with disabilities: Duc Son Center provides all the necessary facilities to the children with disabilities as it does to the normal ones. It sends them to school along with other children and prepares the opportunity for community integration with their fellow kids so that they do not feel isolated from the group. Besides, the center has taken special measures to offer vocational training to them such as: wood artwork, carvings, sculptures and so on. It is worth mentioning that they have learned the crafts very well and produced a lot of artistic products that have been purchased by tourists who come to visit the temple JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 123

both from home and abroad. Duc Son Center has opened two special classes for the children who suffer from physical and psychological disabilities. Two specially trained teachers have been employed to teach and take care of them. Although the children with congenital problems of the brain may not be completely cured, yet the specialized teachers have been able to gradually improve their awareness through specially prepared lessons and class-games. As a result, it has been noticed that the disabled children who were previously unable to eat food by themselves and to do their personal work after several years were able to eat their food by themselves and perform their own tasks although not properly.

Activities Inside the Temple

The time-table of Duc Son Center is given bellow. All members of the center, excluding the babies who are too young, perform their regular activities following this time-table.

Daily Routine for the Children

Figure: Time-table

5:00 a.m.: Wake up, exercise, execute individual tasks such as washing face, brushing teeth, etc.

5:30 a.m.: Perform daily duties

6:00 a.m.: Have breakfast

6:45 a.m.: Go to school

11:00 a.m.: Have lunch

12:15 p.m.: Take a nap

1:00 p.m.: Go to school

6:00 p.m.: Have dinner, wash dishes, clean the tables and floor

7:30 p.m.: Do homework

9:00 p.m.: Go to bed (people who want to continue to study can use a lamp) 124 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Every morning, the nuns usually get up at 3:30 a.m. to perform morning chanting. At 4:45 a.m. the wake up bell is rung and all the children leave their bed and begin a new day. Firstly they gather together at the yard to do 15-minute morning exercise. They then return to the bedrooms to arrange their beds properly. Then, they brush their teeth, wash the face, and do their regular duties, which are divided appropriately according to different age groups.

Activities Outside the Temple for the Youth: Socio-cultural and Educational Activities

Apart from the indoor activities, Duc Son center also performs a number of outdoor activities. This section focuses on the outdoor activities performed by Duc Son center. a) Buddhist Association / Program b) Camping c) Visiting historical attractions d) Charity work e) Organizing the Vesak ceremony f) Vu Lan (Ullambana) ceremony g) The Guan Yin Spirituality Festival on June 19 of the lunar calendar h) Supporting the students during their entrance exam i) Traditional medical clinic j) The Buddhist Family or Gia Dinh Phat Tu Viet Nam (GĐPTVN)

Education Projects of DSOC

Since the establishment in 1986, Duc Son center has been taking care of more than 600 children. It focuses on providing them a happy life, good education and other necessary training so that they can grow up as valuable assets and useful citizens of the country. Apart from the facilities provided to the orphanage children, Duc Son Center has also taken the following projects28:

28 The Annual Report of of Duc Son Center Submitted to the President of Vietnam, No. 01/ BC-CĐS, Hue 8/8/2016.. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 125

1. Construction of 100 kindergartens in different regions around Hue Province and remote places where there is no school and hence, children cannot have access to education. 2. Sponsoring and offering monthly allowances to the skilled teachers who teach at the newly established schools. 3. Motivating the local people to send their children to school, especially the people living in the mountainous areas. 4. Providing other necessary things for the schools and buying toys for the children who attend kindergartens. 5. Establishing clean water and hot water systems with solar power for these kindergartens. 6. Organizing various entertainment events for the pre-school children on International Children’s Day and the Mid-Autumn Festival every year. 7. Organizing Teacher’s Day for all pre-school teachers in disadvantaged areas to motivate them. 8. Offering regular support to help elementary schools, junior high schools in the province in general and supplying the necessary teaching equipment to the local schools. In order to carry out such a huge scale of activities, Duc Son Center always maintains a close relationship with the Central Study Encouragement Association, Provincial Study Encouragement Association and district/town and Veterans Thuy Bang commune to help create proper conditions for students. When this happens students especially the poor ones, can continue learning in a healthy and positive environment.

Further Measures Adopted by Duc Son Center

Apart from the measures and programs mentioned above, Duc Son has also adopted several other measures to help these children, such as: a. Early Childhood Education System - kindergarten class: Duc Son Center has helped to build schools, provide teaching and learning tools as well as support salary for teachers. The Center encourages under-qualified teachers to continue refresher courses to improve the quality of early childhood education and to expand access to high quality early childhood education, especially focus on disadvantaged children and ethnic minorities. Since establishment, Duc Son center has helped the disadvantaged children with education and more than 150 pre-school teachers solving their unemployment. All of them were on pension at that time. It has been a great benefit to them and to the community as well. 126 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

b. Opening pre-primary school in the mountainous areas: in order to provide education to the poor and deprived children, Duc Son center has opened schools in moun- tainous regions where there in not enough schools. It also offers a helping hand to the anti-illiteracy campaign in the provincial area. Besides, it helps over 150 teachers to have a stable job. c. Taking care of homeless children: it helps the homeless children by providing a stable place to live in. d. Vocational guidance: it offers vocational training and guidance so that the children can be self-dependent in their life even after leaving the center. e. Free treatment: it offers free treatment to the Buddhist monks and nuns, poor and old people. f. The vegetarian restaurant: with a view to encourage people to lead a holy life, protect the natural environment, and reduce the slaughtering of animals, the center has opened vegetarian restaurant.

Conclusion

In the above discussion, we have focused on the problems encountered by the three categories of children who are the most disadvantaged in the Vietnamese society. They are deprived of their basic rights of education. Although the Vietnamese government has adopted a number of significant measures, the implementation of these measures has not been effective. Hence, a large percentage of these children remain uneducated. This is undoubtedly a great loss for the nation. We have also briefly discussed the underlying causes of this problem. Finally, we have described the activities of Duc Son Center and how they can be applicable for the development of child and youth education in Vietnam. We have noticed that Duc Son center has been training the children so that they can grow up as responsible members of the society and hence, contribute for the development of the country. The aim of the center is to establish a happy and successful society. The center is determined to offer them good education and a bright future. At the same time, it also trains them to be good human beings. They are trained through actively engaging in the practical social activities organized by the center and other socio-cultural organizations. Therefore, it is evident that Duc Son has been playing a crucial role in successfully advancing the national goal of educating the children and the youth of Vietnam. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 127

References

[1] Roelen, Keetie, “Stopping Child Poverty in its Tracks: The Role for Social Protection in Vietnam” Institute of Development Studies, London, September 2011. [2] Cobbe, Jim, “Education, Education Financing, and the Economy in Viet Nam”, Florida State University, Florida/ Tallahassee, 2007 [3] Roelen, Keetie, Gassmann, Franziska and Neubourg, Chris de, “Child Poverty in Vietnam providing insights using a country specifi c and multidimensional model”, Maastricht University, Maastricht, 2008 [4] Hamilton, Carolyn, Barnes, Ruth, and Regan, Carolyn “An analysis of the Child and Family Welfare and Protection Services System in Vietnam”, Children’s Legal Centre, UK, 2010 [5] Quynh, Tran Thu, Quang, Tran Minh, and Hanh, Pham Hong, (ed.) “Rights-Based Ap- proach to Development and Child Rights Programming Plan in Vietnam, Hanoi, 2010 [6] Gallina, Andrea, and Masina, Pietro, “Street children in Vietnam an inquiry into the roots of poverty and survival livelihood strategies”, Roskilde University, Denmark, 2007 [7] Grinspun, Alejandro, “Children and Poverty”, UNDP International Poverty Centre (IPC), Brasilia, 2004. [8] Haub, Carl and Huong, Phuong Thi Thu “Adolescents and Youth in Viet Nam”, the Committee for Population, Family and Children of Vietnam (CPFC) and the Popu- lation Reference Bureau (PRB), USA, Hanoi, 2013. [9] Volkman, Christian Salazar, “A Human Rights-Based Approach to Programming for Children and Women in Vietnam: Key Entry Points and Challenges”, UNICEF, Hanoi. [10] UNICEF Vietnam, “An Analysis of the Situation of Children in Vietnam 1010” UNI- CEF Vietnam, Hanoi, 2010. [11] Central Population and Housing Census Steering Committee, “The 20019 Vietnam Population and Housing Census: Major Findings”, Hanoi, 2010. [12] UN Vietnam, “Young People United Nations Brief 2012-2016”, UN Vietnam, Hanoi, 2016 128 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

[13] UNICEF Viet Nam, “Readiness for Education of Children with Disabilities in Eight Provinces of Viet Nam - 2015 Report”, UNICEF Viet Nam, Hanoi, 2015. [14] Tran, Kham Van, “Social Work Education in Vietnam: Trajectory, Challenges and Directions” International Journal of Social Work and Human Services Practice, Horizon Research Publishing, Hanoi, Vol.3. No.4 October, 2015, pp. 147-154 [15]Roelen, Keetie, “Multidimensional child poverty in Vietnam from a longitudinal per- spective –improved lives or impoverished conditions?” http://www.chronicpoverty. org/uploads/publication_files/roelen_child_poverty_vietnam.pdf [16] “Education for All in Vietnam: high enrolment, but problems of quality remain”, http://www.younglives-vietnam.org/publications/policy-papers/giao-duc-cho-moi- nguoi-tai-viet-nam-ty-le-nhap-hoc-cao-nhung-chat-luong-van-ton-tai-nhieu-van-de/ education-for-all-in-vietnam-high-enrolment-but-problems-of-quality-remain [17] Education, Education Financing, and the Economy in Viet Nam, ftp://ftp.repec.org/opt/ ReDIF/RePEc/fsu/wpaper/wp2007_11_01.pdf Vietnamese Higher Education: Major issues and current challenges, https://www. academia.edu/7614533/Vietnamese_Higher_Education_Major_issues_and_cur- rent_challenges?auto=download [18] Current Policy Measures for Educational Quality Management in Vietnam Nguyen Thi My Loc Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam, http://aadcice.hiroshima-u. ac.jp/e/reseach/paper_no11-1.pdf [19] The current situation of Vietnam education, http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/ pdf/10.11648.j.ss.20130206.11.pdf [20] Education, https://www.unicef.org/vietnam/PART-II-Chapter-2.pdf [21] Education for All 2015 National Review, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002327/ 232770e.pdf [22] Youth, Education, and the Environment in Vietnam, https://asiafoundation.org/resources/ pdfs/VNEnvironmentEducation2011final.pdf [23] World Data on Education, http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/Viet_Nam.pdf [24] Issues in Education for Vietnamese Children, http://vinacapitalfoundation.org/wp- content/uploads/2014/05/VCF-Research_Issues-in-Education-for-Vietnamese- Children_20140523_V1_GV.pdf [25] Vietnamese Education from the Systematic Point of View, http://www.grips.ac.jp/ vietnam/VDFTokyo/Doc/2ndConf15Jul06/OPP2Phong_HoaPaper3.pdf JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 129

[26] Vietnamese higher education in the context of globalization: Qualitative or quantitative targets?, http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30065609/le-vietnamesehigher-2014. pdf [27] UNICEF Annual Report 2015, https://www.unicef.org/about/annualreport/files/ Vietnam_2015_COAR.pdf [28] Rosenthal, Eric, and Mental Disability Rights International, “The Rights of Children with Disabilities in Vietnam” [29] Save the Children, “Child Rights Situation Analysis Vietnam Country Office 2014”, [30] The Third and Fourth Country Report on Vietnam’s Implementation of the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child in the 2002-2007 Period”, Hanoi, 2008 [31] “Education for All in Vietnam: high enrolment, but problems of quality remain” Young Lives Policy Brief 4 [32] Survey Assessment of Vietnamese Youth [33] Duc Son Orphanage, Vietnam Retrieved on March 05, 2017, http://www.ducsonorphans. org/history.html [34]The Annual Report of of Duc Son Center Submitted to the President of Vietnam, No. 01/BC-CĐS, Hue 8/8/2016. [38] “Decision of the provincial People’s Committee on the Allocation and Construction of Duc Son Orphanage”, No. 2115 QL/UBND, February 24, 1997. The Success of “Helping Parents” Training Course for Vietnamese Children Based on the Buddha’s Teachings

Bhikkhuni Nguyen Thi Hien, Phrarajapariyatmuni, Prof. Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The “Helping-parents” training course for children is a very important topic, but in Vietnam it remains new in the fi eld of human sciences, such as sociology, social work, and especially psychology. The area of parent-child relations is facing a lot of gratitude problems, limitations of gratitude cultivation and assessment tools. The research process initially used the discussion of theoretical issues such as gratitude problems, gratitude principle and ways of gratitude cultivation as well as perspectives on psychology. A survey of 93 participants aged from 14 to 26 and their parents through questionnaires assessing the training course has been made to collect the assessments of the trainees and their parents about the feeling of their fi lial duty. Initial results have shown the important areas in the perception of parent support and the suggestions for the development of fi lial piety of children via the Buddha’s teaching.

Keywords: Helping-parents, Training course, Children, Gratitude, Success JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 131

Introduction

The modern lifestyle is influenced by modern civilization and growing computing industry. Unfortunately, the importance of moral values has decreased; filial piety has been eroded by pragmatism and materialism. Many young people have been treating their parents with negligence, indifference, and selfishness; they are interested only in their own life and seldom think of their parents, being able to kill their parents as well. The situation of filial impiety has increased alarmingly; the problem of parent-child relations became especially acute in Vietnam. In family relationships, there is an issue of how children treat their parents. The question is how to nurture proper moral behavior and to restore the good moral traditions of the Vietnamese nation. This research is based on relevant data from the training courses, documents, books, articles on gratitude and filial piety, and Pāli Nikāya. The researcher proposes that, first, a training course should suggest ‘parent support’ as one of the important aspects of ethical teachings, which should be spread to Vietnamese children through all mediums in education. Parents and responsible ones, who have studied Buddhist ethics, however, have missed it. Second, training courses must be organized in order to teach the young generation the theory and practice of gratitude and repayment. In order to rectify this problem before it becomes worse and to point out the Buddha’s ways to help the aging, including parents, ‘Helping-Parents’ training course for Vietnamese children based on the Buddha’s teachings was proposed as a solution to the gratitude problem. The success of “helping-parents” training course for the Vietnamese children is corresponding to the level of satisfaction of children in many different aspects (including learning, activities, food, lodging, friends, and teachers at the training course). Tools for evaluating the success of “helping-parents” training course have used psychological domains (feeling, the presence of positive emotions). In the field of social work in Vietnam, the evaluation of success for such courses is mainly based on material aspects but not spiritual. Objectives of research are: (1) to study the Buddha’s teachings regarding gratitude principle; (2) to use multiple choice tests to assess the perceived success of “helping- parents” training course for participants aged from 14 to 26 years; and (3) to propose some recommendations for family and home education, as well as schools and other educational institutions to improve the “helping-parents” training course for children. 132 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Research plan: (i) Subject and Methodology (see Section 2); (ii) Achievement and analysis (see Section 3); (iii) Conclusions and directions for the development of research in the social work sector (see Section 4).

The Buddha’s Teachings Regarding Gratitude Principle, Cultivation and Training Process

The Buddha’s teachings regarding gratitude and repayment to one’ parents are important for everyone. The research has collected much material concerning the teaching of gratefulness and repayment from both the Pāli Nikāyas and the Vietnamese Āgamas. The researcher has categorized these materials into three major groups: (1) Gratefulness and repayment in practice as an obligation to requite the debt to one’s parents; (2) Gratefulness and repayment in practice as merit accumulation; (3) Gratefulness and repayment in practice as a dharma, social order.

1. Gratefulness and Repayment in Practice as an Obligation to Requite the Debt to One’s Parents From a Buddhist point, the meaning of parents is not limited to giving birth to an individual as is often assumed. According to the Buddha’s words, parents are like the gods, the masters, and those worthy of worship with offerings.

Monks, those families where mother and father are worshipped in the home are reckoned like unto Brahmā. Those families where mother and father are worshipped in the home are ranked with the teachers of old. Worthy of offerings, monks, are those families where mother and father are worshipped in the home. “Brahmā,” monks, is a term for mother and father. “Teachers of old,” monks, is a term for mother and father. “Worthy of offerings,” monks, is a term for mother and father. Why so? Because mother and father do alot for children, they bring them up, nourish and introduce them to the world.1

The parents are not only compared to the gods and the masters; their noble and endless kindness to their children is also compared to the four great oceans.

1 F. L. Woodward (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of the Gradual sayings, vol 1, no.31, (London: PTS, Distributed by Luzac & Company Ltd. 46 Great Russell Street, W.C.1, 1970), pp. 114-5. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 133

… The mother’s milk that we have drunk as we roamed and wandered on through this long course – this alone is more than the water in the four great oceans. For what reason, because, bhikkhus, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning...2

The breast milk nourishing child’s growing up is more than the water in the four great oceans; furthermore, in the Aṅguttaranikāya the Buddha points that parents should be considered as the first fire. They are called the root fire because all children are born from parents. Therefore, they are the root that should be maintained, respected, honored and supported, and made happy by good family men.

What is the fire of the venerable? Consider, brāhman, the man who honoureth his mother and his father – this is called the fire of the venerable. And why? From it this venerable, when esteemed, revered, venerated, respected, must bring best happiness.3

The mother’s milk nourishing child’s growing up is more than the water in the four great oceans; parents are considered as the root of children’ life; parents do much good and their kindness is endless. The Buddha has taken to illustrate the highest possible compassion is the mother’s love. The mother is regarded as “the Buddha at home.”4 Parents’ love to the child is tireless; when one is growing up to be a parent oneself, he or she understands well the far-reaching significance of parental care. Therefore, the Buddha said in the Kataññusutta of the Aṅguttaranikāya as follows: Monks, there are two people who are not easy to repay. Which two? Your mother and father. Even if you were to carry your mother on one shoulder and your father on the other shoulder for 100 years, and were to look after them by anointing, massaging, bathing, and rubbing their limbs, and they were to defecate and urinate right there [on your shoulders], you would not in that way pay or repay your parents. If you were to establish your mother

2 Bhikkhu Bodhi (tr.), Saṃyuttanikāya: The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, vol 1, no.4 (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 653. 3 E.M.Hare (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of the Gradual sayings, vol 4, no. 44 (London: PTS, Distributed by Luzac & Company Ltd. 46 Great Russell Street, W.C.1, 1965), p. 26. 4 Frank J. Hoffman and Deegalle , (ed.), Pāḷi Buddhism. (Richmond Surrey: Curzon Press, 1996), p. 146. 134 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

and father in absolute sovereignty over this great earth, abounding in the seven treasures, you would not in that way pay or repay your parents. Why is that? Mother and father do much for their children. They care for them, they nourish them, they introduce them to this world.5 In this passage, it is quite explicit that the Buddha taught gratefulness and repayment to parents. This passage is also found in the Chinese translation of the Ekottāgama; the same message is given, although the wording is slightly changed.6 This suggests that the passage must have come down from a very old source before the split of Buddhism into different schools since it is common to both Theravāda and Mahāyāna. The Chinese translation of the sūtra stops here, but the Pāli version continues with the Buddha’s advice on how to repay our parents’.

Monks, whoso incites his unbelieving parents, settles and establishes them in the faith; whoso incites his immoral parents, settles and establishes them in morality; whoso incites his stingy parents, settles and establishes them in liberality; whoso incites foolish parents, settles and establishes them in, wisdom, such a one, just by so doing, does repay, does more than repay what is due to his parents.7

In this passage, the Buddha recommended four ways of requiting the debts to one’s parents, which are all for spiritual progress: faith, morality, liberality and wisdom, in contrast to the material and physical ways in the previous passage. So, in other words, helping one’s parents in their spiritual progress is considered much more important than helping them in a material or physical way. However, this does not mean that Buddhism emphasizes only the spiritual aspect of gratefulness and repayment. This will be clear as we progress in our discussion.

2. One’s Duty in Supporting Parents In Sigālovādasutta of the Dīghanikāya, the Buddha advises lay followers to respect and support their parents in five ways:

5 F. L. Woodward (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of the Gradual sayings, vol 1, no. 2, (Lon- don: PTS., Luzac & Company LTD., 1970), pp. 56-57. 6 A phrase of “A hundred years” is mentioned in both the Pāli sutta, but the Chinese Ekottāgama changes it to “a thousand or ten thousand years,” (T2. 600c-601a). 7 F.L.WOODWARD (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of The Gradual Sayings, vol 1, no. 2, (London: Luzac & Company LTD., PTS, 1970), p. 57. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 135

In five ways, a child should minister to his parents as the eastern direction. Once supported by them, I will now be their support; I will perform duties incumbent on them; I will keep up the lineage tradition of my family; I will make myself worthy of my heritage. After my parents’ deaths I will distribute gifts on their behalf.8 According to Indian tradition, the east is the most important direction.9 So when parents are worshipped as the eastern direction, that means parents are considered very important. This becomes clear when we look at the Buddha’s teaching on economics. According to the Aṅguttaranikāya, when one righteously earns wealth, one should spend it on five kinds of people: (1) oneself; (2) one’s parents; (3) one’s wife, children, slaves, workfolk and men; (4) friends and companions; and (5) recluses and Brāhmans. The last category is to make merit for a happy life hereafter, ripening to happiness, leading heavenward.10 Here, parents come second since one has to be alive in order to do all these things. But in another place of the same Aṅguttaranikāya, the text says that one should honor and venerate the following five kinds of people when wealth is righteously earned: (1) parents; (2) wife, children, slaves, workfolk and men; (3) laborers in the fields and those whose business is within one’s boundaries; (4) gods; and (5) recluses.11 In the second list of five kinds of people one should support with wealth, honoring and venerating parents comes first. This is because, in the first list, the Buddha advises how riches are spent while in the second, what kinds of people one should revere when one has wealth. So, in the first list, wealth is the main object while in the second those to whom veneration should be paid is the object. Thus, parents are considered the first and most important people one should honor and venerate. In the Aṅguttaranikāya, the Buddha says that there are three duties that have been praised by the wise and good, one of which is supporting parents: “Monks, these three things

8 T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids (trs.), Dīghanikāya: Dialogues of the Buddha, vol 3, no. 31, (London, Humphrey Milford, Oxford University press, Amen Corner, E.G. 1921), p. 173. 9 Straight_to_heart, Ancient India, Sleepig Directions, update Thursday, 16 August 2012, http:// theancientindia.blogspot.com/2012/08/sleeping-directions.html. Retried on 22 January 2018. 10 E. M. Hare (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of the Gradual Sayings, vol.3, (London: PTS. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1973), p. 259. 11 F.L.WOODWARD (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of The Gradual Sayings, vol 3, (London: Luzac & Company LTD., PTS, 1970), pp. 76-77. 136 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

have been enjoined by the wise and good. What three? Charity, going forth, supporting of mother and father, these are the three duties.”12 In the Vinaya, it is said that if one of a monk’s parents is ill, the monk should go and see them even if he is not asked, since it is the duty of monks. So it is explicit that filial duty should be practiced by monks as well although they have renounced ties-in with the world and they should do it voluntarily, without any force. In the , the Buddha says advising the lay people that, “He should dutifully support his mother and father; he should engage in rightful trade. A vigilant living this way of life goes to the devas who are called Sayampabhas.”13

3. Exemplary of One’s Filial Duty If we take note of the Buddha’s biography, the Buddha’s gratitude and repayment to his parents becomes evident. The Buddha went to the Tāvatiṃsa world; his mother who had been reborn in the Tusita deva world as a deva known as Santusita also came to the Tāvatiṃsa deva world. There the Buddha expounded the Abhidhamma to devas and brahmās throughout the three months of the vassa. As a result, Santusita deva attained sotāpatti fruition. In this way, the Buddha took care of his former mother by preaching Abhidhamma and letting her attain noblehood.14 When king Suddhodhana, his father, was sick, he expounded the Dhamma to help him heal his illness. Once the Buddha was residing at the Veluvana monastery in Rājagaha, at that time his father King Suddhodana repeatedly sent messengers to the Buddha requesting him to visit the city of Kapilavatthu. Accordingly, the Buddha made the journey in the company of twenty thousand Arahats. On arrival at Kapilavatthu he related the Vessantara Jātaka to the assembly of his relatives. On the second day, he entered the city, where by reciting the verse beginning with “Uttiṭṭhe Nappamajjeyya” (i.e. one should arise and should not be unmindful). He caused his father to be established in Sotāpatti Fruition. On arrival at the palace, the Buddha recited another verse beginning with “Dhammaṃ care-sucaritaṃ” (i.e. One should practice the Dhamma) and established the King in Sakadāgāmi Fruition. The Buddha also helped his

12 F.L.WOODWARD (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of The Gradual Sayings, vol 1, (London: PTS, Luzac & Company LTD., 1970), p. 151. 13 K. R. Norman (tr.), Suttanipāta: The Group of Discourses, 2nd ed. Vol 2, no. 404 (Oxford: PTS., 2001), p. 49. 14 Daw Mya Tin (tr.), The Story of the Buddha’s Return from the Tāvatiµsa Deva World, verse 181, (Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya Press, 2539/1996.), p. 324. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 137

step-mother Queen Mahā Prajapathi Gotamī to establish the Order of Bhikkhunis. Then another example in Mātuposaka Sutta, the son of a wealthy couple became a monk and their unfaithful serfs robbed his aged parents of wealth. As a result, the old couple became beggars. The son, who heard the bad news and wanted to return to lay life to support his parents, came and consulted the Buddha who told him that he could support his parents with alms food while being a monk.

4. Gratefulness and Repayment in Practice as a Good Action to Accumulate Merit The Mātuposaka Sutta of Saṃyuttanikāya tells of a Brāhman Mātuposaka who supported his mother. The Brāhman approached the Buddha and asked:

Master Gotama, I seek alms food righteously and thereby support my mother and father. In doing so, am I doing my duty? The Buddha replies: “For sure, Brahmin, in doing so you are doing your duty. One who seeks alms food righteously and thereby supports his mother and father generates much merit.15

Here the Brāhman was not sure whether he practiced in the right way in supporting his parents with alms food. The Buddha assured him by saying that he was not only doing the right thing, but also acquired much merit by supporting his parents. The Sakka Sutta of Saṃyuttanikāya tells that supporting one’s parents is the first of the seven ethical good deeds performed by Brahmā Sakka, the chief of the gods, when he was a human. By force of good deed, he was born in the heaven of the Brahmā world. This was assured by the Buddha as follows:

Bhikkhus, in the past, when Sakka, lord of the deva, was a human being, he adopted and undertook seven vows by the undertaking of which he achieved the status of Sakka. What were the seven vows? As long as I live may I support my parents; As long as I live may I respect the family elders; As long as I live may I speak gently; As long as I live may I not speak divisively…16

15 Rhys Davids, Mrs (tr.), Saṃyuttanikāya: The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Connected Discourses of the Buddha, vol 1, no. 9, (London: PTS, Routledge &Kegan Ltd.,1979), p. 230. 16 Bodhi, Bhikkhu (tr.), Saṃyuttanikāya: The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, vol 1, no.11, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 329. 138 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

As one takes care of parents in the right ways, one will enjoy the good results mentioned in the following verse in the Suttanipātta:

Support mother and father according to Dharma, do business as merchant to honesty adhering, diligently practicing this householder’s rule, then to the self- radiant devas one will arrive.17

The merit one can obtain by supporting one’s parents is indeed very great. Parents are worthy of respect, honor, and worship same as Brahmā, teachers and gods who are worthy of offerings18. By contrast, if a person does not respect, support one’s parents and other elders, one will be reborn into a poor family. On the other hand, if one respects one’s parents, brothers and kinsmen and also makes offerings to them, one will be reborn into a rich family.19 The same idea is also expressed in the Parābhava Sutta of the Suttanipāta when a deity asks the Buddha about the kinds of losers. The Buddha replies that among many losers, one is the person who does not support his parents as follows: “If anyone, being able, does not support mother or father when they are old or past their youth, that is the cause unsuccessful”20 Then in the Vasala Sutta of the Suttanipāta, the Buddha discusses what an outcast consists of with a fire worshipping Brāhman: “Who[ever] being able does not support his mother or father when they are old and past their youth, him one knows let one know him as an outcast. Whosoever strikes or by words annoys mother or father, brother, sister, or mother- in-law, let one know him [to be] an outcaste.”21 The Buddha says that not by birth but by ethical conduct does one become an outcast or a Brāhmaṇa. The Brāhman caste consists of many ethical conducts, among which are supporting and venerating one’s parents. This of course is a reinterpretation by the Buddha of the caste system.

17 K. R. Norman (tr.), Suttanipāta: The Group of Discourses, 2nd ed. Vol 2, no. 404, (Oxford: PTS., 2001), p. 49. 18 F. L. Woodward, (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of The Gradual Sayings, vol 1, no.31. (London: PTS, Distributed by Luzac & Company Ltd. 46 Great Russell Street, W.C.1, 1970), pp.114- 115. 19 Gautama Sanghadeva (tr.) Ekottarāgama, no. 125, (A.D. 397), 595a. 20 K. R. Norman (tr.), Suttanipāta: The Group of Discourses, 2nd ed. Vol 2, no. 98, (Oxford: PTS., 2001), p. 14. 21 K. R. Norman (tr.), Suttanipāta: The Group of Discourses, 2nd ed. Vol 2, no. 124, (Oxford: PTS., 2001), p. 16. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 139

According to Parikuppa Sutta, there are five kinds of grave misdeeds, and killing one’s mother and father are two of them. If one harms one’s parents it is said to prevent one’s chances of attaining any of the noble attainments in this lifetime. People who commit them fall – immediately at the moment of death – into hell. No help from outside is able to mitigate the sufferings they will endure in hell, and thus they are said to be incurable. Only when the results of these deeds have worked themselves out will they be released from hell. Even if they return to the human plane, they will continue to suffer the consequences of their deeds. For example, Ven. Moggallana, one of the Buddha’s foremost disciples, killed his parents many aeons ago, and the results of that deed pursued him even through his final lifetime, when he was beaten to death.22

Monks, five the lost in hell who lie festering, incurable. Which five? (By him) has his mother been deprived of life; his father, an arahant; (by him), - with evil thought, has the Tathāgata’s blood been drawn; (by him) has the Order been embroiled. Verily, monks, these are the five lost in hell who lie festering incurable.23

According to this passage, those who have committed these five kinds of bad karma are wayward down to hell with immediate effect and are in agony and incurable. Thus, we can see that filial piety occupies an important place in Buddhist ethics and spiritual progress.

5. Gratefulness and Repayment in Practice as Social Order, or Dharma If parents are not respected, worse things will happen, such as fighting. This idea is found in many places both the Pāḷi Canon and Vietnamese translations. These texts say that:

Monks, on the eighth day of the lunar each month, the ministers who are councillors of the Four Great Kings perambulate this world to see whether many folks among men pay reverence to mother and father, to recluses and Brāhmans; and show deference to the elders of the clan, observe the Sabbath, keep the vigil and do good work.

22 Thanissaro, Bhikkhu (tr.) Aṅguttaranikāya: Parikuppasutta - In Agony, vol 5, no. 129, (Ac- cess to Insight BCBS Edition, 3 July 2010), . 23 E.M. Hare (tr.) Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of the Gradual Sayings, vol. 3, no. 129, (Oxford: PTS, 2001), p. 112. 140 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

On the fourteenth day (of the lunar half-month), the sons of the Four Great Kings perambulate this world to see whether many folks pay reverence to mother and father, to recluses and Brāhmins; and show deference to the elders of the clan, observe the Sabbath, keep the vigil and do good works…etc. Then on the fifteenth day (of the lunar half-month), the sons of the Four Great Kings perambulate this world to see whether many folks pay reverence to mother and father …etc.

Now, the monks, if few be those among men … who do these things, the Four Great Kings report the matter to the Devas of the Thirty-Three as they sit in the conclave in Hall of Righteousness, saying: “The gods my lords, few among men are they who pay reverence… and do good works.” Then, monks, the Devas of the Thirty-three are displeased and say: “Surely, sirs, the Devas-hosts will diminish and the -hosts will be increased.” If the Four Great Kings report in positive terms then the Devas of the Thirty-Three are glad and say: “Surely, sirs, the Deva-hosts will be increased and the asura-hosts will decrease.”24

Asuras are known for their fighting with gods in the Buddhist scriptures. According to the Pāḷi Text Society, Pāli-English Dictionary, “The fight between Devas and Asuras is also reflected in the oldest books of the Pāli Canon and occurs in identical description under the title of devāsura-sangāma in many places.”25 The Devas represent righteousness, as the Pāli passage informs us that even the assembly hall of the Devas is named Sudhammā, the Hall of Righteousness: “the Four Great Kings report the matter to the Devas of the Thirty-Three, as they sit in conclave in the Hall of Righteousness (Sudhammā), saying … 26 In the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sutta, the assembly hall of Devas is mentioned as Sudhammā, which is translated by Conze as “Maintaining Justice.”27 So the above passage implies that if many folks do not pay reverence to mother and father, to recluses and Brāhmans, there will be an increase of fighting since asuras love fighting while gods maintain peace.

24 F. L. Woodward, (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of The Gradual Sayings, vol 1, no.142, (London: PTS, Distributed by Luzac & Company Ltd. 46 Great Russell Street, W.C.1, 1970), p. 126. 25 Pāḷi Text Social mentioned: “The fighting of the gods with the asuras in the following passages:” Pāli-English Dictionary (p. 89): D. II. 285; S. I. 222 & IV.201, M. I. 253; A. IV. 432. 26 28F. L. Woodward, (tr.), Aṅguttaranikāya: The Book of The Gradual Sayings, vol 1, no.142, (London: PTS, Distributed by Luzac & Company Ltd. 46 Great Russell Street, W.C.1, 1970), p. 126. 27 (tr.) The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines Its Verses Summary. (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, Reprint 1994), p. 116. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 141

So according to this passage, whether human folk respect parents or not is the boast of the ethical practices that directly affect the peace of the world. In Cakkavatti Sīhanāda Sutta mentioned whether parents are respected and honored or not is one of the factors leading to either increase or decrease of people’s life span respectively. In the Dīghanikāya, it is said that once human beings had a life span of five hundred years; because these things were increasing: not respecting parents, sramaṇas and Brāhmans and not performing meritorious deeds, the life span of their sons decreases gradually to a hundred years.

Among human of the latter life span of two and half centuries, these things grew space – lack of filial piety to mother and father, lack of religious piety to holy men, lack of regard for the head of the clan, so the life span decreased to a century.28 If those humans will have a life span only ten years: Among the human’s keen mutual enmity will become the rule, keen ill-will, keen animosity, passionate thoughts even of killing, in a mother towards her child, in a child towards its mother, in a father towards his child, and a child towards its father . . .29

What people do are only the ten bad deeds, the ten good deeds are not heard of.30 On the other hand, the life span of people increases when they respect their parents, religious men and heads of clans. The Pāli version says that this happens when the lifespan of people is twenty years, and because of the good they do, the length of their life will increase; as a result, their sons will live forty years of age.31 So, whether parents are respected and honored or not is one of the important factors leading to either increase or decrease of people’s lifespan. This again suggests that gratitude and repaying are an important ethical practice and affects the order of nature.

28 T.W. Rhys Davids (ed.) Sacred Books of the Buddhist, vol 4, no. 17-18, (London: PTS, 1921), pp. 68-69. 29 ibid. no. 19-20, p.71. 30 ibid., no 18-19, p. 69. 31 ibid., no. 17-21, pp. 71-72. 142 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Subjects and Methods of Research

1. Objects of Training: The “Helping-Parents Training Course” was attended by 93 participants within two courses in two venues: Dieu Am temple – Ninh Thuan, and Ni Vien Nguyen Khong temple – Lam Dong, including 58 girls and 35 boys aged from 14 to 26 years.

2. Research Methods and Tools The assessment tools for the training course have used psychological aspects including feelings and the presence of positive emotions; other aspects included contentment with learning, activity, food, lodging, friends, and teacher at the training course. Through the study, researcher used questionnaires composed by foreign authors to evaluate the success of the training course. Questionnaire assessment of success of training course of participants through the image AUQUEI32 includes 25 items that assess the satisfaction of participants on all aspects namely contentment with learning, activity, food, lodging, friends, and teacher at the training course. To process the results, the author uses statistical data method by average percentage of total 93 participants.

Result Research

1. Results from Children’s Self-Assessment AUQUEI33 Statistical analysis from data of the AUQEI questionnaire for children (see Graph 1.) Average (A) score for the whole AUQUEI questionnaire was 9.051/3. That means that 93 participants were satisfied with their training course. Feeling is the field that has shown the most satisfaction by participants’ assessment (95.7%). The participants were happy with the presence of positive emotions. The participants were psychologically happy including a contentment with learning, activities, food, lodging, friends, and teacher within the seven days of the retreat course. The participants were also happy with the meditation and

32 Dazord Alice and Manificat Sabine, AUQUEI: Auto questionnaire Qualité de vie Enfant Imagé; Pictured Child’s Quality of Life Self Questionnaire (AUQUEI), Expansion Scientifique Française, 1997. 33 AUQUEI: Autoquestionnaire Qualité de vie Enfant Imagé; The Pictured Child’s Quality of Life Self Autoquestionnaire ; Manificat et Dazord, 1997. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 143

chanting activities at the training course (94.64 %). The children were actively participating in meditation and chanting activities not only the sake of cultivating themselves but also for simply knowing the benefits gained from the practice. Moreover, participants were satisfied with attending the Buddhist course (94.61%). During the course, they learned new things about useful lifetime skills and responsibilities. It was a kind of education that children do not receive at school. In contrast, 12.9% of the participants felt that “they had to learn too much at the training course”. It shows that participants’ dissatisfaction field is very high. The researcher’s explanation is that participants had to learn and practice constantly following the daily schedule, and had a little time for rest. According to the daily schedule, during their day from 4:00 am to 10:00 pm participants had only 1 hour to take a rest. They had to learn, discuss, practice, go through interviews and participate in other activities. 34.41% of the participants came to a conclusion that they “should express their gratitude to their parents through providing an adequate amount of money and material things, as well as obey parents without questions and follow what they advise”. The reason of the issue is from participants’ learning of the Buddha’s teachings. Because they understood and remembered this issue through the Buddha’s words that “gratitude and repayment to one’s parents are not only the adequate supply of money and material things, but also spiritual guidance on the path of wholesome living far away from unwholesome.” 35.76% of the participants were “afraid when the teachers reported their actions to their parents”. In the retreat, the most participants attended the course for the sake of cultivating themselves, therefore were obedient to the teacher instructions. This led the participants to maintain a good discipline-consciousness during the activity; they were always diligent in learning and practicing, seemed interested in sutta chanting and meditation. The sources bring the greatest satisfaction of the participants with an average above 80 percent (A>80). They were related to participation in activities, the timidity when attending the retreat, the gratitude ceremony, communication with friends, respect to the retreat rules, contentment with attending the retreat, meditation and chanting activities, and general satisfaction with the course. The sources bring the greatest displeasure of the participants with an average below 40 percentage (A<40) related to learning too much, and being afraid of teacher’s reports to the parents. On the other hand, items with scores lower than 60% are also sources of dissatisfaction with the multi learning subjects, children’s understanding of principles of Buddha’s teachings on gratitude to parents, worries about teachers’ reporting participants’ action to their parents, 144 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

adequate support to the parents’ demand and obedience for gratitude, worries about the interview.

Graph 1: The average of each item of AUQUEI questionnaire34

2. Parent’s Assessment of the Training Course – The Norwegian Directorate35 (ND) The researcher collected data from the questionnaires completed by 93 participants and arranged the results according to the level of satisfaction in order to determine the three most important aspects that constitute the success of this training course. Average score for the whole questionnaire ND is 268.81/3, indicating that, according to the parents, their children were very satisfied with their training course. According to the parents, 94.62% of children showed interest in the retreat activities. The highest expression of satisfaction lied in the field of the child’s interest to attend the retreat course. The parents evaluated children’s satisfaction and their assessment turned out to be consistent with the children’s feelings about the course (to specify the above, 94,61% of children “were happy to attend the retreat”). According to 88,17% of respondents, “the group

34 Note: Y-axis: The items in the AUQUEI questionnaire are sorted according to the average score from high to low. X-axis: average score of items: 0=absolutely not satisfied; 40=not satisfied; 80=satisfied; 100= completely satisfied. 35 The questions are taken from The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training Parent Questionnaire. Last updated in the spring of 2011. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 145

was quiet and good behaved.” Having participated in the activities together with the children, the parents assessed that their son/daughter was progressive in his/her behavior attitude and kept up his/her calm mind. Thus, the parent’s assessment of their child’s high satisfaction is equivalent to the child’s satisfaction with meditation and chanting activities (94.64%). As for communication between participants and teachers, 86.02% said “their son/daughter has received good help from the training course in choosing his/her attitude towards the parents.” It shows that parents’ evaluation are also high compared with the sources bringing the greatest satisfaction for children, average above 80% (A>80). Concluding on the results of the assessment of both children and parents of the feeling of satisfaction with the Buddhist Training Course, the areas of good participation in activities, the gratitude ceremony, respect for the retreat rules, meditation and chanting are the most important areas in the child’s perception of the Buddhist Training Course. However, “learning too much”, and “being afraid of teacher’s report on students’ action to their parents” were the factors that brought dissatisfaction to the child; even anxiety before the interview needs to be considered in the field of Buddhist education for children.

Conclusion

The Buddha’s teachings can be applied in various ways to cultivate gratitude to one’s parents in the minds of young people. It is a good idea to conduct alternative activities for children, such as drawing stories of the Buddha’s past lives, where the principle of gratitude to parents is clear illustrated, sharing facts about how to be grateful and repay parental support to collect merits for the life here and after, showing video clips of stories depicting children’s duties and the benefits they can gain from fulfilling them. Moreover, having analyzed the training process, the researcher suggested eight tips for conducting children courses: (1) to teach children how to help oneself; (2) to practice saying ‘thank you’ with children; (3) to help them recognize parents’ gift; (4) to practice in advance; (5) to let children know about parents’ disappointments; (6) to encourage volunteer work in children; (7) to make gratitude a habit; and (8) to awake appreciation in children. The researcher has formulated “helping-parents” training course factors, steps, and process: (1) Helping parents with housework (types of housework; orientation for helping parents when they aging; behavior of children towards their parents). (2) Course management practice (observing participants; inviting the teachers; material facilities; objectives of training; activities, methods, and program for a 7-day retreat). (3) Training for 93 participants who aged from 14 to 26 years. 146 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

This research is aimed to contribute to education and raise the understanding about gratitude and repayment of young generation toward old people: “Love all, trust a few, do wrong to none.” From this, the young generation will form a clean and healthy way of living, virtuous actions in accordance with the fine traditions of the nation. In order to effectively train and educate people, it is necessary to organize a wide range of activities teaching gratitude and repayment for pupils and students. Buddhism is a religion which lays emphasis on filial piety. Many examples have proved that paying respect to the parents is not a trivial thing. Teaching to respect parents is the most basic moral education. The researcher has presented theoretical and practical results of the evaluation of the success of “Helping-Parents” Buddhist Training Course for Vietnamese children. Research has shown that within the retreat activities and learning-practicing environment, the practice of meditation and sutra chanting are always satisfactory for children in the Buddhist training course. The children outcome of learning Buddhist teachings and practicing helping-parents activities occupy a near-dominant position in the children’s perception of the source satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the Buddhist training course. In addition, the factors related to pressure of heavy curriculum, in other words, a strict daily schedule, also affect the satisfaction of the training course. From that point, to improve the model of Buddhist training course, to raise children’s satisfaction of the Buddhist training course, in the Buddhist learning environment, the teacher should not place too many requirements, demand learning-practicing reporting, as well as be too strict with the children. In particular, the teachers have to avoid reporting about the bad behavior of children to their parents. In addition, the organizers need to include time for fun activities and hobbies. Research has resolved some of theoretical and practical issues in a model of “helping- parents” Buddhist training course for Vietnamese children. Research has shown that the model of Buddhist training course corresponds to the level of satisfaction of the children in many different areas at the retreat course. Including comfort in the active environment, the material facilities, contentment with the teaching, the teacher, food provided at the temple, the friendly relations. In assessing the model of the training course, the author believes that the design of the questionnaire should be based on the evaluation criteria derived from the conceptual basis of the research under that approach. Thus, the issue of the content of teaching, the relationship of children to the teacher, friends, family, and learning environment, the children’s practice should be exploited in these research questionnaires. In addition, the criteria related to the level of parents’ satisfaction of the children should also be assessed in order to have multi- dimensional, both objective and subjective consistent with the children’s concept. An Analytical Study of the Four Noble Truths in Theravāda Buddhism

Indanyani, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This research article is dedicated to an analytical study of the Four Noble Truths in Theravāda Buddhism. The doctrine of the Four Noble Truths was taught by the Buddha in his fi rst sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, the “Discourse on Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dhamma”. All the teachings of the Buddha are based on the Four Noble Truths. The Four Noble Truths realized by the Buddha include the noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the origin of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering and the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering. In his fi rst discourse, the Buddha mentions the truth of suffering (dukkhasaccā) as pariññeyya, meaning that it must be thoroughly realized; samudayasaccā, the truth of the cause of suffering as pahātabba, the truth that must be completely abandoned; nirodhasaccā, the truth of the cessation of suffering as sacchikātabba, the truth that must be experienced; and maggasaccā, the truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering as bhāvetabba, the truth that must be fully developed. The truth of suffering refers to mental and physical phenomena, nāma and rūpa in Pāli. The truth of the cause of suffering refers to attachment, taṇhā in Pāli. The truth of the cessation of suffering refers to Nibbāna. The truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering refers to the Noble Eightfold Path.

Keywords: Theravāda, Buddhism, Four Noble Truths, Dukkhasaccā, Samudayasaccā, Nirodhasaccā, Maggasaccā. 148 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

The Buddha’s teaching is based on the Four Noble Truths. To realize these truths is to realize and penetrate into the true nature of existence, including the full knowledge of oneself. When we recognize that all phenomenal things are transitory, are subject to suffering and are void of any essential reality, we will be convinced that true and enduring happiness cannot be found in material possessions and worldly achievements, that true happiness must be sought only through mental purity and the cultivation of wisdom. The Four Noble Truths are a very important aspect of the Buddha’s teaching. The Buddha has said that it is because we fail to understand the Four Noble Truths that we continue to go around in the cycle of birth and death. The very first sermon of the Buddha, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which he gave to the five monks at the Deer Park in Vārāṇasī, was on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths are: the noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the origin of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering and the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering. There are many ways of understanding the Pāli word ‘dukkha’. It has generally been translated as ‘suffering’ or ‘un-satisfactoriness’, but this term as used in the Four Noble Truths has a deeper and wider meaning.1 The Buddha discovered that the Four Noble Truths are profound, difficult to perceive, difficult to understand, tranquilizing and sublime, cannot be gained by mere reasoning, and are visible only to the wise. “The world, however, is given to pleasure, delighted with pleasure, enchanted with pleasure. Truly, such beings will hardly understand the law of conditionality, the dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda)2 of everything; incomprehensible to them will also be the end of all formations, the forsaking of every substratum of rebirth, the fading away of craving, detachment, extinction, Nibbāna.”3 Objectives of the Research 1. To study the context and origin of the Four Noble Truths; 2. To study the meaning and practice of the Four Noble Truths in Theravāda Buddhism;

1 Dr. K. Sri Dhammanada, What Buddhist Believe, Published by Buddhist Missionary Society Malaysia, 1964. pp. 113,114. 2 Ibid., pp. 189-250. 3 D.N, II. pp. 32,33 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 149

3. To analyze the ways of application of the Four Noble Truths in the daily life. Research Methodology This research work is a kind of textual study that applies documentary research methodology. The research was conducted in the five following stages: 1. Collecting data from the primary sources of English translations of Nikāya and Pāli canon in order to explore the body of knowledge of the Four Noble Truths as well as secondary sources of commentaries, sub-commentaries, and books written and composed by famous Buddhist scholars. 2. Analyzing the raw data as well as systematizing the collected data in order to give a clear picture of the Four Noble Truths. 3. Constructing the entire outline of the work. 4. Discussing the problems encountered according to the significance of the studies. 5. Conclusion and suggestion for further studies, observation and practice. Research Findings The findings of the study can be categorized corresponding to the objectives as follows: The Teaching of the Four Noble Truths The Four Noble Truths can be considered as the foundation of the Buddhist philosophy and thought. It was apparently the first teaching of the Buddha which appears in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta4 of Sutta Pitaka. In the strict interpretation of the Four Noble Truths, there cannot be any doubt that the primary aim was to explain how to achieve Nibbāna or individual emancipation. However, considering the way in which Buddhist teachings and philosophy have evolved, there is nothing wrong in interpreting the Four Noble Truths in the way they are described further. The reasons are as follows: Buddhism is primarily a philosophy than a religion; as the Buddha was addressing many existential, social and environmental issues of the people, after the attainment of enlightenment or delivering the first teaching, it is possible to assume that he applied or used the same methodology to interpret other issues and problems. The way the Four Noble Truths are interpreted here does not diminish the value of Buddhism but enhances it.

4 S.V, 420. 150 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

In that sense and interpretation, the Four Noble Truths is primarily about ‘knowledge’ and ‘knowledge acquisition’. That is also the primary purpose of research. The translation records, “Avoiding both of these extremes, the realized by the Tathāgatha producing vision, producing knowledge – leads to calm, to direct knowledge, to self-awakening and to unbinding.” It is important to emphasize the key phrases: ‘producing vision’, ‘producing knowledge’ and ‘direct knowledge’ if not ‘self-awakening’ or ‘unbinding’. One can even argue that a kind of ‘middle path’ is crucially important for a present researcher when particularly researching on controversial political, economic, or ethnic conflicts. Meaning of the Four Noble Truths according to Contemporary Scholars The meaning of the Four Noble Truths can be found in contemporary Buddhist dictionaries, such as The Pāli Text Society’s Pāli-English Dictionary. According to that work, the four ariyasaccāni are the truths about dukkha, dukkha-samudaya, dukkha-nirodha, and dukkha-nirodha-gāminipaṭipadā.5 The first Noble Truth,dukkha , means something unpleasant, painful, causing misery. There is no word in English covering the same ground as dukkha does in Pāli. Our modern languages in some sense are too specialized and too limited. Sukha6 and dukkha are ease and dis-ease but we use the word disease in another sense; or wealth and illth from well and ill but we have now lost illth; or wellbeing and illness but illness means something else in English. We are forced, therefore, in translation to use half synonyms, no one of which is exact. Dukkha is equally mental and physical. Pain is too predominantly physical, sorrow too exclusively mental, but in connections they have to be used in default of any more exact rendering. Discomfort, suffering, illness, and trouble can occasionally be used in certain connections. Misery, distress, agony, affliction and woe are never right. They are all much too strong and are only mental.7 Main point in the use of the word is the recognition of the fact that dukkha stands out as essential in early Buddhism. In the very first discourse the four so-called truths or facts (saccāni) deal mostly with dukkha. The first of the four gives certain universally recognized cases of it, and then

5 T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, Ph.D. (ed), The Pāli Text Society’s Pāli-English Dic- tionary, London, 1952), p.741. 6 T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, Ph.D. (ed), The Pāli Text Society’s Pāli-English Dic- tionary, London, 1952), p.1616. 7 T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, Ph.D. (ed), The Pāli Text Society’s Pāli-English Dic- tionary, London, 1952), p.742. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 151

sums them up in short. The five groups of physical and mental qualities (which make an individual) are accompanied by ill so far as those groups are fraught with āsavas8 and grasping (pañcupādānakkhandhāpi-dukkha). The second gives the cause of this dukkha, which is craving (taṇhā). The third enjoins the removal of this taṇhā, and the fourth shows the way, or method, of doing so (magga). Entrance to arahantship is the final stage in the recognition of the truth of the causal chain, which realizes the origin of “ill,” the possibility of its removal and the “way” to the removal.9 The most venerable Ledi Sayādaw in his description of the Four Noble Truths mentioned that the first noble truth of suffering (dukkha-sacca) has the four inherent characteristics, which are: (a) Pīḷanaṭṭho, having the characteristics of oppression; (b) Saṅkhātaṭṭho, having the characteristics of production by a combination of causes; (c) Santāpaṭṭho, having the characteristics of heat, fire, continuously burning; (d) Vipariṇāmaṭṭho; having the characteristics of change. Thus, any dhamma that has the above four characteristics is called dukkha-saccā. It means that they are dangers much to be feared by the wise. As all causally-conditioned physical and mental phenomena have the above four characteristics, they are called dukkha- sacca.10 The second noble truth of the origin of suffering (samudaya-sacca) has the four inherent characteristics as follows: (a) Ayuhanaṭṭho, having the characteristic of accumulating what would cause suffering; (b) Nidanaṭṭho, having the characteristic of constantly supplying, or becoming a constant source of supplying of suffering; (c) Samyogaṭṭho, having the characteristic of causing union or association with

8 T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, Ph.D. (ed), The Pāli Text Society’s Pāli-English Dic- tionary, London, 1952), p.279. 9 T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, Ph.D. (ed), The Pāli Text Society’s Pāli-English Dic- tionary, London, 1952, p.1616. 10 The Most Venerable Le Di Sayādaw: The Manual of Buddhism (Satusacca Dīpanī), (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1977), p. 256. 152 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

suffering; (d) Palibodhaṭṭho; having the characteristic of obstructing, being an obstacle or impediment to freedom from suffering. Thus, any dhamma that has the above four characteristics is called samudaya-sacca. It means that this samudaya-sacca really helps the growth of all kinds of suffering. As taṇhā satisfies the above four characteristics, it is always samudaya-sacca.11 The third noble truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha-sacca) has the four inherent characteristics as follows: (a) Nissaranaṭṭho, having the characteristic of being an escape, liberation from suffering; (b) Pavivekaṭṭho, having the characteristic of being free from disturbance; (c) Amataṭṭho, a state where there is no more death or dissolution; (d) Asankhataṭṭho, having the characteristic of the unoriginated (Nibbāna). Thus, any dhamma that has the above four characteristics is called nirodha-sacca. Nibbana alone has the above four characteristics, so it is the nirodha-sacca.12 The fourth noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga-sacca) has the four inherent characteristics, which are: (a) Niyyanaṭṭho, having the characteristic of leading to release or deliverance; (b) Hetuṭṭho, having the characteristic of being a cause for the attainment of arahantship; (c) Dassanaṭṭho, having the characteristic of realization of the Four Noble Truths, which is not even dreamt of in the rounds of samsara; (d) Adhipateyyaṭṭho, having the characteristic of overcoming three kinds of craving and attaining mastery over oneself. Thus, any dhamma that has the above four characteristics is called magga-sacca. Only the Eightfold Noble Path has the above four characteristics. So, the Noble Path alone

11 The Most Venerable Le Di Sayādaw: The Manual of Buddhism (Satusacca Dīpanī), (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1977), p. 256. 12 The Most Venerable Le Di Sayādaw: The Manual of Buddhism (Satusacca Dīpanī), (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1977), p. 257. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 153

is magga-sacca.13 Nyānatiloka Mahāthera described that the first noble truth, the noble truth of suffering, refers to birth as suffering, decay as suffering, death as suffering, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair as suffering, association with the undesirable and the unloved as suffering, separation from the desirable and the loved as suffering, not to get what one desires as suffering.14 The second noble truth of the origin of suffering is craving, which gives rise to fresh rebirth, and bound up with pleasure and lust, now here, now there, finds ever fresh delight. There is the “sensual craving, the craving for existence, the craving for self-annihilation”.15 The third noble truth of the cessation of suffering is the complete fading away and extinction of this craving, its forsaking and abandonment, liberation and detachment from it.16 The fourth noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering is to give oneself up to indulgence in sensual pleasure, the common, vulgar, unholy, unprofitable; or to give oneself up to self-mortification, the painful, unholy, unprofitable: both these two extremes, the perfect one has avoided, and has found out the Middle Path, which makes one both to see and to know, which leads to peace, to discernment, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna.17 1. The Four Noble Truths as Ultimate Truth The ultimate truth in Buddhism is how things really are. They are ever-changing and dependent on circumstances. Suppose a person was sad on one day because of some particular circumstances, but the next day he or she was happy because the circumstances changed. However, it would be untrue to say that a person is happy or sad as such, because the moment of happiness or sadness is defined by the corresponding circumstances. Happiness

13 The Most Venerable Le Di Sayādaw: The Manual of Buddhism (Satusacca Dīpanī), (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1977), p. 257. 14 Nyānatiloka Mahāthera: “The Word of the Buddha”, (The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, ) p.7. 15 NyānatilokaMahāthera: “The Word of the Buddha” (The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, Colombo) p. 19. 16 NyānatilokaMahāthera: “The Word of the Buddha” (The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, Colombo) p. 24.

17 NyānatilokaMahāthera: “The Word of the Buddha” (The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, Colombo) p. 27. 154 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

and sadness cannot arise at the same time. So, if we are happy at the moment, we do not associate ourselves with the sadness of yesterday. Similarly, experiencing happiness, we should not associate the positive feeling with the idea of a self. Because we know that even we may be happy at the moment, in the future, when performing our routine activities, we also might feel sad or neutral according to the circumstances. Buddhists do not believe that they are any of these selves, and they do not believe they are all of them. They believe there is happiness, sadness, and neutrality, but no person is involved. There is no I (or me, or mine). This is an ultimate truth. If they believed they were any of these selves, they would be attached to one or the other of these selves. Such attachment would bring about suffering. It would bring suffering in the following way. If one became attached to a happy self, one would want to be happy all the time. That would be fine for happy occasions. But sometimes it would be wrong, for instance, smiling and laughing at a funeral. If one became attached to a sad self, one would be sad inappropriately, as when another spoke of their good fortune. As an ultimate truth, Buddhists do not identify with a self. The difference between conventional and ultimate truths is further illustrated by this example. Suppose we look at the sky and see the moon. Let us say the moon is waxing. We might say, “The moon is waxing”, meaning it is growing, because later we know we will see more of it in the following days. And when the moon is waning, we might say, “The moon is waning”, because later, we will see less of it in the coming days. These are conventional truths. They aren’t lies. The moon appears like this. But they aren’t ultimate truths (in science). The growing and shrinking of the moon are conventional truths. But the ultimate truth in science is that the moon is not changing. It does not grow and it does not shrink over the month. Only the reflected light changes. The ultimate truth is that an observer sees particular visual effects, dependent on the position of the moon and the Earth, and dependent on the observer’s position on the Earth. Ultimate truth has eight characteristics: 1. Inexpressible: Impossible to verbally describe ultimate truth precisely. 2. Non-dual: Within the realization of an ariya (a superior being who has gained a direct realization of emptiness) there is no differentiation – no duality – of subject and object. 3. Beyond apprehension by the conceptual mind: Cannot be realized by ordinary people’s cognition, but only by the direct perception of an ariya being. 4. Beyond diversity: Ultimate truth of an object is not one with its dependent nature, JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 155

which has many “diversities” – different factors such as production, result, causes, conditions, etc. All diversities cease. 5. All of one taste: The ultimate truth of an object is the absence of duality of subject and object. Tables, chairs, and so on are different objects, but their ultimate truth is the same. Their final mode of existence is also the mere absence of duality of subject and object. In sum, the ultimate truths of all phenomena are all of one taste. 6. Perfect nature is truly existent – it is based on facts; they are real. 7. Perfect nature: Is an ultimate truth, because it is the only mode of existence of an object that possesses the above five characteristics. 8. Mind focus: When a practitioner focuses on an object’s perfect nature, delusions and ignorance are purified, and continued concentration on the perfect nature leads the practitioner to the complete cessation of suffering18. The Four Noble Truths as Conventional Truth In Buddhism, the conventional truth of things is how they appear. For instance, some objects appear to be permanent and to exist independently. Of course, we know they aren’t really permanent and independent. But we act and think as if they were. We speak of the self as if it was unchanging and as independent of the circumstances. Conventionally, we might say, “I was sad yesterday”. We might say, “I am happy now.” This conventional truth is a misunderstanding, because it leads to suffering. Conventional truth has five characteristics: 1. Dependent nature is a relative truth. 2. Imputed nature is also a relative truth. 3. Dependent nature is truly existent – it is based on facts; they are real. 4. Imputed nature is not truly existent – it is fiction, unreal, because it is only conceptually constructed; thus, it does not truly exist. 5. Mind focus: Focusing the mind on dependent nature and imputed nature will not lead to a complete cessation of suffering because they do not have the five characteristics of ultimate truth. In fact, reliance on the imputed and dependent natures leads only to more confusion and suffering. That is, when the mind observes them, instead of purifying the mind,

18 Tsering, Tashi. Relative Truth, Ultimate Truth (The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, Volume 2). Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2008. pp 75-80. 156 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

it increases the negativities, ignorance, and so forth.19 9. The Four Noble Truths as an Approach for Problem Solution The truth of suffering, the first noble truth, is generally interpreted as “Life is suffering.” Many people new to Buddhism tune out as soon as they hear this. But the Pali word dukkha also refers to anything that is temporary, conditional, or compounded of other things. Even something precious and enjoyable is dukkha, because it will end. Related to the nature of life is the nature of self. We can understand that life is impermanent but so are everybody of us. The Buddha taught that before we can understand life and death we must understand the self. The truth of the cause of suffering, the second noble truth, teaches that the cause of suffering is craving or thirst (taṇhā)20. We continually search for something outside ourselves to make us happy. But no matter how successful we are, we never remain satisfied. Lord Buddha taught that this thirst grows from ignorance of the self. We go through life grabbing one thing after another to get a sense of security about ourselves. We attach not only to physical things, but also to ideas and opinions about ourselves and the world around us. Then we grow frustrated when the world doesn’t behave the way we think it should and our lives don’t conform to our expectations. The Buddha’s teachings on karma and rebirth are closely related to the second noble truth. The Buddha’s teachings on the Four Noble Truths are sometimes compared to a physician diagnosing an illness and prescribing a treatment. The first truth tells us what the illness is, and the second truth tells us what causes the illness. The third noble truth holds out hope for a cure. The Buddha taught that through diligent practice, we can put an end to craving. Ending the hamster-wheel chase after satisfaction is enlightenment. The enlightened being exists in a state called Nibbāna. In the truth of the path that frees us from suffering, the fourth noble truth, the Buddha just like a physician prescribes the treatment for our illness, namely the Eightfold Path. Unlike in many other religions, in Buddhism there is no particular benefit to merely believing in a doctrine. Instead, the emphasis is on living the doctrine and walking the path.21

19 Tsering, Geshe Tashi. Relative Truth, Ultimate Truth (The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, Volume 2). Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2008. pp 80-97. 20 D, II. 308. 21 Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang, Introduction to Buddhism: (An Explanation of the Buddhist Way of Life, Tharpa Publications,2008), p. 55. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 157

10. The Benefits of Knowing the Four Noble Truths 11. The benefits of studying the Four Noble Truths is that we will gain some confidence that the problems and difficulties in our life can be stopped. Our life is conditioned by factors outside of our control, but, by seeing clearly what things actually cause all our problems and by seeing that they can be eliminated through understanding the last noble truth, the truth of the path, we will see that there is a remedy to cure the suffering. If we have some sort of confidence through reading books, meditating, discussing, doing homework — then I think we will definitely have some result. Then, if we can see that our present situation can be stopped, that following something like the noble eightfold path has the capability to stop our conditioned life, we are close to seeing the second of the three refuges, which is the Dhamma, the teachings of the Buddha. And seeing beings who are practicing this Dhamma, we are actually seeing both the first and third refuges, the Buddha and the Sangha. Those who have completed the path are the Buddha and those in the process of practicing such things are the Sangha. In studying the four noble truths we are establishing the three refuges. And not only that, but also seeing that we ourselves are capable of doing it. The best way to take refuge in the Dhamma is by putting the path into practice. Eventually we ourselves will become that refuge by becoming an arahant. While we are practicing we are the disciples — not necessarily as an ordained monk or nun, the real meaning of Sangha is someone who has a direct realization of emptiness. Studying the four noble truths, meditation on those points, we need to bring up this kind of understanding and gain that confidence within us. The highest benefit is seeing cause and effect and the real nature of suffering ourselves and how we have fallen into that kind of situation. And seeing how all other beings have done exactly the same. Then the seeing that if we put the last noble truth into practice, we will be capable of benefiting not only ourselves but also other sentient beings, regardless of our present connection with others, without any discrimination of self-interest. That kind of activity can be achieved through understanding and practicing the four noble truths at a very deep and thorough level. By practicing the path, without falling into the two extremes of nihilism, where we feel that nothing has any reality and therefore we are powerless to do anything, and hedonism, where we feel things are solid and unalterable — then we can be really effective in helping 158 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

others. Between these two extremes our understanding will become more and more subtle, and our understanding of cause and effect will become deeper and deeper. The cessation of our suffering is not given to us by someone as a gift but must emerge through practicing the true path. By reaching that kind of understanding, the gap will get smaller and smaller between the uncontrolled, conditioned life we now lead and the core which is pure and perfect peace. Even though it may be difficult to reach that center, we will get closer and closer through our practice. Through studying, developing an understanding and then actually practicing the teaching of the four noble truths in our daily life, the highest benefit can also be so beneficial for all other sentient beings. We can not only cease our own suffering and the cause of suffering but can also cease the suffering and the causes of suffering in other beings.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Four Noble Truths have been expounded to the world and it should now be clear that the Four Noble Truths are the central concept of Buddhism. What the Buddha taught during his ministry of forty-five years embraces these truths, namely:dukkha , suffering or un-satisfactoriness, its arising, its cessation and the way out of this unsatisfactory state. One who thinks deeply will interpret these truths as man and his goal, his final deliverance; that is the sum of the four truths. What we call man, in the ultimate sense, is a combination of mind and body, or the five aggregates of clinging. On the human plane dukkha does not and cannot exist independently of man, his mind and body. It therefore becomes clear that dukkha is nothing else but man himself. As the Buddha said, “The five aggregates of clinging are dukkha.” Then we know that the second truth is craving or ‘thirst’ which is the arising of dukkha. Now where does this craving arise? Where the five aggregates of clinging are, there this craving arises. The third is the stilling, the cessation of this craving, Nibbāna, the final deliverance. This, too, is not external to man. The last and the fourth truth is the way out of this unsatisfactory state, this repeated existence, samsara. The final goal of the practice is the attainment of perfect happiness, the breaking of the wheel of existences through the realization of Nibbāna. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 159

References

I. The Primary Sources

Maurice, Walshe: (trs.). The Long Discourses of the Buddha, A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Wisdom Publications, Boston. Pāli Text Society. Pāli Text Society Translation Series of Tipiṭaka from Various Translator. Oxford: PTS, 2000. Bhikkhu, Bodhi (tr). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha a New Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikaya. Vol.I.2 vals. Set. Oxford: PTS, 2000. Bhikkhu, Bodhi (tr). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha a new Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikaya. Vol.II.2 vals. Set. Oxford: PTS, 2000. Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu, Bodhi, (trs). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha a Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. Oxford: PTS, 2001. Bhikkhu Ñānamoli “The Buddha’s Teaching in His Own Words” Buddhist Publication Society Kandy Sri Lanka, 1999.

II. The Secondary Sources

Sanu Mahatthanadull, Ph.D, “Teaching Document”, IBSC, MCU, Ayutthaya, Thailand: 2016. Ledi Sayadaw, “Satusacca Dipani,” “The Manual of the Constituents of the Four Noble Truths” (Burmese Script), Yangon: Buddhasasana Society Press, 2004. Bhikkhu, Bodhi, “The Noble Eightfold Path”, “The Way to the End of Suffering”, The Wheel Publication No.308/311 Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1984. Nyanatiloka, Mahathera: “The Word of the Buddha” The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, Colombo. Bhikkhu, Bodhi, In the Buddha’s Words: An Anthology of Discourses form the Pāli Canon. USA: Wisdom Publications, Kindle Edition, 2005. Buddhaghosa, Bhadantācariya (Weiter), Āṇamoli, Bhikkhu (Translator) (4th ed.). The Path of Purifi cation: Visuddhimagga. Sri Lanka: Colombo Press, 2010. Cardenas, Briggs. The Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path of Buddhism: Discover the Essence of Buddhism and the Path to Nibbāna. Kindle Edition, 2014. , Walpola, “What the Buddha Taught” one world Publication Oxford, 1996. 160 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

T. W. Rhys Davids, Pāli-English Dictionary, Pāli Text Society, London, 1925. Ven. Nyanatiloka, Buddhist Dictionary (A Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines), Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1987. Nārada Mahāthera, The Buddha and His Teachings, Penong: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1997. Tsering, Geshe Tashi. Relative Truth, Ultimate Truth (The Foundation of Buddhist Thought), Volume 2, Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2008. Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang, Introduction to Buddhism: (An Explanation of the Buddhist Way of Life, Tharpa Publications, 2008. A Study of Concentration (Samādhi) in The Light of Myanmar Theravāda Buddhist Meditation Teachers

Bhikkhu U Dhammaisara, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Ven. Walmoruwe Piyarattana, Dr. MA in Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper explores the meaning and significance of concentration (samādhi) as explained in the Samādhibhāvanā sutta and the related works of Myanmar Theravāda Buddhist meditation teachers. Concentration in Buddhism means a state of mind which has one-pointedness as its characteristic. It can be divided into various types according to the different components and levels. In the Samādhibhāvanā sutta, there can be found four types of cultivation methods and four types of benefi ts that can lead from mundane concentration to supra-mundane concentration. The practice of concentration is to cultivate samatha and vipassanā in order to gain benefi ts of meditation, such as dwelling with happiness here and now, and ultimately achieving enlightenment. Therefore, this research work explores the correct way of practicing concentration and insight meditation as taught by Ledi Sayadaw, Mahasi Sayadaw and Pa Auk Sayadaw in Myanmar. In this research, the author compares different methods of practice described by these three prominent meditation masters. Their explanations of concentration as an aspect of meditation practice are slightly different from each other. Ledi Sayadaw taught to practice momentary concentration or access concentration depending on the situation. Mahasi Sayadaw focused on insight meditation with momentary concentration. However, Pa Auk Sayadaw strongly emphasizes the development of access concentration before proceeding to vipassanā.

Keywords: Samādhi, Meditation, Ledi Sayadaw, Mahasi Sayadaw, Pa Auk Sayadaw. 162 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

According to the teachings of the Buddha, what we really have to follow and practice are the three trainings which are training in morality, concentration and wisdom. One who wants to achieve the true happiness of life has to cultivate these trainings which lead one to realize nibbāna as the most fundamental aspect of Buddhism. The three trainings develop purity required for achieving full knowledge. It causes inner light and clear vision. The three trainings also lead right intention and right view. This produces insight penetrating into the reality of all phenomena existence. Therefore, concentration is one of factors in the contemplative life of Buddhism. Thus, the practice of concentration is repeatedly encouraged by the Buddha saying “Monks, do ye practice concentration. The monk who is concentrated knows a thing as it really is.”1 We can find that the teachings of the Buddha pointed out the development of wisdom. This wisdom purifies moral disciplines and the concentration. To develop wisdom the mind must be first cleaned from the hindrances, and to be cleaned, it must be well concentrated. “Monks, these two conditions have part in knowledge. What two? Calm and Introspection. If cultivated, what profit does calm attain? The mind is cultivated. What profit results from a cultivated mind? All lust abandoned. Monks, if introspection be cultivated, what profit does it attain? Insight is cultivated. If insight be cultivated, what profit does attain? All ignorance is abandoned.”2 The Buddhist theory of concentration aims at the practice of right concentration based on the methods adopted by the Buddha. So, meditation occupies a central position in the Buddhist teaching. In Myanmar, prominent meditation masters like Ledi Sayadaw, Mahasi Sayadaw and Pa Auk Sayadaw developed their teachings and methods based on the Satipaṭṭhāna sutta and other canonical texts. Their methods have been developed as examples for the practitioners. Thus, this study will present the definition of concentration and its kinds, as it is expounded in the scriptures, as well as the structure of Samādhibhāvanā sutta. Furthermore, the author will examine the methods and teachings, developed by the three meditation teachers for the practitioners.

1 Woodward F.l, tr. The Book of Kindred Sayings (Saṃyuttanikāya), part v, 2005: p. 325. 2 Woodward F.L.and Mrs. Rhys Davids D. Litt., Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara Nikāya), vol. I, (Oxford: PTS, 1995), p. 55. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 163

The Definition of Samādhi in Tipitaka

The word samādhi, usually translated as “concentration”, is an important technical term in the teachings of the Buddha. The original term of samādhi used by the Buddha himself is found in his first sermon, described in the Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta.3 The Buddha taught right concentration (sammā-samādhi) referring to a certain state of mind. In the dialogue between Bhikkhunī Dhammadinnā and her former husband named Visāka, samādhi is discussed as both a mental state and as a way of mental training. Thus, Visākha asks: “And what, lady, is concentration? What are the distinguishing marks of concentration? What are the requisites for concentration? What is the concentrative development?” Bhikkhuni Dhammadinnā replies: “Whatever, friend Visākha, is one-pointedness of mind, this is concentration; the four foundations of mindfulness are the distinguishing marks of concentration; the four right efforts are the requisites for concentration; whatever is the practice, the development, the increase of these very things, this is herein the concentrated development.”4 Samādhi is defined as equivalent to the term of cittassa-ekaggatā, tranquility of mind or one-pointedness of mind. This tranquility is connected with a single object. That state of consciousness has increasingly refined levels of mental tranquility and stillness. Concentration, which is one of the mental factors, allows to abide one-pointedly on one object of virtue without a shaken mind. This definition of cittassa-ekaggatā is the name for samādhi, which relates to the synonymous term of samatha. The two terms, samādhi and samatha, have sometimes been used interchangeably in the Pāli literature. This is a mental state of non-distraction as explained in the Dhammasaṅganī: “The stability, solidity, absorbed steadfastness of thought, which on that occasion is absence of distraction, balance, unperturbed mental procedure, quiet, the faculty and the power of concentration, right concentration; this is the self-collectedness that then is.”5 Here, the self-collectedness is a name for concentration. The self-collectedness (cittassa-ekaggatā) is used to illustrate the term samādhi. The state of samādhi has unchanging thought established with balance in the correct proportion without distraction as its characteristic. Therefore, the state of concentration is a basis for insight. In meditation, when the mind can be fixed on an object continuously

3 S.V.326 . 4 I. B.Horner, (tr.), The Middle Length Sayings (Majjhima-Nikaya) Vol, 1., (Oxford: The Pali Text Society, 1995), p.363. 5 C. A, F. Rhys David (tr.), A Buddhist Manual–Psychological Ethics (Dhamma saṅgani), (Oxford: PTS, 1993), p. 11. 164 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

for a long time, it is known as “the attainment of samādhi” which is arising from right concentration. When someone achieves some degree of samādhi, he attains calmness and steadiness in thought. Thus, he becomes upright, attaining freedom from unwholesome behavior.

The Characteristics of Samādhi

The researcher would like to show the Expositor’s (Aṭṭhasālinī) statement about the characteristics of concentration. Regarding its characteristic, etc., the commentary says the following: “concentration has the characteristic of leadership, also non-distraction. This concentration, known as one-pointedness of mind, has non-scattering (of itself) or non- distraction (of associated states) as characteristic, the welding together of the coexistent states as function, as water kneads bath-powder into a paste, and peace of mind or knowledge as manifestation. For it has been said: “He who is concentrated knows, sees according to the truth.” It is distinguished by having ease () as proximate cause. Like the steadiness of a lamp in the absence of wind, so should steadfastness of mind be understood.”6 Here, the Expositor defines the characteristics of concentration as leadership and non-distraction. One of them, leadership, shows that concentration is the leader of all states, focusing the mind on one object like a firmly fixed pillar that cannot be shaken by the wind. Concentration is the chief state of all consciousness when it associates together with them in the same object. Concentration is of one kind with the characteristic of non- distraction. The Expositor gives the example of a battle between two armies, where one army is supported by the king giving directions in the battle. The king’s army easily conquered the hostile army due to the king’s support. Likewise, concentration strengthens all mental states associated together with mindfulness to prevent restlessness. Concentration has the function to focus on one object which is cognized at that moment. For its manifestation, the Expositor uses an example of water that binds together several substances to form one concrete compound. The Expositor mentions that manifestation of concentration is peace of mind and knowledge. The proximate cause of concentration is defined as bliss by the Expositor. It is true that when calm is developed, bliss also develops. The researcher would like to show the characteristic of concentration as mentioned in the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). “Concentration has non-distraction as its

6 Pe Maung Tin (tr.), The Expositor (Aṭṭhasālinī), Vols. II, (London: PTS, 1976), pp. 156-157. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 165

characteristic. Its function is to eliminate distraction. It is manifested as non-wavering. Because of the words, “being blissful, the mind becomes concentrated” its proximate cause is bliss.”7 The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) says that concentration has the characteristic of non-distraction, which means that it fixes the mind on a single object without letting the mind become involved with various sense objects. Concentration puts the mind on a single object preventing its concomitants from giving attention to other objects. The function of concentration is to destroy restlessness and distraction. The manifestation of concentration is non-wavering. As it appears in the mind of meditators, the mind can observe a single object for a long time continuously. Just as the flame of a candle remains steady and un-flickering when there is no wind, so concentration makes the mind fixed on a single object steadily for a long time. The proximate cause of concentration is bliss according to the statement. It means the meditators’ mind is in deeply calmness while resting on one object. The state of mind is free from wandering and distraction. A pleasant feeling is also developed in the meditators. mentions the salient characteristic and the function of concentration is to overcome hatred. This definition is similar to that which is given in the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) because the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) defines the characteristic of concentration as non-distraction and its function as eliminating distraction. However, the Expositor (Aṭṭhasālinī) defines the characteristics of concentration as leadership and non- distraction. The Expositor (Aṭṭhasālinī) says the function of concentration is to focus on one object which is cognized at that moment. Manifestation of concentration mentioned in Vimuttimagga is tranquility which is similar to the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). The difference is that Expositor (Aṭṭhasālinī) states that manifestation is not only peace of mind but also knowledge. Although the proximate cause of concentration is defined as bliss by both Expositor and Visuddhimagga, Vimuttimagga only shows its proximate cause as non-association with defilements and the mind obtaining freedom.“Dwelling of mind is its salient characteristic; overcoming of hatred is its function; tranquility is its manifestation; non-association with defilement and the mind obtaining freedom are its near cause.”8 The researcher would like to conclude that the characteristic of concentration is calmness of mind to overcome hindrances. Its function is stillness and its manifestation is associated with bliss. Non-association with defilements is its proximate cause.

7 Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (tr.), The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), (Kandy: BPS, 1991), p. 82. 8 Soma and Kheminda Thera (trs)., The Path of Freedom (Vimuttimagga), (Kandy: BPS,1961), p. 39. 166 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The following chart is provided in order to give a clear picture of concentration as described in the commentaries:

Samādhi Characteristic Function Manifestation Proximate cause Aṭṭhasāḷinī leadership and welding together of peace of mind bliss (sukha) non-distraction the coexistent states or knowledge

Visuddhimagga non-distraction eliminate non-wavering bliss (sukha) distraction

Vimutti magga dwelling of overcoming of tranquility non-association mind hatred with defilement

Five Kinds of Samādhi

In terms of rūpāvacara jhānas, concentration is divided into five kinds. This five fold classification of meditation is based on the five factors of meditation, namely “initial application of thought, sustained application of thought, joy, bliss and unification of mind”.9 These five kinds should be understood according to the five sets of jhāna factors. Five jhānas are defined according to the fivefold system of factors as follows: 1) First rūpavacara jhāna: concentration is associated with vitakka, vicāra, pīti, sukha and ekaggatā as jhāna factors. It arises by suppression of hindrances. 2) Second rūpāvacara jhāna: concentration is associated with vicāra, pīti, sukha and ekaggatā as the factors of jhāna. It arises by preventing vitakka. 3) Third rūpāvacara jhāna: concentration in third rūpavacara jhāna associates with sukha and ekaggatā. It arises by the suppression of vicāra. 4) Fourth rūpāvacara jhāna: concentration in the fourth rūpāvacara jhāna associated with sukha and ekaggatā. It arises by the preventing pīti. 5) Fifth rūpāvacara jhāna: concentration associated with upekkhā and ekaggatā. It occurs from the suppression of sukha.

9 Soma Thera and Kheminda Thera (trs.), The Path of Freedom (Vimuttimagga), (Colombo: The Saman Press, 1961), p. 45. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 167

6) These are five kinds of jhāna concentration as mentioned above. They are the first jhāna meditation, the second jhāna meditation, the third jhāna meditation, the fourth jhāna meditation and the fifth jhāna meditation.

Concentration: Absorption and Realization

According to the instructions found in Theravada commentaries, there are forty objects of samatha meditation. Before practicing insight meditation (vipassana), we have to cultivate one of samatha meditation objects. Why did the Buddha teach samatha meditation? The Buddha taught samatha meditation because jhāna meditation also can support meditators for the attainment of Enlightenment. In the Jhāna sutta it is said that, “equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with previous passing away of joy and delusion, he enters and dwells in the fourth jhāna, neither painful nor pleasant, which has purification of mindfulness by equanimity.”10 The Buddha used to praise such kind of meditation and he encouraged Bhikkhus to practice samatha. We can find that in the discussion between Ānanda and Brahmin Gopaka Moggalana as well: “With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, he enters upon and abides in the fourth jhāna.”11 According to the passage in the Jhāna sutta, one who approaches to practice samatha meditation firstly needs to attain access concentration or one of the fine-material or immaterial-sphere jhānas. Then, one goes to practice the development of insight by focusing on and observing mental and physical phenomena, namely the three characteristics of impermanence, suffering and non-self. For this, the meditator’s prior attainment of access or absorption concentration is reckoned as purification of mind. Therefore, it is necessary to practice samatha meditation. Jhāna concentration can produce a powerful light, which is called the light of wisdom. With the assistance of the light of wisdom, meditators can practice vipassanā systematically and they can see clearly the ultimate materiality and mentality. They can contemplate those formations as anicca, dukkha and systematically. Because of this reason, the Buddha also taught jhāna meditation.

10 Bhikkhu Bodhi (tr.), The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Aṅguttara Nikaya), (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012), p. 2188. 11 Bhikkhu Nyanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (trs.), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (Majjhima Nikaya), (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 1995), p. 886. 168 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

In the Samādhibhāvanā sutta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya, the Buddha taught the way to develop concentration and the four benefits of this development. This sutta is similar to the discourse on the cultivation of samādhi in the Saṅgiti sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya.

The Benefits of Samādhi Cultivation method

1. Dwelling happily here and now 1. The 4 jhānas 2. Knowledge and vision 2. The perception of light 3. Mindfulness and clear comprehension 3. The perception of impermanence

4.The destruction of mental cankers 4. To observe rising and falling of aggregates

The Samādhibhāvanā sutta shows a pattern which systematically explains how to proceed from samādhi to vipassanā practice: “There is a development of concentration that leads to dwelling happily in this very life. There is a development of concentration that leads to obtaining knowledge and vision. There is a development of concentration that leads to mindfulness and clear comprehension. There is a development of concentration that leads to the destruction of the taints.”12 Samādhibhāvanā sutta mentions the method which is essential for proper practice. The first step is to dwell happily here and now. If the mind is full of thoughts on desirable objects or unpleasant objects, the mind will be filled with craving or aversion. If the mind will lose an object it desires, there will be worry and sorrow. Because sense desires are impermanent, painful and subject to change, and from their change and transformation there arises sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and distress.13 How do we live with happiness? To live with happiness, we have to achieve absorption concentration. To develop absorption concentration, we have to cultivate one of samatha meditation objects. During practicing, the practitioner closes his eyes and focuses on breathing in and out continuously for a long time. It is called ānāpānassati (mindfulness of breathing in and out). When he achieves the level of absorption concentration, what is in his mind? In his mind, there is initial thought focusing on breathing in and out. When he achieves sustained thought, joy, bliss and one-

12 Bhikkhu Bodhi (tr.), the Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Aṅguttara Nikāya), (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012), p.432. 13 Maurice Walshe (tr.), the Long Discourses of the Buddha (Dīgha Nikāya) (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 1995 p.85. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 169

pointiness, the mind of the practitioners is completely unified. This state is called dwelling happily here and now in which there is no sensual desire. “It is good to tame the mind, for a well-tamed mind brings happiness.”14 The second step is that “the perception of light” is applied for the attainment of “knowledge and vision.” The third step is that the perception of impermanence is cultivated to develop mindfulness and clear comprehension. Finally, this sutta explains that concentration is practiced to see the reality. Therefore, the jhāna concentration plays a major role in propelling mindfulness to attain the supra-mundane level of path-entry. The perception of impermanence is an efficacious practice that develops mindfulness and clear comprehension by way of realizing the most fundamental characteristic of all conditioned things, that is impermanence, non-self and suffering. This practice prevents the mind from being distracted by any of sensual objects. If the mind is distracted, the distraction is easily abandoned by reflecting on its impermanent nature. As stated in this sutta, this perception is efficacious in bringing about stream-winning in this life. The fourth concentration is cultivated to destroy defilements in us. It is called “the development of concentration that leads to the destruction of the taints.”15

The Meaning of Samādhi as Understood by Myanmar’s Theravāda Meditaion Teachers

Main Method of Meditation Insight meditation is the necessary application of the Buddhist perspective to one’s life. Therefore, the method of practice plays an important role because only a true method will support the attainment Enlightenment at the individual level in one’s current life. Under this heading, the researcher will discuss the method of practice taught by the three meditation teachers: Ledi Sayadaw, Mahasi Sayadaw and Pa Auk Sayadaw from Myanmar.

14 Daw Mya Tin (tr.), Dhammapada, (Yangon: Myanmar Pitaka Association, 1995), p. 47. Bhikkhu Bodhi (tr.), the Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Aṅguttara Nikāya), (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012) p.432. 15 Bhikkhu Bodhi (tr.), the Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Aṅguttara Nikāya), (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012), p.432. 170 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Ledi Sayadaw: The Method of Practice In his Manual of Buddhism, Ledi Sayadaw said that “before acquiring tranquility and insight, one must practice mindfulness of body which is one of the four foundations of mindfulness.”16 The Maggaṅga Dīpanī mentioned the practice of mindful breathing for the householders who have no time to practice this exercise in the day time. Sayadaw urged them to practice about one or two hours before they go to sleep and before they get up from bed in the morning. The method of practice given by the Ledi Sayadaw is that we should mindfully breathe in and we should mindfully breathe out. As his work Mindfulness of Breathing states, “during the whole period and during which one has determined to sit, the mind is concentrated just on the breathing and is not allowed to stray here and there. To accomplish this, one needs bodily effort and mental effort. Here, bodily effort means the effort made to practice for a fixed period each day, never letting a day go by without practice. Mental effort is the extreme care that one takes breathing in and out that the mind may not stray elsewhere as well as the intense of application of the mind to the meditation object so that sleepiness and sloth do not creep in. As the breath touches the nostril during exhalation, one should be mindful just of the breathing out. Similarly, when inhaling, be mindful just of the touch of air passing in, the mind should be fixed continuously upon the region of the nostrils. Hence, right effort here means these two kinds of effort, bodily and mental, as mentioned above.”17 The description above is the method of practice instructed by Ledi Sayadaw. It means that to develop their mental training, the practitioners do not move their mind away from exhaling and inhaling. They have to breathe out and breathe in mindfully. Their right efforts called “kāyika-vīriya” and “cetasika-vīriya” have to keep their attention firmly fixed on the breath. They should not allow their mind to switch over to internal objects of thought but they have to make their mind fixed continuously on inhaling and exhaling. “When this practice has been repeated for three or four months, the unsteadiness of mind will disappear.18 Ledi Sayadaw explained the method of meditation based on the Commentary which describes three main stages to follow in practice. They are:

16 Venerable Ledi Sayadaw, Manual of Buddhism (The Exposition of the Buddha-Dhamma), The English Editorial Board (trs.), (Yangon: Department of Religious Affairs, 2004), p.655 17 Ledi Sayādaw, The Noble Eightfold Path and its Factors Explained (Maggaṅga-dīpanī), (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1985), p. 38. 18 Ledi Sayadaw, Manual of Buddhism (The Exposition of the Buddha-Dhamma), The English Editorial Board (trs.), (Yangon: Department of Religious Affairs, 2004), p.422. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 171

1) “Counting”: attention is placed on the out-breaths and in-breaths by counting them. 2) “Connection”: attention is placed directly on the out-breaths and in-breaths and is made stronger and firmer but the counting is discontinued. 3) “Fixing”: the effort is intensified until the higher stages of attainment are achieved.19 After practicing these methods for three months or four months, the practitioners’ mind will be concentrated well on the meditation object. Then they will develop by practicing the purification of virtue and the purification of mind. So, the practitioners have to develop insight meditation. Ledi Sayadaw has mentioned that, “In the ultimate reality, there exist only the out-breath and in-breath with the four primary elements of earth, water, fire and wind.”20 For the insight meditation, Ledi Sayadaw gives the following method: “In order to acquire knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, they attempt in the least to obtain insight into the six basic constituent elements of “pathavī, āpo, tejo, vāyo, ākāsa and viññāṇa”. Or insight into their fleeting and unstable nature, how they do last for more than the twinkling of an eye at a time (so as to say and how they are continually being destroyed), through such methods of practice as studying, memorizing, reciting, cognizing, listening, discussing, questioning, practicing insight exercises, and contemplating. If a clear insight is obtained into these six elements, there is no need for special practice with regard to the remaining dhamma.”21 These are the methods for both tranquility meditation and insight meditation taught by Ledi Sayadaw.

Mahasi Sayadaw: The Method of Practice

Mahasi Sayadaw based his teaching method on the four foundations of mindfulness, namely contemplating the body, contemplating the sensation, contemplating the mind and contemplating the dhamma as described in the Satipaṭṭhānasutta. We can choose kāya, ,

19 Ledi Sayadaw, Manual of Mindfulness of Breathing (Ānāpāna Dīpanī) (Yangon: Myanmar, Department of Religious Affairs, 2004), p.667. 20 Ledi Sayadaw, Manual of Mindfulness of Breathing (Ānāpāna Dīpanī) (Yangon: Department of Religious Affairs, 2004), p.690. 21 Ledi Sayadaw, Manual of Buddhism (The Exposition of the Buddha-Dhamma), The English Editorial Board (trs.), (Yangon: Department of Religious Affairs, 2004), p.364. 172 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

vedanā or dhamma to observe our mind or body. Concentration is developed by constantly observing rising and falling of the abdomen. Then awareness is directed to physical and mental sensations. “The Yogi who practices mindfulness learns to make a distinction between mind and body at the level of contemplating. It is found that the contemplating mind and its object always come together closely. This fixedness of the mind on its object is momentary concentration of insight.”22 The primary object of meditation given by Mahasi Sayadaw is the observation of “rising and falling”, which are movements of the abdomen. “With every act of breathing, the moment of rising and falling is always evident. This is the material quality known as the elements of motion. One should begin by noting this moment by observing the abdomen intently.”23 This method for insight meditation is well-known as “rising-falling” system. “The best is to begin the contemplation with the movement of the air, namely the rising and falling movements of the abdomen as is done by the meditators at this center.”24 Mahasi Sayadaw instructed to “try to keep the mind (but not your eyes) on the abdomen. You will thereby come to know the movement of rising and falling of it. If these movements are not clear to you in the beginning, then place both hands on the abdomen to feel these rising and falling of abdomen. After a short time, the upward moment of exhalation will be clear. Then make a mental note of rising for the upward moment, falling for the downward moment.”25 Mahasi Sayadaw explained that the meditators have to continue “to note or to observe the successive occurrences of seeing and hearing etc., at the six points or sense doors.”26 In this method, the exercise is simply to note “seeing, seeing” in every act of seeing. At that time, a visual object is noted. Consciousness of seeing is noted. Similarly, in the case of hearing, there are only two distinct elements of mind and matter. The sense of hearing arises dependent

22 Mahasi Sayadaw, A Discourse on Sallekha Sutta (Yangon: Buddhasasana Nuggaha Organiza- tion, 1981), p. 422. 23 Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassana Meditation Exercises, (Yangon: Buddhasasana Nuggaha Organization,1978), p. 17. 24 Mahasi Sayadaw, A Discourse on the Purābheda Sutta, translated by U Htin Fatt (Maung Htin), (Yangon: Buddha Sāsanānuggaha Organization, 2013), p.102. 25 Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassanā Exercises, (Yangon: Buddhasasana Nuggaha Organiza- tion, 1982), p.5. 26 Mahasi Sayadaw, Satipaṭṭhāna Vipassanaā Meditation (A Basic Buddhist Mindfulness Exer- cises), (Yangon: The Department of Religious Affairs, 1979), p.23. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 173

on ear while ear and sound come in contact with the mind. Therefore, we have to observe “hearing, hearing” on every occasion of hearing. We have to note “smelling, smelling” when we smell. When we know the taste, we have to note “knowing, knowing” on every occasion of knowing the taste. It should be noted in case of knowing or feeling that it is the sensation of touch on the body. In sitting position, meditators will experience intense feelings, such as sensation of pain, discomfort, etc. after remaining in sitting posture for a long time. At that time, they have to focus on contemplation of sensation. “When you have sat meditating for long, sensations of stiffness and heat will rise in the body such as feeing hot, pain, tired, etc. In these cases, the meditators have to note carefully, “feeling hot”, “feeling painful”, “feeling tired”, etc. All of these sensations are dukkha (feeling of un-satisfactoriness) and noting them is vedanā- nupassanā.”27 Finally, we have to realize the three characteristics in everything that we note in our body and mind during meditation. Mahasi Sayadaw said that “thus, the process of arising and vanishing go on which clearly shows that nothing is permanent. One is therefore convinced that “things are not permanent” because it is noted that they arise and vanish at every time of noting. This is insight into impermanence.”28

Pa Auk Sayadaw: The Method of Practice

Ānāpānasati sutta states that it is possible to develop the practice with a single meditation object such as mindfulness of in-breath and out-breath. Based on , Pa Auk Sayadaw used his methods to instruct thousands of meditators from Myanmar and abroad. There are forty ways to practice tranquility meditation. Out of them, Pa Auk Sayadaw suggest the beginners to practice the mindfulness of breathing because Sayadaw found that most meditators succeed by this method. The primary object of meditation given by the Pa Auk Sayadaw is mindfulness of breathing and four elements meditation. Mindfulness of breathing is used as the basic principle for developing concentration. But the four elements are applied to investigate the nature of mind and matter for the insight meditation. The methods of practice for developing concentration are explained by Pa Auk Sayadaw as follows:

27 Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassanā Meditation Exercises. (Yangon: Buddhasasana Nuggaha Organization,1978), p.5. 28 Ibd p.22. 174 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

1. Breathing in a long breath he knows, “I am breathing in a long breath”, or breathing out a long breath he knows, “I am breathing out a long breath.” 2. Breathing in a short breath he knows, “I am breathing in a short breath”, or breathing out a short breath he knows, “I am breathing out a short breath”. 3. “Experiencing the whole breath body I will breathe in”, thus he trains himself, and, “Experiencing the whole breath body I will breathe out”, thus he trains himself. 4. “Calming the breath body I will breathe in”, thus he trains himself, and, “Calming the breath body I will breathe out”, thus he trains himself.29 These four methods are for those who want to practice mindfulness of breathing. In this practice, the mind is focused on the “touching point” of the breath, located either on the tip of the nose or the upper lip. If a meditator begins with mindfulness of breathing, then he has to be aware of the breath which passes in and out of the nostril. At the beginning, the meditator should be aware of the sense of touch of breath entering his nose. He has to continually contemplate his breath with mindfulness. In this way, he has to practice until his concentration develops to the level of jhāna. Sayadaw gives an important instruction saying, “this means do not note ‘in, out, impermanent’, or ‘in, out, suffering’, or ‘in, out, non- self’. Simply be aware of the in-and-out-breath as a concept. The concept of the breath is the object of mindfulness-of-breathing. It is this object to which you must direct your attention in order to develop concentration. As you pay attention to the concept of the breath in this way, and if you have practiced this meditation in a previous life and have developed some pāramī, you will easily be able to concentrate on the in-and-out-breath.”30 “As you progress from access concentration into absorption through each of the four jhānas, the light of wisdom grows brighter and brighter. It is the light that allows you to discern the five aggregates and practice vipassanā in the later stages of meditation.”31 According to Pa Auk Sayadaw, concentration is an important foundation of vipassanā. Sayadaw teaches to practice tranquility meditation first in order to develop concentration. He also teaches pure-insight meditation. So, at the outset, the meditators have to attain and master each of the four jhānas. After they succeed in tranquility meditation,

29 Pa-Auk Sayadaw, Mindfulness of Breathing and Four Elements Meditation, (Malaysia: Wave Press, 1998), p.1. 30 1bd, p.2. 31 Bhikkhu Moneyya, (tr.), Teachings and Training, (Malaysia: Wave Press, 2005), p. 23. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 175

they have to change from samatha to vipassana. “For the insight meditation, defining the four elements is found to be most effective to develop access jhāna quickly. The yogi can then discern all the 32 body parts both internally and externally. A meditator uses either access concentration or jhāna concentration as the foundation of vipassanā and undertakes vipassanā defining mentality materiality as impermanence, painful and not self.”32 In this practice, we have to focus on the four elements. Our bodies are composed of earth, water, fire and wind. Each of these four elements has certain physical characteristics. We have to learn from them systematically. When we begin to see the small particles of the body, we have to try practicing continuously until we can realize the nature of the body as impermanence. We will realize five aggregates are subject to change whenever they arise and pass away. Because of this, they are dukkha (suffering). The five aggregates are always subject to arising and passing away, therefore, they are non-self. Finally, the meditators will attain the main goal of Buddhism which is freedom from all cankers. These are the methods taught by Pa Auk Sayadaw.

Conclusion

Samādhi is cultivated through the practice of samatha and is an important foundation of vipassanā (insight) meditation in Buddhism. Therefore, samādhi is a significant aspect of meditation practice because of its functional importance in mental training. A passage in Aṅguttara Nikāya explains that meditators can choose various ways to reach the world- transcending path by developing tranquility and by developing insight to achieve nibbāna: “If, by such self-examination, a bhikkhu knows: I gain internal serenity of mind but not the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena he should base himself on internal serenity of mind and make an effort to gain the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena. Then, sometime later, he gains internal serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.”33 Samadhibhāvanā sutta explains that an initial foundation of samadhi is absolutely necessary for meditation practice. The practice of concentration provides a stable state

32 Pa-Auk Sayadaw, Breakthrough in Tranquility Meditation (Samatha Bhāvanā), (Yangon: International Pa-Auk Forest Buddha Sāsanā Meditation Centre, 2004), p.8.

33 Bhikkhu Bodhi, the Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Aṅguttara Nikāya, Wisdom Publica- tion 2012, p. 1404. 176 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

of mind for the jhāna attainments and the achievement of the fivefold supernatural knowledge (abhiññā). Therefore, the practice of samādhi is the way to cause jhāna and abhiññā to be developed. However, according to Samadhibhāvana sutta, absorption concentration with mindfulness is applied for destruction of all cankers. In this case, the most important aspect of Samadhibhāvana sutta is that the Buddha taught the actual object of concentration meditation leads to the jhāna stages with development of vipassanā insight. Thus, concentration and insight meditation need to be used together. In Myanmar, the three most popular and prominent meditation teachers used Satipaṭṭhāna sutta as the base for their main teachings methods. Satipaṭṭhānasutta is the centre of the contemplative system of Buddhism. It is one of the most signifi cant teachings on meditation in Buddhism. The three meditation teachers summarized Satipaṭṭhāna’s methods as self-suffi cient mental training, which contains theory and practical guidelines to attain Enlightenment. These methods given by them could help both monks and laypeople to understand the way of practice easily. These methods are able to greatly benefi t the practitioners who would apply them in their daily practice.

References

Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Aṅguttara Nikāya, Wisdom Publication 2012. Bhikkhu Nyanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (trs.), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (Majjhima Nikaya), (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 1995). Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu (tr.), The Path of Purifi cation (Visuddhimagga), (Kandy: BPS, 1991). Bhikkhu Moneyya, (tr.), Teachings and Training, (Malaysia: Wave Press, 2005). C. A, F. Rhys David (tr.), A Buddhist Manual–Psychological Ethics (Dhamma saṅgani), (Oxford: PTS, 1993). Daw Mya Tin (tr.), Dhammapada, (Yangon: Myanmar Pitaka Association, 1995), p. 47. Bhikkhu Bodhi (tr.), the Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Aṅguttara Nikāya), (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012). Pa-Auk Sayadaw, Breakthrough in Tranquility Meditation (Samatha Bhāvanā), (Yangon: International Pa-Auk Forest Buddha Sāsanā Meditation Centre, 2004). Pa-Auk Sayadaw, Mindfulness of Breathing and Four Elements Meditation, (Malaysia: Wave Press, 1998). JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 177

Pe Maung Tin (tr.), The Expositor (Aṭṭhasālinī), Vols. II, (London: PTS, 1976), pp. 156-157. Ledi Sayadaw, Manual of Buddhism (The Exposition of the Buddha-Dhamma), The English Editorial Board (trs.), (Yangon: Department of Religious Affairs, 2004). Ledi Sayādaw, The Noble Eightfold Path and its Factors Explained (Maggaṅga-dīpanī), (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1985). Ledi Sayadaw, Manual of Mindfulness of Breathing (Ānāpāna Dīpanī) (Yangon: Department of Religious Affairs, 2004). Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassanā Meditation Exercises. (Yangon: Buddhasasana Nuggaha Organization, 1978). Maurice Walshe (tr.), the Long Discourses of the Buddha (Dīgha Nikāya) (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 1995). Soma Thera and Kheminda Thera (trs.), The Path of Freedom (Vimuttimagga), (Colombo: The Saman Press, 1961). Woodward F.l, tr., The Book of Kindred Sayings (Saṃyuttanikāya), part v, 2005. Woodward F.L.and Mrs. Rhys Davids D.Litt., Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara Nikāya), vol. I, (Oxford: PTS, 1995). The Way Of Application Of The Four Sublime States (Brahmavihāra) Doctrine To The Daily Life Of Nuns

Thukhavati, Dr. Poonsuk Masrungson, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College, Mahàchulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This research article is about ‘ The Way of Application of the Four Sublime States (Brahmavihàra) Doctrine to the Daily Life of Nuns’. It was aims to understand the meaning, the type and the characteristic of the four sublime states in theravàda buddhist scriptures. From the study, it is found that Love, embracing impartially all sentient beings, and not only those who are useful, pleasing or amusing to us. Love, embracing all beings, be they noble-minded or low-minded, good or evil. The noble and the good are embraced because love is fl owing to them spontaneously. The low-minded and evil-minded are included because they are those who are most in need of love. The more sublime and noble the joy of others is, the more justifi ed will be our own sympathetic joy. A cause for our joy with others is their noble life securing them happiness here and in lives hereafter. A still nobler cause for our joy with others is their faith in the Dhamma, their understanding of the Dhamma, their following the Dhamma. Sympathetic joy means a sublime nobility of heart and intellect which knows, understands and is ready to help. Sympathetic joy that is strength and gives strength: this is the highest joy. Equanimity is a perfect, unshakable balance of mind, rooted in insight. Looking at the world around us, and looking into our own heart, we see clearly how diffi cult it is to attain and maintain balance of mind. Looking into life we notice how it continually moves between contrasts: rise and fall, success and failure, loss and gain, honour and blame.

Keywords: Mettà, Karunà, Mudità, Upekkhà JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 179

Introduction

Everyone needs happiness in his/her daily life, and the moral path to this happiness is founded partly on the notion of the perfectibility of the individual and partly on the notion of social concern. This is concerned with basic character of the moral path that leads to redemption eventually. It is said that by doing great merit leads to rebirth there: the Brahmà Baka, Brahmadevatà and Mahàbrahmà. Divine, as incorporating the highest and best qualities, sublime, ideal, best, very great etc. In the compound “Brahmavihàra” the word “Brahma” means “Noble.” The word “vihàra” conveys the meaning of “dwelling” “abiding” or “living.” Hence “Brahmavihàra” conveys the meaning of “Noble Living” or “Living in the exercise of good-will.”1 Today, our society is pleasure-seeking (kàma-gavesatisa), money-center and highly competitive. As a result, there is no co-operation among human beings at all. Man seeks his own happiness through competition but he never finds it there. Competition gives births to unhappiness and satisfactoriness. It is the nature of competition. Therefore, we are in urgent need of a considerable change of human attitudes. What is the answer for this unhappiness and competition? Is there any religious thought or scientific thinking which is capable of bringing peace and co-operation to this confused and post-industrial world? Albert Einstein, The greatest physicist of the last century, says this; “If there is any religion which is acceptable to modern scientific mind, it is Buddhism. It is capable of bringing peace, prosperity and happiness into this profoundly disturbed world” . Among the four kinds of Brahmavihàra Dhamma, mettà means loving-kindness, karuõà means compassion, mudità means sympathetic-joy and upekkhà means equanimity. Meditation on loving-kindness (mettà bhàvanà) just means developing thoughts of loving- kindness towards others. Even if a thought occurs wishing prosperity to others, it is just a virtuous thought. What is meant by meditation on compassion (karuõà bhàvanà) is developing compassionate feelings towards other beings. Ordinarily, if one feels compassion for others, wishing them to escape from suffering, it is a virtuous thought of compassion. Sympathetic- joy (mudità) means joy or rejoicing with others in their continued happiness and prosperity. Equanimity (upekkhà) is a feeling of indifference with no concern or anxiety regarding other’s happiness or sorrow, having a neutral feeling thinking that things inevitably happen according to the law of kamma, as the consequence of wholesome or unwholesome deeds.2

1 Mahasi Sayadaw, Brahmavihàra-Dhamma, (tr), by U Min Swe, (Yangon, 1985),p.1. 2 Mahasi Sayadaw, Brahmavihàra-Dhamma, (tr), by U Min Swe, Yangon, 1985,pp.1-2. 180 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The equanimity is a perfect, unshakable balance of mind, rooted in insight. It is a mind in balance, free of discrimination, above distinction. This balance is not indifference, but active mindfulness. Because it is rooted in insight of anatma it is not unbalance by the passion of attraction and aversion and is free of the extremes of joy or sorrow.3 Therefore, the Buddhist guidelines for living with loving-kindness, compassion and generosity concern individuals as well as social conduct.4 The Buddha advocates for the freedom from suffering for the permanent happiness called Nibbàna; but this doctrine for the liberation from Samsàra; the Buddha also preached for the happiness and peace of society; for the householders who live in society. Though, the doctrine of the Buddha advocates for the freedom from suffering for the permanent happiness; called Nibbàna; but these doctrines also are concerned with the worldly happiness and peace in the society. Researcher would like to stress that the four sublime states are very important in our daily life and if everyone practice the four sublime states the world will peaceful.

Objectives of the Research

1. To study the problems and causes of nun in practicing the four sublime states . 2. To study the concept of the four sublime states (Brahmavihàra) in the . 3. To apply the way of application of the four sublime states doctrine in the daily life of nuns.

Research Methodology

This qualitative research work is a documentary research. The research methodology is divided into six groups as follows:

1. Research Design The research work for this study is a kind of textual study and documentary research, to review of relevant material of the Pàli Cannon in English Translation and Commentary.

3 A.10.208 “Brahma-Vihàra Sutta”. 4 Singàlovàda Sutta, the Pàli (tr) by Nàrada Thera,1996, pp.23-27 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 181

2. Data Collection Collecting data from primary sources of English translations of Nikàya and Pàli cannon in order to explore the Brahmavihàra in daily life of nun as well as secondary sources of commentaries, sub-commentaries, out of the books written and composed by famous Buddhist scholars.

3. Data Analysis Analyzing and categorized the raw data as well as systematizing the collected and analyzed data to give a clear and interrelated picture of Buddhist approach; study of the four Brahmavihàra in daily life of nun.

4. Outline Construction Constructing the entire outline of the work.

5. Problem Discussion Discussing the problems encountered.

6. Conclusion and Suggestion Conclusions and suggestions for further studies, application and practice.

Research Findings

From the study, the findings can be categorized corresponding to the objectives as follows:

Meaning of the Four Sublime States (Brahmavihàra)

The ‘brahmavihàra’ in Buddhism is achieved through the practice of meditation. In early Buddhism, this has nothing to do with any theistic principle but refers to the greatness or power of mental cultivation. In the , brahma refers to the supreme good, reflected in its most common commentarial gloss as “excellent or supreme” (seññha). A brahma (god) is a happy and blameless celestial being, an inhabitant of the higher heavens: brahmaloka which refers to the firstjhàna . It is said that by doing great merit leads to rebirth there: the Brahmà Baka, Brahmadevatà and Mahàbrahmà. Divine, as incorporating the highest and best qualities, sublime, ideal, best, very great (brahmà ti màtàpitaro etc.); and holy, sacred, divinely inspired of the rites, charms, hymns etc. (brahme mante adhiyitvà). 182 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The Pàli term for “divine abodes,” brahmavihàra, is resolved as ‘brahma’ + ‘vihàra’. The first element,brahma , comes from the root brh, “to be great or strong.” In early Buddhism, this has nothing to do with any theistic principle but refers to the greatness or power of mental cultivation. Here, ‘brahma’ is an adjective meaning of ‘Brahmà’ (the supreme God)” of the ancient Indian pantheon, and from whose mouth, the Brahmins claimed, they originated. The Buddha would seem have rejected such claim from perspective of sectarian and triumphalist senses. In the early Buddhist texts, brahma refers to the supreme good, reflected in its most common commentarial gloss as “excellent or supreme” (seññha).5 The Brahmavihàra is also known as the ‘immeasurable’, for when developed to a high degree in meditation, they are said to make the mind ‘immeasurable’ and like the mind of the loving brahma gods.6

Types of the Four Sublime States (Brahmavihàra)

Mettà, karunà, mudità and upekkhà are collectively called the Four Brahmavihàras, the four divine or noble states of mind.( Brahma = divine, and vihàra = living.) That is to say, ‘to dwell emanating thoughts of either loving-kindness or any one of compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity towards beings is the noble living.’ Living such a life is not arid with the heat of hatred, envy and jealousy. It is a life steeped in and imbued with the moisture of four Brahmavihàras.7 Mettà means one loves. It signifies one wishes well. Or love is so called because it goes on concerning a loved one (mettà, mitte),or because of the state of being a loved one.8 Love, without desire to possess, knowing well that in the ultimate sense there is no possession and no possessor: this is the highest love. Love, without speaking and thinking of “I,” knowing well that this so-called “I” is a mere delusion. Love, without selecting and excluding, knowing well that to do so means to create love’s own contrasts: dislike, aversion and hatred. Love, embracing all beings: small and great, far and near, be it on earth, in the water or in the air.

5 Brahma’ the glosses on ‘Brahma’; brahmaseññha, “foremost, excellent,” e.g brahmacakka, “the perfect wheel,” D. I. 69. 6 Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhist Ethic (Foundations, Values and Issues), (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p.104. 7 Ven. Janakabhivamsa, Abhidhamma in daily life, (tr), by U Ko Lay (Yangon,Myanmar, 1999), p.104 8 The Expositor (ATTHASâLINä), (tr), by MAUG TIN, (Yangon,)p.258. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 183

Compassion (Karunà) that which makes the heart of the good quiver at the pain of others is pity. Or it crushes, destroys the pain of others, thus it is pity. Or it is pity because it is scattered over the afflicted, stretched out over them by diffusion.9The world suffers. But most men have their eyes and ears closed. They do not see the unbroken stream of tears flowing through life; they do not hear the cry of distress continually pervading the world. Their own little grief or joy bars their sight, deafens their ears. Bound by selfishness, their hearts turn stiff and narrow. Being stiff and narrow, how should they be able to strive for any higher goal, to realize that only release from selfish craving will affect their own freedom from suffering? It is compassion that removes the heavy bar, opens the door to freedom, makes the narrow heart as wide as the world. Compassion takes away from the heart the inert weight, the paralyzing heaviness; it gives wings to those who cling to the lowlands of self. Through compassion the fact of suffering remains vividly present to our mind, even at times when we personally are free from it. It gives us the rich experience of suffering, thus strengthening us to meet it prepared, when it does befall us. Sympathetic Joy (Mudità) means those endowed therewith, or with the co-existent states, rejoice, or one’s self rejoices, or just rejoicing. 10Not only to compassion, but also to joy with others open your heart! Small, indeed, is the share of happiness and joy allotted to beings! Whenever a little happiness comes to them, then you may rejoice that at least one ray of joy has pierced through the darkness of their lives, and dispelled the gray and gloomy mist that enwraps their hearts. Your life will gain in joy by sharing the happiness of others as if it were yours. Did you never observe how in moments of happiness men’s features change and become bright with joy? Did you never notice how joy rouses men to noble aspirations and deeds, exceeding their normal capacity? Did not such experience fill your own heart with joyful bliss? It is in your power to increase such experience of sympathetic joy, by producing happiness in others, by bringing them joy and solace. Let us teach real joy to men! Many have unlearned it. Life, though full of woe, holds also sources of happiness and joy, unknown to most. Let us teach people to seek and to find real joy within themselves and to rejoice with the joy of others! Let us teach them to unfold

9 The Expositor (ATTHASâLINä), (tr), by MAUG TIN , (Yangon,)p.258. 10 The Expositor (ATTHASâLINä), (tr), by MAUG TIN, (Yangon,)p.258. 184 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

their joy to ever sublimer heights! Noble and sublime joy is not foreign to the Teaching of the Enlightened One. Wrongly the Buddha’s Teaching is sometimes considered to be a doctrine diffusing melancholy. Far from it: the Dhamma leads step by step to an ever purer and loftier happiness. Equanimity (Upekkha) may they be without enmity, thus, by the removal of such ill- will, one contemplates with disinterestedness by attaining to a condition of centrality-this is hedonic indifference.11 Equanimity is a perfect, unshakable balance of mind, rooted in insight. Looking at the world around us, and looking into our own heart, we see clearly how difficult it is to attain and maintain balance of mind. Looking into life we notice how it continually moves between contrasts: rise and fall, success and failure, loss and gain, honor and blame. We feel how our heart responds to all this with happiness and sorrow, delight and despair, disappointment and satisfaction, hope and fear. These waves of emotion carry us up and fling us down; and no sooner do we find rest, than we are in the power of a new wave again. How can we expect to get a footing on the crest of the waves? How can we erect the building of our lives in the midst of this ever restless ocean of existence, if not on the Island of Equanimity. A world where that little share of happiness allotted to beings is mostly secured after many disappointments, failures and defeats; a world where only the courage to start anew, again and again, promises success; a world where scanty joy grows amidst sickness, separation and death; a world where beings who were a short while ago connected with us by sympathetic joy, are at the next moment in want of our compassion — such a world needs equanimity.

Doctrines Supporting to the Four Sublime States (Brahmavihàra)

In this sub-section the researcher presents kusalamula, five powers, five faculties and four saÿpatti cakka dhamma. Not wanting is alobha. It is non-attachment to things, and is the opposite of greed, or wanting something; lobha and alobha are just like fire and water. Whereaslobha wants things, alobha does not want anything at all because its nature is non-greed, generosity, charity. In daily life too we may notice the contrasting behavior of a greedy man and a contented man.12

11 The Expositor (ATTHASâLINä), (tr), by MAUG TIN, (Yangon,)p.258. 12 Ven. Janakabhivamsa, Abhidhamma in daily life, (tr), by U Ko Lay, (Yangon,Myanmar, 1999), p.86. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 185

In the exposition of non-hate,’ non-hate’(Adosa) works by not hating.’ It does not hate’ this is non-hate. This is a word showing its own nature. ‘ Not hating’ is behavior in not hating. The state of a person not hating is ‘non-hatred’. That which, from being opposed to ill-will, is not ill-will is ‘good-will’. That which is not spleen from being opposed to the pain of anger is ‘ absence of spleen’. Non-hate is considered as a moral root-the meaning has already been declared.13

Doctrines Antagonistic to the Four Sublime States (Brahmavihàra)

This sub-section the researcher presents, akusala måla, and four vipatti cakka dhamma. They are the doctrines antagonistic to Brahmavihàra. Lobha14 is greed, i.e., craving for sensual pleasures. But wanting to be attain Nibbana, wanting to get Dhamma, wanting to be learned, wanting wealth for giving in charity to the poor, are not lobha. If greed which is called craving or lust is not controlled by Dhamma, and allowed to go on by itself, it will never get diminished. As the protruding horn of a calf grows longer and longer as it grows older, the greed of a man which accompanies him since the embryonic stage increases with age. 15 Anger or violence of mind is called dosa. Dosa is not only violent but it also soils the mind. It is not only wild and rude, but also depressive resulting in inferiority complex and living in fear; they all belong to the category of dosa16. In brief sorrow, grief, fear, depression, anger, grudge, frightening others with abusive language, attacking, planning to kill other people-all of these are dosa. Since dosa is with both fear and violence, the angry, violent person is also easily frightened.17 The which cannot discern between what is unwholesome or vice and what is wholesome or virtue is rather gross. The moha which prevents realization of anicca, dukkha,

13 The Expositor (ATTHASâLINä), (tr), by MAUG TIN, (Yangon,)p.199. 14 Dhs.A.249. 15 Ven. Janakabhivamsa, Abhidhamma in daily life, (tr), by U Ko Lay, (Yangon,Myanmar, 1999), p.26. 16 Dhs.A.258. 17 Ven. Janakabhivamsa, Abhidhamma in daily life, (tr), by U Ko Lay,(Yangon,Myanmar, 1999), p.44. 186 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

and anatta nature of mind and matter, the Four Noble Truths, and the Law of Dependent Origination, is comparatively fine moha. The mind which is accompanied by moha is called “delusive mind, foolish mind” and one who is overpowered by delusion is called variously “the fool, the nincompoop, the dumb, the dull, the wild, the stupid, the useless.”18

How Nuns Should Apply the Four Sublime States in The Daily Life of Nuns

Here, we can examine the relationship of theravàda nuns each other about loving- kindness as the example. There are many nuns stay together in one temple but they are not relatives. Therefore, they will have some problem in each other. Someone’s behavior can distract others because they stay together in a hall. If they do not practice loving-kindness, they can quarrel each other easily. But the nuns never quarrel each other easily in the temple because their teacher admonished to be patient with loving-kindness on all beings since they became the nuns. As on instance, the researcher would like to present the rules of my temple. In that temple, the master teaches all nuns to share loving-kindness on all beings as soon as they wake up in the early morning. They have to do their duty, that is paying homage, cleaning their surroundings, studying their lessons, etc. in their daily life. They will not blame others because they start their new day with loving-kindness and they live with their pure mind because of loving-kindness. Actually, they can practice loving-kindness easily because they pay homage to the Buddha everyday and they believe the teachings of the Buddha deeply. If they practice loving- kindness, they do not want to dispute each other. On the contrary, loving-kindness, like pure water, can succeed the hatred, like fire. Therefore, if we share loving-kindness on all beings, we can avoid all problems and we can stay in the peaceful life. Most of people hope the religious person to help them when they face some problems. When they feel some disease, when they have some difficulties and when they dispossess their properties, they wish to see the religious persons like monks and nuns. As a nun, we often meet those persons and we comfort them by talking about the teachings of the Buddha, by reciting the and by sharing of our compassion. If we practice compassion according to the teachings of the Buddha, we can understand their unlucky state and than we can help

18 Ven. Janakabhivamsa, Abhidhamma in daily life, (tr), by U Ko Lay, (Yangon,Myanmar, 1999), pp.18-19. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 187

them compassionately. Actually, we need to practice compassion (karunà)in order to take care the weaker persons, in order to help the unluckier friends, and in order to care the orphans as the nuns. Now, it is necessary to present how we apply the sympathetic joy practically in our daily life. Here, the sympathetic joy (mudità) is the opposite mental factor of jealousy (issà). The mental factor of jealousy (issà) can enter to the mind of everybody only time before we mind ourselves. If we practice the sympathetic joy practically in our daily life, we can avoid the causing of jealousy on others. When we stay together with many nuns, some nuns are more successful than us in education and some are more perfect than us in properties. If we never practice sympathetic joy according to the teachings of the Buddha as the daughter of him, the jealousy will defile our mind, when we see the successful nuns more than us. Therefore we need to practice the sympathetic joy (mudità) in our daily life. It is very important to practice sympathetic joy. When we see and hear the success of our lovely friends, our family, our relatives and our respectful persons, we can rejoice easily because we love them. But this is not the sympathetic joy (mudità). This is just the normal feeling without practicing. Sometime, we have the rivals in education or about duty. When they are more successful than us, when they can do their duty successful more than us, it is difficult that we can rejoice for them heartily. At that time we have to notice our mind carefully. We have to contemplate that they made merit in their past life and we have to accept their ability willingly. We have to rejoice for their success. This is the application of sympathetic joy (mudità) in the nuns. Here we can see how the nuns practice equanimity (upekkhà) in their daily life. Equanimity (upekkhà)means a calm state of mind which means that you do not become angry or upset, especially in difficult situations. Sometime, we can misunderstand the word of upekkhà as neglect. If someone does not listen to us when we admonish him not to do the wrong deeds, we neglect him without saying. It is called upekkhà incorrectly. Actually it is only the word of neglect. It is not equanimity (upekkhà), one of the four sublime states. Equanimity (upekkhà) is very profound and it is very difficult to practice in daily life. It is the stable state of mind. When we face the eight types of lokadhamma, we have to accept these unpleasant states philosophically with equanimity (upekkhà). Actually, we wish our lovely persons to be successful, to be perfect, to be healthy, to be wealthy and to be happy. Sometime, when we see and hear the good news of them, we are very happy and we are very satisfy. But we cannot remind ourselves that greed (lobha) defiles in our mind. Similarly, when we see and hear the unlucky states of our lovely persons, we are very sorry and we are upset. But we cannot remind ourselves that anger (dosa) defiles 188 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

in our mind. Here, if we practice equanimity (upekkhà) according to the teachings of the Buddha, when we see the difficulty of others, we have to help both the friendly person and the unfriendly person. But we should remind our mind not to defile because of satisfying state and unsatisfying state. Therefore as the nuns, we have to help the unlucky person and we have to rejoice for the successful person. But we practice (upekkhà) equanimity not to defile our mind. This is the application of equanimity (upekkhà) in the nuns.

Conclusion

Mettà has the characteristic of being a procedure of modes of beneficence; the function of bringing good; the manifestation or effect of taking hatred away; the proximate cause of seeing the lovableness of beings. Its consummation is the quieting of ill-will; its failure is the production of lust. loving-kindness is characterized here as promoting the aspect of welfare. Its function is to prefer welfare. It is manifested as the removal of annoyance. Its proximate cause is seeing loveableness in beings. It succeeds when it makes ill will subside, and it fails when it produces (selfish) affection. The ethics of mettà, in the Buddhist context, is right conduct, which brings happiness and peace of mind, and never gives rise to remorse, worry or restlessness of mind. This is the immediate psychological benefit. Mettà has been identified as that specific factor which “ripens” the accumulated merit (puñña) acquired by the ten ways for the acquisition of merit, such as the practice of generosity, virtue, etc. Again, it is mettà which brings to maturity the ten exalted spiritual qualities known as “perfections” (pàramità). Karunà has the characteristic of evolving the mode of removing pain; the manifestation of kindness; the proximate cause of seeing the need of those overcome by pain. Its consummation is the quieting of cruelty; its failure is the production of sorrow. Compassion is characterized as promoting the aspect of allaying suffering. Its function resides in not bearing others’ suffering. It is manifested as non cruelty. Its proximate cause is to see helplessness in those overwhelmed by suffering. It succeeds when it makes cruelty subside and it fails when it produces sorrow. In the verses on the Lord of Compassion (mahàkàruõikonàthotiàdigàthà) is said, the Buddha is greatly compassionate, for the benefit, for the welfare, for the happiness, of all living beings and is said by the Buddha, “ may all obstacles cease to be”. The Buddha’s great compassion (mahàkaruõà) towards all beings is impartial without distinction irrespective of whether a person is intimate or unfamiliar. The degree of compassion bestowed upon Ràhulà, his own son born while he was a prince, was on the same level as he conferred on Venerable , who had done grievous wrong to him with animosity. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 189

Mudità has the characteristic of gladness; its property is the absence of envying; its manifestation is the quieting of dislike; its failure is the production of derision. Gladness is characterized as gladdening (produced by others’ success). Its function resides in being unenvious. It is manifested as the elimination of aversion (boredom). Its proximate cause is seeing beings, success. It succeeds when it makes aversion (boredom) subside, and it fails when it produces merriment. A person who rejoices with others in their well-being and happiness will be elevated to the fortunate realms as a deva for his wholesome kamma in developing sympathetic-joy. If he happens to be reborn in the world of human beings, or in any existence wherever he may be, he will have the positive result of being equipped with a large number of attendants and the attributes of power and fame. Upekkhà has the characteristic of evolving the mode of centrality as regards beings; its function is appreciation of others; its manifestation is quieting both aversion and sycophancy; its proximate cause is seeing the heritage of the occurring kamma as ‘ ‘Beings are the property of their kamma. By its influence they will attain to pleasure, or be free from pain, or not fall from the prosperity already acquired. Its consummation is the quieting of aversion and of sycophancy; its failure is the production of a profane and unintelligent indifference. Equanimity is characterized as promoting the aspect of neutrality towards beings. Its function is to see equality in beings. It is manifested as the quieting of resentment and approval. Its proximate cause is seeing ownership of deeds (kamma) thus: “Beings are owners of their deeds. to note and observe things keeping the heart equanimous, and the mind equally balanced without discrimination. However, in the practice of Brahmavihàra, the term “upekkhà” conveys the sense of indifference without being concerned by rejecting all anxiety, such as wishing others to be happy by radiating loving-kindness, wishing others to be free from misery with compassion, and wishing them to be to retain the same prosperity as before without diminution, by developing sympathetic-joy. 190 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

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Ven. Dao Minh Van, Phra Rajapariyattimuni, Asst. Prof. Dr, Ven. W. Piyaratana, Dr International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The main objective of this thesis is to study the system of Buddhist education in Southern Vietnam. In particular, the purpose is to study the development of Theravā da Buddhist educational administration and infl uence of Theravāda Buddhism on Khmer Society in Southern Vietnam, especially infl uence on the Buddhist education. As a result of this research, the author found that Theravāda Buddhism in Southern Vietnamese was highly infl uenced by Cambodian Theravāda Buddhism and cultures of other Theravāda Buddhist countries. With its very introduction and establishment, Buddhism has been variously infl uencing Southern Vietnamese people. It also has infl uenced education system of this particular area. Buddhist education plays a signifi cant role in the system of education of Southern Vietnam. The monks have established a Buddhist education model to teach Buddhism systematically and got the offi cial approval to recognize its standard as equal to the general education system of the country.

Keywords: Education, development, Southern Vietnam. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 193

Introduction

Historically, Buddhism was introduced to Vietnam in the middle of the 3rd century B.C1 by Phật Quang (P. Buddhaloka), an Indian monk. From the beginning, Buddhism was integrated into the spiritual life of the Vietnamese and became primary in their minds’ culture and education. Theravāda Buddhism has existed from as early as the 3rd century B.C.2 At present there are two main in Vietnam. They are Mahayana Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism. From its original history, the North part of Vietnam, for many centuries, was a part of Chinese Empire. The Mahayana Buddhism had been introduced into the Northern Vietnam whereas the Southern Vietnam was one of the former part of Khmer Empire where the Theravāda Buddhism has been practiced by the Khmer people.3 According to the legend, Ven. Sona & Ven. Uttara visited the mountain named Pathe. It is said that the name was given to remark the visit of those two Theras. This mountain is about few kilometers away from Oc-Eo and belongs to Vong community in the Thoai Son District of the An Giang Province of Vietnam.4 From that time until today, Buddhism has been embodied deeply in the hearts of Vietnamese Buddhists. Nowadays, Theravāda Buddhism became essential in the spiritual life of Khmer people in Vietnam.5 The Buddha surely had a suitable way to teach the Dhamma; but after his passing away, to preserve the teachings of the Buddha and propagate Buddhism, the learning of the Dhamma was gradually established in the educational systems of Buddhist countries. In addition, in Vietnam, the study of the Dhamma has been a cultural tradition of the Khmer people because Buddhism has become a Khmer cultural lifestyle in Southern Vietnam. To keep what ancestors have done to propagate, the Khmer Theravada monks always try to hold Dhamma classes to educate Sangha members and lay devotees.

1 Lê Mạnh Thát (1), Lịch Sử Phật Giáo Việt Nam, Tập1 (History of Vietnamese Buddhism, Vol I), (Ho Chi Minh: Ho Chi Minh City General Press, 2006), p. 23. 2 Skilton Andrew, A Concise History of Buddhism, (Birmingham: Windhorse Publication, 1994), p. 160. 3 Ven. Tran Sone, Pan͂n͂amuni, “A Study of the Influence and Contribution of Theravāda Buddhism to the Khmer Community in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam”, M.A Thesis, (Bangkok: Ma- hachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2010), p. 2. 4 Mae Chee Huynh Kim Lan, “A Study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam”, M.A Thesis, (Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2010), p. 34. 5 Venerable Tran Sone, Pan͂n͂amuni, op. cit., p. 27. 194 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

As a result, Khmer Theravāda Buddhism turned over a new page in history. Gradually, it developed educational sources for studying Buddhism in Vietnam. Nowadays, Dhamma classes are allowed by the Vietnamese government and even a new Khmer Theravāda Academy for Buddhist Studies has appeared in the city of Cần Thơ. This happened through the support of the Vietnamese government6 and especially Khmer Theravāda Buddhist Institute, which is located in the Somron Temple, Chau Van Liem, Omon District, CanTho City. In 2011, 69 students graduated from the first 4-years course. In 2015, 29 students graduated from the second course; and the third course is still in progress.

The Development of Khmer Theravāda Educational Administration

At present, the Theravāda Buddhist education system in Southern Vietnam has been increasingly developed by two systems of Dhamma studies, the Khmer Theravāda Buddhism and Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhism. This is because of the different language and different management of each region. The Khmer Theravāda Buddhist Studies in Southern Vietnam refer to the study programs for learning Dhamma-Vinaya and Pāli language at the undergraduate level. The study programs are classified into three degrees: primary degree program for four years, secondary degree program for three years, and bachelor degree program for four years. In Khmer Buddhism, there are a lot of advantages to open Dhamma classes for a large number of monks, since the tradition to study has been practiced for a long time. The report on the expanding work, the resolution of Conferences of the Khmer Theravāda Buddhism at the Bạc Liêu province, on Oct 6, 2008, included the Khmer Theravāda Academic Studies on Buddhism. This was officially established with the support of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha and the government. This is the fourth Buddhist Academy in Vietnam which is reserved for Khmer Theravāda Buddhists. It was established in Cantho city and the Most Venerable Danh Nhuong was appointed the first Rector on December 6, 2006. This academy was presented provisionally at Wat Bodhisomrom, Chau Van Liem Ward, in the O Mon District at Cantho city. In 2008, there were 69 monks who studied for the second year in the first 4 year period (2007-2011). Besides, there is an increase of Khmer monks who study at the university level.

6 Mea Chea Huynh Kim Lan, op cit., p. 3. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 195

The Pali Dhamma classes of the lower level were also consolidated7. In addition, the Theravada Buddhist education system in Southern Vietnam includes a system of Pali language studies at the following levels: Elementary level (4 years) (Class I, Class II, Class III, Class IV), Secondary school (3 years), (Class V, Class VI, Class VII), and University level (4 years). After graduating from the Vietnam Buddhist University, students can choose to continue their study in India, Thailand, Myanmar, or Sri Lanka. Some of them take part in social activities. Besides, when the Khmer Theravada monks who studied abroad return to their homeland, they increase the number of members of the Theravada Buddhist University in Cantho city.

1. Contemporary Situation of Buddhist Education System of Khmer Theravāda Buddhism Vietnam is a country which gives an important role to educational system, according to the “Socio-Economic Development Plan 2006-2010” and the “Resolution on Comprehensive and Fundamental Reform of Higher Education in Vietnam 2006-2020”. There are Khmer Theravada monasteries across the whole region of Southern Vietnam.8 Most of them use Khmer language program in teaching, and a few schools and institutes provide bilingual programs. The following table shows a list of Khmer Theravada monasteries in Southern Vietnam:

7 Giáo Hội Phật Giáo Việt Nam, Hội Đồng Trị Sự, Báo Cáo, The Report on Summary of Bud- dhist Works of Term V(2002-2007) and the Programme of Buddhist Works of Term VI (2007-2012) of Vietnam Buddhist Sangha, op cit., p.25. 8 Mea Chea Huynh Kim Lan, op cit., p. 93. 196 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

A List of Khmer Theravada Monasteries in Southern Vietnam

No. Name of City/Province Number of Monasteries

01 Ho Chi Minh City 2 02 An Giang 64 03 Ba Ria Vung Tau 1 04 Bac Lieu 22 05 Binh Phuoc 3 06 Ca Mau 7 07 Can Tho 12 08 Dong Nai 1 09 Hau Giang 15 10 Kieng Giang 74 11 Soc Trang 92 12 Tra Vinh 142 13 Vinh Long 13 14 Tay Ninh 1 Total 449

2. The System of Buddhist Monastic School Because of the time limitations, the researcher focused only on certain places, which have s big amount of Khmer Theravada monasteries, such Bac Lieu, Tra Vinh and others.

2.1 Buddhist Monastic School of Bac Lieu Province Bac Lieu is a province of Vietnam. It is a coastal province situated in the Mekong Delta region of the southern part of the country. It is an important economic region of Vietnam. The most important parts of Bac Lieu industrial economy are rice farming, fishing, food processing, and clothing manufacturing. There are three different ethnic groups, Vietnamese, Khmer and Chinese, living in unity and happiness.9 After the Fall of Saigon, April 30, 1975,

9 Bac Lieu Provincial Buddhist Sangha in Khmer Theravāda Buddhism, “A Report of Summary of Buddhist Acting Task, 2004-2014”, on August 27, 2014, p. 1. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 197

Bac Lieu and Ca Mau Provinces were merged into one new entity called Minh Hai Province. It is still home to many ethnic Khmer people. In 1996, Minh Hai Province was split into two, with the northeast becoming Bac Lieu Province and the southeast becoming Ca Mau Province. Most of Khmer Buddhists there believe in holy abiding or sublime states of mind (Brahmavihāra).10 Bac Lieu recently has 22 monasteries and 6 places for chanting in Khmer Theravāda Buddhism (Salaten), having 284 Sangha members including 88 monks and 164 novices. Among these monks, there are 2 preceptors, 5 post-preceptors and 25 abbots. Seven monasteries are involved in the activities of Khmer Theravāda Buddhism in Elementary Buddhist studies of Bac Lieu: Wat Kim Cau and Wat Xiem Can in Bac Lieu Town, Wat Cai Gia Cu and Wat Cu Lao in Vinh Loi District, Wat Hoa Binh Moi and Wat Hoa Binh Cu in Hoa Binh District, Wat Kos Thum in Hong Dan District. Today, there are 180 Buddhist students in the province studying the Pāli-Vinaya classes I, II, III.11 During the ten years of 2004-2014, 505 students have graduated from the Pāli-Vinaya program.12 The table below shows the number of students who graduated from Pāli-Vinaya III Class in 10 years’ assessment:

Year/Vinaya III Amount Monk/Bac Lieu Province 2004 57 monks 2005 48 monks 2006 46 monks 2007 47 monks 2008 48 monks 2009 68 monks 2010 56 monks 2011 36 monks 2012 39 monks 2013 29 monks 2014 35 monks

10 Ibid., p. 2. 11 Ibid., p. 4. 12 Ibid., p. 4. 198 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

After completing the courses of Pāli-Vinaya III, students can go to study at Secondary Buddhist monastic school in Tra Vinh Province, and Pāli Supplementary School of Southern Vietnam in Soc Trang Province.

2.2 Buddhist Monastic School of Tra Vinh Province Tra Vinh is a provincial city in Vietnam. It is the capital of the Tra Vinh. It is located in the Mekong Delta region, which is in the Southern part of Vietnam. The city has many famous Khmer monasteries. Under the Republic of Vietnam, it was the provincial capital of a province with a population of 1,012,000, having three different ethnic groups, Vietnamese, Khmer and Chinese.

Primary School: Khmer Language Classes in Three Months Vacation

Year Classroom/ Class Monks/Pupils Teachers Result/ Unit-% 2005 497 12,028 577 98.5 2006 528 13,745 540 97.23 2007 713 19,854 750 99.15 2008 816 19,945 860 97.5 2009 712 19,754 740 97.15 2010 815 19,845 850 98.5 2011 911 20,756 919 99.5 2012 923 21,845 923 88.45 2013 923 20,010 923 97.5 2014 947 22,127 715 98.7

A. Buddhist Studies at Elementary Level: Buddhist Monastic School (Full Time Studies)

Year Classroom/Class Monks/Pupils Teachers Result/Unit-% 2005 89 1,911 801 88.45 2006 85 1,837 793 97.19 2007 90 1,784 1,077 88.45 2008 96 2,467 1,252 87.75 2009 89 1,764 1,067 87.45 2010 96 2,067 1,252 97.5 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 199

2011 97 2,461 1,154 99.75 2012 98 2,597 1,352 88.45 2013 98 2,789 739 97.5 2014 96 2,897 1,125 95.3

B. Buddhist Studies at Secondary Level: Buddhist Monastic School (Full Time Study)

Year Classroom/Class Monks/Pupils Teachers Result/Unit-% 2005 09 241 75 98.5 2006 08 238 73 99.57 2007 10 254 99 99.5 2008 11 261 109 98.75 2009 12 274 102 99 2010 11 261 109 99.5 2011 13 367 130 98.5 2012 13 395 132 97.5 2013 13 347 152 98.5 2014 14 439 140 98.2

The accurate data collected in ten years shows a remarkable success of Buddhist educational administration of united Buddhist Sangha under the support of other units in the province. Furthermore, Tra Vinh Provincial Council has set up the target curriculum for Buddhist Monastic School in the zone of the province sufficiently. The curriculum of Buddhist monastic school of Tra Vinh is comprised of two parts, namely Khmer Studies and Buddhist Studies. Students have to complete all courses of elementary level that consist of 3,456 classes of the four academic years. At the end of the fourth academic year, students are required to write an elementary graduate examination held by Tra Vinh provincial Khmer Buddhist Council.13

13 Ven. Tran Sone, Pan͂n͂amuni, op cit., p. 99. 200 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Pāli-Khmer Secondary School of Tra Vinh

According to the Resolution of People Affair in Tra Vinh (No. 459/QD- UBND/2014) on article 3, Pāli-Khmer Secondary School of Tra Vinh has a full name of “羶澶មធ្យមសិក្羶厶លី-ខ្មែរ” in Khmer and “Trường Trung Cấp Pāli-Khmer” in Vietnamese languages.14 It is located at Wat Kompong, Le Loi Road 220, Village 2, District 1, Tra Vinh City, Tra Vinh Province. Pāli-Khmer Secondary School of Tra Vinh has planned to open classes for the course 1 (2014-2016). The curriculum of the whole course in Pāli- Khmer Secondary School of Tra Vinh covers three academic years15. The curriculum of Pāli- Khmer Secondary School of Tra Vinh is comprised of three parts, namely Khmer Studies, Buddhist Studies and Vietnamese Studies. At the end of the course, students are required to write a secondary graduate examination held by Tra Vinh Education Affairs and Pāli-Khmer Secondary School of Tra Vinh.16

Khmer Theravāda Buddhist University in Cân` Thơ City

Although the educational programs for primary and secondary levels are different in each province, the university program is the same. Now the Khmer Theravāda Buddhist Academies for Buddhist Studies has been in place colleges has got. The following is the curriculum of the Khmer Theravāda Buddhist Academy for Buddhist Studies in Cân` Thơ City.

The Curriculum of the Khmer Theravāda Buddhist University (Bachelor Level) 1. First Year The Credits of the Khmer Theravāda Buddhist University in Cantho City Degree Program: Bachelor Level - Buddhist Studies (first academic year). Total 14 subjects of 41 credits

14 The People Affair of Tra Vinh, “A Proposal of Establishment of Pāli-Khmer Secondary School of Tra Vinh”, p. 2. 15 Ven. Tran Sone, Pan͂n͂amuni, op cit., p. 100-101. 16 Ven. Tran Sone, Pan͂n͂amuni, op cit., p. 101. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 201

2. Second Year Bachelor Level - Buddhist Studies (second academic year): total 20 subjects of 59 credits. 3. Third Year Bachelor Level - Buddhist Studies (third academic year): total 13 subjects of 37 credits. 4. Fourth year Bachelor Level - Buddhist Studies (fourth academic year): total 15 subjects of 51 Credits Of course, this is the Theravāda Buddhist College in the central region. Therefore, the monk university students are all in the central region. In the South, Dhamma classes are still organized as before. Presently, as we can easily see, in the five Theravāda countries mostly males are ordained. The common view is that men must be trained in moral principle of Buddhism during their life.

Conclusion

Education always played a very important role in Vietnam. The government of Vietnam has set up the resolution to target the goal to increase the enrollment in higher education. In the whole region of Southern Vietnam, there are 449 Khmer Buddhist monasteries. The Khmer Buddhist educational system of Tra Vinh Province has been divided into three specific parts: (a) Buddhist monastic school in primary, elementary, and secondary levels which focus on the Pāli-Khmer Buddhist Studies in the same course. (b) Pāli-Khmer Secondary School of Tra Vinh includes Pāli-Khmer, Buddhist and Vietnamese Studies. After students had finished their study at elementary level in the monastic schools throughout Tra Vinh Province, they can apply for learning in Buddhist Studies programs at secondary level in the Buddhist monastic school in the same network, either do an entrance examination to enter Pāli-Khmer Secondary School of Tra Vinh in accordance with a certificate of grade 9th of Vietnamese program. The students also can enter Pāli Supplementary School of Southern Vietnam in Soc Trang Province in accordance with a certificate of grade 5th of Vietnamese program. 202 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

(c) Khmer Theravāda Buddhist University in Cantho city from the time of its establishment has conducted three courses: Course I: Years 2007 - 2011 with 67 students (97%) had graduated (B.A). Courses II: Years 2011 - 2015 with 29 students (100%) had graduated (B.A). Course III: Years 2015 - 2019 with 25 students presently studying.

The system of education in the Sangha is similar to other Theravāda countries. They also practice in accordance with the Pali Vinaya and study the Dhamma based on the Tipitaka. Buddhist education system has three levels: 1. Buddhist monastic school (elementary level) 2. Pāli-Khmer secondary school 3. Khmer Theravāda Buddhist University

References

I. Primary Sources:

Bodhi Bhikkhu. tr. The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. Vol. I. Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2000. I.B. HORNER, tr. The Book of The Discipline. Vol. II. London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, 1940. , tr. The Book of The Discipline. Vol. III. London: Luzac & Company LTD, Published for the PTS, 1957. , tr. The Book of The Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), Vol. IV tr.from Pāli. London: Luzac & Company Ltd, 1951 Narada. Dhammapada, Pāli Text and Translation with Stories in Brief and Notes. Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, B.E.2538-1993

II. Second Sources:

A. English Book David, Chandler. The Land and People of Cambodia. USA: Harper Collins Publishers, 1991. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 203

Andrew Skilton. A Concise History of Buddhism. Birmingham: Windhorse Publication, 1994. Chuon , Jotaññāno, Somdej Breah Saṅghariaja Ganamahānikāy. Vacanānukrom Khmer. Vol. I. II. 5th ed. Phnom Penh: Buddhist Institute, 1967. Ian, Harris. Cambodian Buddhism, History and Practice. Bangkok: O.S. Printing House, 2005. Thich Minh Chau. Vietnam Buddhism and Its Activities for Peace. HCM City, 1990.

B. Vietnamese Book Cơ Quan Đặc Trách Công Tác Dân Tộc ở Nam Bộ. Vai Trò Của Chùa Đối Với Đời Sống Văn Hóa Của Đồng Bào Khmer Nam Bộ, 2000. Role of Temple in Culture Life of Southern Khmer Compatriot, 2000 (Mimeography). Đoàn Trung Còn. Phật Học Tự Điển.Quyển I, II, III. NXB Tổng Hợp TP.HCM, 2005. Buddhist Dictionary. Vol. I, II, III. Ho Chi Minh City: General Publishing House, 2005. Lê Mạnh Thát. Lịch Sử Phật Giáo Việt Nam. Tập I. Viện Nghiên Cứu Phật Học Việt Nam. Xuất Bản, 1996. The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. Vol. I. Saigon: The Vietnamese Buddhist Study Institute, 1996. Nguyễn Văn Sáu. Bước Đầu Tìm Hiểu Phật Giáo Nam Tông Việt Nam. NXB. TP.HCM. 2002. Beginnings Study of Theravāda Buddhism in Vietnam. HCMC: Ho Chi Minh City Publishing House, 2002.

C. Thesis Huỳnh Kim Lan. “A Study of Theravāda in Vietnam”, M.A. Thesis, (IMAP) International Master Degree of Arts Programme Graduate School, MCU, BangKok, ThaiLand, 2010. Tran Sone Pannāmuni. “A Study of the Influence and Contribution of Theravāda Buddhism to the Khmer Community in the Mekong Data of Vietnam”, M.A. Thesis. (IMAP), International Master Degree of Arts Programme Graduate School, MCU, BangKok, ThaiLand, 2010 Tỳ KheoThiện Minh, “Lịch Sử Phật Giáo Nam Tông Việt Nam” History of Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhism”,B.A Thesis. HCMC: Vietnamese Buddhist University, 1996. 204 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

D. Article Tỳ Kheo Thiện Minh, Những Nhà SưPhật Giáo Nguyên Thủy truyền giáo đầu tiên ở Sài Gòn Gia Định”. Tuần Báo Giác Ngộ, Số 132, tháng 8, 2002. Vietnamese Theravāda Buddhist Monks first introduced Buddhism in Sai Gon Gia Dinh. The Englightenment Newspaper, No. 132, 7th, August 2002.

E. Online Sources http://www.budsas.org/uni/u-gioithieu-pgnt/gioithieu-01.htm. https://www.budsas.org/uni/1-bai/phap006.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian_New_Year.http://www.buddhismtoday.com/viet/ vulan/ynghiahanban.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/khmer.htm The concept of right view (sammā-diṭṭhi) according to the perspective of buddhist scholars

Bhikkhuni Tran Thi Vy, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahattanadull, Dr. Veerachart Nimanong International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The notion of Right view as an obstacle to ‘seeing things as they really are’ is a central concept in Buddhist thought as well as its practiced to attain Buddhist wisdom. The character and nature of the Right view is many well-known Buddhist Scholars concerned and issued illuminate ideas for contemporary Buddhism. This paper states the particulars of meaning and signifi cances of Right View and to make the Buddhists are able to comprehend and help the majority of the people understand the doctrine of the Buddha easily through several Buddhist scholars. This article, therefore, attempts to dig the defi nitions and classifi cations of Right view and the author begins with exploring the background of these terms which are found in Theravāda Sutta. The main purpose for studying the term Sammā-diṭṭhi is to trace it back to discover what was said in Nikaya sutta and their development.

Keywords: Right View, Theravāda Buddhism, Mundane, Supramundane. 206 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

In Theravāda Buddhism, the concept of Sammā-diṭṭhi is penetrating insight into the nature of reality defines as knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. Right view is also often described as the forerunner of the other limbs of the Eightfold Path. In Buddhism, without understanding, there can be no Nibbana or other spiritual attainment. It is clear that the Noble Eightfold Path leads us to attain final deliverance that is Nibbana. Especially, Right View points in the right direction, towards Nibbanic bliss. It is not only like a compass on a journey but also the basis of all Buddhist practice. Without right view we have continued to go around in the cycle of birth and death. When a meditator penetrates into the true nature of mental and physical processes, he does not take them to be a person or a being, a soul or a self. Then he has purified his view, he has attained Ditthi visuddhi. The concept of right view can be defined in different ways by Buddhist scholar such as Ven. Ledi Sayadaw, Ven. Ajahn Chah, Ven. P.A. Payutto, Ven. Sri Dhammananda and Ven. Buddhadasa. If the notion of Right view is applied to all over the world, thousands of animals will be saved, old unsound and non-human customs as wars causing misery to innumerable people will end. Once people have Right view, we will know suffering, the cause of suffering and find the way to eliminate suffering in the most decent way. In this manner, we live happily and don’t hurt each other.

The Definition of The Term Right View in Theravāda Buddhism

The Pali term Sammā-diṭṭhi has been translated as a “Right View”, Right Understanding, Right Vision, Right Perspective. The term sammā (right) indicates that all such components are the opposite of their micchā counterparts. It also conveys a sense of comprehensiveness, which implies avoidance of shortcuts in deciding what is right and wrong. “Diṭṭhi” has generally been translated as view, belief, opinion, or a way of seeing. In the ultimate sense, Right View is to understand life as it really is. It can be described as the basic core of the Buddhist philosophy which is essentially the correct understanding of the Four Noble Truths. Right view is a clear understanding of the various dhammas which express in one way or the other the central Buddhist principle, i.e., the knowledge of Dependent Origination. Moreover, it is the realization of the three characteristics of existence (Tilakkhaṇa), namely, impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (). It is also mentioned as knowing evil, the roots of evil, goodness and the roots of goodness. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 207

In “Sammā-diṭṭhi” Sutta, Sāriputta said:

“When, friends, a noble disciple understands suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the cessation of suffering, in that way he is one of right view.”1

In Buddhism, Right understanding means the understanding of suffering or the unsatisfactory nature of all phenomenal existence, its arising, its cessation and the path leading to its cessation. Right understanding, right views, or knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. There are two kinds of Right View: Mundane Right View (Lokiya sammā diṭṭhi) and Supramundane Right View (Lokuttara sammā diṭṭhi). The Mundane Right View provides an understanding of the moral law of cause and effect (kamma). The Supramundane Right View lead to the cultivation of the Noble Eightfold Path includes the correct understanding of the Four Noble Truths, Dependent Origination and the Three Universal Characteristics of impermanence, suffering and non-self. During one’s spiritual journey through the path of liberation towards Nibbana.

Right View According to The Perspective of Ven. Ledi Sayadaw

Ledi Sayadaw was an influential Buddhist monk. He was recognized from a young age as being developed in both the theory () and practice of Buddhism and so was revered as being scholarly.2 He wrote many books on Dhamma in Burmese and these were accessible even to a serious lay person, hence he was responsible for spreading Dhamma to all levels of society and reviving the practice of Vipassana meditation. Ledi Sayadaw gives an extremely clear and detailed explanation of the Buddha’s teaching. According Ledi Sayadaw, there are Three Kinds of Right View: a. Kammassakatā Sammādiṭṭhi: Right View Regarding Kamma. Right view in this case of beings, only two things, wholesome and unwholesome actions performed by all beings, are their own properties that always accompany them wherever they may wander in many existences.

1 M.I.93 2 Ven, Ashin Nyanisara. A short Biography of Ledi Sayadaw. Yagoon: Sitagu Dhamma publica- tion, 2005, p.65 208 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

b. Catusacca Sammādiṭṭhi: Right View of the Four Truths. (1) Dukka samudaye nānam : Penetrative insight into the Truth of Suffering. (2) Dukkha samudaye nānam : Penetrative insight into the Truth of the Origin of Suffering. (3) Dukkha nirodhe nānam: Penetrative insight into the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering. (4) Dukkha nirodhagā minipatipadāya nānam: Penetrative insight into the Truth of the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering.3 If one has succeeded in establishing Purity of Morality and Purity of Mind, one should immediately try to establish oneself in Right View and Right Thought the path factors of wisdom with a view to eradicating the first stage of personality-belief. To establish the two path factors of wisdom one must gain the five kinds of Purity of Wisdom (paññāvisuddhi) in due order to Purity of View (ditthi visuddhi), Purity by Overcoming Doubt.

c. Dasavatthuka Sammādiṭṭhi: Right View of ten kinds of subjects. (1) Aṭṭhi dinnam: Right View that almsgiving, such as giving to dogs, fowls, birds, layfolk, bhikkhus, etc., if performed with benevolence, in a previous existence, yields beneficial results in subsequent existences. (2) Aṭṭhi yiṭṭham: Right View that liberality, if extended with belief in past kamma and with faith in and respect for the virtuous qualities of recipients, yields beneficial results in future existences. (3) Aṭṭhi hutam: Right View that, gifts, even on a small scale (āhuna, pāhuna), if made in previous existences with good will, yields beneficial results in future existences. (4) Aṭṭhi sukata dukkātnam kammānam phalam vipāko: Right View that cruel deeds done to beings in previous existences yield bad results in subsequent existences, and that refraining from such evil acts yields beneficial results. (5) Aṭṭhi mātā: Right View that good and evil deeds done to one’s mother yield good and evil results respectively in subsequent existences. (6) Aṭṭhi piṭā: Right View that good and evil deeds done to one’s father yield good and evil results respectively in subsequent existences.

3 Ledi Sayadaw. The Manuals of Dhamma. Yangon: Vipassana Research Publications, 1999, p. 212 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 209

(7): Aṭṭhi sattā opapātikā Right View that there really exist beings by apparitional rebirth who are invisible to human eyes. Beings by apparitional rebirth mean those that do not take conception in the womb of a mother. Due to the force of their previous kamma they are born complete with the limbs and organs of the body, which will not develop further but remain as they are. (8) Aṭṭhi ayam loko: There really exists in this world which is under our very eyes. (9) Aṭṭhi paro loko: There are exists the other worlds or planes where one may arise after death (10) Aṭṭhi loko samanabrāhmanā: There really exist, in this human world, persons like the omniscient Buddha, monks and Brahmins who practice the true Dhamma and possess tranquility of mind and who, having seen and realized this very world and other worlds through their own insight, impart their knowledge to others.4

Right View According to The Perspective of Ajahn Chah

Ven. Ajahn Chah was a famous meditation master in Thailand. His discourses were always from the heart, from the depths of his own meditative experience. Ajahn Chah was used to emphasize on Right View (Sammā diṭṭhi). For him, Right View can be expounded in many different ways but fundamentally it understands the nature of kamma, the fact that all actions have some sort of result. That is a fundamental basis for Right View; particularly from the perspective of the mundane, day-to-day level of how we live. It is being able to consider and reflect on how our actions bring results. 5 Moreover, to establish Right View means firstly that one has a trustworthy map of the terrain of the mind and the world – an appreciation of the law of kamma, particularly and secondly it means that one sees experience in the light of the Four Noble Truths and is thus turning that flow of perceptions, thoughts and moods into fuel for insight. The four points become the quarters of the compass by which we orient our understanding and thus guide our actions and intentions.

4 Ibid.p,92 5 Ajhan Chah. The Taste of Freedom. Bangkok: Wisdom Publication, 1999, p.34 210 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

So, really being attentive to our actions, recognising that we can choose between that which is going to bring benefits into the world around us, creating well-being and happiness for ourselves and others, or those things that are unskilful and will create disharmony, create a sense of disease within our heart or conflict with others. To be really clear because we have to live with the fruits; that’s a fundamental Right View. For him, The Buddha’s teaching is contrary to our hearts. People want to indulge in greed and hatred but the Buddha won’t let them. They want to be deluded but the Buddha destroys delusion. So, the mind of the Buddha is contrary to that of worldly beings. The world calls the body beautiful; he says it’s not beautiful. They say the body belongs to us, he says not so. They say it’s substantial, he says it’s not. Right view is above the world. Worldly beings merely follow the flow of the stream. If we know the truth of our various moods we arrive at contentment. Whether it’s hot or cold we are satisfied, with many people or with few people we are satisfied. Contentment doesn’t depend on how many people we are with; it comes only from right view. If we have right view then wherever we stay we are content.6 In our practice we must have Right view. If our view is right then everything else is right: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right recollection, and right concentration. When there is Right view all the other factors will follow on. In addition, Ajahn Chah also explains when wisdom views things correctly with insight, this right view then leads to right intention, right speech, right action, and so on. This all involves psychological conditions that have arisen from that pure knowing awareness. This knowing is like a lantern shedding light on the path ahead on a dark night. If the knowing is right, is in accordance with truth, it will pervade and illuminate each of the other steps on the path in turn. The right abiding place for monks, the place of coolness, is just right view itself. We shouldn’t look for anything else. The essence of Buddhism is peace, and that peace arises from truly knowing the nature of all things. If we investigate closely, we can see that peace is neither happiness nor unhappiness. Neither of these is the truth7.

6 Ibid. p, 29 7 Ibid,p. 101 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 211

The Concept of Right View According to The Perspective of Ven. P.A. Payutto

Ven. P.A. Payutto is a well-known Thai Buddhist monk, an intellectual, and a prolific writer. According to Ven. Payutto, Right view (Sammā diṭṭhi) means thus the starting point or leading factor practice along the middle way and it is knowledge of the truth to see things as they truly are and to see how things exist according to causes and condition and considered to be the actual cause of intelligence (wisdom, rationality) and right view is to discern and understand thing according to the truth, penetrate the nature of conditioned phenomena, so that one lives and act with right view. One knows how to relate to the world correctly and shares blessings with other, endowed with a bright, independent, and joyous mind, free from suffering. Right view makes up the group of wisdom the development of this factor is refers to as training in higher wisdom.8 The understanding of right view in the teaching of Ven. Payutto is a factor one of the Noble Eightfold Paths are called middle way in Buddhism that lead to realize the true nature of Dhamma as reality. Right view makes wisdom developed that could see cause and effect and is to see or realize the true as they are originally In sum, there are two factors giving rise to right. First is faith (saddha) which is refers to the trust in or a reliance on the wisdom of others. It arises as a response to the teaching of other people and it marks the beginning of spiritual practice by way of external conditions. Second is wise reflection (yoniso-manasikara), which refers to and ability to think for oneself or to think correctly. It marks the beginning of spiritual practice by way of internal conditions.9 Right view develops ordinary people who begin with faith, relies on other ability to apply wise reflection. Transcendent right view in particular which fathoms the truth and completely dispels mental impurity is unable to arise with wise reflection. Generally, it is understood that Sammā diṭṭhi could be translated that correct view. When we see deeply, it is not just correct view but believing in the doing wholesome thing and have the true skill avoiding unwholesome thing for example, a person who possesses only this level of right

8 Bhikkhu P.A. Payutto. Buddhadhamm: The Laws of Nature and Their Benefit to Fife. Bang- kok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 2017, p. 994. 9 Ibid, p.101 212 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

view, however, try to give the best emphasis of moral conduct and wisdom. On the other hand, Sammādiṭṭhi could be defined that a lam or a compass which allows one to see the path forward to the right direction of goal. Furthermore, Ven. P.A. Payutto mentioned the cultivation of right view from the Tipitaka in order to understand the meaning of right view as follow. Monk, there are two factors conducive to arising of right view: they are paratoghosa: the ‘proclamations of other: external influence of inducement: other people’s teaching advice, explanation, and transmissions, advertisement, information, news, written material, and schooling. Here, it refers specific all too wholesome teaching; in particular to the transmission of dhamma teaching, and to the knowledge and counsel receive from virtuous friends. This an external, social factor and yoniso manasikara: wise reflection, analytical reflection, reasoned or systematic attention. To know how to reflect on thing in an objective way, to apply reasoned thought, to inquire into the origin of things, to trace the entire trajectory of phenomena, and according to its interrelated causes and conditions, without allowing personal craving or attachment to interfere. This is an internal, spiritual factor. It can be described as the way of wisdom.10 Ven. P.A. Payutto has been described the meaning of concept of right view which is develops ordinary people who begin with faith on Theravāda Buddhist doctrine which are noble eightfold paths, the Four Noble Truths and realize the cause and effect in detail.

Right View According to The Perspective of Ven. Buddhadasa

Buddhadasa was a famous and influential ascetic-philosopher of the 20th century. Known as an innovative interpreter of Buddhist doctrine and Thai folk beliefs, Buddhadasa fostered a reformation in conventional religious perceptions in his home country, Thailand, as well as abroad. He says that in knowing dependent origination one achieves supreme or supra-mundane Right View. Such a Right View is not prone to nihilism or the concept of a continuing existence.11 The language of dependent origination or the perfect Dhamma language can help us perceive the truth in phenomena. It is different from ordinary languages that are polluted by concepts of continuing existence. For instance, in the Right View (Sammādiṭṭhi ), there are other worlds, parents, heaven, hell, kamma, initiator and receiver of the kamma,

10 Ibid. p.38 11 Ven. Buddhadasa,Paticcasamuppada: Practical Dependent Origination. Bangkok: Foundation of Sublime Life, 2000, p. 55 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 213

the present life and the next. All these are explained according to the language of ordinary people. In the Intermediate Right View, there are only suffering and cessation of suffering. A suffering entity or “person” that is ending the suffering is neither mentioned nor acceptable. In the Perfect Right View, or undistorted supra-mundane realm, dependent arising is perceived as is, neither existing (atthita) nor nonexistent (natthita). Seen from the Middle Path the process of dependent arising, which operates according to the principle “this exists therefore that exists, this ceases to be therefore that ceases to be,” is perceived as devoid of ego, person, heaven, or hell. A perception of this level is called Truthful Middle Path because it is prone neither to nihilism nor the concept of a continuing existence. Right view which is spoken of in the language of relative truth for ordinary people says that there exists a present world and a future world, fathers and mothers, hell and heaven, deeds and the doers of deeds, this life and the future life. All of this is said according to the idiomatic vernacular, as understood and clung to by ordinary people. When we come to the middle level of Right view, however, as it manifests itself as one of The Noble Eightfold Path, we find that things are not talked about as on the lower level. There is only talk about suffering and the complete cessation of suffering. There is no mention of the person who suffers, or of the person who extinguishes suffering. And yet this is also called right view. Finally, we come to right view on the highest level, the level of the supramundane, which is the view that sees real Dependent Origination. Ven. Buddhadasa says in the “Gems of Buddhism Wisdom”, there are two sorts of understanding: 1) An accumulated of memory, an intellectual grasping of a subject according to certain given data; 2) Real deep understanding, a penetration or an intellectual seeing a thing in its true nature, without name and external label. This penetration is possible only when the mind is free from all impurities and is fully developed through meditation. In the first meaning, Right View can be a clear awareness to the Mind and Right View in second meaning is the feeling of sensation. In general, this is a discussion of Right Understanding describing how the four noble truths from which the dependent appearance and the knowledge end mental fermentation and come to the basic dichotomy between right and wrong action. 12

12 K.Sri.Dhammananda. What Buddhists Believe. Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society Pub- lished, 2004, p. 132 214 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Right View According to The Perspective of Ven. K. Sri Dhammananda

Venerable K. Sri Dhammananda was a Sri Lankan Theravāda Buddhist monk who wrote many books on Buddhism for free distribution. According to Ven. Sri Dhammananda, Right View means that one understands the nature of what are wholesome karma (merits) and unwholesome karma (demerits), and how they may be performed with the body, speech and mind.13 By understanding karma, a person will learn to avoid evil and do good, thereby creating favorable outcomes in life. When a person has Right Understanding, he or she also understands the Three Characteristics of Life (hat all compounded things are transient, subject to suffering and without a Self) and understands the Law of Dependent Origination. A person with complete Right Understanding is one who is free from ignorance, and by the nature of that enlightenment removes the roots of evil from the mind and becomes liberated. The lofty aim of a practicing. Buddhist is to develop the mind to gain Right Understanding about the self, life and all phenomena. Right Understanding and Right Thought, which are Wisdom factors, will lead to good, moral conduct. In the book “Practical Buddhism” Ven. Sri Dhammananda mentions about Right view as a clear understanding of the Four Noble Truths is fundamental to the practice of Buddhism14. Without an understanding of these four important truths, we will not realize the nature of human problems and will have to continue experiencing suffering. We struggle to escape from unsatisfactoriness, but without the necessary insight we will not find the way to remove the root cause of our problems. In fact, through ignorance we create more problems as a result of our misguided conception of the world. In only one religion Buddhism are the Four Noble Truths explained with such clarity. As Sammā diṭṭhi has been defined in different way according to the Buddhist scholars such as Ven. Ledi Sayadaw, Ven. Sri Dhamananda, Ven. P.A. Payutto, Ven. Buddhadasa, and Ven. Ajahn Chah. Definition of Right view, kinds point of view such Catusacca Sammādiṭṭhi: Right View of the Four Truths and Aṭṭhi sattā opapātika and so on. In this context, the research uses the sources for the book by those Buddhist scholars, published book and unpublished books in order to deeply understand the meaning of Right view from the Buddhist scholars.

13 Ibid,84 14 Ven. Sri Dhammananda,. Practical Buddhism. Buddhist Missionary Society Published, 2007, p.55 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 215

Conclusion

In conclusion, Right View is one of the main factors to build an ethic and wisdom for Buddhist monks as well as lay people. Also, it is the fi rst step on the path to attain enlightenment. To achieve Right view is to have an attitude free from craving and attachment. One should strive to attain Right view in the sense of striving for the cessation of attachment. It is in this way that there is an opposition between Right view and Wrong view. In the nutshell, the researcher has described to analyze concept of Right View in the detail through the perspectives of Buddhist Scholars. In general, all the explanations given by well-known Buddhist scholar above are from the suttas. However, it is only differences only in expressions and languages. The main purpose is to better explain to Buddhists the understanding of Buddhist doctrine and to accord with the development of the times.

References

Mahathera Nauyane Ariyadhamma. The Short Analysis of Kamma, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 2001. Martine Batchelor and Kerry Brown, editors. Buddhism and Ecology, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. N. K. Singh, B. Baruah, Ed. Encyclopaedic Dictionary of . India: Global Vision Publishing House, 2003. Nyanatiloka. Buddhist Dictionary Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines. Ed. Nyanaponika. Kandy: BPS, 1987. Paññaloka, Ven. R. Buddha and Brahmanic Society. Colombo: 1984. Paul Fuller. The Notion of Diṭṭhi in Theravāda Buddhism, London: Taylor Francis publishers, 2005 Payutto, P.A. (Phra Debvethee). . Bangkok: Buddhist University Press, 1992. Payutto, Phra, P.A. Freedom Individual and Social. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation 1998. 216 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Piyadassi Thera. The Buddha’s Ancient Path. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society Inc., 2001. Plamintr, Sunthorn. Ph. D., Getting to Know Buddhism, Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 1998. Rahula, W. Dr. What the Buddha Taught. Bangkok: Haw Trai Foundation, 2531 (B.E.). Rhys Davids, T. W., and William Stede. Pali-English Dictionary. London: PTS, 1989. The Government of Sri Lanka. Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Volumes I-IV. Fascicle; Sri Lanka: Taranjee prints. The Realm of Wisdom (Thai edition). Bangkok: Fueng-fa Printing, 2003. U. Dhammaratana, Guide Through the Visuddhimagga, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2011. Ven. Ajahn Chah , A Taste of Freedom, The Sangha, Bung Wai Forest Monastery publishers, 1991 Ven. Buddhadasa, Paticcasamuppada: Practical Dependent Origination, Bangkok: Foundation of Sublime Life, 2000. Ven. K. Sri Dhammananda, What Buddhists Believe, Buddhist Missionary Society Published, 2007. Ven. Ledi Sayadaw, A Manual of the Path Factors, Printed for free Distribution by A Association for Insight Meditation, 2013. Ven. Matara Sri Nanarama, The Seven Stages of Purification and Insight Knowledge, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1993. Ven. P.A. Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond, Buddhadhamma Foundation,Thailand Publisher,1996. The Notion of Bodily Recognition: An Examination of Early Buddhist and Xu Fuguan’s Perspective

Asst. Prof. Gyan Prakash Department of Humanities and Social Sciences IIT (ISM) Dhanbad, India Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Controversies over the nature and function of memory-image play a role similar to that of the function of sense data in bodily recognition. Against this backdrop, in this paper, we fi rst examine the Buddhist elucidation of mind and body wherein the general problems of metaphysical self and cognition are addressed. We argue that early Buddhist mind is no more than svabhva. Subsequently, we compare Xu Fuguan’s analysis of bodily recognition with the early Buddhist thought. The main objective of this paper, thus, is a comparative analysis of the concept of mind and bodily recognition in the philosophies of Early Buddhism and Xu Fuguan. The paper argues that Xu’s articulation of embodiment is not satisfactory but can be delineated in the light of early Buddhist thought.

Keywords: Bodily Recognition, Early Buddhist Philosophy, Self, Perception, Metaphysics. 218 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

In Western philosophy, dualism came to be repudiated as a result of the landmark treatise, by the Oxford philosopher Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976), entitled The Concept of Mind (1949). Ryle argued and proposed that one should not take the substance of ‘Mind’ as being different from the substance of ‘Body.’ Hume, in his well-known work ‘A Treatise of Human Nature’, says that we do not experience anything which can substantiate the belief of self. Whenever we try to experience our self, we experience a continuous flow of perceptions that replace one another in rapid succession. “I always stumble on some particular perception or other, of heat or cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or pleasure. I never catch myself at any time without a perception, and never can observe anything but the perception.”(Hume 1978, 525). For Hume, self or person is not the other that is a “bundle of impressions.” It is fascinating to note that, for the early Buddhists as well as for Hume, there is no thinker or perceiver but only ‘thoughts and perceptions’. “When we talk of self or substance, we must have an idea annexed to these terms, otherwise they are altogether unintelligible. Every idea is derived from preceding impressions; and we have no impression of self or substance, as something simple and individual. We have, therefore, no idea of them in that sense” (Hume 1978, 631). For Hume, to have an idea we must have a corresponding impression but in real life we do not have an impression of the idea of self. Therefore, we have no idea of self. The idea of self is nothing but a bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidity and are in a state of constant flux and motion (Hume 1978, 252). In contrast, in classical India, the Upanisadic tradition has looked upon self (soul) as an enduring entity and different from the body, which is perishable. Self is immaterial and exists in the body, and body is not the self. This version of “the Ghost in the Machine” theory was eliminated by Buddha in the sixth century B.C. through his theory of ‘mind’ which was known as the doctrine of Anatman. Buddha’s conjecture of ‘mind’ was taken up for more radical theorizing by his followers later on (Nanamoli 1956. 479-546). The Chinese philosopher, Xu Fuguan, also rejected the metaphysical self (Tan 2009, 565). He talked about the ethical self. Xu’s primary interest lay in the elucidation of the ethical self and manifestation of virtue for the benefit of the world (Cheng 2002, 184). The main aim of this paper is a comparative study of the concept of mind and bodily recognition in the philosophies of Early Buddhism and Xu Fuguan. The researcher understand that both these philosophies come from different backgrounds and traditions. Notwithstanding, comparative philosophy offers the unique advantage of looking into one’s views from a fresh JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 219

perspective. Thus, for example, Mark Siderites (2009) talks about fusion philosophy. Fusion philosophy is like fusion music wherein the musician uses the instrument from one tradition to solve the problems of another tradition.1 Similarly, one can resort to philosophical elucidations of one tradition to solve the problems of another tradition. This paper is organised as follows. In the beginning, the Buddhist concept of mind and body are discussed. Next, it is shown that both early Buddhists and Xu Fuguan talk in the same vein about body and heart-mind. Thereafter, the problem of bodily cognition in both of these philosophies are examined. In this section, it has been proposed that Xu’s delineation of bodily recognition runs in problems but can be delineated under the early Buddhist framework.

The Concept of Mind in Early Buddhist Philosophy

According to early Buddhism, ‘the human subject can be deconstructed into these five categories of aggregates (khandha) without any remainder’ (Keown 2003, 270). The theory of dhamma stands as the key concept herein. “The term refers to the different kind of atoms, the sort of material of which the world is composed. The use of the term ‘element’ to render the word dharma may be in keeping with the teachings of the Sarvastivadins” (Kalupahana 1992, 73). looks upon dhamma as the simplest element to which an empirical object can be reduced. regards the world as composed of an unceasing flow of simple ultimate called ‘dhamma’. Precisely, dhamma could be explained as building blocks or elements based upon which through different combinations, we construct our lives world.

1 “The enterprise of fusion philosophy is meant to be a successor to the practice of what has been called comparative philosophy. It is the centrality of problem-solving to the original conception of a Fusion in music that recommends the term to those seeking a new name for the philosophical enterprise.” (Siderits, 2003, xi) “Taking Confucianism as his test case, he demonstrates that understanding a non-western tradition requires nothing inherently beyond what is required to understand the ancient Greek tradition: both require a linguistic and cultural translation of their ideas, but when this is accomplished, the underlying tradition can have an enriching influence on contemporary culture. Confucianism is finally at the point where most of its major texts have been translated in critical editions and its cultural context explicated, so, it is the responsibility of contemporary western philosophers to draw on these resources to enrich to contemporary discussion. In this way, they can make the ongoing discussion a world philosophical dialogue rather than merely parochial Western one.”(Neville 2009. 191) 220 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

For early Buddhists, the entire physical and mental phenomena of existence is made up of fivekhandha . They constitute the human personality. Khandha is divided into two groups: mind (nāma) and matter (rūpa). Buddhaghosa, in his Visuddhimagga, writes that sensation (vedanā), perception (saññā), intellect (saṁkhāra) and consciousness (viññāṇa) are the four mental aggregates and rupa is the material aggregate (Buddhaghosa 1956. 489). These five aggregates or components collectively constitute the human individual or personality.

In Early Buddhism, there is a clear differentiation between dhamma which are intentional (part of nāma) and rūpa which pertain to material form (Harvey 1993. 39). But it does not mean that nāma is different from matter. Mind and body are inter-related and inseparable. However, in the analysis, one could make a distinction between mind and body and use the term rūpa to represent the matter and viññāṇa to represent the mind. Mind is a train of thought. There is no mention of an enduring self, in the early Buddhist treatises, but the conception of ‘I’. The ‘I’ is nothing but nāma-rūpa. It is merely the result of sensation and, again, it is made to precede sensation in the causal chain. The word ‘mind’ was also used to describe a complete act of perception or cognition. Consciousness is the relation between the subject and object and is all about awareness of the object. It includes all the varieties of awareness. In this sense, it is essentially subjective. In Early Buddhism, the word ‘Nāma’ has also been used in the same sense. Thus, viññāṇa or mind represent all the activities of the body. Viññāṇa has been explained in many ways. It is a pregnant concept with a deep philosophical implication. It is neither a sense organ nor like a ‘lord of the town’. Buddha does not hold on to a metaphysical self. Again, it does not imply that he replaces the self with the word ‘mind’ (Prakash 2016, 339). From the very outset, Buddhism has been subjectivist and critical. It has maintained the distinction between that which ‘exists in reality’ and that which ‘appears empirically’. Apparent reality is nothing more than the names of the living and non-living. It also refers to things and persons themselves. It is the ordinary conventional truth or commonly accepted truth (sammuti-sacca). Ultimate reality is called paramattha in the Abhidhamma literature. In Early Buddhism, a person is not more than five khandh and khandha is no more than a division of dhamma. The Sthaviras takes the word ‘dhamma’ in its ethical sense. Sarvastivada posits that ‘everything exists’ (sarvam asti) because dhammas are real and the building blocks of all that exists. When Buddha was asked as to what was implied by ‘everything exists’, he JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 221

explained: ‘everything exists means that the twelve Āyatnas 2 exist.’ The “twelve āyatnas are merely one of the many classifications of the element of existence of matter and mind” (Kalupahana 1975. 5). Notwithstanding, the Sarvastivda theory of ‘everything exists’ not only refers to the real existence of the twelve āyatnas but also the existence of an eternal substratum (dravya) or ultimate nature (svabhāva). This is different from the early Buddhist concept of dhamma. Sautrantikas explicated dhamma with an elucidation of the term ‘svabhāva’ or ‘inherent nature’. One can interpret svabhāva in two different ways. Firstly, it could be used in the sense of eternity that is not a part of the causal chain. This is not acceptable since early Buddhism does not believe in the ultimate or unique nature. For instance, the notion of ‘chariot’ exists only in relation to the different parts that make up the chariot ‘as a whole’. Secondly, the notion of svabhāva may be used in the sense of what appears as real, having an essence, though ‘is not real’. The potency of the matter is not different from the matter itself (Singh 1995. 96). When one uses the word svabhāva (capacity), it means that thing or matter has the efficiency to produce its effect (arthakriyakaritva). This is so because, without this, matter could not be considered as an entity. For, a thing that does not produce an effect is unreal (Singh 1995. 96). Hence, according to early Buddhist understanding, reality is nothing but efficiency. Interpretation of dhamma in relation to svabhāva carries a special nuance.

It follows from this that when the commentaries definedhamma as svabhāva, this is not a statement about their ontological status and that svabhāva should not be translated as ‘inherent existence’, but is merely a gloss stating that dhamma are ‘particular natures’ or ‘particular qualities’ (Rupert 2004. 534).

For instance, fire is not different from itssvabhāva of burning. Here, fire cannot exist for a moment without its svabhāva burning in the sense that it essentially needs to burn in so far as it exists as fire. Similarly, if existence is regarded as svabhāva, it would only mean that things are nothing more than their inherent svabhāva. Early Buddhism does not regard svabhāva as eternal. If we refer to any entity, it means that we are discussing its nature. This

2 The term āyatnas literally means the ‘gateway’. The gateway of experience is not only the sense organ but also the object of sense. So yatna are five sense organs, mind and their respective object. (Kalupahana, 1992, 29). 222 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

is so because, as we have said above, an entity is nothing more than its efficiency. Thus, if we are saying that ‘Ram is a chain smoker’ it means that Ram smokes regularly or smokes in every ten minutes. Here, the smoker is nothing more than his inherent nature. In order to make this clearer, let us take the instance of a person named Devdatta. According to early Buddhism, Devdatta is nothing more than five aggregates since Devdatta is only a name which is a conventional truth. Thus, the name is unreal. Again, the five aggregates are not eternal and they arise and perish every moment. Let us further take two subsequent moments of Devadatta’s life, namely, A and B.

Here, one cannot say that Devdatta A is different from Devdatta B. For Buddhist, Devdatta B is neither different from Devdatta A nor the same. Only svabhāva is carried forward from one moment to the other. In early Buddhist philosophy, a statement about an individual is nothing more than a statement about his svabhāva. For instance, Devdas has just been talking in Spanish satisfies what is asserted by ‘Devdas knows Spanish’, and a person who has found out that Devdas knows Spanish perfectly needs no further ticket to enable him to argue of it. When we express our sentiments about a person, we always refer to his svabhava. For early Buddhism, nāma and rūpa constitute the complete personality (or person) and self is nothing but a bundle of khandha or aggregates. This conception of mind, in early Buddhist philosophy, is diametrically opposed to the Cartesian cogito ergo sum. In the early Buddhist thought, mind is not different from the five aggregates which are nothing but dhamma. Buddha did not commit themselves to the existence of a metaphysical self (soul) but explained everything in terms of the mind mechanism (Prakash, 2016, 338-339). In the next section, I will elaborate upon Xu Fuguan’s philosophy of body and heart-mind and bring forth that Xu’s philosophy stands very close to the early Buddhist position. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 223

Xu Fuguan’s Philosophy of Body and Mind

Xu Fuguan (1903- 1982) was the most significant representative of the second generation of modern Confucianists. His philosophy is still the most influential and important stream of thought in contemporary Chinese philosophy. In his writings, he says that body lies in the centre of Confucian concern. However, difference exists between the western definition of body and Chinese delineation (Rošker 2014, 70). Xu argued that bodyand mind always function in a mutually complementary way. Here, it is noteworthy that, Xu’s philosophy cannot be understood within the western parameters. Notwithstanding, it can easily be understood within the early Buddhist framework. Xu has tried to show that the main aim of the Chinese philosophy is different from the western way of articulation. In Chinese philosophy, qi represents the body.

…the concept qi can hardly be understood as a matter in the “Western” sense. In fact, the Neo-Confucian philosophers defined it as something which is not necessarily substantial, as air or even a vacuum (the Great void 太虛) is composed of it. Thus, it represents a concept which could be more appropriately defined as creativity, or a potential that functions in a creative way and which can appear in some material sphere, but also in the abstract realm of ideas (Sernelj, 2014, 88)

Thus, it is clear that, qi is not similar to the western concept of body. For Xu, heart- mind is not different from the body (Ni 2002, 286. Rošker. 2016).

Since the central point of Chinese culture, the heart–mind, is inside the human body and is a part of the body (Mencius called it da ti, the great part of the body), the culture should be called “the learning of what is within xing (xin er zhong xue),” rather than “the study of what is beyond xing (xin er shang xue),” a phrase usually employed to translate the term “metaphysics,” The heart–mind is “a concrete being, entirely different from the metaphysical constructs of speculation or faith.” It is totally misleading to interpret the heart–mind as the idealist concept of mind. The principles (li) of the heart–mind are moral principles, not ideas of natural phenomena (Ni 2002, 286). 224 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Thus, it is noteworthy that, “heart” or nature is identical and not different from the body. For Xu, heart-mind is not a metaphysical entity. In other words, the concept of heart- mind is not similar to the Cartesian notion of mind. Xu talks about the unity of body and mind. It does not mean that body and mind belongs to two different categories.

Li and qi are thus complementary concepts, which can be explained as a structure (or structural pattern) and a creative formative potential (creativity creativeness). Both are of immanent nature and can therefore be realized in the spheres of both ideas and phenomena. Euro-American philosophy offers no precise equivalents for these two terms. If we want to comprehend the modes of their existence and their functions, we must first free ourselves from reasoning in terms of Cartesian dualisms and try thinking based on the model of analogy, which arose from and was prevalent in the immanent metaphysic of traditional Chinese thought (Rošker 2012, 277-278)

Mencius also argues that the relationship between xin and physical body is complimentary (Slingerland 2013, 18). Both these philosophers emphasizes self-cultivation. However, one may ask as to whether the self is different from or similar to its constituent parts. The same question can be posed before the early Buddhist philosophy. In both these philosophies, self is not different from its constituent’s part. Xu always rejects the possibility of a metaphysical self and says that self is not different from the body and heart-mind. Similarly, early Buddhist also talks about the self, which is not different from the five aggregates. Thus, Xu does not believe in the metaphysical self. His main aim lies in giving primacy to the ethical self. My key concern in elucidating upon Xu’s philosophy of body and heart-mind is to bring forth the similarity between Xu’s and early Buddhist notion of body and mind. The present section also prepares the ground for the delineation of bodily recognition in both these philosophies. In the next section, we will examine the problem of bodily recognition from early Buddhist and Xu’s philosophical perspective.

Early Buddhism, Xu Fuguan and Bodily Recognition

For early Buddhists, thought is what one thinks of an object. Buddhist theory of cognition explains that an object is revealed only when it is cognised. Further, cognitive awareness arises when the object and sense organs come in contact. Peter Harvey writes, “In the Abhidhamma, it is specified that, in each of the six sense-channels, there is a relevant JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 225

kind of discernment (eg. Visual-discernment for a visual form) followed by a series of conceptual-discernments, and accompanying states such as cognition, which process the object” (Harvey 2004. 140). Cognition could be clearly understood if an examination of the eighteen elements (dhātu)3 is undertaken. Early Buddhists classify khandha into eighteen dhātus, which explains the cognitive theory of early Buddhism. The thoughts of the process are called apprehending at the five senses, the eye cognition, the recipient, the investigating and determining thoughts respectively. In early Buddhism, there is a unique relation between subject-object. The coalition between subject-object eo ipso presupposes that both of these participant factors sacrifice some amount of their independence. If subject and object maintain absolute independence, then no relation can take place and subsequently no cognition will arise (Mookerjee 1997 321). In the process of perception, consciousness refers to the consciousness of something. Similarly, the object remains no longer a brute objective fact but an object of some consciousness. A person is generally aware of only the final processes. However, when we make a simple statement, like ‘I see table,’, then (before this statement holds good) several complicated processes, namely, that of ‘imagination, memory, association, discrimination and judgment’ take place. Buddhists regard purposive activity as behaviour with a mental cause. For instance, suppose I have (formed) the intention to strike someone. It means that my mind is in a certain state and my action is merely an effect of this mental state. In early Buddhism, one’s mental state has an important role to play in his day to day life. According to Buddhism, cētasikas are mental factors or mental concomitants that arise and perish together with citta or mind. They depend on citta for their arising and, as they arise, influence the mind to be bad, good or neutral. There are different kinds of citta which arise when they come into contact with the objects. For early Buddhism, mind and its mental factors are not supposed to arise and perish without each other because they are said to have the same base and object. They share the same physical-organ as well as the object. So, when the mind arises depending upon eye- ear or nose channel, and so on, and makes visible datum etc., as its object, the mental factors (that also depend upon eye-channel) also make visible datum as their object. Therefore, for early Buddhism, external object is not objective in nature. The way a person sees this world depends on his svabhāva. Early Buddhist philosophy attempts to articulate not only how one

3 dhatu there is further division of yatana. According to the Abhidhramakośabhāṣyam, “khandha signifies ‘heap’ āyatana signifies ‘gate of entry’, ‘gate of arising’, and dhātu signifies ‘lineage’” (Pruden, 1988, 77). 226 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

can usefully speak about immediate experience, without reference to internal subjects, but also how one can account for the genesis of this ‘world of experience’ without recourse to mystical agencies. Two important observations, with reference to early Buddhist philosophy, can be made at this point. The first is that cognition is not wholly objective. Secondly, cognitive awareness is not an exact mirror of nature which reflects things as they are. In other words, all perceptions are invariably associated with an emotive element. In the thought process, emotion plays an important role and due to emotion one thing can be perceived in different ways by different people (Kalupahana 1992. 33). However, early Buddhist philosophy has maintained its no self-theory and takes the opposite to be the result of wrong belief. Herein, each form of cognitive awareness always arises conditioned by the mental state. In the same vein, Xu explains that we perceive the object very subjectively. He holds that we always obtain knowledge through tizhi (bodily knowing), tiyan (bodily experiencing) or tiren (bodily recognition). Here, the word “ren” means both realization and acknowledgment (Ni 2002, 289). Tiren is an active process where an agent retrospectively obtains knowledge (Sernelj 2013, 93). It is important to understand the nature of the retrospective feature of thinking. Ryle writes that thinking means one has learned something and not forgotten yet. It means that our set of inclination and memory plays a very important role in object recognition and, thus, we may not be able to perceive an object as it is. This is the reason that Xu always emphasizes upon reducing desire or inclination. “One reveals one’s own moral nature through “overcoming the self” and “reducing sensual desires.” By freeing oneself from these constraints, the subject lets the original mind emerge. The way to determine what desires and inclinations need to be overcome is the same as the way to reveal moral subjectivity” (Sernelj 2013, 93). He gives importance to the development of moral subjectivity for which one needs much training or practice.

Xu calls our attention to the fact that the Neo-Confucians did not call bodily recognition a method of gaining knowledge; instead, they called it a gongfu, both a way of doing something with genuine bodily effort and a talent or ability that is gained through receiving training from masters and through one’s own diligent practice. For Xu the main application of the bodily experience gongfu lies in weiji zhi xue (learning for the self), a phrase from Confucius that Xu believed to express the aim of Confucian learning. (Ni 2002. 289) JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 227

It is evident that, for the development of moral subjectivity, one needs to learn to control emotions and desires. Interestingly, Xiong Shili, the founder of modern Confucianism, rebuffed the Buddhist position of Vijnanavāda. He talked about the habitual mind which is responsible for recognition or experience of an object. But eventually took an idealistic position.

In the final analysis, however, Xiong turns out to be an idealist. He claimed that in the opening tendency original reality manifests its true nature. Of the two tendencies, opening is the determining factor and the directing force in the whole process of transformation. It is the true nature of original reality that it is manifested in the myriad things, but in the constant transformation of reality it itself is not materialized. Xiong called the opening tendency “mind,” but also called original reality “mind” or “consciousness” (Yu 2002, 136)

Xiong argues that one recognizes the external phenomena due to the habituated mind. The concept of habituated mind is very close to the early Buddhist notion of intellect (saṁkhāra) dhamma. For Buddhists, intellect (saṁkhāra) dhamma serves as a tool to recognize the external world. This dhamma works as a store house of previous experiences or impression of past actions. It uses these data for recognition of an external object. In the same vein, Xiong’s notion of habituated mind is a tool which helps us to experience the concrete phenomena (Rošker 2009, 382). However, habituated mind is ultimately unreal and a manifestation or function of the original mind (Tan 2009, 539). “Xiong also distinguished the human mind into the ‘original mind’ and the ‘habituated mind.’ The habituated mind is the complex of thought, will, and the emotions. Habituated mind is inclined to know things through presupposing the external world and is conditioned by self-prejudice and self-desire” (Yu 2002, 139). Xiong considers the substance (ti) and function (yong) as two sides of the same coin (Rošker 2009, 378). Therefore, bodily recognition will always give rise to subjective perception. Let us now shift to Xu’s understanding of bodily recognition. Herein, one may raise a question about the first experience of an object because, for ‘object recognition’, ideas of memory or impression of past experiences are important. It is difficult to answer this question, from Xu’s point of view, because he has not provided us with enough philosophical analysis of embodied cognition. Notwithstanding, Xu’s philosophy can be delineated within the framework of early Buddhist philosophy. For Buddhism, we recognise the objects with the help of references from our memory and emotion. Further, according to early Buddhism, we do not come to this world with a ‘blank slate’. 228 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Conclusion

There is no dualism in early Buddhist philosophy. Mind and matter do not belong to two different categories. The nature of early Buddhist mind is different from the Cartesian notion of self. Mind is not the master of the body and is responsible for different activities. Also, the word ‘mind’ represents the entire physical and mental activity. Therefore, in early Buddhist philosophy, mind is no more than svabhāva. In both early Buddhism and Xu Fuguan’s philosophy, a person experiences this world through sense perception. Based upon the past experiences, she/he tends to repeat the action. One does not experience this world objectively and one’s tendency is always dependent on one’s past experience. For instance, if a person gets pleasure in smoking a cigarette he, certainly, will repeat it or have the inclination to indulge in it. In the Chinese tradition, Xu Fuguan has developed his profound philosophy quite independently of the western world. However, he could not give an adequate philosophical analysis of embodied cognition. Notwithstanding, his philosophy can be understood or delineated within the early Buddhist framework.

References

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Keown, Damien. 2003. A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University Press. Lin, Chien-Te. 2014. A Buddhist Take on Gilbert Ryle’s Theory of Mind, Asian Philosophy. 24(2), 178-196. DOI: 10.1080/09552367.2014.923244. Mookerjee, Satkari. 1997. The Buddhist Philosophy of Universal Flux. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Neville, Robert C. 2009. “Comparative Philosophy as Systematic Philosophy” in Methodologies of Comparative Philosophy: The Pragmatist and Process Traditions, edited by Robert W. Smid, 141-192. Albany: State University of New York Press. Ni, Peimin. 2002. “Practical Humanism of Xu Fuguan” in Contemporary Chinese Philosophy edited by Chung-Ying Cheng and Nicholas Bunnin. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Pruden, Leo M. 1988. Abhidhramakośabhāṣyam by Louis de La Vallee Poussin. California: Asian Humanities Press. Prakash, Gyan. 2016. “Early Buddhist Attitude: Female Body and Mysticism”, Journal of Dharma, 41, (3):333-344. Rošker, Jana S. 2009. “Modern Confucian Synthesis of Qualitative and Quantitative Knowledge: Xiong Shili”, Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 36 (3), 367-390 Rošker, Jana S. 2012. “Structure and Creativeness: A Reinterpretation of the Neo- Confucian Binary Category Li and Qi.” In Origin(s) of Design in Nature: A Fresh, Interdisciplinary Look at How Design Emerges in Complex Systems, Especially Life, Vol. 23 of Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology, edited by Liz Stillwaggon Swan, Richard Gordon, and Joseph Dordrecht Seckbach, 273–85. London, New York: Springer. Rošker, Jana S. 2014. The Philosophical Sinification of Modernity and the Modern Confucian

Paradigm of Immanent Transcendence (內在超越性). Asian Studies II (XVIII), 1:67– 81. Rošker, Jana S. 2016. Mindfulness and Its Absence – The Development of the Term Mindfulness and the Meditation Techniques Connected to It from Daoist Classics to the Sinicized Buddhism of the Chan School. Asian Studies IV (XX), 2:35–56. Siderits, Mark. 2003. Personal Identity and Buddhist Philosophy. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing. Sernelj, Tea. 2013. Xu Fuguan’s Concept of Anxiety and Its Connection to Religious Studies. Asian Studies 1(2): 71–87. 230 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Sernelj, Tea. 2014. The Unity of Body and Mind in Xu Fuguan’s Theory, Asian Studies II (XVIII), 1, 83–95. Singh, Amar. 1995. The Sautrantika Analytical Philosophy. Delhi: Dharma Cakra Publication. Slingerland, Edward. 2013. Body and Mind in Early China: An Integrated Humanities–Science Approach, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 81, 1, 6–55. doi:10.1093/ jaarel/lfs094 Tan, Sor-hoon. 2009. “Contemporary Neo-Confucian Philosophy” in Routledge History of World Philosophies ed. Bo Mou. New York: Routledge. Thera, Narada Maha. 1979. A Manual of Abhidhamma (Abhidhammattha Sangaha). Kuala Lumpur: Buddhist Missionary Society. Yu, Jiyuan. 2002. “Xiong Shili’s Metaphysics of Virtue” in Contemporary Chinese Philosophy edited by Chung-Ying Cheng and Nicholas Bunnin. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. A Study on Managing Emotions Through Buddhist Teaching

Zhang Jingting Department of Education Guizhou Normal University, China. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The world health organization (WHO) points out that when people have negative emotions, 70% of them will choose to digest these emotions by attacking their organs. According to statistics, there are more than two hundred diseases caused by emotions, and continuous negative emotion is the main cause of all kinds of psychological illness. Unhealth emotions are harmful to people’s physical and mental health, and thus to hinder the development of human themselves. Therefore, it is necessary for everyone to know about emotions and manage it. The research of emotions in modern psychology fi eld was began about 100 years ago, but as early as 2,500 years ago, the Buddha had begun to teach his disciples how to understand emotions and overcome emotional problems. As time goes by today, although Buddhist teaching has a long history but it does not out of date. Buddhist psychology begins to enter the life of ordinary people and it was endowed with the new meaning of this Era. what are the differences of emotions between Buddhism and modern psychology, and how to apply Buddhist teachings to help people manage their emotions? Buddhist teachings is vast and profound, both of Buddhist teachings and modern psychology has their different advantages on managing emotions. But Buddhist teaching is more effective to prevent negative emotions and lasts managing emotions. If people could take advantage of Buddhist teaching to manage emotions, the universal value of Buddhist teaching will be further realized, thereby effectively enhancing people’s emotional intelligence (EQ)and make a better world for each other.

Keywords: Emotions, Buddhist Teaching, Managing Emotions 232 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

The world health organization (WHO) points out that when people have negative emotions, 70% of them are able to digest these emotions by attacking their organs. 1 According to statistics. A study from Denmark that began in 2000 and lasted for 11 years and involved 9,870 adults found that compared with those who did not have a corresponding problem: the death rate of people who often experience emotional distress between husband and wife has doubled; often due to parent-child relationship anxiety The mortality rate of people increases by 50%; the death rate of people who often quarrel with their families increases by a factor of two; the death rate of people who often argue with neighbors increases by two times. 2 There are more than two hundred diseases caused by emotions, and continuous negative emotion is the main cause of all kinds of psychological illness. Unhealth emotions are harmful to people’s physical and mental health, and thus to hinder the development of human themselves. According to the latest estimate by the World Health Organization, more than 300 million people worldwide suffer from depression. 3 It can be said that to be the master of the emotions is to be the master of one’s own physical and mental health. In most cases, the negative emotions cause negative influences and cause inconvenience to himself and others. Therefore, it is necessary for everyone to understand emotions and manage emotions. The research of emotions in western psychology field was began about 100 years ago, but as early as 2,500 years ago, The Buddha had begun to teach his disciples how to understand emotions and overcome emotional problems. But after 1995, the book of Emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than IQ was published by the “father of emotional intelligence” - Daniel Goleman. the concept of “Emotional Quotient” 4became popular and people began to care the development of

1 張芳,陳宗倫, “Bad temper destroys your body”, lifetimes. 2018-02-27 http://health.huanqiu. com/health_promotion/2018-02/11625894.html .Retrieved Apr.27, 2018. 2 ibid. 3 The world health organization /media center/commentary/Detail, , 2018-03-22. http://www.who.int/zh/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression Retrieved Apr.27, 2018. 4 Coleman, Andrew. A Dictionary of Psychology (3 ed.). Oxford University Press, 2008. “Emotional Quotient” Emotional Intelligence can be defined as the ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 233

“emotional intelligence”, the ordinary people began to notice the existence of “emotions,” which was neglected due to habitual behavior. As time goes by today, although Buddhist teaching has a long history but it does not out of date. Buddhist psychology begins to enter the life of ordinary people and it was endowed with the new meaning of this Era. So, what are the differences of emotions between Buddhism and modern psychology, and how to apply Buddhist teachings to help people manage their emotions? The main content of the study is divided into two parts: Part I. The comprehensive understanding of emotions from the perspective of modern psychology and Buddhism. Part II. put forward specific suggestions on emotion management through Buddhist teachings.

The Classical Emotion Theories of Psychology

General Definitions of emotions in Chinese and English, it is said in Chinese Dictionary:

Emotion: The experience resulting from people’s attitude towards things. Generally speaking, the kind of object that satisfies one’s needs will cause a positive emotional experience, such as satisfaction, joy, happiness, etc. Otherwise, it will cause negative emotional experience, such as dissatisfaction, sadness, and fear.

(情緒：從人對事物的態度中產生的體驗。通常那種能滿足人的某種需要的物件，會引起 肯定的情緒體驗，如滿意、喜悅、愉快等；反之則引起否定的情緒體驗，如不滿意、憂 5 愁、恐懼等。)

According to English Oxford Dictionary : Emotion is A strong feeling deriving from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.6

5 Chinese Dictionary/ Emotion(情緒qíng xù) 「從人對事物的態度中產生的體驗……通常那種能滿足人的某種需要的物件，會引起肯定的情緒體 驗，如滿意、喜悅、愉快等；反之則引起否定的情緒體驗，如不滿意、憂愁、恐懼等。」http://cidian.xpcha. com/df46bexnnvf.html Retrieved Apr.27, 2018. translated by researcher. 6 English Oxford Living Dictionary, Definition of emotion in English: A strong feeling deriving from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ emotion Retrieved Apr.27, 2018. 234 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

It can be analyzed that in Chinese culture, the occurrence of emotions is related to whether the objects meet the needs of the individual. If satisfied, they are happy. If they cannot, they are unhappy. While in the English culture thinks that emotion is a strong feeling, it can be said that it pays more attention to the influence of the external environment on emotions. The research on emotions in Western psychology began more than a hundred years ago. The renewal of knowledge and research methods have changed. The study of emotions in psychology is also undergoing continuous development and change. The following is about evolutionary theories of emotions in psychology.

1. James-Lange Theory The James-Lange Theory was developed independently by two scholars in 1885, William James and Carl Lange. It is one of the earliest theories of emotion, is a hypothesis about emotions. The theory is that emotions come from the physiological response to what is happening around us. It was physiological arousal triggers the experience of a specific emotion. It is generally believed that crying because of sadness, escape because of fear, but James-Lange theory gives the opposite interpretation: external stimuli trigger the activities of the autonomic nervous system, resulting in changes in the physiological state, physiological reactions lead to emotions.7 This theory was abandoned by the mainstream psychology community in the 1950s. Critics point out that many of the physical changes that James has listed are general biological stress responses. There is no one-to-one correspondence between these reactions and different emotions.8 Biological reactions only strengthen emotions and cannot create feelings.9 In a word, Physiological change is primary, and emotion is caused by the information from the body’s nervous system. It seems that emotion is nothing to do with people’s mental activity.

2. Cannon–Bard Theory Cannon–Bard Theory established in the 1930s, this theory put forward an objection to James-Lange Theory. The main concepts of the Cannon–Bard theory are that emotional

7 James, William. 1884.“What Is an Emotion?” Mind. 9, no. 34, pp.188-205. 8 Newman, E. B., Perkins, F. T., & Wheeler, R. H. (1930). Cannon’s theory of emotion: A critique. Psychological Review, 37, pp.305-326. 9 Cannon, Walter 1927. The James-Lange theory of emotions: a critical examination and an alter- native theory. American Journal of Psychology Vol.39, P.110. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 235

expression results from the function of hypothalamic structures, and emotional feeling results from stimulations of the dorsal thalamus. The physiological changes and subjective feeling of an emotion in response to a stimulus are separate and independent; arousal does not have to occur before the emotion. Thus, the thalamic region is attributed a major role in this theory of emotion. The theory further studies the function of the brain, but the it is still in the scope of physiological psychology, and emotion still has little to do with the individual’s mental activity.

3. Two-factor Theory of Emotion Two-factor theory of emotion (Attribution Theory of Emotion) states that emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive label. The theory was created by researchers Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer 1970s. According to the theory, when an emotion is felt, a physiological arousal occurs and the person uses the immediate environment to search for emotional cues to label the physiological arousal.10 Emotions come both from the feedback of physiological responses and from the cognitive evaluation of the situations that lead to these reactions.11

Two-factor: 1. Cognition on one’s own physiological changes. 2. Cognition on the situation. Attribution: Personal cognitions and interpretations.

For example, when one seeing a tiger at a zoo may be frightened in terms of physiological response, but cognition assesses the situation that the tiger is not at risk in the room, therefore, fear of emotional reaction would not arise. Emotion is the products of physiological arousal, cognition and external environment in the brain integration, and cognitive factors play a leading role. In the middle and later stages of the 20th century, similar emotional theories have been proposed one after another. They gradually become mainstream emotion theories, collectively known as the cognitive theory of emotion. Based on the above analysis, it can be concluded that based on various experiments, the focus of psychology research gradually shifts from the relationship between emotion and

10 Cotton, J. L. (1981). “A review of research on Schachter’s theory of emotion and the misat- tribution of Arousal”. European Journal of Social Psychology. Vol.11, p.367. 11 Schachter, S.; Singer, J. (1962). “Cognitive, Social, and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State”. Psychological Review. Vol 69, p.379. 236 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

physiology to the relationship between emotion and psychological effect. As for the exact meaning of emotions, psychologists and philosophers have been debating for over a hundred years. So far, there are more than 20 definitions of emotions. Although they are all different, they all recognize that the most important factors affecting emotions are the three parts: 1. Emotions involve physiological changes. 2. Emotions involve conscious experiences. 3. Emotions contain cognitive components which means the evaluation of external things.12 Key factors such as: consciousness, cognition, evaluation make us have to return to the psychological world of human beings to study emotions. With regard to the study of the psychological world of mankind, Buddhism has great advantages, it can be said that the practice of Buddhism is a process centered on modifying one’s mind(Citta). the lord ever said: “To become the Buddha I fight with my mind lasted uncountable samsara, walking in the three worlds (tiloka), everything is made by mind (吾與心鬪，其劫無數，今乃得佛，獨步三界， 13 皆心所為)” and Mahāyāna śraddhotpada śāstra(大乘起信論) said: “When mind arise every form(rūpa) arise as well, when mind disappear every form(rūpa) disappear as well (心生則 14 種種法生，心滅則種種法滅)” . Therefore, learning Buddhist teaching is means learning how to modify our mind, people attaches that there has “I or me” in one’s mind, and then this attachment would make every form(rūpa) which includes emotions come into being. As it is, what is the heart or mind and how does it arise so much uncountable emotions.

Buddhist Teaching and Emotions

There are many names of “mind” in Buddhist scriptures, but the following words are the most frequently used, they are “Citta”, “”, “Viññāṇa”. Buddhism has many sects, although the interpretation about mind is not the same completely, but all sects supports the same point that “this heart would produce the good karma or the bad karma and it is the reason

12 Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measure? Social Science Information. 44(4), p. 695-729.

13 Dharmaraks!a(竺曇無蘭) (tr.). Wu Ku Zhang Ju Jing (五苦章句經 ). T17. no.741. p.545. Translated by researcher. 14 Aśvaghoṣa (馬鳴), (玄奘) (tr.). Mahāyāna śraddhotpada śāstra(大乘起信論). T32. no. 1666. p.577. Translated by researcher. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 237

for people’s reincarnation, even to become the Buddha is depend on the same mind” 15 Yogācāra has the most comprehensive and in-depth theory of mind in Mahāyāna

Buddhism. In Mahāyāna-śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra (大乘百法明門論解), the writer had divided all cosmic phenomena (dharma) and practices methods which could reach the truth of the universe into one hundred with five kinds. Those one hundred dharmas are based on the 660 dharmas of Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra which is the one of the most important of Yogācāra.

All dharmas, about five types: 1. Mind/Consciousness(citta-dharma); 2. Mental factors (s. caitasika, p. cetasika); 3. Rūpa-Dharma; 4. Dharmas neither form nor mental functions: citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra (Saṅkhāra);5. Unconditioned 16 Dharmas (asaṃkṛta). (一切法者。略有五種。一者心法。二者心所有法。三者色法。四者心 17 不相應行法。五者無為法。)

In those five kinds of dharmas, the reason of emotion is most closely related to the first three kinds of dharmas. Includes, 1. Mind/Consciousness(citta-dharma); 2. Mental factors (s. caitasika, p. cetasika); 3. Rūpa-Dharma. What are the meanings of these three dharmas and how do they infect each other to result in emotions?

1. How Does Emotions Arise

1.1 Mind/Consciousness(citta-dharma) Yogācāra divides the structure of the mind into , they are 1. Eye Consciousness/ the first consciousnesses. 2. Ear Consciousness/ the second conscious- nesses. 3. Nose Consciousness/ the third consciousnesses. 4. Tongue Consciousness/ the forth consciousnesses. 5. Body Consciousness/ the fifth consciousnesses. 6. Mental Consciousness/ the sixth consciousnesses. 7. Deluded awareness/ the seventh consciousnesses or Manas 8. All-encompassing foundation consciousness/ the eighth consciousnesses (ālaya-vijñāna)

15 Vasubandhu(世親), Xuanzang(玄奘) (tr.), Kuiji(窺基), Commentary of Mahāyāna-śatadharma- prakāśamukha-śāstra (大乘百法明門論解). T44. No. 1836, P. 47. (造善造惡，五趣輪轉，乃至成佛，皆此心也) Translated by researcher. 16 Buddhistdoor /dictionary/details/five-kinds-of-a-hundred-dharmas. Retrieved May.5, 2018 https:// www.buddhistdoor.net/dictionary/details/five-kinds-of-a-hundred-dharmas 17 Vasubandhu(世親), Xuanzang(玄奘) (tr.). Mahāyāna-śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra (大乘百 法明門論). T31. No.1614, P. 855. 238 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

According to the commentary of Mahāyāna-śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra (大乘 18 百法明門論解), the heart has six functions: 1. Collecting and releasing. This function is taking about the eighth just like a storehouse which could collect and store all karmas of a person. Those karmas were named seeds, the seeds with good or bad karmas has power to shape a person’s mind and respond the outside stimulation. For example, when activating events happened, the seeds will be appeared which roles as a cause of one’s karma, if the seeds is good the response will be good, otherwise, the response is bad. 2. The first seventh consciousness could creative the new good or bad karmas, those karmas could bring new seeds or make the old seeds become more powerful than before. 3. The consciousness could think of or image everything which not happen yet or already happed. This function is only related the sixth consciousness. 4. The sixth consciousness has the function of recognition. 5. Ordinary people’s heart always keep thinking one thought by one thought never stop for a second. Here, it means the seventh consciousness (Manns) always thinking the eighth consciousnesses (ālaya-vijñāna) as “me or I”. 6. The eighth consciousnesses (ālaya-vijñāna) named Citta with the functions of collecting and releasing; the seventh consciousness named Manns with the awareness of “me or I” forever; The sixth consciousnesses named Viññāṇa with the functions of thinking, recognition, cognition, making a decision and so on. Compare it with modern psychology, the consciousness of psychology is very similar to the sixth consciousness. It has the functions of thinking, recognition, cognition, making a decision and so on. the first five consciousness could see, hear, taste, smell and feel the outside stimulation but if without the six consciousness, the first five consciousness can’t evaluate or judge the stimulation and situation.

18 Vasubandhu(世親), Xuanzang(玄奘) (tr.), Kuiji(窺基), Commentary of Mahāyāna-śatadharma- prakāśamukha-śāstra (大乘百法明門論解). T44. No. 1836, P. 47. (心法者，總有六義：一、集起名心，唯屬 第八，集諸種子，起現行故。二、積集名心，屬前七轉識能熏，積集諸法種故；或集起屬前七轉現行共集，熏 起種故；或積集名心，屬於第八含藏，積集諸法種故。三、緣慮名心，俱能緣慮自分境故。四、或名為識， 了別義故。五、或名為意，等無間故。六、或第八名心，第七名意，前六名識，斯皆心分也.) Translated by researcher. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 239

The mental activities of the sixth consciousness belong to the superficial consciousness of the psychology and are not difficult to detect. But the seventh consciousness(Manas) and the eighth consciousnesses (ālaya-vijñāna) is so subtle and covert. It was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that Freud used a more scientific methods to reveal the existence of deep consciousness and founded the psychoanalytic school.19Although psychology field affirms the existence and great role of deep consciousness, there is a serious lack of related research, but Buddhist teachings revealed all its implications more than 2,500 years ago.

1.2 Mental factors (s. caitasika, p. cetasika) Mental factors could be explained as the process or state of all kinds of mental activities that are based on the eight consciousness. It is happed in the inner mind and have the ability to color the mind. Within Buddhism, there are many different systems of Buddhist psychology, and each system contains its own list of the most significant mental factors. There are fifty-one Mental factors in Yogācāra system, it has three meanings: 1. It arise depends on mind (eight consciousnesses) forever. 2. Mental factors corresponds with (eight consciousnesses), different consciousnesses may have different number of mental factors. 3. Mental factors belonged to mind. 20 In these fifty-one Mental factors, “Greed” (lobha), hatred(dosa), and “ignorance” (moha) are the fundamental causes of all afflictions (Kilesa) of human beings, Buddhism named it as “the ”. the three poisons are the fundamental causes of all evil seeds, just like the root of a tree could grow trunks, branches, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc. the three poisons could arise uncountable negative emotions as well, therefore, managing emotions is managing these three poisons.

19 Chengbing(陳兵), Buddhist Psychology, (xi’an city: Shaanxi Normal University Press,2015), p.91. 20 Vasubandhu(世親), Xuanzang(玄奘) (tr.). Mahāyāna-śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra (大乘百 法明門論). T31. No.1614, P. 855. (言心所有法者，具三義故：一、恒依心起；二、與心相應；三、繫屬於心。具此三 義，名為心所故；要心為依，方得起故.) Translated by researcher. 240 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

1.3 Rūpa-Dharma

According to Mahāyāna-śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra (大乘百法明門論)

Rūpa-dharma includes eleven dharmas: Eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body. 21 Color, sound, odour, taste, touch and spiritual form. (第三色法。略有十一種。一眼 二耳三鼻四舌五身。六色七聲八香九味十觸。十一法處所攝色)

Rūpa-dharma has eleven mental factors includes spiritual form and material phenomena especially that linked to the power of vision, listening, smell, gustation and tactus. such as, saw a picture, heard a sound, smelt something, tasted something or touched an object, all of them are the rūpa which be recognized through the first five consciousnesses, but the spiritual form is only appears in one’s mind. And all rūpa-dharma is the reflections of one’s mind and mental factors. It can be analyzed that, when an outside stimulation (Rūpa-dharma) appears, people’s mind will pay attention on that stimulation habitually, meanwhile the related seeds will be mobilized, the character of the seeds would affect the evaluation and response of the consciousness to the stimulation. If the seeds are wholesome, people will choose the positive emotion to respond the situation. Otherwise, if the seeds with characters of Greed (lobha), hatred(dosa), ignorance or three of them, people will choose the negative emotion to respond the situation. That why peoples have different feeling from the same situation. But sometimes there is no outside situation, some people also loses mind because of wandering or feels fear, sadness or anxiety without any reasons. That’s because people’s the eighth consciousnesses (ālaya-vijñāna) have stored uncountable seeds of their karma from the unknow beginning of the samsara. The seeds with the great karma are more powerful and active than others, the seed affects people makes a thought unconsciously and then the mind follows the thought to keep thinking habitually. Therefore, it is necessary for us to manage mind before the negative arise in our daily lives. Daniel Goleman the father of Emotional Intelligence said that emotion management is similar to all-day work. People usually try emotional management in many activities. For

21 Vasubandhu(世親), Xuanzang(玄奘) (tr.). Mahāyāna-śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra (大乘百法 明門論). T31. No.1614, P. 855. (第三色法。略有十一種。一眼二耳三鼻四舌五身。六色七聲八香九味十觸。十 一法處所攝色) Translated by researcher. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 241

example, various leisure activities could unconsciously make people feel relaxed.22 He thought the most key factor of managing emotions is keep observing the emotions all the time and aware it when it arising.23 Keep observing the emotions all the time in one’s daily life is not easy, it actually very similar to the state of samatha in the practice of meditation. Psychology puts forward many effective therapies and methods of managing emotions, but most of them are directed at managing emotions in the moment or after the emotions occur. But for the prevention of managing emotions, the related research is still weak, but Buddhist teachings has a lot of theoretical guidance and practical experience in this area. The (sikkhā) of Buddhism is a very useful practice for managing emotions, because it throughout all daily life, every thought, action, speech, work could be the object of the threefold training. To practice the threefold training not only can effectively prevent the negative emotions arise to achieve complete self-managing emotions, but also help people development emotional intelligence.

Managing Emotions Based on Threefold Training

Emotions itself has no nature of good or bad, Generally, they are divided into positive emotions and negative emotions. But emotion-induced behavior has good or bad consequences. Emotions cannot be completely eliminated, but they can be effectively adjusted, managed, and moderately controlled. This is the basic meanings of emotional management in psychology field.24 The main purpose of emotion management in psychology is to divert, control, transform negative emotions into positive emotions, and create positive living atmosphere through positive emotions. Both of Buddhism and psychology are not advocate overjoyed emotions. However, for Buddhism managing emotion is more than just adjusts, controls or transforms negative emotions, but needs to learn how to transcend positive emotions. Actually, in many cases, negative emotions and positive emotions are always intertwined and it is difficult to clearly distinguish them. Such as, Parents scold their children for their love for their children, we don’t hate strangers because we don’t love or care for strangers, being anxious about something

22 Daniel Goleman, Emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than IQ, (Beijing: Zhongxin Press 2010). P.57. 23 ibid. P.49. 24 Huajun, Emotion Management, (Beijing: Changzheng press,2009). p.5. 242 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

is often accompanied by a desire of successes. It can be said that the negative emotion is mostly due to the fact that the situation does not develop in the direction that they yearn for, and its essence is often the combination of love, hate, and grief. For people who want reach the happiness in currently life, to know transcend positive emotions is good for them to keep the peaceful mind when face the difficult situations or fails in their lives; For people who want reach the Nibbāna, it is more necessary to transcend the positive emotion, although the positive emotion is good for most of normal people, but it is not belong to the pure seeds, if people don’t understand that the positive emotion is dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda), they may attach the good feelings from positive emotions, and then because of the law of cause and effect their greed seeds will become more powerful which could lead to one reborn again and again. Therefore, to overcome negative emotions and transcend positive emotions, which means do not cling to any good feelings (sukhavedanā)or bad feelings(dukkhavedanā) of emotions, follow the way of purification to accomplish the perfect wisdom and achieve Nibbāna. Threefold Training is the basic practice of Buddhism, included three steps of Morality(sīla), Concentration(samādhi), Wisdom (paññā), by practicing these threefold training can reach the fruit of stream-winner, the fruit of once returner, the fruit of non-returner, the fruit of arahantship”.25 It is no doubt that the threefold training(sikkhā) of Buddhism is a very useful practice for managing emotions, because it throughout all daily life, every thought, action, speech, work could be the object of the threefold training. To practice the threefold training not only can effectively prevent the negative emotions arise to achieve complete self-managing emotions, but also help people to develop emotional intelligence. what are these threefold training and how to practice.

Morality (sīla) In threefold training, morality(sīla) is the basic step, we can develop good virtues and wholesome behavior by practicing morality. The lord Buddha said that “Don’t neglect

25 Sifen lü 四分律 (Vinaya in four parts), T22, no. 1428, p. 996. The Buddha asked: “Bhikkus, how your practice and what are your practice”. “As the lord said, threefold training: Morality(sīla), Concentration(samādhi), Wisdom (paññā), by practicing these threefold training, to reach the fruit of stream-winner, the fruit of once-returner, the fruit of non-returner, the fruit of arahantship” Sifen lü represents the living Vinaya tradition in China, having long served as the textual basis in bhiksu and bhiksuni . JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 243

minor evil think it no harm, although the water drop is tiny it could fill the big container, all crimes starts from minor evils” 26 they are different precepts for bhikkhu, bhikkhuni, , śrāmaṇērī. But for managing emotion, ordinary people no needs to know all precepts of Buddhism but needs to do all wholesome actions and avoids all unwholesome actions. That’s because, if people keep doing wholesome actions it helps people to avoid the negative stimulation that could cause the negative emotions for them. Many people think that not breaking the law means not doing evil, but they ignore many small evils in lives. Such as, some office workers take pens and paper of their company for themselves or for family members, taking use of company resources to handle private documents and so on. Some people believes those behaviors are common and only a trivial matter, but they don’t understand that big evils are caused by small evils. This power could accumulate a lot of evils and make people more and more greed. today one can get a piece of paper from the company, and tomorrow he may take a penny from the company and eventually even develop into corruption, bribery and other illegal acts. Therefore, for managing emotions, following morality(sīla) means do all wholesome actions and avoids all unwholesome actions even a tiny bad thing. By doing like this, people will not easy to avoid the negative stimulation that could cause the negative emotions for them.

Concentration (samādhi) The second is concentration(samādhi), it is training and cultivating of the mind, it helps us to master our minds, make it tranquil and fit to different work. Concentration for a short time is actually very easy for people, but it is difficult to keep concentration for a long time, the reason for out of control of emotions is because one has no powerful concentration to control their mind and body. Through practicing concentration could help people keep mindfulness in the daily, when the emotion arising they so that the mind can observe emotions in one’s daily life. If the power of the mind is weak, even if one can observe emotions but cannot control his behavior. For example, some people goes to the mall and originally just want to buy a book. Various discount activities attracted their minds. Although they know that they don’t need to buy those things, but they just can’t accept the temptation of discounting. As a result,

26 Zhu Fonian(竺佛念) (tr.). Chu Yao Jing (Dharmapada)(出曜經). T04. No.212, P. 707. (莫輕小 惡，以為無殃，水渧雖微，漸盈大器，凡罪充滿，從小積成。) Translated by researcher. 244 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

they unwittingly bought a lot of unnecessary commodities. But when they encountered the same situation again they will do the same thing. Although the heart knows it should not, but it is impossible to relinquish greed. The reason is that the power of the mind is not enough. If the mind is strong enough to control their own behavior. mindfulness and concentration could be cultivated through meditation practice. The Buddha once said that when the mind is concentrated, it is in a position to see all things as they really are. When the mind is concentrated and fit for work, it will know all things in their true nature.27 But it is not necessary to be the same strict as Buddhist concentration, because ordinary people may have no enough ability to reach concentration(samādhi) at the beginning. But the most important is keep meditation every day, no matter how long it is, even just ten minutes per day, until meditation became the habit of one’s life. Therefore, they just need to practice what they can do, but at least they should learn how to pay attention on the thing they do. This step is aim at improving attentions and the ability of self-control, to calm the mind and then perceive the truth (impermanent, non-self, suffering) through their selves’ experience and then reduce the psychological attachment of negative emotion and transcend positive emotions. There are different methods of meditation trainings, they can choose one that they like.

Wisdom (paññā) The third is wisdom(paññā), it helps us to give rise to full understanding of and insight into true nature of things, and then eliminate all ignorance in our minds to get rid of all things that we attached before. For those people who are very easy to lost their tempers, they can modify their behavior and cognitive by practicing the threefold training. This step is corresponded with wisdom(paññā), it aimed at modifying the cognitive of emotions by right view (sammā diṭṭhi) and right thought (sammā sankappa). For example, we can analyze that the stimulations are dependent origination, includes impermanent (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and non-self (anatta). Who is me? There are five elements made of “self”, they are form(rūpa), sensation(vedanā), perception(saññā), mental formation(saṅkhāra), consciousness (viññāṇa) named five aggregates (khandha), every part of body is changing all the time. Ordinary people always believe that there is a forever “me”, they believe it is “me” who can get happiness from stimulations, but is it true that I’m going to get pleasures?

27 Buddhadasa Bhikku, Handbook of Humankind, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2005, p.60. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 245

If we think it deeply and we will have different answers: both of “me” and happiness are impermanent. We can’t say form is me or sensation is me, because five aggregates is changeable and impermanent, it’s dependent on origination, we are changing in every second, how can we catch a real me, and how can we feel the real happiness or suffering from the impermanent object? Since there is no eternal self, how can the happiness I get be true? On the other hand, once we get the lover or things that we expected it may be give us happiness, but how about that the lover leaved us one day or the things is broken? As a consequence, we may feel sad, anxiety, nervous, have no sense of security even more worse, and then this makes new suffering to us. And because of this, the evils seeds could become more powerful than before, it could bring us more bad karmas. These are the reflection of impermanent (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and non-self (anatta), there is no real eternal me, there is no real happiness to get. That why it is easy for people to manage emotions if they understood the nature of the thing. The right view and the right thought of the noble eightfold path is the embodiment of wisdom, it helps they understand the nature of things. Therefore, managing emotions based on threefold training can not only effectively prevent the negative emotions arise to achieve complete self-managing emotions, but also help people development emotional intelligence. what are these threefold training and how to practice.

Conclusion

Buddhist teachings is vast and profound, both of Buddhist teachings and modern psychology has their different advantages on managing emotions. But Buddhist teaching is more effective to prevent negative emotions and lasts managing emotions. If people could take advantage of Buddhist teaching to manage emotions, the universal value of Buddhist teaching will be further realized, thereby effectively enhancing people’s emotional intelligence (EQ)and make a better world for each other. 246 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

References

I. Buddhist Scriptures:

Takakusu, Junijiro. Kaigyoku Watanabe (eds.). The Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō (大正新修大藏 經). 1924. Republished 1962. First ed. Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo kanko kai. Tokyo. Japan. With followings:

• Zhu Fonian(竺佛念) (tr.). Chu Yao Jing (Dharmapada)(出曜經). T04. no.212.

• Dharmaraks!a(竺曇無蘭) (tr.). Wu Ku Zhang Ju Jing(五苦章句經).T17. no.741. • Sifen lü 四分律 (Vinaya in Four Parts), T22, no. 1428.

• Vasubandhu(世親), Xuanzang(玄奘) (tr.). Mahāyāna-śatadharma-prakāśamukha- śāstra (大乘百法明門論). T31. no.1614.

• Aśvaghoṣa(馬鳴), Xuanzang (玄奘) (tr.). Mahāyāna śraddhotpada śāstra(大乘起 信論). T32. no. 1666.

･ Vasubandhu(世親), Xuanzang(玄奘) (tr.).Kuiji(窺基), Commentary on Mahāyāna- śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra (大乘百法明門論解). T44. no. 1836.

II. Books and Paper:

Buddhadasa Bhikku. Handbook of Humankind. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2005. Coleman, Andrew. A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press, 2008. James, William. What Is an Emotion? Mind. 9. no. 34, 1884. Cannon, Walter. The James-Lange theory of emotions: a critical examination and an alternative theory. American Journal of Psychology Vol.39, 1927. Cotton, J. L. A review of research on Schachter’s theory of emotion and the misattribution of Arousal. European Journal of Social Psychology. Vol.11, 1981.

Chengbing(陳兵). Buddhist Psychology. xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press, 2015. Daniel Goleman. Emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than IQ. Beijing: Zhongxin Press 2010.

Huajun(華君). Emotion Management. Beijing: Changzheng press,2009. Newman, E. B., Perkins, F. T., & Wheeler, R. H. Cannon’s theory of emotion: A critique. Psychological Review, 1930. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 247

Schachter, S.; Singer, J. Cognitive, Social, and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State. Psychological Review. Vol 69, 1962. Scherer, K. R. What are emotions? And how can they be measure? Social Science Information. Vol.44 2005.

III. Online:

Buddhistdoor /dictionary/details/five-kinds-of-a-hundred-dharmas. https://www.buddhistdoor.net/dictionary/details/five-kinds-of-a-hundred-harmas Retrieved May.5, 2018.

張芳,陳宗倫, “Bad temper destroys your body”, lifetimes. 2018-02-27 http://health.huanqiu.com/health_promotion/2018-02/11625894.html. Retrieved Apr.27, 2018. The world health organization /media center/commentary/Detail/depression http://health. huanqiu.com/health_promotion/2018-02/11625894.html. Retrieved Apr.27, 2018. Mindfulness for Acceptance and Commitment

Sailesh Maharjan Department of Psychology, California State University San Bernardino. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Mindfulness, a Buddhist meditation method, and related practices are increasingly popular with a large number of people and have been incorporated into many western psychotherapies (e.g., Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction, Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy). Although many studies have found that mindfulness is related to healthy physical and mental health outcomes, less is known about the mechanism(s) through which mindfulness (purposeful attention with acceptance) enhances health outcomes. In a previous study we found that among several potential mediators (e.g., experiential avoidance, emotion regulation and cognitive fl exibility), only psychological infl exibility mediated the relationship between mindfulness and psychological distress (Maharjan, Johns & Lewin, 2016). The current study is a programmatic effort to test if two core components of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (e.g., psychological infl exibility and commitment to values of life) mediated the relationship between mindfulness and psychological outcomes (psychological distress and life satisfaction). The results of a hierarchical regression analysis revealed that mindfulness, psychological infl exibility and commitment accounted for 45% of the variance in psychological distress. Moreover, results of a bootstrapping multiple mediator analysis (Preacher & Hayes, 2008) revealed that the association between trait mindfulness and psychological distress was mediated by psychological infl exibility. Similar results were found for life satisfaction. Results have implications for enhancing treatment packages that include mindfulness practices.

Keywords: Mindfulness, Commitment, Buddhist teaching. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 249

Mindfulness for acceptance and Commitment

Buddhist teaching has contributed for the advancement and development in the Western culture and social reformation, promoting humanity; mindfulness practice accounts for an immense credit among many other Buddhist teachings. Mindfulness can be understood as an acquired skill to purposefully attend to the present thoughts and feelings without being biased or judgmental. In addition, acceptance and openness constantly accompany mindfulness. The term mindfulness was originally derived from the Pali word “sati” which is loosely translated as being aware, remembering, and paying attention. In Theravada Buddhism, “samma sati” is the seventh noble path which is understood as right mindfulness. Mindfulness has become popular in the West although the concept of mindfulness originated in ancient Buddhist teachings. Within past five decades, mindfulness has been examined and modified to fit the contemporary western cultural needs. As a former Theravadin Buddhist monk, having dedicated over 15 years of my life in rigorous training centered around Buddhist studies, I am thrilled to live in a time period where mindfulness meditation is finally being legitimized by science as a powerful, therapeutic intervention. Mindfulness is a common buzzword in popular culture claiming to alleviate a plethora of maladies with advocates touting that it has the ability to reduce pain, stress, improve heart functions, increase energy, improve memory and sleep, boost the immune system and even reverse disease progression. Fortunately, there is already an abundance of research conducted whose findings have warranted these claims, providing evidence to support that the practice of mindfulness does, indeed, result in many health benefits. In fact, these studies have helped shape our clinical practice as psychologists to provide evidence-based interventions to effectively treat various psychological issues such as depression, anxiety, and trauma through innovative psychotherapies. The influence of mindfulness in psychology, mainly clinical, neurological, and positive psychology is not a secret anymore. As an adaptive skill, mindfulness has been a major part and partial of psychotherapy, such as Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR; Kabat- Zinn, 2000); Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy; Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002, Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999), Interestingly though, while we have learned that mindfulness works, there is an unanswered question still lurking behind every research study related to mindfulness: how does it work? By understanding how mindfulness works, we as clinicians can improve and 250 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

develop more efficient interventions that can precisely address the unique societal needs. It is my ambitious goal to discover how the ancient Buddhist practice of mindfulness works and to share my findings with the scientific community so that we can collaboratively refine our application of this ancient technique for the benefit of humanity. To do this, I focused my research on identifying potential mechanisms, which can be thought of as “ingredients” of mindfulness. My rationale was that once we know what the ingredients are, we can develop a recipe that can cater to different palates or, in terms of clinical psychology, to different therapeutic needs of humanity. Before elaborating more on the ingredients of mindfulness, I must first clarify how mindfulness is defined amongst contemporary psychologists. It has been defined as intentionally paying attention to and being aware of physical sensations and mental thoughts without trying to suppress or avoid them (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). It is a skill that emphasizes approaching and accepting private experiences rather than avoiding or suppressing them. Previous researchers have explored various individual mechanisms of mindfulness. Four mechanisms, in particular, appeared to be closely associated in reducing psychological distress through mindfulness: psychological flexibility, emotion regulation, cognitive flexibility, and experiential avoidance. Though the discovery has already been made in associating these particular mechanisms in reducing psychological distress through mindfulness, there had not been any studies that analyzed these mechanisms simultaneously. By simultaneously comparing each mechanism in relation to the others, we encountered one specific mechanism stands out as being more significant in reducing psychological distress and increasing life satisfaction. In a period where insurance companies determine the number of reimbursable treatment sessions and number of minutes you are allotted with your patient, knowing which mechanism(s) to focus your intervention, which to modify, and which to measure is indispensable for our profession. Even though it has gained an enormous popularity, mindfulness has been a difficult construct to study in a scientific fashion because of assessment difficulty. There is an abundance of studies that measured mindfulness as a trait. Based on those studies, mindfulness has made a revolutionary advancement in clinical psychology. Even though current psychotherapeutic approaches identified and utilized mindfulness as a crucial element of their interventions, the underlying mechanisms are yet to be substantiated. We identified experiential avoidance, cognitive flexibility, emotion regulation, and psychological inflexibility as potential mediators in the relationship between trait mindfulness and psychological distress and satisfaction with life; Out of these four mechanisms, only psychological flexibility and commitment to values of life mediated the relationship between mindfulness and psychological outcome, i.e., JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 251

distress and wellbeing. In the current study, I hypothesized that psychological inflexibility and commitment to values of life would intervene the relationship between mindfulness and psychological distress.

Method

Participants There were 127 student participants from the Southern California University. The ethnic identity of the participants was distributed as 69.3% as Hispanic/Latino, 20% as White, 8% as African American, 3% as Asian American, and 8% as others. The participants education level was varied from school graduation to post-graduation.

Materials A demographic sheet was distributed via Qualitrics.com to collect participants’ demographic information. Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006). The FFMQ consists of 39 items that represent facets of mindfulness in five areas, i.e., observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experience, and non-reactivity to inner experience. The FFMQ measured responses using a five-point Likert scale (1 = never or very rarely 5 = very often or always true). Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ- II; Bond et al., 2011) was a 10 item, seven-point Likert scale (1 = never true, 7 = always true) measuring the degree of psychological inflexibility defined as the lack of acceptance of experience and lack of commitment to one’s values or goals in life. Brief Symptom Inventory- 18 (BSI-18; Derogatis, 2000). The BSI-18 is a 5-point, Likert scale (0 = not at all, 4 = extremely) with 18 self-report items that assess symptoms of depression, somatization and anxiety. Diener’s Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Pavot & Diener, 1993) was used to measure individual’s satisfaction with their lives. The SWLS was a 5-item, Likert scale ((1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree)

Procedure The study was distributed using the online service named Qualtrics.com.

Design and Data Analysis Trait mindfulness as measured by the FFMQ was the predictor (independent variable). Psychological flexibility as measured by the AAQ-II was the mediator or intervening variable, and psychological distress (as measured by the BSI) and satisfaction with life (as measured by 252 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

SWLS) were criterion (dependent) variables. A multiple mediational analysis was implemented to measure the indirect effect of the FFMQ on the BSI and SWLS through AAQ-II. The significance level of p < .05 was adopted to test the hypotheses.

Results

The result of hierarchical regression indicated that the overall model was significant in predicting distress and well-being, Multiple R2 = 44.99, F (3, 123) = 33.5305, p < 001. Psychological inflexibility and commitment explained 44.99% of the variance in psychological distress, in the model that also has trait mindfulness. There was a direct effect of trait mindfulness on psychological distress, b = -.15, t = -2.1621, p < .05, CI = -.2874, -.0127. As predicted, the association between trait mindfulness and psychological distress is mediated by psychological inflexibility,b = -.2179, p < .05, CI = -.3519, -.1116. The relationship between mindfulness and satisfaction with life was also mediated by psychological inflexibility as predicted, b = -.0847, p < .05, CI = -.1452, -.0371. However, trait mindfulness was not associated with psychological distress or satisfaction to life when the commitment to the values of life (ACT) mediator was in the regression equation.

Discussion

It was hypothesized – based on the previous study – the relationship between trait mindfulness and psychological distress is dependent on both psychological inflexibility and commitment to values of life. In another word, it is an individual’s psychological flexibility commitment to values of life that intervene the relationship between being mindful and distress. If he/she can remain mentally flexible and committed to values, he/she tends to experience less distress. However, commitment to values of life did not intervene in the association between being mindful and experiencing psychological distress. The result substantiated that improvement in psychological flexibility intervenes the relationship between mindfulness and psychological distress and wellbeing. Cross-sectional survey and trait mindfulness are some of the limitations of the study. Typically, people tend to respond to painful thoughts, feelings, and sensations in self-defeating or self-destructive ways. Previous research on mindfulness discovered that practicing mindfulness contributes to change in people’s psychological flexibility, which is how people look at their unwanted, painful experiences. Mindful individuals become more open and psychologically flexible to subjective experiences. It is understood that adopting a non-reacting and non-judgmental attitude helps people to handle pain more efficiently, and JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 253

it increases openness and acceptance of unpleasant experiences inevitable in life. Moreover, psychological flexibility allows these individuals to persist in behaviors they find meaningful in their lives, despite unpleasant experiences. After researching the details of these mechanisms, I felt it necessary to further explore whether one was more significant than the other in reducing psychological distress through mindfulness. After conducting a mediation analysis, I found that psychological flexibility is the key ingredient in the relationship between mindfulness and mental distress. Based on these findings, it appears that the skill of mindfulness helps to increase a person’s mental flexibility, i.e., openness and acceptance, which in turn contributes to reducing psychological distress. Therefore, a large proportion of my paper is devoted to understanding and elaborating on the importance of mindfulness and the contribution of psychological flexibility in reducing mental distress. Mental and physical suffering is inevitable in life. We learn to avoid things that are unpleasant and painful which make the mind more inflexible. Mental inflexibility is an unwillingness to experience or accept unwanted private events. For instance, a father cancels his daughter’s commencement because he does not want to be among many people and experience social anxiety. He might spend a lot of time and effort planning how not to experience anxiety. Even though the ceremony is crucial for him, his unwillingness to experience anxiety prevents him from attending his daughter’s special moment. Ultimately, he might end up avoiding meaningful events, such as his daughter’s commencement, due to his inflexible thinking. When he tries to avoid certain experiences, he fuses with those unwanted thoughts and feelings of anxiety; he identifies with them. Thus, he experiences higher psychological distress. My result was supportive of the notion that mindfulness practice helps to improve psychological flexibility. To continue with the previous scenario, the father can learn to pay attention to the signs of anxiety, such as worrying about own thoughts, bodily sensations, and negative predictions. He can be aware of those feelings and sensations through mindfulness. This awareness of his own feelings and thoughts may give him some mental room to understand that thoughts and feelings are not real. He may choose not to be rigid or stuck with potentially painful experiences. He may rather persist in important behaviors such as attending his daughter’s commencement disregarding the signs of anxiety. He may be flexible enough to participate in the event while allowing those signs and symptoms of anxiety to occur. My finding suggested that the mindfulness skill does not directly reduce psychological distress per se; on the contrary, mindfulness increases openness and acceptance of life 254 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

experiences, i.e., acceptance and commitment. Thus, mindfulness indirectly helps to reduce mental distress such as anxiety and depression. There are two main implications of this study: fully understanding psychological conditions and effectively treating those conditions. Identifying too much with thoughts and feelings, avoiding unpleasant experiences, clinging to limited self-knowledge, lack of values in life, and unworkable behaviors are some features of mental inflexibility. These issues contribute to developing psychological conditions such as depression, anxiety, and problematic behaviors. In the treatment aspect, psychological flexibility has three characteristics: awareness, openness and acceptance, and activation of meaningful behaviors. These features are improved through the practice of mindfulness skill. An increase of mindfulness allows increasing awareness of experience. People can see the ephemeral nature of thoughts and feelings. They can separate or defuse themselves from those thoughts and feelings. They have more mental room/awareness to identify what they value in life and engage in them. Thus, being aware of thoughts and feelings, separating oneself from them, and engaging in meaningful behavior reduces psychological distress. The intervention is mindfulness which contributes to the enhancement of psychological flexibility. Moreover, identifying that psychological flexibility as a mechanism of mindfulness gives a clear direction to mindfulness-based interventions.

Application

A broad application of this findings can be proposed in clinical and societal levels. Training individuals in mindfulness in various settings yield positive outcome. In academic level, students can benefit to manage their anxiety and distress related to daily school stressors by adaptive, effective, and efficient coping skills streaming from the practice of mindfulness. As a Professor, I have experience introducing the practice of mindfulness in several undergraduate classes which benefited many students and they come to know that even simple, yet effective mindfulness skill can help them to cope with their test-anxiety. Consistent to results of this study, students were able to identify the importance of life goal of life in order to remain committed to academic pursuit. In addition, as a psychotherapist-in-training, when I worked in Glen Helen Rehabilitation center, a County jail, I introduced mindfulness technique to over 300 prisoners/inmates within less than two years of time. As a part of 16 days curriculum, incorporated 10-20 minutes of mindfulness practice in my therapy sessions. Among many positive outcomes, there were inmates who continued practicing outside therapy sessions. They were able to identify the value of their life - again affirming the results of the study – they decided to take over positive changes to bring meaning into life by committing to their beloved ones, such as children and parents. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 255

References

American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American psychologist, 57(12), 1060-1073. Baer, R. A. (2011). Measuring mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(01), 241-261. Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., & Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report the Kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills. Assessment, 11(3), 191-206. Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27-45. Bond, F. W., Hayes, S. C., Baer, R. A., Carpenter, K. M., Guenole, N., Orcutt, H. K., ... & Zettle, R. D. (2011). Preliminary psychometric properties of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire–II: A revised measure of psychological infl exibility and experiential avoidance. Behavior Therapy, 42(4), 676-688. Derogatis, L. R., & Savitz, K. L. (1999). The SCL-90-R, Brief Symptom Inventory, and Matching Clinical Rating Scales. Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffi n, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of personality assessment, 49(1), 71-75. Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour research and therapy, 44(1), 1-25. Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy. New York: Guilford Press. Kabat-Zinn, J., & Santorelli, S. (1999). Mindfulness-based stress reduction professional training resource manual. Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care and Society: Worchester, MA. Linehan, M. M. (2014). DBT® skills training manual. Guilford Publications. Moore, A., & Malinowski, P. (2009). Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive fl exibility. Consciousness and cognition, 18(1), 176-186. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008b). Contemporary approaches to assessing mediation in communication research. In A. F. Hayes, M. D. Slater, & L. B. Snyder (Eds.), The Sage sourcebook of advanced data analysis methods for communication research (pp. 13–54). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: A new approach to relapse prevention. New York: Guilford. Deconstructions of Identity: An Examination Based on The Ethnic Diversity Context in Sri Lanka

Rev. Unapana Pemananda Thero (Msc.) Faculty of Theology, University of Oslo, Norway Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper is an analysis of Engin F. Isin’s notion of “Citizen Without Frontiers” and its applicability within a state where struggles occur for ethnic identities. I selected Sri Lanka for this exploration as it is currently experiencing an issue between the Sinhala-Tamil ethnic identities. Isin presents the idea of a “citizen without frontiers” or in general terms “citizenship without borders” as a pragmatic notion. It is a new approach in the defi nition of citizenship, particularly after universalism and cosmopolitanism, but how far could this ideology be pragmatic? This paper will fi rst attempt to analyze Isin’s notion of ‘citizenship as a political subjectivity’ in relationship to the Sinhala-Tamil ethnic problem in Sri Lanka. Secondly, it will analyze Isin’s approach to citizenship as acts regarding the Buddhist- Hindu relationship in Sri Lanka. Thirdly, a critique is provided regarding Isin’s concept of ‘citizen without frontiers’ using the Derrida’s deconstruction approach. This examination is identical with the religious and secular schools of thought; therefore, two cases are presented. Representing secularism, I have selected the case regarding the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) report to Sri Lanka for reconciliation and war crimes. Representing the religious dimension, I have selected the case of the Kataragama temple complex of Sri Lanka. In conclusion, I argue that Isin’s theory of “citizen without frontiers” is pragmatic in some aspect but as a whole it is theoretical and ideological.

Keywords: citizens without frontiers, Sinhala-Tamil ethnic identity, Buddhist-Hindu religious identity, deconstruction JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 257

Problem

The main problem of this study aims to be understood by answering the central question: How can the sacred/secular dichotomies in the theory of citizens without frontiers regarding the ethnic and religious relationship in Sri Lanka be understood?

Narrow

I will discuss this question using two cases selected from Sri Lanka in relation to the Sinhala-Tamil ethnic problem and the Buddhist-Hindu religious relationship. From Isin’s concept of citizen without frontiers, I select ‘citizenship as a political subjectivity’ and ‘citizenship as acts’. I analyze the OHCHR report to Sri Lanka for reconciliation and war crimes investigation to understand citizenship as a political subjectivity. The binary opposition, Buddhist-Hindu relationship will be deployed through the Kataragama temple complex to identify ‘acts of citizenship’.

Cases

Citizens in Sri Lanka SL is an island of 65,610 Km2 in Indian Ocean with 20 million population. Sinhala ethnicity is the majority and Tamil ethnicity is the minority. Majority of Sinhalese are Buddhist whereas majority of Tamils are Hindu in terms of religion. SL experienced about a 30-year civil war (1983-2009). The war broke out in the southern part of the country between the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE) and SL government. Even though the war ended in 2009, still the reconciliation not accomplished totally. Even in the war period, in most parts of the country (except in the South) Sinhala-Tamil relationships remained amiable. This relationship becomes more vital when it comes to the religious context of Buddhist-Hindu celebration. However, in the subject of politics, Sinhala-Tamil ethnic problems is a hot topic at a national and international level. For some thinkers, this is a solution-less and complicated topic throughout the history. There has been a dichotomy between active peacefulness coexistence on one side and inactive hatefulness co-existence on the other. How can we understand Isin’s citizen without frontiers within this dichotomy in the Sri Lankan context?

Case 01. Reconciliation And War Crimes Investigations After the civil war, SL was alleged by the UN Security Council, they stated that war crimes were committed by both The SL Military Forces (SLMF) and The LTTE during the 258 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

final months of the civil war in 2009. Further, in 2015, the report on war crimes in SL, by the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), was released. This investigative report comes with promoting reconciliation, accountability and human rights in Sri Lanka. The report peculiarly concluded the findings of the comprehensive investigation mandated by Human Rights Council resolution 25/1. According to the report, both sides have attacked civilians and buildings and have executed combatants and prisoners. The SLMF and parliamentary groups have enforced disappearances backed by them. The LTTE trapped civilians in the war zone in the shortages of food, medicine, and clean water for them; The LTTE has recruited children for combats (“SL War Crimes Report,” 2009). The report forced SL to establish a hybrid special court to take actions against war crimes (“OHCHR on SL civil war,” 2015). The reason is that war has been legalized by the international politics. However, because of this war crimes investigation, both ethnic groups have to recall war experience repeatedly. And also, some of the SL government military soldiers and the LTTE soldiers were incarcerated. As a result, Northern Tamils and Southern Sinhalese developed cynical and mistrusting attitudes.1

Case 02. Kataragama Temple Complex I select Kataragama temple as second case for this paper. Kataragama is a temple premise which is venerated by Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, and Vedda (a minority indigenous group). It is one of the popular religious pilgrimage sites in Sri Lanka. Notably, Kataragama temple premise is a good example for syncretism which involves the assimilation of several distinct religious traditions. Out of many, Kataragama has created a sacred space for coexistence and assimilation of Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims and Veddas in SL. The sacred space of Kataragama is dedicated for the Buddhist guardian, Kataragama deiyo, Hindu war God Kathirkamam or -murugan (Pathmanathan, 1999). An Islam Mosque is also located within the same sacred space. Buddhists tend to worship and do poojas not only for the Buddhist shrines (Kiri vehera, Buddha’s shines, and Bo-tree) but also Kataragama Deiyo (Skandha-murugan shrines).2 Even Hindu people do practice vice-versa. Interestingly, theology and myths of religions underline unity and assert an inclusive approach to the Buddhist and Hindu beliefs (Pathmanathan, 1999).

1 As a monk who raised and lived among Tamils, I realize that national and international approaches to reconciliation have given that skepticism 2 Kataragama Deiyo, for Buddhists, is the guardian deity of Buddha Sasana in Sri Lanka. Hindus identify as the God Skandha. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 259

In my personal experiences, as a child (before I became a monk) and as a monk, I have gone on pilgrimages to Kataragama temple several times. As a 11 year old kid, I went to Kataragama temple with my parents. At that time, I had not recognized any religious distinction within the temple complex as my parents (as well as other people) did poojas (rights and rituals) in both Buddhist and Hindu shrines with equal faith. Recently, in 2013, I went on a pilgrimage to Kataragama with some monks and Buddhist devotees. Even as Buddhist monks and lay devotees, we did pooja in both Buddhist and Hindu temples. These multiple religious beliefs and practices are distinct from the basic doctrinal teachings of original religion. However, with these experiences, I have realized, Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka interact with each other naturally in their fellow religious beliefs and practices. Thus, I contend that religious harmony should not be occluded by other superficial factors such as political or economic discrimination.

Theories

From a political perspective, “Citizenship” is particularly and always formulated within a certain border of a nation. Engin F. Isin offers a new approach to identify citizenship through his insightful work, i.e., citizens could be free from frontiers. Professional, business, and diplomatic travelers constantly move beyond the borders. In Isin’s words, this constant traveling can be identified as “traversing frontiers” which could propose the notion of “citizens without frontiers”. The term “traverse” involves crossing borders in physical and non-physical senses (Isin, p,2-4). Citizenship is a bordered concept; state or nation assign the borders and limitations for people. Thus, “citizens without frontiers” seems paradoxical at a quick glance. However, Isin attempts to deconstruct the idea of the boundedness of citizenship. Thus, “citizen without frontiers” is a new way of defining “citizenship”. Based on the literature of citizenship, Isin articulated “citizen without frontiers” which constitutes different aspects of the general idea of citizenship. The current study examines Isin’s notions such as citizenship as a political subjectivity and acts of citizenship. The study also examined these two concepts as the theoretical basis for cases. I use Derrida’s postmodern approach, i.e., deconstruction to present my suggestion to Isin’s concept ‘citizens without frontiers’. In the 1980s, postmodernism entered the arena of philosophy and challenged structuralism which was the school that asserts truth as universal. Both structuralism and post structuralism assumed that the notion of human subject is socially constructed. However, post structuralism, as a critical and strategic approach, opposed objective and absolute truth. Deconstruction and post-structuralism are the prominent schools 260 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

associated with postmodernism. Deconstruction approach is not a method but an approach to understand the relationship between language and meaning. It is a skeptical and critical analysis of ideas. Deconstruction approach rejects various tents of universalism and absolute truth. Instead, it asserts the truth as a social product; knowledge is a historical and a political discourse. A text may have a dominant idea, meaning or character but no absolute truth. This is a key aspect of Derrida’s deconstruction movement. Even though, I do not intend to define deconstruction in this paper, there are some major facets of deconstruction that are relevant to understand Isin’s idea of citizens without frontiers.

Discussion

The discussion is the substantial part of this paper. In this section, I analyze two cases using the theories I described above. One of the key notions of Isin’s ‘citizen without frontiers’ is a citizen as a political subjectivity. It indicates political power when defining “citizenship”. The term “citizenship as political subjectivity” advocates that we have to struggle for our rights. If we enjoyed dignity, peace, justice, and all kinds of social, cultural, political and economic rights, that is because of our struggles as political subjects (Isin, 2012, p. 109). Without struggling as a political subject there is little freedom to claim human rights, even alone right to be human. In the case of SL, as many political thinkers highlighted, the Sinhala-Tamil ethnic problem will not end because of the domestic political bankruptcy and international political intervention. This conveys that the political bankruptcy in the country paved the way for the international interventions with their agendas which directly affected both ethnic groups. As Isin assumes, “without frontiers’ cannot be seen only as human rights politics or as transnational activism that is mobilized through human rights” (Isin, 2012, p. 4). On the other hand, these human rights regimes and compromises also bond the people in term of ‘citizens’ and promote concepts such as ‘universalism’ and ‘cosmopolitanism’. The report on war crimes investigation and reconciliation enters the SL domestic human lives in the name of international humanitarian law. They are subject to be inspected as ‘citizens’. In this sense, I may agree with Isin’s notion, citizenship as a political subjectivity. However, his approach to citizenship is not a moving subject but an acting subject (Isin, 2012, p. 6). Conceptions such as transnational, cosmopolitan and global forms of citizenships (dual or multiple nationalities) are mobility subjects for ‘without frontiers’. And these movements are kind of politics. For Isin, the problematic age of migration requires ‘citizen without frontiers’ that have the ability to act rather than mobility (Isin, 2012, pp. 4-6). In the case of SL, this is a challenging assumption against international human rights JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 261

mechanism. The question is how can we deconstruct the globalized political mechanisms to approach ‘citizen without frontiers’. Would every state and nation compromise in that same way? In contrast, I would ask Isin if we can seek solutions for the migration problem within the current global activism? As I mentioned earlier, I also agree with Isin in his view of citizenship as a political subjectivity. Nevertheless, in the SL context, my critic is not about the norm ‘universality of human rights’ but it’s a double functioning mechanism. In his book, End times of human rights, Hopgood criticizes the connection between the foundations of universal liberal norms and global governance. “Whether it is the increase in deadly attacks on aid workers, the torture and ‘disappearing’ of al-Qaeda suspects by American officials, the flouting of international law by states such as Sri Lanka and Sudan, or the shambles of the tribunal in Phnom Penh, the prospect of one world under secular human rights law is receding.”(Hopgood, 2013, p. 1) Further, he defines human rights mechanism as “fit for purpose”. “One-size-fits- all universalism of global Human Rights is an outmoded response”(Hopgood, 2013, p. 2). The notion, universality of human rights has become the most commendable concepts in the present world. But, intellectually, the geopolitical powers advocate human rights as well as its mechanism. I would state, universality of human rights would become reality only if the human rights mechanisms would act without a geopolitical hegemonic domination. This assumption relates even to the case of SL. In the case of Kataragama temple, citizenship as a political subjectivity is not applicable. This is because the dominant aspect of Kataragama is syncretism. This religious syncretism involves the assimilation of several originally distinct religious traditions (Richerd, 2014, pp. 210-211). It is rather spiritual than secular. If so, in Isin’s perspective, is this ‘acts of citizenship’? Isin shows three ways to approach citizenship; status, habits and acts.3 The third approach to citizenship as acts is quite different. It focuses on “how people constitute themselves as political subjects by things they do, their deeds”(Isin, 2012, p. 110). Therefore,

3 Status denotes rules, regulations and other laws that judge “citizenship”; who has and does not have rights to be a citizen in the correspondent state. This approach also involves laws and responsibilities of the citizen (Isin, 2012, p. 109). The approach, Habits defines how citizen (perhaps non-citizen) practices rights. This is more social and anthropological approach to citizenship. For Isin, these two approaches (as status and as practices to citizenship) focus constituted orders of a state as it were; citizens are taken with status either their practices of citizenship or denied (Isin, 2012, p. 110). 262 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

citizenship as acts does not focus on existing constituted orders. Through this approach, Isin examines what people do and how people break away from their habits. He states, “We are interested in how those whose status is not citizenship may act as if they are and claim rights that they may not have. This brings an element of disruption or rupture into the order and may call for the subject to break his or her habitus” (Isin, 2012, pp. 110,111). From the basic sense of this approach, I do think that Kataragama temple is a perfect example for Isin. Obviously, we can define citizenship as acts and also it is pragmatically applicable notion in a particular religious context. For instance, in the shared spiritual space of Kataragama, people traverse borders, encounter beyond the political subject of citizenship. Pilgrimages of Kataragama are not always for religious practices. Yet, this experience is something which is in between religious and secular. In addition, similar example can be found from the Bergsjön in Gutenberg, Sweden where undocumented migrants are supported regardless their ‘illegal citizenship’/residency of the country. I witnessed that how this church has created a space that surpasses the religion. In Isin’s word, it is the acts of citizenship. Despite this core sense of acts of citizenship, Isin connects it with ‘citizenship as a political subjectivity’. Here, his purpose is to show the people as the political foundation. He encapsulates “the Sovereign beast” together with its narratives, “we, the people” and “we, the connected” (Isin, 2012, p. 111). Again, this is a strong critique against the present political foundations. Now Isin’s idea creates a contradiction to understand Kataragama temple complex. However, he conducts all these examinations towards his heart notion, ‘citizens without frontiers’. In that level, we would rethink what ‘people’ are.

Conclusion

In the idea of enacting citizenship, Isin shows that Deleuze (fold), Bourien (habitus) and Foucault (subjectivity) contributed to the discourse on self and others where they consider beings as ethical and moral subjects. But, in Isin’s analyses of oneself and others appear as a political subjectivity. Enacting citizenship starts with a paradoxical view on act of citizenship and act of civil disobedience. When citizens seek rights, political subjectivity uses power though the law to control them. Therefore, Isin suggests ‘citizenship without frontiers’ beyond the citizenship as a political subjectivity and act of citizenship. His assumption is a form of utopia; it is an imaginary notion of citizenship. Therefore, in the cases of SL, it is difficult to agree with Isin. Instead, I would suggest to Isin to develop ‘citizen without frontiers’ using the Derrida’s approach of deconstruction. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 263

Why is Derrida’s deconstruction important for Isin’s concept? As Reynolds states, ‘’deconstruction seeks to expose, and then to subvert, the various binary oppositions that undergird our dominant ways of thinking-presence/absence, speech/writing, and so forth’’ (Reynolds, nd). On the other hand, for deconstruction, there is no ‘single’ significant canonical meaning of the text even though it may have a dominant meaning (Nellickappilly, 2015). Further, texts, traditions, societies, institutions, belief and practices do not have clear, definite meaning; they have infinite meaning (Nellickappilly, 2015). The central concept of deconstruction is “Difference”. As the term, deference defines, ‘production of differences and differences between differences (Derrida, dn, pp. 278,279). It indicates two main aspects such as distinction and temporality. In addition, it signifies non-identity or the order of the same. Difference is not active; it is opposition of active and passive. Derrida’s word for this is ‘middle voice’ (Derrida, dn, p. 279). Moreover, Derridean deconstruction points out two main dichotomous aspects; positions and dissemination which are more metaphysic, and force of law which is less metaphysics and pore political (Lawlor, 2016). The missing aspect of ‘citizen without frontiers’ is accepting the variety of meaning of a text (e.g.. citizenship) with a dominant character (e.g., politics). Differance or middle voice is beyond the text but within. Isin’s ‘citizen without frontier’ is beyond the political subjectivity but without such subjectivity it is not allowed to apply within existing political norms.

264 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

References

Derrida, J. (dn). Differance. Retrieved from http://projectlamar.com/media/Derrida-Differance. pdf Hopgood, S. (2013). The End times of Human Rights. (1 ed.). New York: Cornell University Press. Isin, I. F. (2012). Citizens Without Frontiers. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Lawlor, L. (2016). Jacques Derrida. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from Nellickappilly, S. (Producer). (2015, 20/11/2017). Deconstruction, feminism, discourse theory etc. Aspects of Western Philosophy. Retrieved from https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=kM8iZqP4GDk Pathmanathan, S. (1999). The Guardian Deities of Lanka: -Murukan and Kataragama. Retrieved from http://kataragama.org/research/pathmanathan.htm Reynolds, J. (nd). Jacques Derrida (1930—2004). The Internet Encylopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://www.iep.utm.edu/derrida/#SH3c Richerd, H. L. (2014). Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept: The Inadequacy of the “World Religions” Paradigm in Cross-Cultural Encounter. Retrieved from http:// www.ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/31_4_PDFs/IJFM_31_4-Richard.pdf SL War Crimes Report. (2009, October 22). Sri Lanka: US War Crimes Report Details Extensive Abuses. Retrieved from http://www.hrw.org/news/2009/10/22/sri-lanka- us-war-crimes-report-details-extensive-abuses Statement by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein via videolink to the Human Rights Council. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16539&LangID=E Buddhist Contribution to the Development of Asian Healing Traditions w.s.r. to Āyurveda and Sowa Rigpa

Asst. Prof. Dr. Akhilesh Kumar Singh Sanchi University of Buddhist-Indic Studies, Academic Campus, Barla, Raisen, M.P., India E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Buddhism and Āyurveda originated in India and both aim at eliminating dukkha (sufferings).Buddha himself was renowned as the Bhaiṣajya-guru (healing master) and healing practices were integral part of Buddhist monasteries. In addition to dissemination of Indic healing traditions westward to Persia and Central Asia, to China and to South-east Asia, Buddhist monks (Vāgbahṭṭa, Nāgārjun, Jīvak etc.) had also developed various new dimensions of healing, further assimilated by Āyurveda. There are various authoritative texts of Buddhism that contain important references to medical concepts, procedures, medications, sanitations and code for healthy livings like Digha Nikāya, Milinda Panho, Viśuddhimagga of Buddhaghoṣa, Dhammapada and (especially Mahāvagga). So, it is quite evident that there is signifi cant Buddhist contribution in the development of Asian healing tradition especially Āyurveda and Sowā Rigpā.

Keywords: Buddhism and Āyurveda, Asian Healing Traditions 266 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Overview of Asian Healing Traditions

Traditional Asian health beliefs and healing practices includes Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Chinese Herbal Medicine, Japanese Herbal Medicine, Tibetan Medicine, Traditional Vietnamese Medicine, Acupuncture, Moxibustion, Coin Rubbing and Cupping therapy etc. As per Traditional Chinese Medicine all creation is born from the marriage of two polar principles, Yin and Yang. Examples are earth and heaven, winter and summer, night and day, cold and hot, wet and dry, inner and outer, body and mind. These pairs of opposites are connected via a circular harmony. Chinese Herbal Medicine is used to regulate the natural balance of the body and restore health. It has been used for centuries to treat most health conditions and as a preventative dietary supplement. Japanese Herbal Medicine i.e. Kampo uses precisely measured herbs to treat illness, based on the skillful use of well-known formulas, valued for their impact on clear as well as vague conditions. Tibetan Medicine i.e. Sowā Rigpā is based on principle to balance the three principal energies of the body. Tibetan Medicine is based on Buddhist principles and the close relationship between mind and body. Traditional Vietnamese Medicine emphasis on nourishing the blood and vital energy, rather than concentrating on specific symptoms. The main treatments employed by Traditional Vietnamese Medicine are herbal medicine, acupuncture, and moxibustion. The cornerstone of its theories is based on the observed effects of Qi (energy) in the body. Qi can be inherited from one’s parents or it can be extracted from food. It is also blood and “fuel” gathered and stored by the body. Acupuncturists insert tiny needles into specific points on the energy channels of the body, to promote healing and stimulate the free flow of energy in the body and mind. Moxibustion is a therapy utilizing moxa, or mugwort herb. It plays an important role in the traditional medical systems of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Mongolia. Coin Rubbing an ancient technique used to scrape away disease by allowing the disease to escape as sandy-looking objects through the skin. It is also used in Indonesia. Cupping Fire, or simply cupping involves placing glass, plastic, or bamboo cups on the skin. This technique, in varying forms, has been found in the folk medicine of China, Vietnam, the Balkans, Iran, Mexico, Russia and Poland.

Evolution of Healing Tradition

Archeological and modern genetic evidence suggest that human populations have migrated into the Indian subcontinent since prehistoric times. The knowledge of the medicinal value of plants and other substances and their uses go back to the time of the JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 267

earliest settlers. The vast amount of medical knowledge that has come down to modern times is the result of long evolution through trial and error and exchange of know-how between diverse communities and regions. The process of exchange and assimilation continues, and today traditional medical practices are obliged to accommodate to various traditional and conventional medicine. The spirit of scientific enquiry influencing the intellectual world since the time of Buddha led toold belief systems being questioned and tangible proofs being sought after. In this cultural milieu in the Indo-Gangetic and lower Himalayan regions, tribal and wandering healers, learned physicians, ascetic and yogic traditions such as , and philosophical schools such as Sāṁkhya, Vaiśeṣika and Nyāya all contributed to the emergence of a formal scientific culture of healing that became Āyurveda.

Healing Perspective in Mahāyan Buddhism

It is in Mahāyāna, the dominant Buddhist tradition of East Asia is where the Medicine Buddha first appears. Veneration of this Lord of Healing became one of the most popular and widespreaddevotional groups. According to Mahāyāna tradition there are infinite Buddhas, , and deities. They represent various aspects of the absolute Buddha-nature, such as compassion, wisdom, power, and emptiness. The Medicine Buddha embodies the healing aspect. The Medicine Buddha is the highest possible model of a healer. Among the 12 vows the Medicine Buddha is said to have taken is that of curing just by the invocation of his name or the thought of Him. He was worshipped as the dispenser of spiritual medicine that could cure spiritual, psychological, and physical disease. But this Buddha is not worshipped simply for healing powers alone; he is the form of the Buddha-nature that we aspire to realize in ourselves. Through the practice of meditation on the Medicine Buddha, one can generate enormous healing power for self and for the healing of others. Perhaps nothing better illustrates the union of religion and medicine in Buddhism than the fact that the greatest of the Mahāyana philosophersaints were also great physicians, who wrote important medical works. According to the Tibetans, all medical knowledge has a sacred origin and is ascribed to the wisdom of the Buddhas. A measure of the high regard with which physicians were held in Tibet is shown in the title accorded to the greatest ones among them, an epithet for bodhisattvas: “The 268 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

All Knowing One.” Ideally a doctor was expected to practice compassion at all times, and equally towards all beings, to perfect his skill for their sake, and to remember always that a physician is a representative of the Medicine Buddha and the holy lineage of medicine teaching. Astrologically, the day of the Medicine Buddha is the eighth day of the lunar month. At that time, his power and that of all the healing deities is said to be especially strong. This is when rituals for healing and for making medicines are performed.

Healing Perspective in

In the Tibetan medical tradition, the concept of well-being takes into account the full dynamics of mind, body and spirit to achieve an effective and comprehensive healing strategy. It is immersed in Buddhist tradition, which differs from non-Buddhist medicine in that it utilizes three types of therapeutic intervention: medicinal entities, the power of mantra (a creative, repetitive sound) and the power of meditative stabilization. In doing so, the Tibetan healing traditions transport us into a strange world of interconnectedness between macrocosmic principles and their microcosmic manifestations; harmony and balance between the cosmic macrocosm and the human microcosm is believed to be essential for health and well-being. This is true not only in the sense that balance is required for health, but also in the somewhat deeper sense that such balance is the essence of health; balance among the physical, psychological and spiritual elements of human existence is health. In addition to being a relatively secular approach to health and well-being, involving medicines, dietary and practical suggestions, the Tibetan healing tradition is rich in tantric Buddhist ritual and symbolism. Furthermore, ritual and symbol contain multiple levels of meaning which all exist collaterally in a spiritual approach to healing. Iconography, music, chants, mantra, symbolic objects such as prayer wheels and prayer flags, manḍalas (geometric paintings or drawings) and visualizations are utilized in modest to elaborate rituals to focus and objectify the source of healing power. Tibetan symbols and rituals, whose ultimate purpose is to mobilize the bodhicitta (aspiration to attain enlightenment in order to free all sentient beings from suffering) in the individual, generate not only cognitive considerations but also encompass subjective meaning for the spiritual, emotional and sensual spheres. Buddhism and Āyurveda Āyurveda existed long before Buddha in the timeline. Buddhism absorbed all previous and prevalent culture and medicine. We can find a lot of references in Buddhist related books regarding Āyurveda and Āyurvedic medicines. This shows that Āyurveda had its impact and influence on Buddhism and vice versa.The multi- JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 269

cultural origins of Āyurvedic knowledge are revealed in various classical texts. Both Caraka Saṁhitā and Suśruta Saṁhitā urge physicians to seek the help of cowherds, hunters and forest- dwellers for procuring medicinal plants. In the Caraka Saṁhitā, we notice the participation and contribution of a Central Asian physician in one of the assemblies of scholars gathered to formulate the principles of Āyurveda. While the three major classical texts attribute the origin of Āyurveda to Vedic divinities, they give importance to Buddhist moral values, and Vāgbhaṭṭa, the author of one of the classical texts (Aṣtāngahridayam), was a Buddhist. Āyurvedic historians never admitted the influence of Buddhism in the development of Indic healing tradition probably because one among other reasons was that they discredited Emperor for the demolition of Āyurvedic surgery, as he banned the bloodshed in his kingdom. Āyurvedic healing practices adopted and groomed by Buddhism and new dimensions of healing developed by Buddhist monks, assimilated by Āyurveda in later stage. There is profound need to explore as these are untouched and novel dimensions. Buddhist philosophy of healing is primarily based on humanistic healing. The philosophy of Indic healing tradition is primarily concerned with the treatment, prevention and preservation of health. Through the term, Āyurveda was neither used in Vedas nor in Buddhist literature, medical concept and practices of Āyurveda widely used in the Buddhist era. The Saṁhitā phase of Carak, Suśruta, Vāgbhaṭṭa has spectacular change of abolition of and rituals in treatment of patients as seen earlier in Vedas. Buddha is Referred to as a physician and surgeon in Buddhist literature. Anything foreign to the human body is taken out by surgical procedures mentioned in Suśruta Saṁhitā similarly grief was considered as something foreign, Buddha could remove sorrow, thus he was a surgeon and could remove and lessen the suffering hence he was a physician.

Promotion and propagation of Āyurveda by Buddhism

Buddhism promoted Āyurveda in the universities of Nalanda and Taxila during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. Āyurvedic Physicians had an outstanding role in these universities of northwest of India. King Ashoka who embraced Buddhism promoted the Āyurvedic system throughout the Mauryan Empire in third century B.C. Āyurvedic medicines, charitable institutions and hospitals had extensive components of medicine as well as surgery to treat both humans and animals. Buddhism propagates the system of medicine wherever the religion flourished. Buddhist monks took the Āyurvedic wisdom to all the countries where Buddhism was spread. Thus, it reached central Asia, Tibet, China, Japan, Sri Lanka, Sumatra and many other countries. 270 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Promotion of well being vinaya texts are the set of rules Buddha had prescribed for bhikkhus. Now, there, very detailed instructions are there about aspects of healthcare which covered food, dining etiquette, hygiene, bath, oral care, eye care, clothes, public hygiene; goes into minutest details about their behavior, conduct, great stress was laid on all, and personal conduct the same doctrines are mentioned under Swāsthavṛitta in Āyurveda. Buddha who had condemned many of these practices, he found that something was helping people, even though he may not have been fully convinced, there is a tendency for him to accept. Mental health promotion Dhammapada of course, everybody knows that it is something like Bhagavad Gītā, a universal book of Buddhism, and Vinaya Piṭaka, dealing with the discipline or the way of life, the code of conduct; all these are dealt with Vinaya Piṭaka, what to eat, how to live, a very great detail, theses all closely related to sadvṛitta in Āyurveda. Disease is considered as dukha in Āyurveda because health (ārogya) has been considered as the mulam of purṣārtha catustya including mokṣa. Good health was highly priced and here is a quote from Dhiga Nikāhya health is the highest gain, contentment is the greatest treasure, confidence is the greatest friend and Nirvāna is the greatest joy. The greater impact of this is seen in caraka śarīra chapter 1. Diseases were known by many names abadha, amaya, all these terms synonyms, which are used, roga, they are all used in Āyurveda also. Treatment collectively is called cikitsā, that was the term, Āyurveda the Buddhist medicine used. They never used the word cikitsā; they never used the word Āyurveda and the cause of diseases were regarded as eight, which again is very similar to Āyurveda. In one of the discourses known as Girimananda sutta, the Buddha talks about the cause of sickness and disease as originating from an imbalance of bile, phlegm, wind, from conflict of the humours, from changes of weather, from adverse condition (which here means faulty deportment), from devices (practiced by others such as black magic, poisoning and so on) from the result of kamma (kamma-vipāka) cold, heat, hunger, thirst, excrement, and urine. Similar etiological reasons are mentioned in Caraka Saṁhitā Sutrasthāna. He said that you will find excess of vāta, pitta, kapha or a combinations of these; that comes to four; changes of season, incompatible food, external agencies, and karma, effective of past karma. These are all we considered the causes according to Dhammapada which regarded hunger as the worst disease. The basic doctrines according to Buddhist canon: one is Pancabhūtas, as you know, today in Āyurveda, this is a fundamental doctrine. The five elements, not the elements in the periodic table, but these are space, air, fire, water, earth; JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 271

these five, they constitute the Pancabhūtas and all that we see in the universe; fundamental doctrine and this in a Buddhist of Dīgha-Nikāya, there are only four, that is pṛthvī, āp, tejas, vāyu, ether is not there. Then, later on, in the Milinda Panho, we find ākāśa is added. Tridośa, another very fundamental doctrine in Āyurveda; we will be discussing all these later on, but here you will find Viśuddhimagga. Again, there is reference to vāta, pitta, and kapha; their imbalance could cause death. So, obviously it has something to do with health and ill health. Buddha himself says, when the three dośas are in a balanced state, there is happiness; when they are unbalanced, there is unhappiness or grief.

Sowā Rigpā

Tibetan medicine is based on the Buddhist theory of the : Impermanence, Suffering, and Non-Self. All phenomena in the Universe are characterized by these three marks of existence. As all conditioned phenomena is impermanent, attachment to these leads to future suffering and no independent nature or Self. However, the Buddhist belief is that there is an existence of Self because of the existence of ignorance (Marigpa). This belief system states that people are trapped in a cycle of life and death (Samsāra) and Marigpa, using the metaphor of a bird which soars in the sky, unable to free itself from its shadow. Similarly, people are unable to free themselves from disease, therefore always followed by Marigpa. In Tibetan medicine, Marigpa is the origin of all physical diseases and mental sufferings. Marigpa produces all 84,000 afflictive emotions. Among these afflictive emotions, attachment, jealousy and delusion are the main Mental Poisons, causing all physical and mental disharmony. These Mental Poisons are also considered to be the specific causes of faults (Nyepās) in our human body; namely rLung, Tripā and Bad-kan. Attachment gives rise to rLung disorder, jealousy gives rise to Tripā disorder, and delusion gives rise to Bad-kan disorder. The Nyepās are brought about by the Five Great Elements in our human body. rLung is associated with the air element, Tripā with the fire element, and Baḍkan with the earth and water elements. These bodily faults remain in dynamic balance as long as we no not over-indulge and live with a proper diet and lifestyle. Such healthy regimens must be in accordance with changes in season, place, individual constitution, age, etc. Improper diet, behavior, medicine, and other external and internal factors are the main causes of such disparity. Hence, in Tibetan medicine the three Nyepās are considered with the utmost importance. All 272 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

further disease is categorized as either “hot” or “cold” in nature. For example, Tripa is always hot in nature, while Baḍkan is cold in nature. rLung can be both hot and cold, depending upon the given situation; becoming hot when associated with Tripa and cold when associated with Baḍkan. Commonly, hot diseases enter the body via the external environment, while cold diseases arise within. Thus, acute diseases are classified as hot and chronic diseases are classified as cold. Essentially, the disruption of the harmony between hot and cold conditions in the body lead to all disease, similar to the disturbance of free radical and endogenous antioxidants. When free radicals are stronger than endogenous oxidants, it increases oxidative stress and initiates sub-cellular changes, leading to heart and other forms of chronic disease. Tibetan medicine sees that the majority of chronic diseases like diabetes, asthma, rheumatism, and even cancer are caused due to digestion and metabolic disorder. Imbalance in the three principal energies of the digestive tract initiates simple digestive disorders, later leading to chronic diseases like cancer. Such forms of disease accumulate in tissue when mal-absorbed foods become toxic and aggressive in nature. When there is an over-accumulation of these toxins they enter the organs and become complicated diseases such as cancer.

Conclusion

Buddhism has enlightened the whole world with this ancient wisdom of medicine, Buddhismpromoted Āyurveda in the universities of Nalanda and Taxila during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. Āyurvedic Physicians had an outstanding role in these universities of northwest of India. King Ashoka who embraced Buddhism promoted to Āyurvedic system throughout the Mauryan Empire in third century B.C. Āyurvedic medicines, charitable institutions and hospitals had extensive components of medicine as well as surgery to treat both humans and animals. Buddhism propagates the system of medicine wherever this religion flourished. Buddhist monks took the Āyurvedic wisdom to all the countries where Buddhism was spread. Thus, it reached central Asia, Tibet, China, Japan, Sri Lanka, Sumatra and many other countries. Promotion of well-being in the vinaya texts are the set of rules Buddha had prescribed for bhikkhus. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 273

References

Ganga Ram Garg. Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World, Volume 1. Concept publication. p.87. Origin and development of ayurveda: (a brief history). US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. Anc Sci Life. 1981 Jul-Sep; 1(1): 1–7. David; Ranade, Subhash (2001). Ayurveda, Nature’s Medicine. Lotus Press. p. 11. Retrieved 6 January 2015. Singh, Rana P. B.; Rana, Pravin S. Banaras Region: A Spiritual and Cultural Guide. Varanasi, India: Indica Books, 2002; 31: ISBN 81-86569-24-3. Dhanvantari. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 August 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Complex at Bodh Gaya. Retrieved 27 February 2015. Smith, Vincent A. The Early History of India from 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan Conquest Including the Invasion of Alexander the Great (3rd ed.). London: Oxford University Press, 1914; 168–169. Dwivedi, Girish; Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence. Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences (Delhi: Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, University of Delhi / National College of Chest Physicians) 49: 243–244. (Republished by National Informatics Centre, Government of India). Stanley Wolpert (1991), India, Berkeley: University of California Press, p. 32. Srikantha Arunachala, Treatise on Ayurveda Vijitha Yapa Publications, p. 3. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, Vol. 7, Issue 3, 2014, Introduction, The history of herbal medicine of India is very old, perhaps the oldest use of plants have been documented in ancient Hindu Scriptures like Rigveda (4500-1600BC), Charak Samhita (1000- 800BC), Sushrut Samhita (800–700 BC) and others. Concept of Genetics In Ayurveda...... Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007) History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence. Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences (Delhi: Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, University of Delhi. 274 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Bodhi, Bhikkhu.Samyutta Nikaya, trans. as The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000. Buddhist Promoting Foundation. The Teaching of Buddha. Tokyo, Japan: Kosaido Printing, 1985 ed. Ch’en, Kenneth K. S. Buddhism – The Light of Asia. Woodbury, New York: Barron’s Educational Series, 1968. Coomaraswamy, Ananda K.. Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism. New York: Harper Torchbooks, Harper & Row Publishers, 1916. Geisler, Norman L.. Christian Apologetics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 1976. Geisler, Norman L. and Paul K. Hoffman. Why I Am a Christian. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 2001. Hope, Jane and Borin Van Loon. Introducing Buddha. : Icon Books, 2005. Learning And Memory Techniques In Buddhist Education: Relevance For Youths

Prof. Binodini Das, Department of History, Ravenshaw University, India. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The present day societies in this world appear to be polluted due to certain abnormal complexities arising out of mistrust, non-fi delity, mutual suspicion, intolerance and violence, etc. It’s causation is attached to the problem of mental and spiritual pollution which is more serious than that of the environment. It is the principal objective of the present paper to assess and analyse with a critical note how the proper learning of Buddhist education transforms the parochialism existing in attitude, behaviour, mind and mentality of a youth into a broad outlook with perfect enlightenment making him a rational and responsible human being; it teaches him about art of developing skills to memorise what is learnt and to utilise it in proper fi eld for the welfare and benefi t of mankind; and, it also teaches “absolute equality which derived from Buddha’s recognition that all sentient beings possess this innate wisdom and nature. Therefore, there is no inherent difference among beings

Keywords: Buddhist Education, Relevance For Youths, Enlightenment. 276 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Article

The present day societies in this world appear to be polluted due to certain abnormal complexities arising out of mistrust, non-fidelity, mutual suspicion, intolerance and violence, etc. It’s causation is attached to the problem of mental and spiritual pollution which is more serious than that of the environment. This is the source of all worldly sufferings that is not realised by most of the people. An individual’s inner purity is required to get back the purity of the societies. Here, the relevance of the Buddhist education is absolutely felt. A revolutionary change in the world-situation must be obtained by attracting the youths to refresh and reorient their knowledge through Buddhist education to attain perfect wisdom or enlightenment that will give them an insight to distinguish between good and bad kāma. It will also help to solve all worldly problems and thus, turning suffering into happiness. Since youths are the real backbone of the society, their way of life should be moulded from very childhood in a perfect disciplined and virtuous manner. The goal of Buddhist education is to attain wisdom which gives insight to distinguish between good and bad karma. In Sanskrit, the language of ancient India, wisdom is called, “Anuttara-Samyak-Saṁbodhi”, meaning the perfect ultimate wisdom. It is the principal objective of the present paper to assess and analyse with a critical note how the proper learning of Buddhist education transforms the parochialism existing in attitude, behaviour, mind and mentality of a youth into a broad outlook with perfect enlightenment making him a rational and responsible human being; it teaches him about art of developing skills to memorise what is learnt and to utilise it in proper field for the welfare and benefit of mankind; and, it also teaches “absolute equality which derived from Buddha’s recognition that all sentient beings possess this innate wisdom and nature. Therefore, there is no inherent difference among beings”1 The Buddhist teachings has laid emphasis on three points; discipline, meditation and wisdom. To maintain absolute discipline according to Buddhist precepts is to be free from three corruptions, i.e. lobha (greed), dosha (hatred) and moha (delusion) and the opposition to transgression and so forth2. This will lead a man to stand on the ground of virtue. The

1 Kung, Ven Master Ching, BUDDHISM AS AN EDUCATION, Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc (Buddhist e Book Library), p.4 2 Buddhaghosa’s VISUDDHIMAGGA, pt.1, The Oxford University Press, London,1922, pp.4-5 (tr. by Tin, P E Maung, THE PATH OF PURITY) JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 277

absence of greed, of hate and of delusion is known as Three Root- Conditions which makes man to develop an ardent will for cultivating concentration (meditation) and insight (wisdom). Wisdom is of three types; mother-wit, insight-wisdom and preserving wisdom (Such as acquiring the subjects of meditation, making frequent questionings and being strenuous in culture). In the voice of Buddha, Buddhaghosa claims here that standing on the ground of virtue practicing deep concentration in mind heading for this threefold wisdom, a man can clear away all tangle of cravings by the sword of insight-wisdom well sharpened on the stone of concentration3, it means all the troubles or sufferings will come to an end and a person would be energetic enough to guide the society in a right and perfect order. Karma or kamma doctrine of Buddhist concept should not be misinterpreted as fatalistic, and ‘egolessness’ does not undercut a heavy drive for personal integration, social reform or nation building, and thus reduce selfishness and avarice aiding co-operation. Little and Twiss4 believe that it gives an ‘action- guide’ for individuals and groups so as to initiate, preserve or extend some form of co-operations, by guiding character, emotion, attitude, etc. that impinge on this. It also helps to develop a composed and calm personality making one a more integrated and compassionate that restricts the rise of delusions which cause attachment and suffering for individual. Referring to kārmic effects of various actions, Buddhist teachings put strong emphasis on ‘rebirth’. The interpretation of ‘Rebirth’ in present scenario may be well referred to frequent occurrences of same incidents causing destruction, demolition, damage violence, instability, hatred, disputes, conflicts, problems and disintegration in the social norms. One’s morality and ethics would be elevated, says Buddha, who adopts ‘goodness’ and good work (kalyāṇa)for others renouncing evil; one must be mindful and thoughtful if he or she s obedient and respectful for others and guided by the behest of goodness; and, and this act will definitely lead him to be free from fetters5. The present potential of Buddhist teachings (Education) enriches a man’s evaluating engagements with the public sphere and making him dynamic and sensible to respond changes in an organising and ordering manner and he would leave in sublime peace along with the society, nation and neighbours.

3 ibid 4 Little, David and Sumner, Twiss, COMPARATIVE RELIGIOUS ETHICS:A NEW METHOD, Harper &Row, New York, 1978, pp.28-29 5 Moore, Justin Harley, SAYINGS OF BUDDHA:ITI-VUTTAKA OF BUDDHIST CANON, Cosmo Publication, New Delhi, 1981, p.30 278 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Explaining the ways for attaining the virtue, Buddha says that “one should not be moved by praise or dispraise just like a massive rock never moves by a heavy wind” and this should be the principle of one’s life; He must practice concentration so long suffice condition would be set forth for to endow with Sixfold Super Knowledge (knowing others thought); and, this will ultimately lead him to the attainment of wisdom which will set forth condition for various analysis6. Cleansing of three impure activities, i.e., corruption of misconduct, corruption of craving and corruption of views could only be achieved through the practice of discipline, concentration and wisdom7. Before accepting any existing theoretical beliefs or practices, Buddha teaches that one should rationally analyse, evaluate and asses the matter with critical note i.e., one should ask frequent questions on different aspects of the matter after acquiring mastery over the matter. Clarifying the doubts of the Kālāmas of Kessaputta who asked Lord Buddha to which faith or to whom they would have to believe, the Buddha said that “they should not go by reports, by legends, by tradition, by scripture, by logical conjecture, by inference, by analogies, by agreement through pondering views, what one thinks should be true or respect for a particular person. They must rather reject those states which are unwholesome and blameworthy leading to harm and suffering8. Further explaining to the Kālāmas, Buddha get them to agree that lobha (greed), dosha (hatred) and moha (delusion) are each states which bring misfortunes when they arise. When any of them arise in a person, he or she kills, steals, commits adultery, lies, forcefully possesses others belongings, leads others to do likewise, so that he or she suffers for a long time on account of kārmic results of his or her actions9. One who forsake this three would never return to this world, i.e. attaining Nirvāṇa10. Further, the renunciation of kodha (anger), makkha (hypocricy) and māna (pride) would also save man from suffering and he would achieve Nirvāṇa11, the literal meaning of which is ‘blowing out’, or ‘quenching’ or ‘extinction’. It is the third of ‘Four Great Noble Truth’ signifying the “cessation of dukkha and the summum bonum destination of the Noble Eightfold Path:

6 Buddhaghosa’s VISUDDHIMAGGA, pp.6-7 7 Ibid 8 Anguttara Nikāya (A:Th),vol1, pp.188-193 (tr.Woodward, F.L.&Hare, E.M., THE BOOK ON GRADUAL SAYINGS,5Vols, PTS, London, 1932-1936) 9 cf, Harvey, Peter, AN INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHIST ETHICS, Cambridge University Press, USA, 2000, P.10 10 Moore, Justin Harley, op. cit, p.21 11 ibid, pp.23-25 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 279

It is the extinction of “three fires” or “three poisons”, i.e., passion (), aversion () and ignorance (avidyā)12. In the present context of the world scenario, the word Nirvāṇa is very much expected and welcomed by all to get complete annihilation or extinction or liberation from great sufferings caused by complex issues, problems, tensions, anxieties, turmoil and other disturbances in the society. It is the need of the time to follow the Buddha’s sayings ,i.e., non-greed, non-hatred, non-delusion, non-anger, non-hypocrisy and non-pride, etc. Thus there is a progression from trust in one who has overcome greed, hatred, delusion, hypocrisy and pride to the development of insight which itself destroys these in the practitioner. To be guided by one’s own conscience is the primary teaching of the Buddha. In Buddhist logic, conscience has two broad ethical aspects, i.e., Hīrī and Ottapa13, the immediate cause of virtue and as two bright states that guide the world. Hīrī denotes to ‘self-respect’ which causes one to seek to avoid any action in which one feels is not worthy of oneself and lowers one’s integrity. Ottapa is ‘regarded by consequences’; it is a karmic results of action in which he or she is reproached and blamed (whether from one self or from other others, or feels embarrassment before others especially those one respects), and legal punishments14. Heedfulness (appamāda), a combination of energy (vīrya) and mindfulness (sati) is said to be the basis of all virtues. Mindfulness is alert presence of mind, cultivated strongly in meditation practice, which enables one to be more aware of one’s mental states, including intentions and motives. It is complemented by ‘clear comprehension’, which acts to guide one’s actual behaviour to be harmony with one’s ideals and goals15. What would be reaped by the mankind by practicing certain acts is well illustrated by the Buddha, which might be sometimes pleasant or unpleasant: Merciless killing, or harming ,or injuring living beings leads to being short-lived; stealing to loss of wealth; sensual misconduct to rivalry and hatred from others; lying to one’s false words; backbiting to the break- up of the friendship ; harsh words to enmity; frivolous chatter to unacceptable,

12 Busswell (Jr), Robert E & Lopez (Jr),Donald S, THE PRINCETON DICTIONARY OF BUD- DHISM, Princeton University Press, Princeton&Oxford, 2013, p.143 13 A, vol.1, p.51 14 Aṭṭhsālinī (Asl), pp.124-127 (Tin, Pe Maung, THE EXPOSITOR, 2Vols, PTS, London) 15 Cf., Harvey, Peter, AN INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHIST ETHICS, Cambridge University Press, USA, 2000, p.11 280 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

ineffective speech; intoxication to madness16, being easily angered leads to being ugly; being jealous and spiteful leads to being of no account; being stingy leads to being a poor; being haughty and disrespectful leads to being of a low family; and not asking about what is morally wholesome or unwholesome one leads to being weak in wisdom17. It’s opposite actions leads to a heavenly rebirth or opposite kinds of human life. In Buddhist perception, leading an ethical life leads to: wealth, through diligence; a good reputation; joyful recollection of moral purity; Self confidence in all types of company, without fear of reproach or punishment; easier progress in meditation; dying without anxiety; and, rebirth in a heavenly world18. Good actions are wholesome and leads to bright results where as wrong views leads on to wrong thought, and this to wrong speech and thus wrong action19. As wrong actions thus come from misperception of reality, they can be seen to be ‘out of tune’ with the real nature of things. As they thus ‘go against the grain of reality’, they naturally lead to unpleasant results. Thus it is said to be impossible that wrong conduct of body, speech or mind could result in a ‘fruit that was agreeable, pleasant, liked’, or for right conduct to lead to a ‘fruit that was disagreeable, unpleasant , not liked’20. In Buddhist ethics, there are three key sources of inspiration and guidance for empowering youths to emerge as dynamic leader guiding the mankind to establish a welfare society: They are, the Budha, the Dhamma and the Saṁgha. The word Buddha signifies to one who acts as ‘Rediscoverer’ and teacher of liberating truths and the embodiment of liberating qualities to be developed by others. The Buddha could only awaken one from the perception that “All life is but a dream”; the Buddha is knowledge, and all knowledge is a judgement, and every judgement is the work of power of judgement, and hence an activity of reason21 . This scientific teaching of Buddha is therefore a Religion of Reason the following of which undoubtedly empower an youth to fight against all odds in life 9in particular and society as a whole. The Dhamma is prescribed duty based on ethics and morality to be followed by one and

16 A, Vol. Iv, pp.247-248 17 Majjhima Nikāya, Vol, iii, pp. 203-206 (tr. Horner, I.B., MIDDLE LENGTH SAYINGS, in 5 Volumes, London, 1954-1959) 18 RhysDavids, T.W. and Rhys Davids, C.A.F (tr), DIALOGUES OF THE BUDDHA, Vol. ii, 1899-1921, p.8 19 A, Vol v, pp.211-212 20 Cf., Harvey, Peter, op.cit., p.17 21 Grimm, George, THE DOCTRINE OF BUDDHA: THE RELIGION OF REASON AND MEDI- TATION, Motillal Banarassidass, New Delhi, 1958, pp.25-26 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 281

all irrespective of age , sex, status and religion; it includes the discharging of seemly behaviour towards parents, teachers, wife, husband, children, kith and kin, masters, servants, slaves, dependants, friends and acquaintances, relatives, rulers and ruled, brahmanas , Śramaṇas, and mendicants, etc. ; it also teaches youths that the practice of ‘good will’ without measure among all beings will empower them. Let ‘good will’ without measure prevails in the whole world, above, below, around, unstinted, unmixed with any feeling of differing or opposing interests.T he followings are the evil state of mind from which the youth should remain free to be empowered: Sakkāya-ditthi, the delusion of self or soul; Vicikkicchā, doubt; Sīlabata pāramāsa, dependence upon rites; Kāma, sensuality or physical desire; Patigha, hatred or resentment; Rūrāga, desire for life in world of matters; Aruparāga, desire for life in spiritual worlds ; Māno, pride; Uddhacca, self-righteousness; and, Avijjā, ignorance22. The Saṁgha is the ‘Community of Noble Ones’ representing unity (aikya), integrity (nisṭhā) and solidarity, which on the other gave birth to democracy. Judging the relevance of the Buddhist education in the nation building process, it is said that the establishment of a strong nation requires mutual concord, unity, integrity and stability abiding each people with a coherent bond in which each one of them should not be the disturber of concord raising quarrels, abuses, disagreement, dissertation and discontentment23. Buddha says that the disturber of Order would burn for aeons in perdition. It is said by Buddha that a virtuous and self-disciplined man would enjoy a life peace, prosperity and progress and be free from distress by practicing charity (dāna), tranquil behaviour (samacāriya), self-command (saññama) and making friendship with others24: Zeal in good works will cause the attainment of welfare both in present and future life25; one acquires abundant virtue by tendering compassion from the core of his soul to all living beings and not developing evil thought towards any single ceature26. There are two characteristics if that infringes on man makes him or her wicked or virtuous: Evil character and evil belief make a man wicked where as Upright character and upright belief make a man virtuous27.

22 Cf, Coomarsawmy, Ananda K, BUDDHA AND THE GOSPEL OF BUDDHISM, New Delhi, 1985, p.93 23 Moore, J. Harley, op.cit., pp.31-32 24 Ibid, pp.35-36 25 Ibid, pp.36-37 26 Ibid,p.41 27 Ibid, pp.46-47 282 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Buddha’s ‘Supreme Enlightenment’ or Nirvāṇa may be explained in terms of ‘supreme achievement’ that a man achieve by following his sayings. It is said that one is unfit for attaining ‘Supreme Enlightenment’ if he is slothful, froward, indolent, feeble, idle lazy, shameless and disrespectful. It is true that above said persons could never achieve success or security in their professions to reach at the extreme end of the highest ladder. On the contrary, a person who is thoughtful, prudent, reflective, fervent, not froward and earnest achieves the best success or ‘Supreme Achievement’ in his or her life28. Buddha attaches importance to the life of chastity (brahma chariya) and tells that life of chastity should not be practiced for the purpose of not deceiving or prating to mankind, nor for the sake of advantage (ānisamsa) of a reputation (siloka) for gain and one’s own affairs; but this life of chastity is to be lived for the purpose Restraint, Renunciation, Insight and Thorough Knowledge 29. All miseries (sufferings happen due problems, tensions, anxieties, etc.) will be liquidated in case of a person possessing an attitude of living ‘fervent’, reposeful in manner, not vaunting himself, tranquillity of soul and becoming cautious in place requiring caution30. One who is delighted in and delighted by ‘Non-injury’ would never cause no injury to animate and inanimate being and renounces ‘whatever is wicked’31.A person must judge ‘Sin’ from the standpoint of ‘Sinfulness’ and he must start loathing it in order to get free from it. A man breeds ‘Sin’ due to accumulation of evil Longing and evil Desire which makes him shameless and heartless: Ignorance is the root cause of committing sin; one who is emancipated from yearning, desire and ignorance and acquires knowledge would be free from misforune32. A person becomes radically pure if nourishes the feeling for shame and fear for committing sin : His life of chastity could easily leads him to make distinction between mothers or aunts, or aunt-in-law, or the wives of preceptors (āchāriya), or the wives of the teachers (guru) and these good people will flourish in their life33. Effort for puñña action (meritorious deeds) is auspicious, fortunate or fruitful as it purifies mind and thus leads to good fortune in future34. Giving is an auspicious action

28 Ibid, pp.47-48 29 Ibid,pp.48-49 30 Ibid.p.50 31 Ibid, p.51 32 Ibid, pp.53-54 33 Ibid, p.55 34 McDermott, J.P., EARLY BUDDHIST CONCEPTS OF KAMMA/KARMA, Munshiram, Mano- harlal, New Delh, 1984, pp.31-38 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 283

because it leads to joy, gladness and mental calmness, or because giving enriches heart and equip it for meditation35. Giving should be free from hesitation and unwillingness. Thus Śāntideva nicely expressed: “If I give this, what shall I (have left to enjoy)”-such selfish thinking is the way of ghosts; “If I enjoy this, what shall I (have left to) give?”-such selfless thinking is the quality of gods36. The word ‘gift’ is a synonym of ‘giving’. It is unwise to think that a small gift from a poor person does not bear the same potentiality or worth like that of a large or big one from a rich person. Both are equally worthy. Where gift is made with purity of mind and joyful heart, no gift is small37.Thus,’If you have a little , give little; if you have a middling amount , give a middling amount; if you have much give much. It is not fitting to give all38. Buddha lays emphasis that even poor have the means to give, be this as little as leftover rice as food for ants39. Gifts should be made with faith, with due respect, with due consideration (who is to be given or not to be given. It should be judged in accordance with the need and requirement), in appropriate time (when one is in dire necessity), without reluctance and without harm to self and others40. This Therāvāda concept of giving is well accepted by Mahāyāna tradition; for in Śāntideva’s Akshayamati Sūtra, it is described, “a gift is no real gift if it harms someone, or is less than what has been promised, or is accompanied by contempt ,boasting or hostility, or causes distress, or is of what would otherwise have been thrown away , or is not given with one’s own hand, or is improper, or given at the wrong time41. Regretting is the best way to lessen the Karmic result of bad action with a thought that ‘that evil deed cannot be undone by me’ and resolving not to do it again42. The notion of regret, or acknowledgement of fault, as lessening the kamic fruit is also affirmed in the

35 A, Vol.iv, pp.60-63 36 BODDHI-CHARYAᾹVATᾹRA (Bca), Vol. viii, p125 37 Cowell, E.B. (TR), JᾹTAKA WITH COMMENTARY (J.;Th), Vol.ii (The Jātaka or Stories of Buddha’s Former Births, 6 Volumes), PTS, London, 1895-1907, p.85 38 Ibid, Vol.v, p.382 39 Cf, Harvey, Peter, op.cit., p.20 40 A.Vol.iii, pp.172-173 41 Śāntideva’s ŚIKSHYᾹ SAMUCHAYA (SS),p.248 (tr. Bendell, C& Rouse, W.H.D., ŚIKSHYᾹ SAMUCHAYA: A COMPENDIUM OF BUDDHIST DOCTRINE, Motilal Banarassidas, Delhi, 1971) 42 Saṁyukta Nikāya (S), Vol.iv, p.320 (tr. Davids, Rhys& Woodward, F.L., THE BOOK OF KIN- DRED SAYINGS, PTS, London, ,1917-1930 284 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Mahāyāna43. The importance regretting a bad action is seen in the refrain, ‘It is a mark of progress in the discipline of Noble Ones, if any one recognises the nature of transgression and makes amends as is right, restraining himself for the future’44. The ‘Right Livelihood’, a substantial part of Buddha’s Eightfold-Path teaches economics ethics to one and all: One’s means of livelihood should not be earned in a dishonest way, or it should not cause suffering to other living being; wealth is to be made in a moral way without causing violence or earning blame; using one’s own product is praiseworthy but sharing it generously with others is more praiseworthy; and leading life is the best way to be a good economist. The other ways are to be followed: A person should also avoid outgoings exceeding income and pointless hoarding of wealth; Loss of wealth by looseness with women, drunkenness, gambling and friendship with evil people, hunting the street at unfitting times, frequently attending fairs and habitual idleness should be avoided45. The Śigālovāda Sutta also counsels caution in the use of wealth, saying that from the total income, a quarter should be used for one’s own ease and convenience, half for one’s business or occupation, and a quarter should be saved against adverse times46. A man in debt remains in stress,47 who is free from debt leads a life of happiness48. A spendthrift and a miser could hardly satisfy others49. A miser never brings happiness for himself nor for others. Tendering extreme possessiveness towards his wealth, guarding it sincerely, taking coarse food and wearing coarse clothes throughout the life, a miser’s wealth does not benefit others as it is supposed to be misappropriated by wrong-doer, or robbers, or destroyed by fire or water, or goes to heirs for whom he has no affection50. The wealth of a miser is described ‘ like a pool haunted by demons where no man may slake his thirst51. Nāgārjuna, the great Mahāyāna philosopher says that “Wealth used properly or given to right personality brings happiness here and there. But the waste of wealth without proper use brings misery52”.

43 Ss,p.59 44 Cf, Harvey, Peter, op.cit., p.26 45 Ibid, pp.187-190 46 Ibid, p.190 47 A,Vol.vi, p.350 48 Ibid, pp.69-70 49 Ibid,Vol.i, p.87 50 J. pp.299-300 51 Ibid, Vol.i, pp.353-354 52 Cf, Harvey, Peter, op.cit., p.190 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 285

Dhamapada says “ enmities never cease by enmity in this world: only by non-enmity do they cease. This is the ancient Law”. Buddha’s teaching tells that greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha) are the roots of human conflicts53. Caught by any of them, a person try to grasp the opportunity at the cost of others which leads to tension and conflict. Conflict often arises from attachment to material things: pleasure, property, territory, wealth, economic dominance, or political superiority. Sense- pleasure lead on to desire for more sense-pleasures, which leads on to conflict between all kinds of people, including rulers , and thus quarrelling and war. Apart from actual greed, material deprivation is seen as a key source of conflict54. Wars could be avoided through proper negotiation and emphasising the mutual harm of the war. It is stated in the Mahāyāna texts that the warring parties must try to settle their differences by displaying kindness and pity so that the opponents would be reconciled and get agreed to live in harmony55. In Dhammapada, it is stated that : conquer anger by love, conquer evil by good, conquer the stingy by giving, conquer the liar by truth”56. One , who conquers a thousand thousands men in the battle field may be a great warrior , but not a true victor; he is indeed a noble victor who conquers himself57. Wars and conflicts would be evaded by tendering loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, equanimity, forbearance, renouncing anger and violence58. Though Buddhist doctrine preaches that life is full of suffering (dukkha), paradoxically it also dissuades the sufferer not to be disheartened or commit suicide to end the life to be free from weighty suffering. So as an attempted escape from the suffering of life, suicide is, according to Buddhist principles, totally ineffective. It will be only followed by a further rebirth, probably lower than a human one, in which the suffering will probably continue unabated and perhaps be intensified59. Monk Mahākāśapa explains that moral people ‘do not seek to hasten the ripening of that which is not yet ripe’60. One could add that, even

53 Nyanponika, THE ROOTS OF GOOD AND EVIL, Wheel Booklet, No-251/253, Kndy, Srilnka, 1978, p50 54 Ibid, p.239 55 Ibid, pp241-242 56 Dhammapada (Dhp:Th), p.223 (tr. Thera, Nārada, THE DHAMMAPADA, London, 1954) 57 Ibid, p103 58 Harvey, Peter, op.cit., pp.243-252 59 Ibid, pp.286-287 60 Ibid, p.287 286 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

for not a particularly virtuous person, suicide is an act which will bring grief to friends and relatives, and so, if for no other reason , is to be avoided61. Killing oneself is just as much an act of killing as killing another person. Terrorism denotes something like “ irrational acts of calculated violence, consciously and callously, perpetrated on innocent people”. More specifically, terrorism arises as an outcome of conflicts among patterns of values-intentions- of actions that are severe enough to result in violent objections of a sort that signal a glaring absence of normative consequences and a rejection of the possibility of moving toward it62. It is to be admitted that terrorism and its acts are not a new development in global history, but global terrorism is frequently occurring due to longing and desire to exercise power, and pride over others. Hershock believes that “ global terrorism can be seen as among the emerged (and very much unintended)consequences of contemporary patterns of technology-drives globalisation and interdependence63.The Buddha’s key insight describes four basic truth ,i.e., Four Noble Truth, which eliminates all troubles or miseries (dukkha), or in other word, terrorism. Elimination of dukkha is ascertained by following or practicing Eightfold Path which ultimately leads to Salvation, or never return of terrorism into this material world.

Conclusion

The methods and principles for the end of the global terrorism could be derived from the Buddha’s teaching which illustrates three marks: For the purpose of dissolving the conditions of suffering one should see all things as troubled, impermanent and without any abiding self or essence; to confront or to compromise with the existing phenomenon, a person should be good minded, prudent, reflective and contemplative; he must have ability to rightly discern Law, to avoid Lust and taking delight in Zeal and seeing danger in Pleasure64; he must be watchful, heedful, mindful, self-composed, cheerful and serene; and he must awake the persons lying in asleep and use the Law in proper time65. Realising the real essence of Buddhist Education , if it would have been put into practice a lots of problems from public and global scenario easily be avoided.

61 Ibid 62 Hershock, Peter D, op.cit., p.161 63 Ibid, p.54 64 Moore, J. Harley, op.cit., p.59 65 Ibid, p.61 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 287

References

Kung, Ven Master Ching, BUDDHISM AS AN EDUCATION, Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc (Buddhist e Book Library), p.4 Buddhaghosa’s VISUDDHIMAGGA, pt.1, The Oxford University Press, London,1922, pp.4-5 ( tr. by Tin, P E Maung, THE PATH OF PURITY ibid Little, David and Sumner, Twiss, COMPARATIVE RELIGIOUS ETHICS:A NEW METHOD, Harper &Row, New York, 1978, pp.28-29 Moore, Justin Harley, SAYINGS OF BUDDHA:ITI-VUTTAKA OF BUDDHIST CANON, Cosmo Publication, New Delhi, 1981, p.30 Buddhaghosa’s VISUDDHIMAGGA, pp.6-7 Ibid Anguttara Nikāya (A:Th),vol1, pp.188-193 (tr.Woodward, F.L.&Hare, E.M., THE BOOK ON GRADUAL SAYINGS,5Vols, PTS, London, 1932-1936) cf, Harvey, Peter, AN INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHIST ETHICS, Cambridge University Press, USA, 2000, P.10 Moore, Justin Harley, op. cit, p.21 ibid, pp.23-25 Busswell (Jr), Robert E & Lopez (Jr),Donald S, THE PRINCETON DICTIONARY OF BUDDHISM, Princeton University Press, Princeton&Oxford, 2013, p.143 A, vol.1, p.51 Aṭṭhsālinī (Asl), pp.124-127 (Tin, Pe Maung, THE EXPOSITOR, 2Vols, PTS, London) Cf., Harvey, Peter, AN INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHIST ETHICS, Cambridge University Press, USA, 2000, p.11 A, Vol. Iv, pp.247-248 Majjhima Nikāya, Vol, iii, pp. 203-206 (tr. Horner, I.B., MIDDLE LENGTH SAYINGS, in 5 Volumes, London, 1954-1959) RhysDavids, T.W. and Rhys Davids, C.A.F (tr), DIALOGUES OF THE BUDDHA, Vol. ii, 1899-1921, p.8 A, Vol v, pp.211-212 288 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Cf., Harvey, Peter, op.cit., p.17 Grimm, George, THE DOCTRINE OF BUDDHA: THE RELIGION OF REASON AND MEDITATION, Motillal Banarassidass, New Delhi, 1958, pp.25-26 Cf, Coomarsawmy, Ananda K, BUDDHA AND THE GOSPEL OF BUDDHISM, New Delhi, 1985, p.93 Moore, J. Harley, op.cit., pp.31-32 Ibid, pp.35-36 Ibid, pp.36-37 bid,p.41 Ibid, pp.46-47 Ibid, pp.47-48 Ibid,pp.48-49 Ibid.p.50 Ibid, p.51 Ibid, pp.53-54 Ibid, p.55 McDermott, J.P., EARLY BUDDHIST CONCEPTS OF KAMMA/KARMA, Munshiram, Manoharlal, New Delh, 1984, pp.31-38 A, Vol.iv, pp.60-63 BODDHI-CHARYAᾹVATᾹRA (Bca), Vol. viii, p125 Cowell, E.B. (TR), JᾹTAKA WITH COMMENTARY (J.;Th), Vol.ii (The Jātaka or Stories of Buddha’s Former Births, 6 Volumes), PTS, London, 1895-1907, p.85 Ibid, Vol.v, p.382 Cf, Harvey, Peter, op.cit., p.20 A.Vol.iii, pp.172-173 Śāntideva’s ŚIKSHYᾹ SAMUCHAYA (SS),p.248 (tr. Bendell, C& Rouse, W.H.D., ŚIKSHYᾹ SAMUCHAYA: A COMPENDIUM OF BUDDHIST DOCTRINE, Motilal Banarassidas, Delhi, 1971) Saṁyukta Nikāya (S), Vol.iv, p.320 (tr. Davids, Rhys& Woodward, F.L., THE BOOK OF KINDRED SAYINGS, PTS, London, ,1917-1930 Ss,p.59 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 289

Cf, Harvey, Peter, op.cit., p.26 Ibid, pp.187-190 Ibid, p.190 A,Vol.vi, p.350 Ibid, pp.69-70 Ibid,Vol.i, p.87 J. pp.299-300 Ibid, Vol.i, pp.353-354 Cf, Harvey, Peter, op.cit., p.190 Nyanponika, THE ROOTS OF GOOD AND EVIL, Wheel Booklet, No-251/253, Kndy, Srilnka, 1978, p50 Ibid, p.239 Ibid, pp241-242 Dhammapada (Dhp:Th), p.223 (tr. Thera, Nārada, THE DHAMMAPADA, London, 1954) Ibid, p103 Harvey, Peter, op.cit., pp.243-252 Ibid, pp.286-287 Ibid, p.287 Ibid Hershock, Peter D, op.cit., p.161 Ibid, p.54 Moore, J. Harley, op.cit., p.59 Ibid, p.61 Buddhist Contributions to Human Development and the Challenges of an Economy of Ananda: Critique of Political Economy, Moral Economy, Moral Sociology and Spiritual Ecology

Prof. Dr. Ananta Kumar Giri Madras Institute of Development Studies, Madras University. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Buddhist contributions to human development can help us building an alternative economy. The aim of this paper is related this striving with the discourse of Gross National Happiness and the discourse of suffi ciency economy proposed by the late king of Thailand. This presentation relates to this to building an economy of Ananda—joy which is related to the Buddhist idea of co-dependent origination, especially practical co-dependent origination as striven by Buddhadasa Bhikhu. Later on, this paper relates to critique of political economy offered by Karl Marx and works such as Dr. B.R. Ambedkar from India who engaged with both Buddha and Marx. This paper further relates it to ideas of moral economy, moral sociology and spiritual ecology. In the following text as an Appendix, the author shares with friends and participants a related essay on sustainable development in which in the section on political economy, which one also develop some of these ideas.

Keywords: Human Development, Economy, Ananda, Moral Sociology, Spiritual Ecology. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 291

Introduction and Invitation

Sustainable development is a key challenge of our times but the discourse of it is many a time locked in an existing status quo without foundational interrogation of the dominant and dominating frameworks of economy, polity, self and society. We need to rethink and interrogate such a status-quoist understanding and practice of sustainable development and realize it as a multi-dimensional process of self and social transformations leading towards planetary realizations. In this sustainable development goes beyond the prisons of both nation-state centered rationality, productivisit profit-maiximization and anthropocentrism and contributes towards planetary realizations. Planetary realizations challenge us to understand that all of us including non-human beings, plants and species are children of Mother Earth. Anthropogenic presence in the life of earth has created tremendous pressures on other life forms and matter. We need to conduct ourselves in a responsible way so that we nurture our Mother Earth as an abode of flourishing for all of us (cf. Novacek 2011).1 So sustainable development involves responsibility in fact a process of responsibilization. Sustainable development is also not just a noun, it is also a verb; in fact it is a manifold verb of action, meditation and transformation of self and society. Our engagement with sustainable development challenges us to move towards sustainable flourishing which is part of a broader calling of evolutionary flourishing. In evolutionary flourishing, our challenge is not just sustaining what we have but also abandoning many existing ideas and institutions and creating new modes of being, thinking and institutional arrangements. My essay is an effort to rethink and transform the existing discourse and practice of sustainable development and move towards evolutionary flourishing. This calls for rethinking and transforming existing categories of thinking and practice such as economics, politics and political economy. In my essay I argue how we need to rethink critiques of capitalism as offered by discourses such as political economy and link it to other related movements and

1 In this context, what Kathryn Yusoff and Jennifer Gabrys write deserve our careful consider- ation: [..] there is a concurrent geographic imaginary that gestures towards the universal and the epic, that of the Anthroposcene: The Geological Age of Humans. The framing of human activity as a geomor- phologic force summons up to the imagination what might be termed, after the French philosopher Michel Serres, ‘the plates of humanity.’ The destructive nature of these ‘plates of humanity’ to other forms of life raises questions about how we imagine and understand the collective human condition, the longevity and sustainability of Homo Sapiens, and the impact of humans on nonhuman [..] worlds (Yusoff & Gabrys 2011: 529) 292 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

themes suh as moral economy, moral sociology and spiritual ecology. The essay begins with new discourses of sustainable development present it as a transformative process. We see this in the works of movements such as the degrowth movement, transition town movements and visions and practices of scholars such as Marcus Bussey and scientists such as M.S. Swaminathan. In this essay, I present a glimpse of their work and then discuss the challenges for transformation of self and society that realizing transformative sustainable development presents for us. I then link these to a broader calling of evolutionary flourishing and a new politics, poetics and spirituality of thriving.

Sustainable Development as Transformative Quest

The current discourse of sustainable development owes its origin to initiatives such as the classic Limits to Growth and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in the 1970s (Meadows 1972). But sustainable development did not really challenge the growth paradigm of modernist development as a result of which we have witnessed the rise of a degrowth movement in vision and practice in European societies. While becoming mainstream, “sustainability has been washed out of its more radical questioning of economic models” (Fournier 2008: 530). The degrowth movement challenges the growth paradigm of contemporary development and argues that unless we put a halt to economic growth we cannot realize sustainable development. “The de-growth movement vigorously supports the ‘post-development’ critique” (Martinez-Allier 2010: 1745) and “socially sustainable economic de-growth is a concept that is finding its way into social ecology, human ecology and ecological economics” (ibid). The degrowth movement has also been accompanied by the rise of transition town movements in Europe. In transition towns and ecological villages inhabitants try to live in an ecologically sustainable way. They try to live with solar energy and other renewable sources of energy. As Anthony Giddens tells us: “Part of the logic of ecotowns is to break dependence on the motor car [..] For instance, local authorities have introduced congestion charging and traffic calming, and have banned cars altogether from some areas, thereby encouraging people to put a positive value on walking or cycling” (Giddens 2009: 160). Cities like Malmo in Sweden are building energy-saving dwellings “which cost no more to build than conventional homes, but use only a third of the energy required” (ibid: 159). Alternatives emerging in degrowth and transition town movements can be read together with some other important contemporary visions and practices. Marcus Bussey in his work on sustainability presents us a layered concept of sustainability. Sustainable JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 293

development here is not confined to the field of economic development only and it embraces many fields and aspirations of our lives in self and society. Bussey presents us five categories of sustainability—physical, intellectual, emotional, ethical and spiritual. Bussey links moves towards sustainable development intimately connected with self-transformation as he writes: “The only response is to take sustainability personally, to begin the slow process of remembering who we are and achieving the multi-layered strands that underpin an integrated sustainability that can generate transformative educational practice” (Bussey 2008: 144). Adaptation is much talked about in the discourse of climate change and it has implication for our vision and practice of sustainability. But like sustainable development, adaptation is not a noun but a verb; it needs to be a meditative as well as transformative verb (Giri 2012). This resonates with what Giddens (2009) talks about as pro-active adaptation, facilitated by an ensuring state and society which is about “designing and responding to vulnerabilities” in creative ways.2 Bussey et al. also talk about the need to develop adaptive capacity and for them, “Understanding adaptive capacity as the dynamic potential inherent in context can stimulate thinking about context that is free from habit and conditioning [..]” (Bussey et al. 2012: 387). Adaptive capacity is also a process of creative capacitation in which leadership, technology, imagination and institutions play an important role.3 For Bussey and his colleagues, authoritarian leadership is likely to “foster short-term maladaptive responses to climate change. Such leadership tends to reduce creativity and the sense of agency in its citizens, communities and institutions” (ibid: 391). M.S. Swaminathan is a creative leader in science and institution building who has offered us new pathways of sustainable development. It may be noted that Swaminathan was the pioneer of green revolution in India but now he pleads for evergreen revolution which is sustainable and makes a transformative balance between economy and ecology. He now works for preservation of biological diversity and organic agriculture. In the context of climate change, he now works for a new kind of agriculture such as rice intensification

2 Giddens here talks about the need for building an ensuring state: “As far as climate change is concerned, the state has to act as a facilitator, an enabler—it has to help stimulate and support the diversity of groups in society that will drive policy inwards. Yet it cannot be only an enabling body, since it has to ensure that definite outcomes are achieved—most notably a progressive reduction in carbon emissions” (2009: 8). 3 We can link this to the vision and practice of capacitation initiated by Clodomoir de Santos in the field of education 294 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

(Swaminathan & Kesavan 2012).4 Swaminthan argues for a new sustainability science which resonates with Bussey’s outline for a new layered sustainable education. For Swaminathan, “Sustainability science involves both anticipatory research, as for example, in the case of meeting the challenges of climate change, as well as participatory research and knowledge management with rural and tribal communities in order to ensure that the recommended practices are socially compatible and economically feasible” (Swaminathan 2011: 116). Swaminathan pleads for restoration of soil and making it fertile. He also pleads for a new climate care movement involving all the stake holders in the process. This climate care movement involves “gene care conservation, climate literacy, appointment of local-level Community Climate Risk Managers and promotion appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures” (ibid: 17). From his research foundation, the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), he adopts a community-based approach to sustainable development and creative responses to climate change. MSSRF works on community management and nurturance of mangrove forests in the coastal areas such as Pichavaram in Tamil Nadu. Here in Pichavaram, along with saving of mangrove forests he works on building schools for the children. Thus he writes: “I told my colleagues that saving mangrove forest without saving children for whose well-being their forest were saved made no sense” (ibid: xi). He argues passionately for involving farmers in adopting creative responses to climate change:

Farmers can help build soil carbon banks and at the same time improve soil fertility through fertilizer trees. Mangrove forests are very efficient in carbon sequestration. Biogas plants can help convert methane emissions into energy for the household. Hence, a movement should be started at global, national and local levels for enabling all farmers with smallholdings and a few farm animals to develop a water-harvesting pond, plant a few fertilizer trees and establish a biogas plant in

4 Swaminathan and Kesavan write about it: Since rice cultivation makes a large contribution to the release of green house gases, the adop- tion of a system of rice cultivation that does not require huge amounts of water and chemical fertilizers, with a proven track-record of much higher yields would be an effective solution. This is referred to as the “System of Rice Intensification” (SRI) which holds good for the most of the cultivated rice varieties. Above all, SRI greatly benefits small and marginal farmers with limited/little resources for chemical inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides etc. Mitigation of methane emission from rice cultivation could also be by altering water management, particularly promoting mid-season aeration by promoting nerobic degradation through composing or incorporating it into soil during off season drained period etc. (Swaminathan & Kesavan 2012: 4-5). JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 295

their farms. I reiterate just these three—a farm pond, some fertilizer trees and a biogas plant—will make every small farm contribute to climate change mitigation, soil health enhancement and water for a crop life-saving irrigation (ibid: 11).

In his work on sustainable development and climate change, Swaminathan pleads for a “do ecology” which may also be called practical ecology in which we all practice an ecological way of doing, living and production and consumption. This practical ecology may also be realized as part of what can be called practical spirituality (Giri 2013). Practical ecology as part of practical spirituality can give us what Swaminathan calls an ecology of hope in place of current regimes of destruction and despair (see Ikeda and Swaminathan 2005). Ecology of hope calls for transformation of poverty on the one side and greed and unsustainable consumption on the other. Swaminathan also challenges us to realize biohappiness in place of conventional happiness which leads to unsustainable and uncreative lives which are helplessly bound to contemporary regimes of production and consumption. What Swaminathan writes here deserves our careful consideration:

How can we define biohappiness? I would say it is the sustainable and equitable use of biodiversity leading to the creation of more jobs and income. When the use of biodiversity leads to sustainable livelihood security, the local population develops an economic stake in conservation. It means that growth and progress must be reliable and dependable and maintained at an even and steady pace. In farming it is the production of high yields in perpetuity, without associated social and ecological harm. Sustainable development must be firmly rooted in the principles of ecology, social and gender equity, employment generation, and economic advance (Swaminathan 2011: ix).

In their different ways, both Swaminathan and Bussey plead for cultivation of a new language and new identity for sustainable development. For example, Swaminathan points out that crops like millets and bazras are called coarse cereals. But these crops can grow in many environments and with less consumption of water. In addition, they provide us more nutrition compared to rice and wheat. For Swaminathan, we should call these not coarse cereals but nutritious cereals (ibid). Resonating with this change of language, Bussey pleads for change of identity from one-dimensional productivist and consumption-trapped self to a layered self with an ecology of consciousness” (Bussey 2008: 141). 296 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Self-Development

From the above the discourses and practices of a transformative sustainable development, we can realize that sustainable development is linked to creative self- development. It calls for transformation of self and its mode of production, consumption and living. In my related works, I have offered a multi-dimensional conception of self-development consisting of development of all the three overlapping dimensions of self—unconscious, technopractitioner and transcendental (Giri 2006). Sustainable development calls for new imaginations and practices at the levels of all these dimensions. In sustainable development techno-practitioner self becomes a spiritually pragmatic self trying to realize a deeper meaning of life in technology of self, society and science (cf. Giri 2011; ). Self-development also calls for the cultivation of a creative self and society. This is expressed in production, consumption, institutional matrix and intersubjective relations. In place of a short-term approach to production and consumption we need to cultivate a long- term perspective. It is through creative technology of self and science that we transform our existing modes of production and consumption. Our creativity helps us overcome our bondage to the existing gods of consumption and find meaning in creative interpersonal relationships and social services. Such relationships help us overcome the tragedy and sufferings of isolated individualism and attendant narcissistic consumption. They constitute the bedrock of what Ivan Illich (1973) long ago called convivial society. Such creativity is linked to the nurturance, recovery and creation of the commons which create commons which is constituted of a plurality of communications that “illuminates the worlds that are generative conditions of personhood—including ecological matrices” (Reid & Taylor 2010: 13). Furthermore, “The commons need to be protected and preserved not only for the humans but also for the plants and birds, and yes, even the rocks and streams” (Cheria & Chungi 2011: 484). One important aspect of this creativity for sustainability is a new realization of time. In our present epoch time has been made a servant to the production of capital and profit maximization which creates suffering in self and society. We have become slaves of time in which we do not have any time for creative conviviality for each other and society. But for sustainable development we need a new realization of pregnant temporality where time is not our anxiety-creating master as it is in the present systems of life but our mother. Our society and self-nurture time in such a way that we are able to be creatively with time and JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 297

thus give birth to self and other in new ways.5 Pregnant temporality can create pregnant spatiality in which we can generate spaces of conviviality and togetherness for sustainable development. This is accompanied by a new poetics and music of sustainable self, societies, communities and cosmos. Furthermore, sustainable development also calls for a new ethics and aesthetics of self and society which may be called an aesthetic ethics of participation (cf. Quarles van Ufford & Giri 2003).

Social Transformations

Initiatives in multi-dimensional self-development find a resonance in appropriate social transformations for sustainable development. Linking to the earlier discussion on community and commons, Prafulla Samantara writes: “Sustainable development is dependent on and therefore should promote, service-based commons like food production and consumption, common school education and health. Developing physical natural commons together with reform social organizations and structure of communities is a prerequisite” (Samantara 2011: 124). Samantara is involved with struggles for land rights and dignity of tribals and the marginalized in Odisha, India. Preserving and transforming commons for sustainable development calls for transformation in the very language of commons and our contemporary discourse and organization of property. 6

5 Making the link between a new temporality and sustainable education, Busssey also writes: I try to teach across time and beyond time. I, like the French philosopher Rousseau, have thrown away my watch. [..] The only response is to take sustainability personally, to begin the slow process of remembering who we are and activating the multilayered strands that underpin an integrated sustainability that can generate transformative educational practice (Bussey 2008: 143=144). 6 As Cheri and Edwin tell us: An appropriate vocabulary and language of the commons are essential for the health of the surviving commons. At present the dominant paradigm is so pervasive that the language of property is used to describe and regulate the commons. In many cases, there is no vocabulary to describe and therefore the language of property is imported and deployed. Even those with legitimate constitutional backing term restoration of commons as encroachment or, in the case of MST Brazil, as ‘invasions.’ These should instead be seen and named as land restoration and liberation. Is is only then that the legitimacy of retrieving the commons for commonness is affirmed with the empowering knowledge of legitimacy. This is the required ‘vocabulary of commoning’ needed for the active process of returning the resources to the commons and the commons to the community of commoners (2011: 515). Cheri and Edwin use the term communing which challenge us to realize commons as a verb and it is in tune with what social theorist Laurent Thevenot calls “composition of commonality: which further challenge us to go beyond the “all-embracing liberal grammar and other grammars of commonality” (Thevenot 2012: 19). 298 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

M.P. Parameswaran is the founder of Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishada (KSSP) in Kerala, India. He is an inspiring example of a creative leader that Bussey would consider crucial for sustainable development (see Giri 1998). KSSP started its work in popularizing science and creating a people’s science movement in Kerala. It had struggled to save the Silent Valley in Kerala, a storehouse of biodiversity, which was to be destroyed by the building of a large dam in the area. KSSP had protested against this and Dr. M.S Swaminathan whose work we had discussed briefly was the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture of Government of India. From within the Government Dr. Swaminathan lent crucial support to the struggle of KSSP and as a result the Government decided not to build the big dam and the Silent Valley was saved. Recently KSSP has been focusing on sustainable development and organic agriculture. Parameswaran writes about it:

A decade and half ago, the KSSP carried out an experiment: a sangha swapna or collective dreaming exercise. About sixty leading activists of one panchayat- Madakkathara village panchayat in Thrissur district—sat together to articulate their hopes and aspirations about the nature of their panchyat 25 years thence. At the end of the dreaming conclave they came up with a written report on their development perspective. They shared this dream with about 2000 citizens, took inputs from them and finally prepared a 25-year perspective plan. This perspective plan envisaged the following [among others: here I am presenting only some aspects of the plan which pertain to sustainable development] 1. Full utilization of all cultivable land to yield maximum possible production in a sustainable manner. 2. Recycle all the locally generated organic waste 3. To procure all the biodegradable waste from the neighboring municipal corporation and convert it into organic manure to improve soil nutrients 4. To have complete and scientific management of water as part of the command area of Peechi irrigation system 5. To go for large scale precision agriculture and thereby increase the efficiency of utilization of organic fertilizers and waters 6. To develop integrated animal husbandry of milk and meat animals like cow and goat; waste to food converters like pigs, poultry and fish and thus become self-sufficient in milk, meat, eggs and fish to ensure food self-sufficiency JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 299

7. To ensure opportunities for economic activities (self as well as wage employment) for all those willing to work so that livelihood related long distance travel is reduced to a minimum and so also transportation of goods of consumption 8. To set up industries to manufacture as many items of daily use as possible within the panchayat, as well as to share with neighboring panchayats items requiring large-scale production 9. To boycott all transnational, corporate products, whereever a near equivalent ‘local’ product can be produced 10. To stop consuming goods which have only vanity values or destructive values [..] 14. To provide pedestrian walkways and cycle paths [..] 19. To reduce their [people’s] carbon footprint continuously to zero by embarking upon an ambitious programme for carbon sequestration (Parameswaran 2012: 93).

The above pathways towards sustainable development emerged out of a project of collective dreaming which reiterate the significance of new collective imagination. But this new imagination calls for transformation of existing systems of production, consumption, economy and polity. These proposals resonate with some of the earlier proposals towards sustainable life presented by Gandhi as well the noted Gandhian economist J.C. Kumarappa who had challenged us to create an economy of permanence (see Bandhu 2011). These proposals also resonate with contemporary articulations for transformations coming from many quarters. Nadia Johanisova and Stephan Wolf argue for instance for the co-operative organization of economy and economic democracy as crucial to realizing sustainable development” (Johanisova & Wolf 2012: 564). They also challenge us to realize the need to nurture diversity of scales and plurality of production modes (ibid). They also reiterate the significance of ecological tax reform: “Ecological tax reform (which entails higher taxation of material and energy capital consumption and lower taxation of work) could help internalize the environmental externalities of large corporations as well as consumer behavour” (2012: ). 300 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Planetary Realizations

Sustainable development calls for a new relationship with our Mother Earth, a new mode of living with our Mother Earth. It challenges us to realize as Thomas Berry had invited us to realize the dreams of our mother Earth (Berry 1990). For Berry, all our modern knowledge systems are deployed to exploit the resources of Mother Earth for our own narrow goals rather than for nurturing and taking care of our Mother Earth. Planetary realizations challenge us to transform such an exploitative relationship and embody a relationship of responsibility and care. This calls for a new way of life what Indian thinker Subash Sharma calls a New Earth Sastra (Sharma 2012). For Sharma, a new Earth Sastra brings to the world of economics to create “inclusive and sustainable development” (Sharma 2012: 10). It also challenges us to nurture our soil and soul in creative manner so that it creates sustainable flourishing in self and society. But our soil and soul also meet in a tired and wounded sole where feet with which we walk with our Mother Earth are wounded and poisoned by the forces of unsustainable development.7 So we would have to heal our wounded soles, restore our soil and souls as part of a new trigonometry of regeneration of sole, soil and soul for transforming acquiescent sustainable development to a manifold art and mode of sustainable flourishing of life, self and society.

The Calling of Evolutionary Flourishing:

With and Beyond Political Economy, Moral Economy, Moral Sociology and Spiritual Ecology Sustainable development, as already has been pointed out, can be locked in a logic of status quo. It can also be a prisoner of fear. In this context, we need to embrace with courage, care and kindness the challenges of evolutionary transformations. Our existing ways of living and institutions are not adequate to the challenges of the present and the future and we need to abandon some of these and cultivate and embrace new ways of thinking, being as well as institutional arrangements. Evolutionary flourishing challenges us to undertake such initiatives of risk and creativity where we interrogate and abandon existing non-sustainable

7 The Hindu carried a photograph under the title “Sole of the Nation” on 12 September 2012 depicting the water wounded feet of the people doing satyagraha by standing under water and protesting against the rise of the height of Narmada dam in Madhya Pradesh, India. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 301

modes of living and thinking and create new evolutionary ways of thinking and being which contributes to realization of our potential in a changing context. This calls for rethinking some of our fundamental ways of thinking about self, economy, politics, science and spirituality. In modern critical thinking, political economy as in the hands of Karl Marx had played an important role in critique of capitalism and for realizing our potential individually, collectively as well as in our species wide situation. Evolutionary flourishing calls for critique of capitalism and other existing modes of economic organization such as state socialism in creative and transformational ways and here it can build upon critical spirit of political economy. With rising inequality and devastation caused by rampant neo- liberal global capitalism, we need to bring a political economy critique to our contemporary condition. But here some of the frames and assumptions of political economy such as its inherent uncritical statism and state-centeredness need to be transformed. Though Marx had challenged us to realize the limits of state and move towards building a stateless society, political economy as a critique of economy and society is still too statist. This is evident in the work of Thomas Picketty (2014) who challenges us to realize the need for a perspective of political economy to understand and transform our contemporary condition of capitalism. But Picketty is still too statist in his analysis and prescription. He advocates global taxation as an important solution to our contemporary crises but does it need a global state? How do we realize this? Picketty does not even mention about movements of global taxation such as Attac (Association for Taxation of Financial Transactions and Citizen Actions) which were active in his homeland of France (Giri 2016). During my field work with Attac, I met many young people in different countries in Europe who shared with me their involvement in Attac as an aspect of their own personal care and commitment to global justice and responsibility. Realizing global justice is thus neither just statist nor it is just institutional. It calls for multi-dimensional movements of care. Evolutionary flourishing builds upon critical spirit of political economy but it tries to transform the statist assumptions, frames and binding of political economy which also permeates the discourse of welfare state and makes it part of multi-dimensional movements

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of border-crossing and transformations.8 It also builds upon related other modes of being, thinking and social framing—moral economy, moral sociology and spiritual ecology. Rethinking sustainable development and embracing evolutionary flourishing calls for visions and practices of moral economy with and beyond the critique and creativity of political economy. Moral economy calls for development of moral consciousness which includes ethics, aesthetics and responsibility. It challenges us to create economy as fields, circles and spirals of flourishing of life. Moral economy helps us develop us as moral selves while being in economy and political transactions. Moral economy has a long genealogy in multiple traditions and religions of the world and in recent years sociologist Andrew Sayer (2000) has been cultivating this as a creative and critical approach to self, economy and society. At the core of moral economy is the vision, practice and policy of care and responsibility. As Sayer (2000) tells us:

8 Rethinking state is suggested in the following poem by the author: State, Spirit and Commons: Co-Emptying and A Festival of Co-Realizations Ananta Kumar Giri State Political and economic Caste, class and gender Movements and self Transforming machineries of violence Ethical Critique and a New Aesthetics of Commons Collective Action and Collaborative Imagination Transforming State from Within and Across State and Spirit Dancing in an Open Way With Hegel, Kierkegaard, Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo Going Beyond the Divide Between History and Pre-History Towards a New Unfoldment of Potential State Becoming a Non-State A Non-State State As Self Becomes a No-Self Democracy as Political and Spiritual Toward a New Tapasya of Co-Emptying And evolution of consciousness A Festival of Co-Realizations [Dedicated to Professors Prabhat Patnaik, Gopal Guru and Anupama Roy of JNU as the poem emerged out of a seminar on “How to Study the Indian State” organized by Prof Roy on April 8 and in question-answer conversations with Professor Patnaik after his lecture which was sympathetically nurtured by Professor Guru who was on chair. Aravali Guest House, April 9, 2016, 8 AM] JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 303

For our society, the fundamental questions of moral economy might include the following: 1. Whose keeper are we? who is our keeper? - what are our responsibilities towards children, the elderly, the disabled and infirm? (e.g. childcare provision: should this be met by state support - i.e. from taxes? through more involvement by men? or is it entirely the parents’ responsibility?); 2. What standards of care and provision should we expect to receive, give and fund? i.e. what goods should be provided?; 3. How should we discharge our responsibilities to others?; through paying taxes to fund transfer payments?; through direct unpaid labour?; by paying others to do the work?; 4. How should these responsibilities be allocated between men and women, between parents and non-parents, between different age-groups, between people of different incomes and wealth?; 5. What rights and responsibilities should the employed have over their work and products? As David Ellerman has argued, even though capitalists own the means of production, there is no justification for workers to be denied ownership of what they produce, once deductions have been made for used up capital.63 Department of Sociology at Lancaster University 10 6. What responsibilities do we have to distant others and future generations, and to the environment? 7. What standard of living should people expect? should there be limits on pay and income from capital?; 8. To what extent should people be reliant on wages/salaries for their income? (how far should income be subject to the ‘stark utopia’ of the ‘self-adjusting’ market?64 9. Should jobs be rationed by limiting working hours so that everyone has a chance to have a job and overwork is reduced?; i.e. should jobs be regarded as a kind of property to which the Lockean principle of leaving ‘enough and as good’ for others applies?; 10. How should ownership of property in means of production be regulated? (in terms of rights and responsibilities) 11. What responsibilities do companies and other employers have to workers, suppliers, customers, shareholders, creditors and consumers, and the communities in which they locate? e.g. should firms be liable for social and environmental costs caused by redundancies and disinvestment? 12. What things should not be commodified? or treated as if they were commodities 13. To what extent is profit or unearned income acceptable?

Moral economy is linked to multi-dimensional movements of moral sociology which challenges us to create institutions of society as spaces of development of moral consciousness and awakening. Moral sociology has been at the heart of critical and creative sociology from the beginning—from Saint Simon to Marx and to Weber and Durkheim. In recent past, 304 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

sociologists and political theorists such as Robert Bellah, Roberto Unger, Jurgen Habermas, Andre Beteille, Veena Das and Manoranjan Mohanty have brought new depth and height to it. In their works we find moral sociology related to institutional constraints as well as the vision and challenges of new imaginations in self and society. Though sometimes moral sociology becomes a bit more institutional or constitutional as in the works of Andre Beteille (2008), but in others such as Bellah, Unger, Mohanty and Das it goes beyond the existing institutional logic and embraces far-reaching political and spiritual transformations. Political economy, moral economy and moral sociology need to embrace spiritual ecology as a related and indispensable movement as part of unfolding multi-valued logic and pathways of autonomy and interpenetration. Several contributors to this volume—especially Makarand Paranjape, Marcus Bussey, Jyoti Sahi, John Clammer and Sr. Salinee—have challenged us to realize the spiritual dimension of sustainable development and our response to climate change. We need to realize the spiritual dimension of ecology itself. M.S. Swaminathan whose work we discussed challenges us to realize both the practical and spiritual dimension of ecology. Spiritual ecology becomes part of practical spirituality in which we all can take part in our daily lives taking care of our self, society, nature and Mother Earth but also taking courageous steps of abandonment and new creation in a spirit of evolutionary flourishing. Evolutionary flourishing calls for coming together of science, technology and spirituality in new ways as has been suggested in many chapters in this volume. It also needs to build upon a new poetics of self and society as suggested in Jyoti Sahi’s insightful elaboration of paths of St. Francis of Assisi and Kabir in his essay in this volume. To counter the challenges of our global crises and prisons of status-quoist sustainable development, we need a new poetics of thriving which is part of a broader politics and spirituality as well.

Towards a New Poetics, Politics and Spirituality of Thriving

Sustainable development needs a new imagination of self and society along with many other familiar efforts and movements. Continuing the journey of critique, creativity and transformations, I wish to share some poems which can help us to re-imagine sustainable development and challenge to go beyond the status-quo. I do not so much elaborate the meaning and implications of these poems rather offer these poems as invitations for explorations, self-critique and transformation of consciousness. These poems point to the challenge of thriving as part of an integral transformative movement of politics, poetics and spirituality. We can begin with this poem about Dark Hope which was written after my participation JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 305

in an important international conference on “The Anthropocene” held at House of World Cultures, Berlin in January 2013.

Dark Hope You say there is no hope What is hope? What is its color? Is it only white? Red, purple or blue? Is it also not black? Is it also not dark? Is there hope in darkness? Does hope fall from the sky? Do we have to keep our mouth Ready to suck the nipples of hope Or do we have to pray and work Love and meditate With light and darkness Relationship is the soil of Hope Soil and Soul dancing together Kissing each other With hope towards hope

Sustainable development calls a for a new time realization and here we can embrace the following poem on Deep Time which was also written after my participation in the above conference in Berlin

Deep Time I am Time Deep Time Shallow Time Geological Time Historical Time Biographical Time 306 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

You talk about me You find deep time in a rock Shallow time in a plastic You want to go deeper How can you touch me? How do you realize me? Make bridge Between Time in Life and History And the Deep Time?

Sustainable development needs a new art of renunciation and the following poem can be our companion here which was also written with the Berlin Conference

Sacrifice

1 You said Sacrifice is the foundation of life But is not sacrifice Linked to violence? Sacrificial lamb and sacrificial Christ? Christ the yogi of Love Becomes a Justification for Sacrificing Millions In the name of sacrifice We sacrifice women, children and Each other Religion of love Becomes a religion of sacrifice

2 Sacrifice! Gift of virgins Exchange of women Is this sacrifice Or renunciation? JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 307

Renunciation is different A path of love and communication Let the violence of sacrifice Be transformed with the sadhana of Practical renunciation A new art of co-responsibility Exchange of gifts Exchange of selves An economy of Gift A politics of renunciation A spirituality of transformation

Sustainable development calls for a new mode of mothering communication and the following poem which was also written in Berlin can help us in giving birth to such a consciousness.

Island Perspectives What would you bring to the island To island perspectives One brought a cat Another a rock Yet another a feather Oh traveler Courageous painter of questions What would you Bring to the island?

2 To island perspectives I would bring a boat An island is not just an island An island is also a relation A field of communication In the ocean to move in between and across 308 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The boat is our companion It is not just a medium Nor just a passage The boat is our mother

3 To the island perspectives I would also bring my mother The mother within The mother without The other as mother The boat as mother The ocean as mother The world as mother The cosmos as mother Our islands becoming Motherly passages of communication Island perspectives Impregnating intersubjectivity and transsubjectivity Dancing together in a new yoga of transformation

Sustainable development wants each one of us to play a prophetic role and the following poem can help us in doing this as well as rethinking the prophetic mode itself which I had written after visiting the famous Monastery at Montesserat near Barcelona in Spain in January 2013

Prophet Let prophet Come to a mountain Mountain to the prophet You are not so much a prophet You are a mountain The mountain in deep meditation Leaping to kiss the blue clouds Is there a sea in the mountain? Mountain in the sea? JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 309

A prophet is a river In between the mountain and the sea A prophet is a river of patience Co-walking and co-diving with Mountain, people and sea Towards a new dawn of life (Montesserat, Barcelona, Jan 17, 2013)

Sustainable development calls for a new realization of our relationship with fundamental elements of life such as air and water. The following poem which I had written in Brittany, France on the New Year’s Eve, January 2013 can be a friend here: Oh Wind! Oh Maruta! Oh Vayu! Whirlwind me From my bondage Carry me to the sky Bring me to the earth Help me to Build a sacred garden In Between A Mundo Imagial A garden of Life A School of Cosmos Where Stars Become Our Co-Laborers In a new art of creation Where Cross is a Circle Of Meditation and Confrontation Cross is a Tree of Life Buddha and Linga Meditate with the tree Vertical men, vertical women, vertical children Vertical meditation, horizontal impregnation Dancing with a new horizontality A New Horizon 310 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

A New Door A New Window Leading our Mind and Heart Body and Soul To our white chambers Of soul and world realization Many rainbows of animation Megalithic stones become a new algae Of cultural regeneration A New air of Earth Realization New Paths of Soul Energization

[For the 62nd birthday of Serge, a great seeker of humanity and a gift of Heaven and Mother Earth on his sacred birth day, Jan. 1, 2013]

In the above spirit, we also need to radically reimagine our location, life and death and in the following pome we are invited to dance with Krishna in Sahara while digging the well-springs of nothingness:

Dancing with Krishna in Sahara Dancing with Krishna In Brindavan and Dwaraka Have you danced with Krishna in the desert Have you brought him to Sahara Not only digging a well together But a grave Where Nothingness Becomes our ocean Of a New Co-creation (By the sea in Puducherry, June 28, 2014, 12 noon)

Sustainable development calls for reconstituting our hunger, anger, being and becoming and the following two poems invite us these directions JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 311

I am hungry What are you hungry for? I am angry What are you angry with? You are a Bhikhu You are humble I am aggressive I want to be a Bhikhu A new hunger A new anger A new humility A new enlightenment of life

(On the train from Howrah to Digha, March 29, 2013, 3 PM)

Being and Regeneration Being Being Being Being Becoming Being walking Walking Being Being Meditating Meditative Becoming Being with Life Not only Being unto Death Being with Death Being with Death and Life Becoming with Life and Death Being and Becoming With Body and Spirit When Body is Broken Sadhana for regeneration A new tantra of reconstitution When Spirit fails to appear Being and Becoming Being and co-Beings 312 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Walking and Working Together Bottom up For a new Spiritual dynamics A New pragmatics of Self, Cultural and Spiritual Regeneration

(Guest House, Pondicherry University, Jan 31, 2014)

We can provisionally conclude this poetic journey of reimagining and transformative practice with the following poem about revolution, grace and transformation which was written during my participation in the 60th birth celebrations of Mata Amritanandamayee Devi in Kerala in September 2013:

Revolution: Greed, Grace and Transformation Revolution Revolving around Greed or Grace? Mad for economic and technological revolution Where is revolution of heart Turning of consciousness Can there be revolution Without a movement Mass and energy Body and spirit Soul and society For a new revolution of Grace and Gravity Compassion and Confrontation Ecology of Hope Moving together step by step Towards a new science and spirituality of Responsibilization and Transformation

(Written at Mata Amridananda Math, Vallikavu on the occasion of Amitavarsham 60, Sept 26, 2013 930 AM). JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 313

References

Bandhu, Pranjali. 2011 (ed.) Back to the Basics: A J.C. Kumarappa Reader. Udhgamandalam: Odyssey. Berry, Thomas. 1990. The Dream of the Earth. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Beteille, Andre. 2008. “Constitutional Morality.” Economic and Political Weekly. Bussey, Marcus. 2008. “Embodied Education: Reflections on Sustainable Education,” The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability. Bussey, Marcus et al. 2012. “Framing Adaptive Capacity Through a History-Future Lens: Lessons from the South East Queensland Climate Adaptation Research Initiative.” Futures 44: 385-397. Cheri, Anita & Hrangthan Chungi. 2011. “The Sacred Commons: The Use, Misuse and Abuse of Religion and Spirituality,” pp. 475-490. In Foundation of Ecological Security 2011. Cheri, Anita & Edwin. 2011. “Challenges of Modernity.” In Foundation of Ecological Security 2011: 515-583. Foundation of Ecological Security. 2011. Vocabularies of Commons. Anand: Foundation for Ecological Security. Jones, Paula. 2010. (ed.) Sustainability Education: Perspectives and Practices Across Higher Education. London: Earth Scan. Johanisova, Nadia & Stephen Wolf. 2012. “Economic Democracy: A Path for the Future?” Futures 44 (6). Giddens, Anthony. 2009. The Politics of Climate Change. Cambridge: Polity Press. Giri, Ananta Kumar. 1998. “The Portrait of a Discursive Formation: Science as Social Activism in Contemporary India.” In idem, Global Transformations: Postmodernity and Beyond. Jaipur: Rawat Publications. . 2006 “Creative Social Research: Rethinking Theories and Methods and the Calling of an Ontological Epistemology of Participation.” Dialectical Anthropology . 2011 “Practical Spirituality and Human Development.” Special issue. IBA Journal of Management, Bangalore . 2012 “Beyond Adaptation and Meditative Verbs of Co-Realizations.” In idem, Sociology and Beyond: Windows and Horizons. Jaipur: Rawat Publications. 314 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

. 2014. “Integral Development: Spiritual Pragmatics, A New Meaning of Life and Challenges of Self and Social Transformations Illich, Ivan. 1973. Tools for Conviviality. New York: Fontana / Collins. Ikeda, Daisaku & M.S. Swaminathan. 2005. Revolutions: To Green the Environment, To Grow the Human Heart. Chennai: East-West Books. Martinez-Allier, Joan. 2010. “Sustainable De-growth.” Ecological Economics Novacek, Pavel. 2011. Sustainable Development. Olomouc: Palacky University of Olomouc Press. Meadows, D.H. 1972. Limits to Growth. London: Signet. Parameswaran, M.P. 2012. “Musings of a People’s Science Activist.” Seminar 637: 88-93. Picketty, Thomas. 2014. Capital in 21st Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard U. Press. Quarles van Ufford, Philip & Ananta Kumar Giri (eds.). 2003. A Moral Critique of Development: In Search of Global Responsibilities. London: Routledge. Reid, Herbert & Betsy Taylor. 2010. Recovering the Commons: Democracy, Place and Global Justice. Urbana, Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Sayer, Andrew. 2000. “Moral Economy and Political Economy.” Studies in Political Economy 61: 79-104. Sharma, Subhash. 2012. New Earth Sastra: Towards Holistic Development and Management (HDM). Bangalore: IBA Publications. Sivaraksha, Sulak. 2009. The Wisdom of Sustainability: Buddhist Economics for the 21st Century. Bangkok: Silkworm Books. Swaminathan, M.S. 2011. In Search of Biohappiness: Biodiversity, Food, Health and Livelihood Security. Singapore: World Scientific. Swaminathan, M.S. 2011. “Sarvodaya or Sarvanasha.” Ahimsa Nonviolence VII (4): 221- 223. Swaminathan, M.S. 2012. “To the Hungry, God is Bread.” Tapasya Summer. Swaminathan, M.S. & P.C. Kesavan. 2012. “Agricultural Research in an Era of Climate Change.” Agric Res (January-March 2012) 1 (1): 3-11. Thevenot, Laurent. 2012. “Bounded Justifiability: Making Commonality on the Basis of Binding Engagement.” Manuscript. Varrier, Fourier. 2008. “Escaping from the Economy: The Politics of ‘Degrowth.” International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 28. Yusoff, Kathryn & Jennifer Gabrys. 2011. “Climate Change and the Imagination.” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Climate Change 2 (4): 516-534. Brahmavihāra in Practical Life

Mokesh Barua BA Buddhist Studies Student, International Buddhist College Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The four divine abodes (Brahmavihāra) are a very ancient set of meditations going back to perhaps even before the Buddha’s time. According to ancient Indian pantheon, Brahmā means the supreme God, like the same Brahmā from whose mouth, the Brahmins claimed, they are originated and at death, the liberated person goes up to join Brahmā in heaven. The Buddha successfully adopted and adapted these four divine abodes as a skillful means. The Buddha’s method is that of internalizing the godly qualities of Brahmā so that it becomes effectively a non- theist personal experience. This study will investigate how the regular practice of this meditation will help to alleviate depression, anxiety etc. and other states that greatly disturb the mind. Additionally, it will investigate skillful ways to counter negative personality. Also At the core it will focus on the method of mediation practice, signifi cance, the culmination and how it counteracts unwholesome activities (akusalakamma), ill-will (byāpāda), violence (vihimsā) and sensual desire (kāmarāga)

Keywords: Brahmavihāra, Brahminical View, Buddhist View, Mediation Practice, Signifi cance and the Culmination. 316 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

The teaching of the Buddha on the four Brahmavihāra is wide in scope and great in depth. According to Samyutta-nikāya the contemporaries of the Buddha were also familiar with the practice of the brahmavihāras. However, Buddha continued to practice the brahamavihāra throughout his years of teaching. It encompasses four divine abodes every four abodes offers a unique lens through which we can examine our behaviors and our world. It is a kind of Samathā practice which is a concentration that tranquilizes the opposite mental states like Kāmacchanda, etc. and removes evil emotions and stress, depression. According to early Buddhist thought, Brahmavihāra offers a substantial contribution for the path to the final goal. It is an independent path to liberation and those who practice this brahmavihāras similar to Brahma in all these respect.

The Meaning of Brahmavihāra

Brahmavihāra comes from two words: Brahma, which means divine heavenly beings. According to the ancient Indian pantheon Brahma means supreme God, perfect (sṭṭha) who regards himself as the creator of the universe. And the word “” which means dwelling place. Thus, Brahmavihāra conveys the meaning of––Noble Living. There are the four kinds of Brahmavihāra Loving-Kindness (mettā), Compassion (karunā), Sympathetic-joy (muditā), and Equanimity (upekkhā). The BrahmavihāraDhamma also called as “BrahmacāraDhamma” (Mahāgovindāsutta). However, Brahmacariya means living a holy life, which is refers to practice of the four divine abodes in our daily life, both as meditations and personal actions.

The Conceptual adaptation of Brahmā in Buddhism

The actual concept of the brahmavihāra probably has its origins somewhere in pre- Buddhist India. It was first present in Vedas and developed through the Brahmānas, Āranyakas and it has culminated in the . The 6th century B.C is considered as a great revolution of Indian religion because, in that period, Indian religious and philosophical got an abrupt change and emerged hundreds of ascetic sects and new religious traditions. The Buddha was one of the most important saints of that time. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 317

He criticized the two distinct groups of religious thinkers which were exited during that time. One of group belief that salvation had to be attained through yajnas and sacrifices (yajnasmarga) and other group belief that salvation had to be attained through the path of wisdom (-marga). The Buddha rejected both groups view on salvation and presented a noble philosophy of salvation. The Buddha’s teaching is different from Vedic and Brahmanas teaching. It becomes quite clear when one examines the Tripitaka. Although there is a big difference between Buddha’s teaching and Brahmanas teaching, the Buddha himself had to adapt and use concepts and terms in order to put across his own teachings. The Buddha adopted the concept of Brahma with the prefix among the pre-Buddhist concepts. According to Vedic and Brahmin religion, Brahma is the absolute God, occupies the highest place as the creator and enjoyer of all creation. The doctrine of paticasamuppada is the central doctrine of Buddhism. According to the paṭiccasamuppāda Brahma cannot be uncaused and cannot be eternal as well. The theory of causality shows that everything except Nibbana is the consequence of dependent origination (paticasamuppāda). This principle complements its teachings of anicca (impermanent) and anatta (non-soul). The Buddha did not deny the existence of Brahma. In the many sutras, Buddha mentioned that the Maha Brahma is referred to the lord of the Brahma-lokas. And also refers to many examples when Brahma came to meet the Buddha. The divine abodes are one of the best examples which show the Buddha adopted Brahmavihara concept from the pre-Buddhist Brahma concept. The Makhā deva sutta (M83) has mentioned that the ancient king of Mithila, Makhā, deva cultivates the divine abodes and is reborn in the Brahma world.1 In the MahāGovindasutta also is found the ancient cultivation of the divine abodes. The prominent Buddhist monk Buddhaghosa, in fact, says that–at the time (that is, up to the Buddha’s time), the overcoming of the hindrances and the divine abodes were unknown to the non-Buddhist. However, pre-Buddhist cultivation of the abodes can only bring one re- birth in the Brahma-world, but not spiritual liberation.

1 The firs t elected king in : Aggañña S (D 27.21/3:93), SD 2.19. http://dhar- mafarer.org. Accessed on 20/01/2018. 318 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Contemplation on the four sublime states

The meditative cultivation of the brahmavihāras leads to cetovimutti, the experience of a “liberation of the mind”. The four sublime states are amongst the most popular of samatha practice. The formal meditation techniques we use today were developed in the early 5th Century by the monk Ven. Buddhaghosa and laid out in Chapter 4 of the commentary text Vissudhimagga (The Path of Purification). The technique for each flavor of the Brahma developed by Ven. Buddhaghosa involves the use of successive phrases, or intentions. These intentional phrases are used as a tool to settle and concentrate the mind.

Contemplation on Loving-kindness (mettā)

Meditation on loving-kindness is called mettā-bhāvana. It just means developing thoughts of loving-kindness towards others.2 Contemplation on loving-kindness is endowed with immense respect throughout Buddhist countries. In the famous text of Mettāsutta the Blessed one taught: What should be done by one who’s skilled in wholesomeness to gain the state of peacefulness is this: He must be able, upright, straight, and not proud, easy to speak to, mild and well content. Easily satisfied and not caught up in too much bustle, and frugal in one’s ways, with senses calmed, intelligent, not bold, not being covetous when with other folk. Not even doing little things that otherwise ones blame and this thought that one should always hold: may beings all live happily and safe and may their hearts rejoice within themselves. In this text Buddha taught: 1. Cultivates virtues through the training of Morality. 2. Cultivates compassion by first making their hearts rejoice within themselves. 3. Generates boundless love to all beings like a mother who risks her life to loves and protects her only child. 4. Extending mettā to all beings in all directions free from hate and enmity. Pervading first one direction, then a second one, then a third one then the fourth one, as below so above, across and all around, full of friendly loving-kindness, with a mind wide, developed, unbounded, cleared, exalted, pure and bright, free from hate and ill will. 5. Practice this mindfulness all the time.

2 On the meaning and scope of mettā, see Spiritual friendship, SD 34.1 (2.5), http://dharmafarer. org. Accessed on 20/01/2018. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 319

Contemplation on Compassion (karunā)

Contemplation on compassion is called Karuṇā-bhāvanā. Generating compassion is the most effective way to put our meditation into action. By using contemplation meditation, we can turn the thought of compassion into a reality. We contemplate the attitude of compassion; the first subject should someone unfortunate or having some difficulty. In this connection, the Vibhaṇga says: And how does a monk dwell pervading one direct with his heart filled with compassion? Just as he would feel compassion on seeing a person who is miserable of bad ways, so he pervades all beings with compassion. The other subject is compassion for a loved one, compassion for those who have hurt us as well as all non-human, such as animal. One time someone asked the great teacher , ––Isn’t compassion meditation a little difficult? He answered, ––The small amount of difficulty has such astronomical benefit that it is worth its weight in gold. –– In shifting our attitude with the thought ––May others not suffer. We are developing awareness of our own actions and our own suffering, as well as the suffering of other beings.

Contemplation on sympathetic Joy (Muditā)

Sympathetic joy is a sublime nobility of heart and intellect which knows understands and is ready to help. The appreciative joy or sympathetic Joy (muditā) is like a mother’s happiness at her child’s accomplishments. It is exactly rejoicing in the success and happiness of others, especially when they deserve it. Contemplate on sympathetic joy is called Muditā- bhāvanā. Muditā-bhāvanā is referring to contemplate on to feel joy at the success and good fortune of others.

Contemplation on Equanimity (upekkhā)

Upekkhā is equanimity – a serene balanced and calm mind that is rooted in wisdom and insight. It describes a complete openness to experience, without being lost in reactions of love and hate. Contemplation on equanimity is called Upekkhā-bhāvanā. Upekkhā –bhāvanā plays a role in breaking the mental cycle known as dependent origination. This is an approach of wisdom. We see how things arise due to cause, how the effect has been determined by the cause, and we get the ability to accept things as they are in the here and now. Equanimity is like a liberated mind but not liberate. It is a conditioned state. The Buddha said equanimity as the conditioned state that most resembles the liberated mind. 320 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Applying Brahmavihāras in the Daily life

The words of the Buddha on the Brahmavihāras point to a possibility of an engaging practice in daily life. The Brahmavihāras can grow and cultivate them in our ordinary life outside of meditation. We can practice loving-kindness or mettā in our daily life by silently saying this phrase: May all beings abide in well-being, in freedom from hostility, in freedom from ill-will, in freedom from anxiety, and may they maintain well-being in themselves3. When we say the phrases to ourselves over and over we can imagine what that particular condition would feel like to ourselves or to the person to whom we send the wish. However, the best way to cultivate metta for someone with whom we vehemently disagree is to recognize that all beings, including that person, want to be happy. Compassion is to recognize the suffering of others, then take action to help them. Compassion in daily life involves welfare work—Volunteering in the spastic children’s institution, volunteering in the old age home, kindness to animals, transfer merits to unhappy spirits (peta), helping to the Sasana (dispensation) work which involves spiritual education and helps to remove daily sufferings and worldly suffering. It would be must applicable in hospital and welfare services, where there are suffering beings. We can practice contemplation in our daily life by reciting silently: ––May all beings be free from all suffering. Muditā is a profound rewarding practice and yet also regarded as the most challenging of the Brahmavihāras. The practice of joy for another is often easy to cultivate Buddhaghosa says that, –– If a dear person is unhappy, one can still practice this by remembering his or her past gladness and anticipating his or her future happiness4. We can practice sympathetic joy in daily life to see others success and happiness. Sympathetic joy has much to do with gratefulness, humility, wholesomeness and loyalty. It gives us good emotional attitude towards those who are doing well or be better than us. In Buddhist tradition the brief reflective contemplation on mudità is chanted as follows: May all beings not be parted from the good fortune they have attained. The final and fourth Brahmavihāraupekkhā culminates from the encompassing practice of mettā, karunā, Muditā and upekkhā and is hence usually regarded as the pinnacle of the four Brahmavihāras. It may be seen as the balancing factor that keeps us stable in the opening of the heart.

3 Saleyyaka-Sutta; M i 288 , Pts ii 130 (Mettakatha), https://www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/Refer- ence/Sutta- PTS.htm, Accessed on 20/01/2018. 4 Vism IX 86. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 321

Equanimity requires us to develop a balanced mind, to become non-reactive, to see external reality as transient. And it teaches us to put ourselves in the other person’s shoes and to treat one another impartially. However, we can practice Brahmavihāra in our daily life even as we drive, as we enter a store etc. The MettāSutta also encourages the practitioner to engage in the practice during all activities.Sitting or walking seated or lying down one should sustain this recollection, this is said to be the sublime abiding5.

Benefits of practicing the four divine abodes

The benefit of the practicing Brahmavihāra, may be the Buddha, explaining to Rahula, his 18 years old son, –– Rahula, develop the meditation of loving kindness (mettà); if you develop the meditation of loving kindness, all malevolence will be overcome. Rahula, develop the meditation of compassion (karunà); if you develop the meditation of compassion, all aggressiveness will be overcome. Rahula, develop the meditation of joy (mudità); if you develop the meditation of joy, all discontentment (arati) will be overcome. Rahula, developed the meditation of equanimity (upekkhà); if you develop the meditation of equanimity, all reluctance will be overcome6. However, there are many advantages from practicing mettā that are referred to in the scriptures. The (Aṭṭha) MettānisaṁsaSuttalists 8 benefits and the (Ekā,dasa) MettānisaṁsaSutta (A 11.16), on the other hand, gives the following list of 11 benefits for one who cultivates lovingkindness, thus: 1. One sleeps happily. 2. One wakes happily. 3. One sees no bad dreams. 4. One is dear to humans. 5. One is dear to non-humans. 6. One is protected by devas. 7. Fire, poison and weapons cannot harm one. 8. One’s mind easily concentrates.

5 “Karaniya : The Buddha’s Words on Loving-kindness” (Khp 9), translated from the Pali by The Amaravati Sangha. (BCBS Edition), 2 November 2013, http://www.access- toinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/khp/khp.9.amar.htm.l. Accessed on 15/01/2018 6 “Maha-Rahulovada Sutta: The Greater Exhortation to Rahula” (MN 62), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight. org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html. Accessed on 15/01/2018 322 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

9. One’s countenance is serene. 10. One dies unconfused and 11. If he penetrates no higher, he goes to the Brahma world.

With a practice of strengthening mettā in our lives we are able to directly transform an emotional landscape of negative emotions into one of positive emotions that contribute to greater life satisfaction. It is also used as an antidote to fear, anxiety, ill-will and worry. In fact, the Buddha originally taught the forest monks the practice of loving-kindness to help them overcome fear of spending the night in the forest. Compassion is the desire to relieve others stress, and should be devoid of any attachment. Stress cannot be generated out of compassion, with compassion you help others, but you do not expect anything in return. Even if the one you have helped harms you, you cannot generate anger when true compassion is present. Compassion in its nature always keeps the mind calm and generates inner happiness. The early and later texts unanimously see in the practice of karunā the direct antidote to anger, annoyance and the notion of an alienated and isolated self (D iii 248)7. Discontent and displeasure is the negative emotions which are extremely hampered to lead our daily life. With practice of muditā in our daily life, we can remove all discontent and displeasure. This quality arise in the mind when the ignorance regarding or ego wanes. However, on the other hand, the benefits of practicing upekkhā are as usual in all Brahmavihāra. It’s directly removed greed, aversion and anxiety. In actually it is a very nice state- peaceful, subtle and so on. In the Anguttara Nikāya, we find advice on how upekkhā helps us to deal with annoying and difficult people in our daily life8. Equanimity also allows us to abide beyond our preferences when we dwell beyond our preferences, which helps to get experience the selflessness, detachment.

Conclusion

As we can see, the four wholesome emotions are different attitudes towards beings, and although each is different with its own unique characteristics, they are also very good attitudes and strike blameless, favorable or balanced relationships with others. I think they can bring much peace and happiness in the troubled world we live in, which are distracted by ignorance, pride, jealousy, stinginess, suspicions, greed, anger and so on.

7 SangītiSutta, (D 31) 8 A. III 186 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 323

To remove the confl ict, trouble, ill-will in the world I think the Four Divine abiding are the immediate answer to ease such confl icts and trouble. In the Abhidhamma has mentioned that, the BrahmavihāraDhamma as illimitable (appamaññā). It should be practiced with unlimited friendliness towards all living beings and as virtues are states of mind that can be affi rmed, strengthened and applied in our daily life.

References

Thera Nyanaponika, The Four Sublime States. Wheel Series 6, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1993). Vetter, Tilmann, The ideas and meditative practices of early Buddhism. Leiden: E J Brill, 1988. Asian Literature and Translation of heart: the Buddhist brahma-vihāra formula,” journal of Indian Philosophy 7 1979:209-221. Piya Tan, Brahma,vihāra: The divine abodes Theme: The practical cultivation of divinity in man, 2007, 2011. Buddhism and the Brahma Concept, Buddha Sasana retrieved on 15/01/2018. for social welfare: worgking with the disabled youth in Srilanka and East Europe1

Dr. Leena Seneheweera (Senior Lecturer), Department of Fine Arts, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The current study investigates that the engagement of Buddhism for social welfare by working experience with disabled youth in Sri Lanka and Croatia from the East Europe. Disabled people are the vulnerable group in the society and they need social welfare services. Therefore the study has selected this group from a different social context. The UN conventions have created the recommendations of social welfare services for the disabilities as human rights and social justice within the legal framework. But the argument of the study is that from the perspective of Buddhist meditation, and Buddhist songs has been engaged for healing the disabled youth’s mind and inclusion to the typical society as a social welfare services. The study is engaged by my own services as well as working experiences with Autistic, Down’ syndrome, mental retardation youths form Sri Lankan and Croatian groups. It is proceeded the qualitative research method. On the basis of this approach the study has selected some youth from the special schools, residential disabled centers and homes in the city of Kandy, Sri Lanka and the city in Zagreb, Croatia. The research was conducted within six months in Croatia and six months in Sri Lanka of a year through meditation workshops, education seminars, speeches and Practical programs of Buddhist songs. The results proved that the engagement of Buddhism could be practiced to heal the mind, remove the negative feelings and inclusion of disabilities into the society in different cultural contexts through Buddhist social welfare activities.

Keywords: social welfare, Buddhist meditation and songs, disabled youth, healing and inclusion

1 Dr. Leena Seneheweera (Senior Lecturer), Department of Fine Arts, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected] JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 325

Problem

The research problem of this study is how do engage Buddhist meditation and Buddhist song to be conceived as social welfare for disabled youth in the Western and Eastern world?

Introduction

According to the New Encyclopedia Britanica Vol.10, 2005, there are three basic concepts of social welfare such as poverty, disability and decease. Those three concepts are represented vulnerable community in the society and they need social welfare services to build up their everyday life. Further reference of Britanica states that the religion and philosophy mediate to conduct social welfare for the human being. Some societies in the West and East define that the classification of the concept of ‘social services’ and the ‘social welfare’. In accordance with the definition of those concepts, the ‘social services’ direct to general community and the ‘social welfare’ direct to the vulnerable groups like disabled community (the New Encyclopedia Britanica Vol.10, 2005). In addition both concepts show the common requirements or needs inventory from the abled people by disabilities in the society. Such as acceptance, appreciation, cooperation, inclusion, nurturing and safety etc. as connection between oneself and others. The safety, shelter, food and air etc. as physical well -being; communion, equality, and harmony etc. as peace. In addition participation, self-expression, stimulation understanding, creativity, hope, growth, etc. as meaning; and freedom, independence, spontaneity and choice etc. as autonomy. Those needs inventories are the starting point to support to disabilities as Buddhist welfare worker and a facilitator. In the current Western and Eastern world has been paid the attention of the rules of welfare with disabilities under the human right foundation to prove the freedom and social justice in accordance with legal framework. The UNESCO conventions and recommendations (sammuti) of the social welfare for disabilities have accepted as partner states both Sri Lanka and Croatia2. Among of them, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities -

2 Some conventions which are mention about the disabled person and their rights; Universal Dec- laration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948), Convention Against Discrimination in Education (CADE, 1960), Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989), World Declaration on Education for All (WDEFA, 1990). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (SSFASNE.1994), Dakar Framework for Action (DFA, 2000), Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD, 2006). 326 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

2006 has mentioned significance welfare services such as the rights of disabilities for their equality and non discrimination, awareness- raising, education as well as health care services, habilitation and rehabilitation. Article 19 (b) claims living independently and being included in the community as equal basis of other abled community. The purpose of this convention is to inclusion-disabled people on equal basis to the typical society. It is indeed remarkable that some individuals with psychosomatic disorders around the world have distinguished themselves nationally and internationally in the field of welfare services. Unfortunately, however, the physical and mental well-being of most individuals with disabilities is at a low level due to their impairments. Because of them such individuals are more likely to be backward, lethargic, and lack initiative, courage, motivation, self-confidence and self-esteem that are essential to carry out day-to-day activities and, in the long run, to live productive, healthy and contented lives. However when we consider of the conventions, it functions as system building process. But the Buddhist social welfare is not functioned in this manner and the study follows the Buddhist welfare system without legal framework or sammuti for rehabilitation of differently abled youth and to evoke their pleasure. For the study, I will select two cases from Croatia and Sri Lanka.

Case Study of The Croatian Experience Through Buddhist Meditation for Physical Disabilities

Croatia is an East European country and the most of people are Catholic followers. According to their administration system, education and welfare service is compulsory for the youth. Also, the Constitution of Republic of Croatia, 1990 No: 63 confirms that the rights of grant for support and school for their children those who are physically and mentally disabled. Also, these children have rights to special care, education and welfare. According to all legal framework and policies for education and other welfare services are opened and equal for disabilities from pre school education to their higher education with safety, collaborative support team and professional teaching staff etc. for developing inclusion of people with disabilities in Croatia. Furthermore, for developing their welfare system they are conducting some programs through Catholic charity services, Croatian Government’s Commission for Persons with Disabilities, and the Ministry of Family, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Youth. And there are resource centers like Vinko Bek’ for blind and low vision children located in Zagreb, and Non Government Organizations support to inclusion of disabled youth and adult in Croatia. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 327

Also Croatia implements Volunteers’ Centers under the rules of Volunteering Act, 2007 for pupils age 7-11. It is conducting from the faculties of the University of Zagreb. (EduQuality Project Hand Books, 2010). The faculty of education and rehabilitation sciences in the University of Zagreb has been trained the local and international students in education as well as welfare programs. I participated for the training program under the department of Inclusive education and rehabilitation as a visiting professor. During the six months, I collected date and worked through Buddhist welfare activities; as therapist, counselor and educator as well. I conducted the Buddhist meditation and programs as a welfare worker, counselor and therapist through practically using Buddhist meditation and Buddhist musical activities to release their negative feelings. All programs were conducted with inclusion between physical disabilities and typical youth together at the faculty. In the first week of the faculty, I presented a paper on the titled ‘Buddhist welfare work for disability in Sri Lanka’ and I mentioned about the religious value of the five percepts; no killing, no stealing, no sexual misconduct, no lying, no intoxicants of our daily life as the preliminary strategy for understanding Buddhist morals through my presentation. Since then the disabled and typical students came to me and they needed to practice it, and once a week we were meeting and discussed about the healing and the spiritual effect of the preservation of five precepts while they were practicing breathing meditation exercise. They built a relationship (kalyana) and a good companion (mitta) with me and each of them as well. It was my basic strategy for building the Buddhist meditation program for disabled youth who came from Catholic background. After three months I organized a practical meditation program for an hour under the title of “Mindfulness through Buddhist Meditation” on 27th January 2017. There were forty students including four physical disabilities and I selected Breathing meditation (Anapanasati Bhawana) for them. For inclusion to the society of disabled youth, they should be relaxed in physically and mentally. Thus, I always followed the breathing meditation techniques for them. Emphasizing the significance of breathing meditation is mindful breath in and mindful breath out. The long or short breath in and out exercise important to concentrate their mind. According to my experience the breathing meditation could easily be realized or follow for beginners than other meditation method (such as mithri, Buddhanusmritti etc.) This is, because practitioners concentrate their mind through his or her breath. I confirmed in this reality from the students’ feedback. After the end of the program students gave satisfied 328 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

feedback particularly disabled students. One of students said that she understood her self- esteem (atma mana) and self-love (atma-sneha) because she felt the vibration of her heart and relaxation of her body. Some students (both typical and disability) thought to stop their smoking and alcoholic habit and they verify the life according to their experience, and relaxation and they could inclusion to the society with warm and kind –heartedness people.

Case Study of The Sri Lankan Experience with Buddhist Songs for Autistic and Down’ Syndrom Youth

Sri Lanka is a South Asian Buddhist country and the social inclusion is main context in Sri Lanka including physically and mentally disabilities. However, Sri Lanka is signatory to the Declaration of Human Rights in- 1948, the UN Convention of Rights of Child in1989 and other conventions as well as to protect all children’s rights of education, health and welfare. Considering for those authorized documents, Sri Lankan government affirmed the concept of ‘welfare’ as the human right for all nations. According to the ‘National Policy on Disability For Sri Lanka’ -2003 the policy makers recognized some barriers for CWD including education, social and cultural sections. They consider to minimize the barriers of different kinds of disabilities such as visual, speech, hearing, mobility, intellectual, and psychiatric and multiple disorders. Also, some national policies of Ministry of Social Welfare, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health and Departments, NGOs and international consultative settings mechanize for inclusion with disabled youth and adults in Sri Lanka. Parents always support voluntarily for their child’s welfare. However, the rights of welfare, education and other facilities for disabilities with equity and equality, are established in international and national conventions and acts, policies, legislations etc. Those regulations and statements are mechanized in the most of European countries and Sri Lanka as well. But the disabled people show that they are unable to incorporate some basic skills into their daily lives in Sri Lankan context. (UNICEF, 2003 & Guidance Note ADFID practice paper 2010). Therefore it should be introduced Buddhist welfare services among the schools, universities, and other social layers. In a country like Sri Lanka with many socio-cultural and religious beliefs and practices, disability is a more complicated issue than in the Western world. General community in the Buddhist followers in Sri Lanka, the disability is coming to the person in accordance with his or her action (kamma) such as good (kusala) or bad (akusala) which was he or she had done good or bad merit in the last birth. It is the barrier and discrimination to engage in welfare services among the society. But the Buddha’s JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 329

engagement of the social welfare was different from that opinion of such people. As human we should have mutual understanding each other and should be provided culturally related welfare strategies for them through suitable stimulants, mediums or tools. Therefore the current study selects Sri Lankan Sinhala Buddhist songs as welfare strategy to enhance the good, happiness, and well-being for mental impairment youth. I explored few Buddhist songs, which are using in the popular music genre in Sri Lanka. Those Buddhist songs are created with culturally valuable lyrics and melody. The lyrics of those songs are expressed Buddhist doctrine and the melody creates in devotional atmosphere entitles Budukaruna Desa Themi (The Lord Buddha) Buddhanubhawena (Blessings of the Buddha) sung by famous female singer Malini and yoma budu netha kulunine (Forwarding the Buddha’s eyes with compassion) sung by famous male singer Sunil Edirisinghe. I could have examined their positive moods while they were singing those songs and could convey the message with a peaceful environment. For the new findings of Buddhist welfare service for mental impairment I connected the healing of spirituality with lyrical and musical arrangement of Buddhist songs. (here I will translate the lyrics of one of selected Sinhala Buddhist songs for your further consideration3) the meaning of the song of Buddhanubhawena is “to evoke proudness of the nation by means of the blessings of the Buddha” and the meaning of the song of yoma Budu Nethe Kulunene is “to invite the past Buddha to the new era of our life”. I selected the Mahinda Special Education Model School of Ampitiya in Kandy district with autistic and Down’syndrome youth for applying those lyrical and musical content. When I visited the school for the first time, the female and male children looked on with no expressions or only bewilderment as they beheld me. Most of children covered their faces with shirts and some students ran away as they saw the visitor from a distance. It was very clear that they were bashful and did not want to be seen by the visitors. I touched their hands sang Buddhist songs and played with handmade musical instruments. Similar to Sri Lankan Buddhist musical ensemble as cymbals, bells, drums, oboe, made from coconut shells, pieces of metal, plastic, rubber bands etc.

3 The song of Budhukaruna: cool breezes are falling, by enveloped with the kind hearted eyes of lord Buddha; observes the dancing rhythm of the flowers trees leaves , which are in tree tops in the new earth, in the living green receives the tenderness of the Buddha’s feet., back word mind which is covered dirties of secular life, feels thirsty far reaching bless; my heart will merge in a deep meditation in front of your gigantic silent image. 330 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

When the team approached and the children saw the musical instruments, their facial expressions showed that they were visibly happy. And they started to clap their hands together in happiness. After the team went in, they sat together with the students on the floor and gave them the handmade musical instruments. There were coconut shell musical instruments that were brightly painted in many colors, some had eye-catching human figures like angels from the heaven, and others had flowers and animals and geometric patterns drawn on them. The musical instruments were made from raw material to which the children had easy access in their home and those are familiar to them; coconut shells, plastic bottles, tins cans, bottle tops made of tin and other metals, iron rods, plastic canisters, and rubber bands. The pictures on the handmade instruments were hand-drawn which they could easily imitate and copy if they so wished. We also recognized the significance of inexpensive, simple objects that are familiar to one and all (since the aforementioned raw material are household items everywhere in Sri Lanka and are generally used for purposes other than the ones for which they were originally made) because, by virtue of being common items and easily accessible, they can be made into items that entertain and give them pleasure. I created the calm and quiet environment from those instruments and issued slow beat and enjoyed with them. It is also important that these instruments made sounds of different kinds that the children liked: some sounds made them smile, others made them laugh, and yet others brought tears of joy to their eyes. We also sang Buddhist songs with them, songs of which the lyrics everyone knew the song of Buddhanudhawena (blessings of the Buddha). According to the meaning of the song they worshiped to the Buddha and show their happiness with imagination of Buddha. Also, while they were singing they paid their concentration to the natural fauna and flora of the hand made musical instruments because they could see the animals, flowers, and trees from their musical instruments which they have made and painted on the surface of the instruments. I produced the peaceful environment for them with healing sounds and musical vibrations through song and instrumental music. When we sang romantic songs with using those instruments they show unhappiness moods. Consideration of their singing of the Buddhist songs they closed their eyes which was a clear indication that they were experiencing the moment in all its intensity and was completely absorbed in it. In general the children’s reactions to the devotional songs and the sounds made by the instruments showed that their expressions of bewilderment when we approached vanished when they interacted with the instruments and was replaced by smiles and laughter. It broke the barrier between the visitors, them, the inmates at the school, and us because now they were smiling and laughing together with us as one. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 331

Discussion

The social welfare role of the Buddhism was known for centuries as evidenced in the works of Buddha’s preaching, meditation and teaching. According to the purpose of Buddha’s social welfare is linked with good, happiness and wellbeing (Premasiri 1987). Those concepts are used for oneself as well as others form the way of healing, spiritualty and maturity. To reach for the good, happiness and maturity for oneself and others, we should be aware of us through sensory perception. Sensory perception is stimulated to understand human’s physical appearance and psychological understanding in each other. In addition stimulants could be taken from external world by the experience of time and space4 of the person. This theory ought to be is important for engaging Buddhist welfare works because of its reference to understand both of needs inventory and negative or positive feelings inventory (negative inventories like board disgusted, uninterested, anxious distress etc. and positive inventories; loving, compassionate, sympathetic and relaxation etc.) of disabled youth which are derived through their appearance, thought and activities. The meditation as a Buddhist welfare work, that is associated with the special needs individuals (pudgala) through the case studies of the current investigation. According to my experience with disabilities in Sri Lanka and Croatia, the negative emotions are overrun by the healing of the meditation that they experienced while being immersed in the techniques of meditation that they practiced. For my argument I used meditation as Buddhist welfare for the clients who have physical disabilities and Buddhist song for mental impairment youth. Normally, music as well as song can be used to show the healing spirituality of human mind. In addition Buddhist song could be used as a source to balance the mind of disabled youth. Buddhist musical forms appear from the scriptural recitative and chanting. The abled people could involve for them and daily they could practice. But the disabled people are unable to reach like these sources and therefore I used Buddhist song as options for them. According to my observation those are very effective welfare service for disabilities. It was proved through their gesture, movement as well as positive thinking and emotion. I used Sri Lankan Buddhist songs for the Croatian blind people and their gesture and movements as same as Sri Lankan disability people. The main purpose of using the religious song is to prove the subjective existence. Without understanding in the meaning of lyrics they felt resilience modes. Those evidence verifies the Buddhist song can be applied to bridge cultural diversity as a welfare approach in any community, group and individuals.

4 space is our experience of extension and time is expressive of duration (Karunaratne 1987) 332 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Particularly the Sinhala Buddhist song can be implemented for the disabled who are coming form mental retardation of any cultural background. Considering this phenomenon the research provides the suitable group activity of Buddhist songs are more effective for them as social welfare service. Also, listening and singing as a group work, proved very effective, inclusion, healing and psychological implication. Because group activities for the youth are constructive for a harmonious settlement. And the Buddhist songs are rich with counseling and therapeutic value as well. Therefore the Buddhist meditation and Buddhist song represent that the effective disabled youth welfare service.

Conclusion

The current study argues that the good, happiness and well-being felt by the disabled youth in the West and East while engaging in the forms of Buddhist meditation and Buddhist song. Moreover, those facts emboldened them to break their silence, and express themselves because they drove them in to action and to do things that they had never done before. And it is in the process of their engagement with the meditation and Buddhist song. The pleasure they derived from them during their engagement with the Buddhist meditation and song as the effective social welfare service. It was very obvious that the disabled youth were fully receptive to the meditation and song and those they completely immersed themselves to the point of forgetting their disabilities. The study suggests the Buddhist meditation and Buddhist song engage as social welfare for disabled youth in any society regardless the Western or the Eastern world.

References

Cathy A. Malchoidy. (2007). Expressive Therapies: History, Theory and Practice. Expressive Therapies. (Ed.) Cathy A. Malchoidy. 1-15. New York, London; The Guilford Press. Constitution of the Republic of Croatia. (1990). The committee on the Constitution Standing Orders and Political System of the Croatian Parliament. www.sabo.hr/ fgs.axd?id=17074 EduQuality Project Hand Books. (2010). Educational Materials, Students with Disabilities, contains eight hand books. www.eduquality-hr.com/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 333

Forinash, Michele. ( 2007). Music Therapy. Expressive Therapies. (Ed.) Cathy A. Malchoidy. 46-67. New York, London; The Guilford Press Karunaratne, W.S. (1987). Background to the theory of levels of predication of relating in early Buddhism. Buddhist Philosophy and culture, essays in honour of N.A. Jayawickrama.(eds.) David J. Kalupahana & W.G. Weeraratne. 1-22. Kelaniya; Vidyalankara press. Premasiri, P.D. (1987). Early Buddhist Conception of ethical knowledge- A philosophical analysis. Buddhist Philosophy and culture, essays in honour of N.A. Jayawickrama. (eds.) David J. Kalupahana & W.G. Weeraratne. 37-70. Kelaniya; Vidyalankara press. Republic of Croatia. (2007). National Implementation Plan for Social Inclusion 2007-2008. www.mspm.hr/UserDocsImages//ahiva/files/39178//NAP_HR_7-8_ENG The New Encyclopedia Britanica. (2005). USA; Encyclopedia Britanica Inc. United Nations Convention Against Discrimination in Education. (1960). Portal.unesco.org/../ ev.phpURL_ID=12949&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTIO United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). (2003). Inclusive Education Initiatives for Children with Disabilities: Lessons from the East Asia and Pacific Regions. http:// www.childinfor.org United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. (2006). http://www. un.org/esa/socdev/enable/rights/convtexte.htm United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (1948). www.un.org/en/universal- declaration-human/rights/ Anicca and the Arrow : A Comparison of Zeno’s Paradox and Buddhist Temporality

Dr. Seth Evans Graduate School of Human Sciences Assumption University Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The purpose of this present article is to posit that the Tipiṭaka’s teachings of consciousness was that of a temporal existence. This temporal existence experienced a sense of time as the consciousness passed from object to object. The article then attempts to show that later interpretations have taken this temporal existence and interpreted as consciousness following a structure of objective time that exists outside of consciousness but that consciousness must adhere to. In explaining this more objective sense of time later interpretations formulated the teaching of moments that follow moments and so on. These moments where then divided into three sub-moments in the Theravada tradition. This method of explaining time is then compared to the Paradox of the Arrow by Zeon of Elea to show that singular moments, no matter how many times divided, cannot possibly account for the fl ow of time.

Keywords: Eliatic, Time, Anicca, Zeno’s Paradox, Buddhist Temporality JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 335

Zeno’s Arrow

Zeno of Elea’s famous paradoxes expresses implications of problems with a phenomenal world that “moves” through space and time. Three of the most commonly discussed paradoxes of Zeno can be found in Aristotle’s Physics: The Achilles, The Dichotomy, and The Arrow.1 .These three paradoxes challenge the common sense notion of how things traverse distances and questions the very nature of space and time. A brief explanation of The Arrow will be given to show an example of how Zeno questioned time and space in a supposed elucidation of what Parmenides meant by Being as timeless and unchanging. The Paradox of The Arrow as found in Aristotle’s Physics, “The arrow in flight is at rest. For, if everything is at rest when it occupies a space equal to itself, and what is in flight at any given moment always occupies a space equal to itself, it cannot move.”2 Bertrand Russell explains this paradox in his essay The Problem of Infinity Considered Historically, “Throughout an instant, it is said, a moving body is where it is: it cannot move during the instant, for that would require that the instant should have parts. Thus, suppose we consider a period consisting of a thousand instants, and suppose the arrow is in flight throughout this period. At each of the thousand instants, the arrow is where it is, though at the next instant it is somewhere else. It is never moving, but in some miraculous way the change of position has to occur between the instants, that is to say, not at any time whatever.”3

Anicca in the Tipitika

Anicca, as found in the Tipiṭaka, is a fundamental quality of existence according to Buddhist doctrine; a state of impermanence characterizing all conditioned reality. It is one of the most important concepts to Buddhism, from both a preliminary understanding of the Buddha’s teachings to more profound explanations of Buddhist ontology. The whole of lived existence can be stated in two concepts within Buddhist philosophy- nāma (consciousness)

1 Aristotle [4th century BCE], The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Transla- tion, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995) Physics, Book V. 2 Aristotle [4th century BCE], The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Transla- tion, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995) Physics, Book VI, Ch. 5, 239b5-32. 3 Russell, Bertrand,. The Problem of Infinity Considered Historically (found in Zeno’s Para- doxes edited by Salmon, Wesle, ( Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2001), p. 51. 336 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

and rūpa (objects of consciousness). These two concepts are foundational to the Buddha’s teachings as they represent experience itself. According to Theravāda Buddhism, this lived existence of momentary experiences is a cycle of suffering that never ends known as the Paṭiccasamuppāda.4 These two elements of the Buddha’s teachings, consciousness and the objects of consciousness will be explained to show the parts of the whole that is the cycle of suffering known as the Paṭiccasamuppāda. In understanding the cycle of suffering as well as the factors that flow through it, the importance ofanicca within Buddhist ontology will be made clearer. It is important to remember that the particulars explained in Buddhist ontology are beings, which are impermanent. That being said, a detailed analysis of these particulars will be done and then compared with Zeno’s Paradox of the Arrow.

Citta

Citta (consciousness) is best understood as consciousness. All have a similar quality in that they “think” of an object, but we have to take thinking here in a very general sense, meaning, being conscious of an object, or cognizing an object. It is a being’s interpretation of the world in which he or she lives. Citta is not only the mode of experience but the source of experience as well. Without it there would be no perception of reality itself. This foundation of existence that is understood as a stream of individual moments of consciousness, these moments are singular cittas that serve to grasp and interpret objects of perception. These momentary cittas are made up of cetasikas, which are best understood as qualities of consciousness. These qualities are mental factors that facilitate how an object is grasped, the initial perception of the object and the reaction to that object. It is within these qualities that kamma is manifested through action.5

Rūpa

The Dhammasaṅganī describes rūpa as the results of good and bad states taking effect in the universe of sense, in that of form and as connected with the of feeling,

4 . Trans, C.A.F. Rhys Davids, ( Bristol: Pali Text Society 1978), p. 293. 5 C. A. F. Rhys Davids (tr.), A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics, (Bristol: Pali Text Society, 1900), p. 3. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 337

perception, syntheses, and intellect. The Dhammasaṅganī characterizes rūpa in part as being the results of good and bad states, in other words, vipāka of past kamma. This description also says that rūpa is an object that is not included with consciousness itself but still linked to experience. Rūpa is further described as objects that are experienced while making contact with consciousness, which includes feeling, perception, syntheses and intellect. This explanation says that rūpa is something separate from consciousness, something outside, though still associated with it.6 Vipāka, is the seeds of our past kamma come to fruition.7 According to the Visuddhimagga, all objects of consciousness born from kamma are rūpa In other words, Rūpa is what we reap from what we have sown. The kamma we make in thought, speech or action is experienced as vipāka later in life. Vipāka is always experienced in the form of rūpa in one way or another. Its presence in the world, the impact that marks vipāka’s arrival into that world, is rūpa.8 It is that which we experience as a result of past acts as well as that which we react to in our present acts.

Paṭiccasamuppāda

In Buddhism, there is no original creation, all that arises is dependent on something else, nothing comes into being without being conditioned to become by something that has already been conditioned into being. There is no other idea in Buddhism that is more important in describing this cycle of conditioning than the Paṭiccasamuppāda, and an attempt to understand it should be made by all serious students of the Dhamma. The Paṭiccasamuppāda explains the cycle of suffering, a process that is foundational to the Buddha’s teachings. This wheel of samsara that keeps within the cycle of rebirth is the very cycle one wants to escape when starting down the path the Buddha laid out. In order to escape the cycle, one must be familiar with it. An understanding that it is desire that leads to the continuation of suffering is necessary and it is Paṭiccasamuppāda that is that continuation as explained by the Buddha

6 Ibid. p. 198. 7 F.L. Woodward (tr.), The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Vol. 1, (Bristol: Pali Text Society, 1995), p. 48. 8 Op. Cid. C. A. F. Rhys Davids (1900), p. 48. 338 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Table 1: Paṭiccasamuppāda Source: Mahāthera Nārada, The Buddha and His Teachings, (Colombo: Karunaratne and Sons, 1973, p. 247).

The Paṭiccasamuppāda consists of 12 nidānas:

1. Avijjā (Ignorance) 7. Vedanā (Feeling) Conditions Conditions 2. Saṇkhārā (Formations) 8. Taṇhā (Craving) Conditions Conditions 3. Viññāṇa (Consciousness) 9. (Clinging) Conditions Conditions 4. Nāma/Rūpa (Name/Form) 10. (Becoming) Conditions Conditions 5. Salāyatana (Sence-Base) 11. (Birth) Conditions Conditions 6. Phassa (Contact) 12. Jarā-Maraṇa (Decay and Death) Conditions Which then conditions Ignorance.9

9 Op. Cid. C. A. F. Rhys Davids (1978), p. 293. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 339

The Buddha explains the quality of impermanence while teaching the Paṭiccasamuppāda in the Mahānidāna Sutta as the result of a cause or causes is impermanent (anicca) liable to perish, to pass away, to become extinct, to cease.10 Anicca is an intricate quality of the Paṭiccasamuppāda involving both nāma and rūpa as experience passes through existence from one life to the other. The Paṭiccasamuppāda is a cycle that is in constant flux as the results of past kamma are perceived and reacted to producing new kamma from a foundation of ignorance. The mind (nāma) is changing as it interacts and makes contact with varies objects, both mental and physical (rūpa), these interactions condition a cycle of suffering that never ends until one becomes enlightened and breaks the chains of the Paṭiccasamuppāda. This explanation of a temporal existence as lived describes how the passage of time may feel as one lives out their life, but it is by no means an explanation of time itself. The Paṭiccasamuppāda was never meant to be a model of an objective account of time that consciousness adheres to. The Abhidhamma also gives an account of the temporal lived experience in the way of mental elements. Many examples of mental elements are found in the Dhammasaṅganī as descriptions of conscious experience of an object. Here is an example of the mental element of bodily pain:

The bodily pain, the bodily distress which, on that occasion, is born of contact with the appropriate element of cognition of body; the painful, distressful sensation which is born of contact with the body; the painful, distressful feeling which is bon of contact with the body- this is the feeling that there then is.11

The cognitive elements the Abhidhamma as described in the Dhammasaṅganī seems to be attempts at categorizing experience and the feel of the passage of time. This is more of a temporal explanation by way of investigating experience itself. The Abhidhamma does not appear to be attempting to discuss time itself or positing that these elements can be a model for time in which consciousness adheres to. Rather it appears Abhidhamma was discussing the nature of experience and who a conscious being experiences the flow of life in a temporal sense.

10 T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids Digha Nikaya Vol. 2, Pali Text Society, 1910.), p. 56. 11 Op. Cid. C. A. F. Rhys Davids (1900), p. 152. 340 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Later Interpretations

The quality of anicca that is foundational to the teaching of the Buddha took a more objective view of the passage of time in later schools; these later schools began referring to time as individual moments. These moments began to be evaluated outside of experience which can be seen in the disagreement about the metaphysical nature of individual moments of time experienced by consciousness between the two interpretations of the Theravada School, who though a moment of time consisted of rising, apex and falling, and the Sauntrāntika School, who believed the moment only contained rising and falling. (Kalupahana, 1977, 107).12 These attempts to explain moments of time itself persisted in a kind of proto- physics within later schools of Buddhism that continued from the commentaries to today,. Consciousness as explained in the Tipiṭaka before these later interpretations seemed to discuss consciousness as a temporal flow, an experience of the passage of time, rather than time itself governing consciousness.

Modern Interpretations

The Commentaries and Abhidahmmattha-saṅgaha later takes the explanation of the process of cognition in the Abhidhamma and the explanation of moments discussed in later schools and combines them, calling it the citta vīthi which turns the elements into distinct moments as an explanation for the passage of time. Citta vīthi, as expounded by the Abhidahmmattha-saṅgaha is a series of conscious moments that make initial contact with an object, interprets the object, shapes the object into a mental concept, and the kammic reactions to that object. Modern Interpretations, that of Bhikkhu Bodhi and , have taken this series of conscious moments to also be a model for objective time. Narada Maha Thera explains the citta vīthi in his rendition of the Abhidahmmattha- saṅgaha:

There is no moment when we do not experience a particular kind of consciousness, hanging on to some object- whether physical or mental. The time- limit of such a consciousness is termed one thought moment… Immediately after

12 Kalupahana David, Buddhist Philosophy, A Historical Analysis, (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1977), p. 107. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 341

the cessation stage of a thought-moment there results the genesis stage of the subsequent thought-moment. Thus each unit of consciousness perishes conditioning another, transmitting at the same time all its potentialities to its successor. There is, therefore, a continuous flow of consciousness like a stream without interruption When a material object is presented to the mind through one of the five sense-doors, a thought-process occurs, consisting of a series of seepage thought-moments leading one to the other in a particular, uniform order.13

Narada refers to mental elements as “units” that have “time-limits”. This leaves connotations of a structure of time that consciousness follows rather than an explanation of consciousness experiencing time. The description is from the position of time, as an objective e law itself, not from the experience of time. Bhikkhu Bodhi points out a similar implication of the commentators as well as seemingly adding similar interpretations of objective time in his translation of the Abhidahmmattha-saṅgaha:

According to the commentators, in the time that it takes for lightening to flash or the eyes to blink, billions of mind- moments can elapse. Nevertheless, though seemingly infinitesimal, each mind-moment in turn consists of three sub- moments- arising (uppāda), presence (ṭhiti), and dissolution (bhanga). Within the breadth of a mind-moment, a citta arises, performs its momentary function, and then dissolves, conditioning the next citta in immediate succession. Thus, through the sequence of mind-moments, the flow of consciousness continues uninterrupted like the waters in a stream.. 14

These later interpretation appear to steer away from the temporal explanation of annica as experience lived to a more scientific objective explanations of objective time itself the consciousness adheres to. The moments of arising apex and falling seem to be explained no longer as a mode in which one experiences but more as a model of time that consciousness adheres to.

13 Narada Maha Thera, op.cid, (1979), p. 240. 14 Bhikkhu Bodhi, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2012), p 156. 342 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Anicca and The Arrow

David J Kalupahana explains the difference between the existence as explained in the Tipiṭaka as living experience, often as the Paṭiccasamuppāda, which describes existence as it is lived rather than in moments and later schools that attempted to describe existence in distinct moments:

…it should be remembered that in early Buddhism existence was not commuted in terms of moments, as in the Theravada and Sauntrāntika schools. In early Buddhism it was meant as an answer to the metaphysical question that implied the existence of effect within the cause before it was made manifest. Although these later schools accepted this theory for the same reason, these schools almost denied the connection between a cause and an effect because of their theory of moments. For early Buddhists it was no problem to establish a connection between a cause and an effect because of their empirical theory of existence. A too strict adherence to the theory of moments, a theory which, in the Indian context, was more metaphysical than empirical, led the Sauntrāntika to this predicament.15

One can see that over the centuries the explanation of experience in Buddhist doctrine in the context of the passage of time went from a more general flow of temporality as existence as lived, particularly the Paṭiccasamuppāda, to a more reductionist attempt to capture this passage of time into moments. Not only into moments, but dividing the moments into parts: Theravada into three and Sauntrāntika in to two. This seems to have led to a modern conflation of the structure of consciousness and an objective model of time in modern interpretations, particularly that of Bhikkhu Bodhi and Narada Maha Thera in their renditions of the Abhidahmmattha-saṅgaha. When Bhikkhu Bodhi discusses the three moments of time in Buddhis doctrine, “though seemingly infinitesimal, each mind-moment in turn consists of three sub-moments- arising (uppāda), presence (ṭhiti), and dissolution (bhanga),” 16 It appears to be an attempt by later commentators to interpret The Buddha’s teaching of arising and falling. In fact, the Buddha specifically mentions three phases of experience, “There are three conditioned

15 Op. Cid. Kalupahana David, p. 107. 16 Bhikkhu Bodhi, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2012), p 156. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 343

characteristics of the conditioned: arising, passing away, and the alteration of that which stands.”17 However, as discussed earlier, it seems the Buddha was talking about these phases as experienced, not objective moments in time itself that experience follows.

Temporality and Time Itself

Considering Bodhi’s explanation of moments, “each mind-moment in turn consists of three sub-moments- arising (uppāda), presence (ṭhiti), and dissolution (bhanga)”’ and Russell explanation of the Zeno’s paradox, “Throughout an instant, it is said, a moving body is where it is: it cannot move during the instant, for that would require that the instant should have parts”, one can see a problem in reducing moments into smaller moments, Dividing a moment into three sub parts as a way to make said moments follow one after another in a flowing sequence, a sequence that is discussed as a process outside of experience, simply conflates the problem of the single moment. Three sub-moment simply become moments themselves, and each of these moments can have an arising apex and falling, thus giving each of these three moments three parts, which are themselves moments that can have three parts ad infinitum. As Zeno brilliantly showed, one cannot explain the passage of time itself in moments What seems to originally mean temporal experience of time as phases, “There are three conditioned characteristics of the conditioned: arising, passing away, and the alteration of that which stands”, appears to have been adapted to an explanation of how time affects consciousness rather than how consciousness effect our experience of time.

Conclusion

There is a very important difference between temporality and time itself. This article has attempted to show that what the Tipiṭaka originally meant to be a description of temporality has been misinterpreted over time to be an explanation for a structure objective time. The Paṭiccasamuppāda and the mind elements mentioned in the Dhammasaṅganī seems to have been teachings that expresses the experience of a conscious being. In describing conscious existence, perception is expounded as a temporal experience, where the feeling of experience is experienced as the passage of time.

17 Bhikkhu Bodhi, Aṅguttara Nikāya, (Somerville: Wisdom Publications, 2012), p. 152. 344 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Later interpretations appear to have taken this temporal description and turned it into a more scientifi c explanation of existence outside of experience, that existence adhering to a structure of time. This explanation forces consciousness to follow a construct of time that exists separate from the experience of consciousness. This was explained by moments, which were then further divided in to sub-moments. This method of moments in explaining an objective time is faulty, as shown by Zeno’s Paradox of the Arrow, as the moments can be divided ad infi nitum In contrast, the teachings of the Tipiṭaka seem to be describing consciousness in itself and how that consciousness experiences time, that being a temporal experience, rather than consciousness adhering to time itself.

References

Aṅguttara Nikāya. Vol I. Trans. F. L. Woodward. (2000). The Book of the Gradual Sayings. Bristol: Pali Text Society. Aṅguttara Nikāya. Trans Bikkhu Bodhi. (2012). The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha. Somerville: Wisdom Publications. Aristotle [4th century BCE]. (1995). The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation. Edited by Barnes, Jonathan. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Dhammasaṅganī. Trans. C.A. F. Rhys Davids. (1900). A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics. Bristol: Pali Text Society. Kalupahana David. (1977). Buddhist Philosophy, A Historical Analysis. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. Narada Maha Thera. A Manual of Abhidhamma. Colombo: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1979. Russell, Bertrand. (2001). The Problem of Infi nity Considered Historically. (found in Zeno’s Paradoxes edited by Salmon, Wesley). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. Vibhaṅga. Trans, C.A.F. Rhys Davids. (1978). Bristol: Pali Text Society. Buddhism and Religious Environmentalism: A case study of Sikkim through Buddhist myths, legends and folk lore

Asst. Prof. Dr. Sangmu Thendup Department of History, Sikkim University. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

One of the most important contributions of Buddhism to human development has been its discourse on Environmentalism. Although Buddhism originated in the 6th century BCE, the Buddha’s teachings regarding the environment continue to remain relevant even today, particularly because of the environmental degradation caused by humans and their actions. The infl uence of Buddhist environmentalism is evident in the Buddhist beliefs of Sikkim: a small state of Northeast India. Sikkimese Buddhism also previously known as Lamaism is an offshoot of Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism as a school of philosophy went to Tibet through the great Indian Tantric master Guru Padma Sambhava, and then travelled to Sikkim. Sikkimese Buddhism regards natural entities and landscapes such as mountains, caves, forests and lakes to be sacred and there exists folklore, legends and myths to establish this view. There has been growing realisation that folklore is a highly valuable material which sheds light on the evolution of the intrinsic value system of a society. Thus, this paper attempts to understand the reverential rendering of the environment in Sikkimese Buddhism and links it to religious environmentalism; which involves the conscious application of religious ideas to modern concerns about the global environment. Religious environmentalism in Sikkimese Buddhism fi nds support in the belief that it is intrinsically environment friendly and by relating religious environmentalism with Buddhist environmental ethics, we may try to conceive ways to combat environmental degradation.

Keywords: Buddhism, Religious Environmentalism, Folklore, Environmental degradation. 346 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

Sikkim is a mountainous state in the Eastern Himalayas with a geographical area of 7096 sq km, and is situated between 88o 00’ 58” and 88o55’ 22” E longitudes and 27o 00’46” and 28o 07’ 48” N latitudes. Sikkim became the twenty second state of the Indian Republic in 1975 and occupies a very important place in the North Eastern landscape of India. The state lies between Tibet to the North and northeast, Bhutan and Bengal to the south and southeast and Nepal to the west. The Himalayas lies to its north-west. On the South is the Darjeeling District of West Bengal. Teesta and Rangeet are the two major rivers of the State. Sikkim is a state with many lakes adorning its beauty. Alka Jain and her colleagues notify that there are one hundred and fifty lakes in the state (Jain et al, 2004). The flora and fauna of Sikkim covers a wide spectrum and varies from Tropical to the Alpines. Sikkim’s botanical and zoological richness boasts of more than 4000 species of plants and 30% of all the birds found in the Indian sub-continent. The Sikkim Himalaya is endowed with biological resources spread over a variety of eco-system types, both natural (grazing land, hills, forests and rivers) or man-made (agriculture, plantation, orchards) over a range of altitudes; there is a rich wildlife too. Certain regions of Sikkim, such as north Sikkim, are rich in medicinal plants nurtured by the Buddhist monasteries. This unique landscape is highly complex because the ecosystems are interconnected in which human beings are integrated (Ghosh 2011, 228). Sikkim is situated in an ‘ecological hotspot’1 of the lower Himalayas but the growing presence of industrialization and the increasing pressure of urbanization have contributed to the environmental problems in the state (Chakraborty and Chakraborti, 2011, 123). The immediate threats to the region are posed by accelerated growth of human population, aggressive tourism and development projects like the hydro-electric projects on the Teesta River (Ghosh 2011, 228). Hence the main objective of this paper is to relate Sikkimese Buddhism to religious environmentalism through myths, legends, rituals and traditions which display environmental philosophy in their ethos. In Sikkim, there are certain regions where landscape is venerated

1 To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria: it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics, and has to host at least 70% of its original habitat. Around the world, at least 25 areas qualify under this definition. These sites support nearly 60% of the world’s plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a very high share of endemic species. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 347

as sacred. Here ecological considerations cannot be separated from historical, social, cultural and religious dimensions. Ancestral and ritual performances are connected to land, forests, mountains, lakes and nature in general. When these beliefs are brought into the discourse of religious environmentalism, they may help preserve those landscapes because of the sanctity attached to them.

Buddhism in Sikkim

Buddhism is the world’s oldest missionary religion founded by and has its origin in India in the sixth century BCE. From India it spread to other parts of the world in the subsequent times. Sikkimese Buddhism also known as Lamaism (a colonial construct) is an offshoot of Tibetan Buddhism; derived from the fact that Buddhism as a school of philosophy went to Tibet through the great Indian Tantric master Guru Padma Sambhava, and then travelled to Sikkim from Tibet. Guru Padma Sambhava is believed to have visited Sikkim from Tibet and personally consecrated Sikkim as the cosmic point of Nyingmapa Buddhism (H. H Risley 1928, 241).2 Guru Padma Sambhava is adored in Sikkim as the patron saint and is referred to as Guru Rinpoche: the precious one. Guru Rinpoche is said to have tamed all supernatural beings of the land during his eighth century visit to Sikkim and to have bound them through solemn oath into being protectors of the faith and to refrain from causing harm to sentient beings. By this act, and by having hidden spiritual treasures (ter) to be discovered in later times, Guru Rinpoche is seen as having brought Buddhism and a civilized way of life. For the Nyingmapas, ter or are spiritual treasures, sometimes objects such as images but usually texts attributed to Guru Padma Sambhava who hid them so as to be later physically discovered or revealed in other ways by Buddhist practitioner called tertӧn [literally- ‘discoverers of hidden treasures’] (Balikci Denjongpa 2002, 5- 37). Although Buddhism was introduced to Sikkim in the eighth century itself, it was established as the state religion of Sikkim with the crowning of the first Sikkimese king Phuntsog Namgyal as the Chogyal or Dhramaraja3 at Yoksum in 1642 by the three who came from Tibet (Subba 2008, 146- 147).

2 The “red hat” sect or the “old school” of Sikkimese Buddhism and unreformed style of Lamaism, tinged with indigenous pre-Buddhist religious practices; and celibacy and abstinence are rarely practiced. 3 Chogyal () or the king who rules according to the Dharma is the title of the Sik- kimese kings. 348 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Thus Sikkim has had a long tradition of Buddhism. It is practiced by about 25% of the population and the Buddhist monasteries of Sikkim have deeply influenced the cultural heritage and lifestyle of the people of Sikkim (Ghosh 2011, 228).

Environmental ethics and Buddhism

Environmental ethics is a relatively new area of study that became popular with the awareness that environmental resources were rapidly diminishing due to unsustainable overuse by human beings. Religion being a primary source of values in any culture; has direct implications in the decisions human make regarding the environment. Thus, religion can be used in seeking a comprehensive solution to environmental problems. This is true in the case of Buddhism as religious environmentalism in Buddhism finds support in the belief that it is intrinsically environment friendly. Religious environmentalism involves the conscious application of religious ideas to modern concerns about the global environment (Tomalin 2004, 265-295). Buddhism believes in the reciprocal relationship between human morality and natural environment. There are references in the Buddhist texts suggesting that when lust, greed and wrong values grip the heart of humanity, immorality becomes widespread in the society, timely rain does not fall and the crops fall victim to pests and plant diseases (Anguttara Nikaya. I, 147). Even the Five Precepts (Pañca Śila) which forms the minimum code of ethics in Buddhism proves that the traditional ideal was one of harmony with nature and a friendly attitude towards the environment; especially the first precept of “not taking life”. There are numerous references in the Buddhist texts which suggest that plants and animals were to be treated with respect and kindness. The Buddha is also described as having avoided harm to seeds and plants. It was an offence requiring expiation for a monk to fell a tree or to ask someone else to do so (Vin. IV.34—5). Cleanliness, both in the person and environment, was also highly commended. In the Buddhist texts there are many references to nature as refuge, especially trees and caves. Planting trees and groves were considered meritorious deeds (SN. I, XV, 7). Time alone in the forests in the company of animals and nature was considered as an opportunity for developing certain spiritual qualities. Forests were ideal spaces for meditation and spiritual fulfilment (SN.I, VII, 2, 8).. The Buddhist scriptures propagate the idea that when humanity is deteriorated or demoralized through greed, famine is the natural outcome; when moral degeneration is JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 349

due to ignorance, epidemic is the inevitable result; when hatred is the demoralizing force, widespread violence is the ultimate outcome and so on [D. III, 71]. The point of the teaching is that environmental health is bound up with human morality. Buddhist environmental ethics are also to be found imbibed in the teachings and beliefs of Sikkimese Buddhism. Sikkimese Buddhism is replete with myths, legends, rituals and customs reflecting the reverence for nature and sacred landscapes. This may help in promoting environmentalism as when focused on the environmental crisis, the resources of religion have a distinct and enormously valuable role to play. According to the theories of religious environmentalism, the attitudes and values that shape people’s concepts of nature come primarily from religious worldviews and ethical practices, hence, the moral imperative and value systems of religions are indispensable in mobilizing the sensibilities of people toward preserving the environment for future generations (ref? MET?).

Sikkim as Beyul Demoshong: The Hidden Fruitful Valley

The Buddhist name of Sikkim is Demojong or colloquially pronounced as Denjong. Nyingmapa Buddhist texts such as Rig ‘dzin srog sgrud (a sacred Buddhist text used in key monasteries in Sikkim) and sbas yul ‘bras ljongs kyi gnas yig (hidden land of rice’s guide book to sacred places), describe Sikkim as Demojong, the area south and surrounding Mount Khangchendzonga. Demojong is described as a paradise on earth with an abundance of fruit, vegetables and self growing crops. A belief in an elusive hidden land or Beyul Demoshong (the Hidden Fruitful Valley), the entry of which is located somewhere within Demojong is also prevalent among the Sikkimese Buddhists (Balikci Denjongpa, 2002, 5- 37). Such beliefs further give credence to the idea of sanctity of the state of Sikkim as the chosen place for Buddhism to thrive and flourish.

Mountains and their importance in Sikkimese Buddhism

In many cultures, mountains have special spiritual, cultural and sacred significance. Inspirational to most, mountains are held sacred by more than 1 billion people worldwide (Bernbaum 1997; Mathiew 2011 cited in Byers et al. 2013, 2). As the highest and most impressive features of the landscape, mountains tend to reflect the highest and most central values and beliefs of cultures throughout the world (Byers et al. 2013, 2) People of all times from around the world have stood in awe of majestic mountains. From these sublime experiences have come myths about great mountains as homes of the 350 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

gods, as stairways to the heavens or as pillars of the earth. One mountain range in particular which inspired this kind of awe, wonder and devotion - the vast Himalayas. The Himalayas, extending for 2,500 km (1,500 mi) have many religious and mythological associations. They are the source of major sacred rivers, such as the Indus, Brahmaputra, and Ganges (Bernbaum and Larry W. Price 2013, 261) The early Buddhist texts describe the Himalaya as the Buddha Mountain, Lord of the hills or King of mountains (SN,II, 98; MN,III, 212). Mountain worship in one form or another is as old and as widespread as mankind (Douglas 1903: 2000, 1). One such mountain which is of prime importance within Sikkimese Buddhism is Mount Khangchendzonga. Mount Khangchendzonga (28,176 ft), a part of the Himalayas and the third highest mountain in the world is revered by the people of Sikkim as their guardian deity. It is said that in the upper part of Demojong (Sikkim) lives the mountain deity Khangchendzonga, who like a king sitting on a throne, is the owner and protector of the land, its people, its powerful sacred sites and spiritual treasures. According to a Buddhist legend, Mt. Kanchendzonga is the abode of ‘Namtse Dungmar’/ the God of Riches or the guardian of the north. Kanchendzonga means the Great Five Peaked Fortress of Snow. Khang refers to snow, chen is big, dzong is a fortress and nga is five. Khangchendzonga’s five peaks are said to be the repository of five treasures: the first contains salt, the second gold and turquoise, the third Dharma scriptures and other precious objects capable of increasing one’s wealth; the fourth contains arms and the fifth, medicine and different types of seeds. It is believed that all these treasures will be made available to the Sikkimese people in need of time. The mountain deity inhabiting the peak of Mount Kangchendzonga is considered to be their chief deity and his worship is an important aspect of rituals everywhere among Sikkimese Buddhists (Balikci Denjongpa 2002, 5- 37) Khangchendzonga is also perhaps the only mountain peak in the world which has an entire festival devoted to it in the form of the elaborate Pang Lhabsol celebrated in Sikkim. Pang Lhabsol is a festival celebrated in reverence to the guardian deity of Kanchendzonga. The festival is also seen as a celebration of the Blood Brotherhood treaty between the Lepchas (original inhabitants of Sikkim) and Bhutias (Buddhists). Pang Lhabsol is observed on the fifteenth day of the seventh month of the Tibetan lunar calendar. Pang Lhabsol celebrates Khangchendzonga as the Witness Deity in whose presence, every year, the people would reinforce their vows to serve the country (Wangchuk 2007, 100-101). The Pangtoed Chaam Dance is performed during the festival. Pang Lhabsol begins with the invocation of the Guardian deities inside the monastery after which the ritual dance begins outside. The first JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 351

to take the pavilion are the monks who perform a slow Rol Chaam [the cymbal dance]. And then the ground is taken over by the unique aspect of Pang Lhabsol, the ritual dance by lay persons. Mask dances are common to Tibetan Buddhism, but these are always performed by monks. Pangtoed Chaam is the only religious dance that includes lay people, who enact the role of Pangtoedpas, the warriors of Khangchendzonga, and perform the Sword Dance (ibid. 104). Apart from Mount Khangchendzonga, another mountain which is regarded sacred by the Sikkimese Buddhists is : a peak in the Kailash Range of the Trans Himalaya in the Ngari region of Tibet. It rises 22,000 feet high from the edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Tantric Buddhists believe that Mount Kailash is the home of the Buddha Demchok, who represents supreme bliss. There are numerous sites in the region associated with Guru Padma Sambhava. Mount Kailash is also considered as the physical embodiment of or the axis of the universe, sitting at the centre of the Himalayas. The mountain lies near Lake Manasarovar which is the highest fresh water lake in the world; located at an altitude of 4,588 metres above sea level. Mansarovar in Tibetan means the ‘eternal and invincible jade lake’. In Buddhist scriptures, the lake is named the ‘mother of the rivers in the world’. Buddhist followers believe that the water in the lake can wash away five malignancies of the human soul: greed, anger, craziness, sloth and jealousy, and can also remove filth from human skin. Thus the opening up of an alternate route to Kailash-Mansarovar through the Nathula pass in Sikkim on the Indo-China Border in 2015 has greatly broadened the potentials for pilgrimage, tourism and trade. Sikkim now acts as a corridor to this holy pilgrimage site and this year will be the third year for pilgrims taking this path to Mount Kailash.

Lakes

Sikkim is a state with many lakes and almost all of them are believed to be holy and sacred. There are several legends and myths to establish this belief. Some of the sacred lakes of Sikkim are: the Khachoedpalri Lake, the Tsomgo Lake, the Guru Dongmar Lake and the Tso Lhamu Lake. Devout Buddhists worship these lakes and believe that they should be kept clean and pure; thus activities like swimming, boating and entering the Lake waters is strictly prohibited. The sanctity attached to these lakes has protected the lakes and their vicinity from rapid developments for the purpose of tourism. 352 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Lake Khachoedpalri, believed to be sacred and a wish fulfilling lies buried in a deep forest 147 kilometres away from Gangtok (the state capital), in the west district of Sikkim. Despite numerous trees surrounding the lake, not even a twig floats in the lake. It is believed that two birds come and pick them up and keep the Lake clean and pure. According to Buddhists tradition the lake is the dwelling place of Goddess Tara Jetsum Dolma, mother of Lord Buddha. The Lake is considered to be her footprints, as indicated by the shape of the lake which resembles a footprint. Sometimes it is said that the Lake represents the footprint of Guru Padma Sambhava. The forest around the lake is an evergreen temperate forest with species like Chestnut (Katus), Symingtonia populnea (Pipli), Quercus (Phalant), Castanopsis hystrix (Patle Katus), Nyssa javanica Wangerin (Lekh Chilouney) in the upper ranges and Symplocos theifolia (Kharaney), Aavcado/Machilus edulis (Kawlo), Echinocarpus dasycarpus Benth (Gobre), Bhalayo, Evodia fraxinifolia (Khanakpa), Tarsing in the lower ranges and many different types of shrubs from the undergrowth. Cutting trees from the forest surrounding the lake is believed to result in devastating consequences. Many devotees come and offer at the lake. Located above 18,000 ft, Tso Lahmo Lake in north Sikkim is believed to be another sacred glacial lake located around four kilometres southwest of the Chinese border. The lake is also called the soul lake of Palden Lahmo, protector female deity of Tibet. Guru Dongmar Lake, 190 kilometres from Gangtok in extreme north Sikkim is worshipped for long life and epidemic free existence in the land. The beautiful and awe inspiring lake remains milky in colour throughout the year. It is considered as one of the most sacred lakes by the Buddhists. Infertile women and couples wishing a male issue seek blessings at the lake. Sometimes the devout, it is said, get to see the future in the form of letters or scenes on the lake water after the required prayers and offerings have been made. Guru Dongmar literally means “The Red faced/Wrathful form of Guru Padma Sambhava”. The lake at an altitude of 17,100 ft freezes during winter months except at one spot believed to be specially blessed by Guru Padma Sambhava. Since water of the lake is considered sacred, visitors carry the ‘blessed’ water in bottles. Tsomgo Lake lies in the heady highlands (12,500 ft) towards the Chinese border, 35 km from Gangtok and is the most visited lake in Sikkim. The lake derives its waters from the melting snows of the surrounding mountains and remains frozen in winter. According to Buddhist legends, monks could forecast the future of Sikkim by studying the colour of the lake waters. Associated with many legends and myths, Tsomgo is regarded as holy by the Sikkimese Buddhists. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 353

Buddhist Monasteries and Sacred Groves

The importance of forest groves have been reflected in the early texts associated with Buddhism. The texts refer to sacred groves, some maintained by the people of a city, others by a monastery, and still others by the wider community who lived on the edge of the forest (Thapar 2007, 36). According to Krishna and Amirthalingam (2014) Sacred groves may also have been dedicated to ancestral spirits and often were the homes of the sacred trees. Thousands of these groves have been documented as storehouses of remarkable biodiversity, repositories of unique and rare plants, and homes to myriad birds, reptiles and other animal species, representing a mini-biosphere reserve, making them an essential part of the conservation process. Sacred groves probably represent the single most important ecological tradition of ancient Indian culture. Their conservation is a long tradition of conserving nature by giving it a spiritual dimension. Sacred groves in India are protected by local communities through taboos and sanctions that have cultural and ecological implications. All forms of vegetation in the sacred groves are supposed to be under the protection of the deity of that grove—the removal of even a small twig is taboo (Krishna and Amirthalingam 2014, 53) Sikkim also harbours some sacred groves with religious background. These sacred groves are reported in all parts of the state. Almost all of these sacred groves are attached to the local monasteries (), dedicated to the various and managed by the authority or Lamas or often by the village community (Sacred Groves of Sikkim). Cutting trees from the sacred groves is strictly prohibited. There are three types of Buddhist monasteries in Sikkim: Tak-phug, Gompa and Mani Lhagang. Tak-phug means cave hermitage. Monasteries are called Gompas, consisting of a main shrine hall, a chapel, a school and cells for the monks. Mani Lhagangs are smaller Gompas in villages with only a shrine. Some of the popular monasteries of Sikkim are: Dubdi Gompa, Pemayangtse Gompa, Tashiding Gompa, Enchey Gompa and Rumtek Gompa, Ralang Gompa, Phensang Gompa and Phodong Gompa. Dubdi Gompa located at an elevation of 6470 ft, about 4 km uphill from Yuksom town in West Sikkim is surrounded by dense forests and is an ideal place for monks seeking meditation. It is considered the oldest monastery in Sikkim. This monastery is also called Yuksom monastery and belongs to the Nyingmapa sect of Tibetan Buddhism. Dubdi Gompa is central to the founding of the kingdom of Sikkim; as it was at Yuksom in the middle of the 17th century, that the first king of Sikkim was crowned by the three lamas. It is the only 354 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

monastery (purported now as the first monastery of Sikkim) surviving out of the four built at that time, the other three locations are now identified by a cluster of four Juniper trees. The grove of this Gompa is around 1.73 acres within the monastery land itself and hosts tree species like Cypresses, Silver Oak, Machilus edulis (Kawlo), Toona ciliate (Tooni), Chestnut (Katus) and Erytarina arborescens (Phaledo). Herbs like Kalo Banso and Klo Kibu etc. and shrubs like Viburnum cordifolium (Asarey), Edgeworthia gardneri (Argeli), Kesari, Basak, etc., are found there. And climbers like Charcharey Lahara, Rubia manjith (Majhito) and Cabo are present in the area (Sacred Groves of Sikkim). Surrounded by forests and snow-capped mountains is the Pemayangtse Gompa: the perfect sublime Lotus, which is one of the premier monasteries of Sikkim. It stands at a height of 2085 m overlooking Rabdentse (second capital of the former kingdom of Sikkim from 1670-1814). Migratory birds migrate to the adjoining forest of the monastery in October- November and linger in the Himalayan valleys until early spring. Tashiding Gompa is another important Gompa of Sikkim. The monastery was built to fulfil prophesy - that if a monastery was built upon that spot, there would be peace and prosperity for hundreds of years. Enchey Gompa in Gangtok is known for its Chinese pagoda-shaped roof and was built in 1909. The monastery grove of approximately 4 acres is mainly dominated by Dhupi (pine) trees; other species of trees found are Machilus edulis (Kawlo), Toona ciliate (Tooni), Erytarina arborescens (Phaledo), Walnut/ Juglans regia L (Okhar), Magnolia (Champ), Sinkoli, Bohori, Alnus nepalensis (Uttis), Cypress, Cryptomeria japonica/ Pine (Dhupi), Avacoda Tree/ Machilus edulis (Pomsi/Lapchey Kawlo) etc. The under growth of the grove consists of shrubs like Thotnay, Viburnum cordifolium (Asarey), Ghurpis, Rubus acuminatus (Aiselu), Tusare etc (Sacred Groves of Sikkim). According to Champa Samdup Lama (The head lama of Enchey Gompa),4 the Gompa grove is surrounded by boundary walls and also employs two monks to look after the Gompa grove for the period of three years after which they are replaced by other monks. The lamas of the Gompa use the logs of the old tress which have fallen but do not cut the other trees. They obtain seedlings from the state forest department, and sometimes lay devotees of the Gompa plant trees as and when their vows are fulfilled. Sometimes, people from the adjoining villages come to clean and pick up fallen leaves from the grove, especial during Saga Dawa and Buddha Purnima. So we see the participation of local community in the maintenance of the grove.

4 As per interview conducted on 12.04.2017, Enchey Gompa Gangtok. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 355

The four sacred caves (Tak-phug)

Natural entities like forests and caves are regarded sacred in Sikkimese Buddhism. The four important sacred caves of Sikkim are located on the four directions of Tashiding (West Sikkim) where Guru Padma Sambhava is said to have imparted many lessons. In the four cardinal directions of Tashiding are four miraculous caves where one can attain extraordinary powers. In the east is sar tchk ba phuk, the hidden cave of the east; in the west is ugyen dechen phuk, the cave of great happiness; in the south Khandro sang phuk, the womb of the celestial female deity; and in the north is lhari rinchen nyig phuk, the cave of god’s precious heart. All these caves can be visited from March to mid April and October to mid December. According to Buddhist tradition, Guru Padma Sambhava first entered into the cave of sar tchk ba phuk, (eastern cave) and meditated there and succeeded in subduing the evils residing there. Later he visited the other three caves and instructed the spirits to protect the caves as sacred sanctum for worship and pilgrimage. This cave is believed to be the abode of the peaceful white deity and anyone making a pilgrimage to this cave will lead without fail to the path of the Buddha. Being here will fulfil one’s wishes and cleanse all sins. Ugyen dechen phuk (western cave) also known as the ‘Cave of Great Happiness’ is believed to be the holy abode of Guru Padma Sambhava and also associated with the ‘God of infinite light’. It is believed that the cave contains sacred images representing the body, speech and mind, ritual objects and complete sutras and translated in Tibet. Legend has it that this huge cave is a hidden storehouse which has the wealth to feed almost half the population of the world. Just by going to this cave one can acquire ‘Supreme High Attainment’. Khandro sang phuk (southern cave) is the cave where all kinds of wishes for longevity, virtue and abundance are fulfilled. A visit to the cave is said to cleanse all sins accumulated in past lives. Lhari rinchen nyig phuk (northern cave), is ‘the cave of god’s precious heart’: considered to be the holiest of all the sacred caves in Sikkim and also associated with the God of Wrath. It is located within the buffer zone the Kanchenjunga National park in West Sikkim (recently recognized by the UNESCO as a World Heritage Centre). Should couples not have any sons, they will be given seven if they make a wish in the cave. If one makes offerings and prayers in this cave or puts down their prayers in writing and secures it to the rock, prayers are believed to have effect after seven days. 356 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The grove of the cave consists of temperate forest consisting of tree species like Castanopis tribuloides/Oak tree (Patley Katus), Schefflera impressa (Bhalu Chinday), Kapasi etc.,. Two varieties of rhododendrons are found in the grove namely Rhododendron arboretum and Rhododendron falconeri. The under growth consists of various shrubs. Yuksom, in west Sikkim: the place where the first Chogyal was crowned is considered to be a natural altar where ritual offerings are made by devout Buddhists. According to tradition, in 1641, Lama Lhatsun Chenpo travelled from Tibet to Sikkim. He was joined by two other lamas who had the mission to propagate Buddhism in Sikkim. They assembled at Norbugang which later came to be known as Yuksom. Yuksom was considered as blessed by Guru Padma Sambhava who had predicted that a fourth person would be required for the mission. These four persons would represent the four directions and the fourth person would belong to the east and would be the next Chogyal (dharmaraja) of Sikkim. In 1642 the three lamas went in search of the chosen person and near Gangtok they found a man who offered them refreshments and gave them shelter. The three lamas were impressed with that man’s deeds and believed that he must be the chosen fourth one. His name was Phunstsog Namgyal and the three lamas identified him as the right person to become the temporal and religious head of the region and brought him to Yuksom. They connected his ancestors to the royal lineage of Tibet and crowned him as the Chogyal of Sikkim. The coronation took place at Norbugang at Yuksam on a pedestal set in stones which stands to this day under the shade of giant Cypress tree believed to be more than four hundred years old. A footprint in front of the throne is revered by the Sikkimese as Lhatsun Chenpo’s. Since this is the spot where Guru ’s prophesies came true, the entire area of Yuksam is considered as an open- air altar to offer prayers to Khangchendzonga. The grove of this place spreads over an area of 1.73 acres and hosts many species of trees namely peach, Bhakino, Cherry, Cypresses, Dudilo, Silver oaks, etc. A very large Cypress tree that lies adjacent to the coronation throne as per the local beliefs is the only living witness to the coronation of the first king of Sikkim (Sacred Groves of Sikkim). Yet another sacred grove in Sikkim is Chuba, located on the Lachung-Dombang Road in North Sikkim at an elevation of 3010 meters. “Chuba” means land between two rivers. Here a local deity/ Guardian by the name Cho Chuba is worshipped. Legend has it that on Buddhist auspicious nights of full moon, Cho Chuba’s horses can be heard galloping JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 357

along with the sounds of Radong5 and Gyaling6 being played from adjoining hills. For the people of Lachung this grove is revered and worshipped twice a year, once on the first day of Losar (Tibetan New Year) and six months after that. Because of its significance no person cuts trees or hunts in and around that area as it is believed that if any person does so, bad luck descends over the entire village. The grove area consists of tree and plants species like Kapasey, Viburnum corfifolium (Asarey), Rhododendron (Lali Guras), Silver Fir, Picea smithiana and Tsuga dumbos. The under growth consists of Argeli, Dubo, jungle sag, etc and herbs like Ratnawlo, Banso, Gagleto, Harkata etc. (Sacred Groves of Sikkim) Apart from sacred mountains, caves, and forest groves, Sikkim is also blessed with many hot springs. Phursey Chachu is one of them. It is a shrine with a hot spring and is located along the Legshep Road in South Sikkim. The grove of this shrine with its hot spring is said to have therapeutic values to cure skin diseases. Pilgrims from various places come to take a dip in this hot spring. The grove also hosts numerous trees and shrubs species. All these locations are today pilgrimage destinations for Sikkimese Buddhists. Sikkim was, and in many ways still regarded by its Buddhist inhabitants as a sacred hidden land or beyul. The nesol is a celebration of Sikkim as a hidden land or beyul and an offering ritual to Kanchendzonga and all the deities of the land. It is one of the most important and most often performed rituals in Sikkim, as much in the monasteries as in the villages’ prayer halls and private houses (Balikci Denjongpa 2002, 5- 37).

Conclusion

While Buddhism is an ancient and complex belief system, the consciousness of the threat of local and global environment is relatively new. The Buddha did not formulate an environmental ethics per se, yet there is much within Buddhism that does indeed speak a good deal of the ethical aspects of the environmental crisis faced by us today because the Buddha’s Dhamma inspires a respect for all things. Things here may be taken to encompass not just sentient beings but every aspect of our surrounding in which they participate. Reverence for special trees is another distinctive feature of Buddhism. Veneration and protection of trees is an extension of this belief (Ghosh 2011).

5 Musical instrument 6 Musical instrument made out of the femur bone 358 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The Buddhist belief in devastating consequences as a result of overuse or misuse of natural resources may be interpreted as a kind of warning against exploitation of nature. These teachings of the Buddha are amply reflected in several legends, myths, beliefs, and traditions of Sikkimese Buddhism. The reverence for mountains and sacred landscapes is very evident in Sikkimese Buddhism. The myths and legends related with mountains, lake and forest suggests that Sikkimese Buddhism is intrinsically nature friendly. The legends connected with the hidden treasures and texts of Guru Padma Sambhava, seen through an environmental lens may be understood as mechanisms for protecting and conserving natural landscapes. The moment sacredness is attached to a particular entity it ensures its reverence, conservation and protection to a large extent. The locals connect natural disasters with immoral activities against nature. For instance, the earthquake of October 18th, 2011 with a moment magnitude of 6.9 is believed to have occurred as a consequence of hydroelectric projects on the River Teesta. They fear that diverting the natural courses of rivers like Teesta and Rangeet may have dangerous consequences in the future. It is also believed that cutting of trees from scared groves leads to illness or death. The recent attempts of the state government at rapid and aggressive industrialisation of the state and the mushrooming of pharmaceutical companies like Cipla, Ranabaxi; may harm the fragile ecosystem of the state. Within this context, it may prove beneficial to draw examples from Sikkimese Buddhism and its reverence for mountains and sacred landscapes to strengthen the discourse on religious environmentalism. Moreover, Buddhism commends frugality as a virtue and contentment is highly praised, thus human use of natural resources are be done in a prudent way so as to ensure sustainability of those resources for future generations. As a major world religion, Buddhism has a long and rich history of responding to human needs. With the rise of the religion and ecology movement, there has been research on the various aspects of Buddhist traditions to see what teachings are relevant and helpful for cultivating environmental awareness. The development of green Buddhism is a relatively new phenomenon, reflecting the scale of the environmental crisis around the world and thus opening up new interpretations of Buddhist teachings. Environmental concerns are motivated by many fields of environmental suffering—from loss of species and habitat to the consequences of industrial agriculture. Therefore it would not be incorrect to propagate the discourse on environmental ethics in Buddhism to bring about a change to the process of environmental degradation. It is important to remember that for many people religion remains the arbiter and repository of JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 359

life’s deepest moral values. In this context, religion provides a rich resource to mobilize people for political action. Religion prompts us to pursue the most long-lasting and authentic values. Religion can thus enable us to take at least the fi rst step towards collective change. Buddhism does offer rich resources for immediate application and in the case of Sikkimese Buddhism there are ample examples in the myths, legends and traditions to prove this point.

References

Balikci Denjongpa Anna, ‘Kangchendzӧnga: Secular and Buddhist perceptions of the mountain deity of Sikki among the Lhopos’, Bulletin of Tibetology, 32 (2), p 5- 37 2002. Basnet, L.B, ‘Sikkim: A Political History’ New Delhi: S. Chand & Co, Pvt. Ltd, 1974. Chakraborty Rhyddhi and Chhanda Chakraborti, Relevance of Deep Ecology and Aphorism for Sikkim Himalayan Eco-System in Anna Balikci-Denjongpa and Alex McKay(edt) ‘Buddhist Himalaya: Studies in Religion, History and Culture’, Namgyal Institute of Tibetology, Sikkim, 2011 p.123-133. Doma, Yishey, ‘Sikkim: The Hidden Fruitful Valley’, Prakash Books India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2008 Douglas W. Freshfield, ‘Round Kanchenjunga: A Narrative of Mountain Travel and Exploration’, Edward Arnold, London, 1903; [re-printed by Pilgrims Publishing, Varanasi, India, 2000], p.1.). Ghosh Manjulika, Buddhism and Deep Ecology in Buddhist Himalaya in Anna Balikci- Denjongpa and Alex McKay (edt) ‘Studies in Religion, History and Culture’, Namgyal Institute of Tibetology, Sikkim, 2011, p 223-231 Jain, Alka H Birkumar Singh, S.C. Rai, E. Sharma. “Folklores of Scared Khechoedpalri Lake in the Sikkim Himalaya of India: A Plea for Conservation.” Asian Folklore Studies 63 (2004): 291-302 Krishna, Nanditha and M. Amirthalingam, Sacred Plants of India, Penguin Books India, Delhi, 2014. Risley H. H, ‘The Gazetteer of Sikkim’, Low price Publication, Delhi, 1928, p. 241 Sacred Groves of Sikkim, Published by the Forest, Environment and WildlifeManagement Department, Government of Sikkim 360 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Subba J. R, ‘History, Culture and Customs of Sikkim’, Gyan Publishing House, Delhi, 2008 Thapar Romila., ‘Forest and Settlement’, in Mahesh Rangarajan(edit.) Environmental Issues in India – A Reader, Dorling Kindersley Pvt Ltd, India, 2007, pp. 36. Tomalin Emma., ‘Bio-Divinity and Biodiversity: Perspectives on Religion and Environmental Conservation in India’, Numen, Vol. 51, No. 3 (2004), pp. 265-295. Buddhism and Transcending towards New Identity Perceptions in 21st Century

Prof. Dr. Milada Polišenská School of International Relations and Diplomacy, Anglo-American University Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The author of this article considers herself to be philosophically a Buddhist, culturally a Christian and religiously unaffi liated.1 This self-perception has its minuses and pluses. A minus lays in the fact that despite many years of my interest and study of Buddhism, I still do not see myself to be an expert in Buddhism. A plus is, in my opinion, that my expertize of a diplomatic historian could allow me to bring some Buddhist ideas into a fi eld where we usually do not seek them or do not fi nd them, and to contribute to an enrichment of the social sciences area. This large academic sphere may benefi t from Buddhist philosophy and wisdom extraordinarily. My article Buddhism and Transcending towards New Identity Perceptions in 21st Century focuses on the two fi rst Dharma Seals–impermanence and non-self –, and on Fife Precepts of Buddhism. These selected basic principles of Buddhism will be compared and contrasted with some selected phenomena of present Western world.2 Their selection was infl uenced mainly, but not exclusively, by connected themes of identity, culture, historical memory and narrative of national histories and they will be introduced in the fi rst part of the article. These topics are currently experiencing a renewed interest and search for new approaches, as there is a considerable uncertainty of Western society about its own values and orientation.

Keywords: Buddhism, Transcending, New Identity Perceptions, 21st Century.

1 Professor Frank Hoffman´s characteristics used in his speech at International seminar Buddhism in the Digital Era, organized by Graduate School and and International Buddhist Studies College, Ma- hachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University (MCU),Wang Noi, Ayutthaya, Thailand, 16 September 2017. 2 Thich Nhat Hanh. The Three Dharma Seals. In: Cultivating the Mind of Love - The Practice of Looking Deeply in the Mahayana Buddhist Tradition. Berkeley, California: Parallax Press, 1966. Quoted from http://www.abuddhistlibrary.com/Buddhism/G - TNH/TNH/The Three Dharma Seals. 362 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

The goal of this comparison is to find in Buddhism a source of inspiration and to view these mostly Western phenomena from a different perspective. In this article, I will not examine the third Dharma Seal, nibbāna, against the backdrop of the Digital era, but it should be said that three characteristics, impermanence, non- self and nibbāna, are contained in all phenomena, whatever it may be. Buddhism is not just theoretical but mostly practical. It could be a very useful contribution and stimulus also for a practical sphere in the realm of Western culture. I would like to emphasize, however, that in this article I am not suggesting to apply mechanically Buddhist teaching on the phenomena of our present globalizing world, as such an application would be superficial and would be either academic and Buddhist neither. My first deliberations on Buddhism vis-à-vis perception of identity have been presented at the international seminar on Buddhism in the Digital Era quoted above. This article elaborated further these ideas and took in the consideration comments and suggestions of commentators from this seminar. Definition of the Digital era has to come first to establish a necessary framework of this article. Our present era is characterized by a number of definitions, very frequently as something connected with „post-“: post-Industrialist, post-Modernist, post-Structuralist, also Network-society etc. For the 21st century however, the most frequently used term, and fully rightfully, is Digital society, Digital era. The digital technologies started to appear step by step among analogue systems as early as in 1950´s, then gradually from 1980´s a digital revolution gained a speed and in 1990´, s the digital revolution became a global phenomenon. Starting the dreaded Y2K of 2000, we speak on Digital era. Buddhism could not and can not stay away from this substantial global change and in recent few years, interconnection between Buddhism and digital environment became a topic of research, conferences3 and publications. 4

3 See note 1. 4 Grieve, Gregory P. and Veidlinger, Daniel M. Buddhism, the Internet and Digital Media: The Pixel in the Lotus. Routledge Studies in Religion and Digital Culture. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2014, 2015. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 363

Pressures and tensions of chaotic character in Digital era

In this subchapter, I am introducing selected issues of a strong social and cultural impact that are not new but that are gaining in this Digital era new, disquieting dimensions. The world finds itself nowadays at an intersection of many disturbing trends and processes. This applies to a large extent to Euroepan Union which experiences nowadays a crisis and tries, mostly not very successfully, to define its positions and find solutions of issues that were for a long time “dormant“ or „hibernated.“ The roots of this crisis are deep and multifaceted. Categories which until recently belonged to history courses at universities, such as nation, nationality, identity (national and cultural) and civilization, are nowadays hot topics, with many negative implications in media. Our knowledge based society is not well prepared to cover a gap between a concept of multiethnic, multicultural and multireligious society, idealized just few years ago, and many current problems caused by an unexpected immigration wave. Does the Western society know, where it wants to go and what it wants to achieve?Vagueness and lack of deeper insight result in catastrofic scenarios which fill in both traditional and digital media with all negative effects. Many people today are worried about the European Union future, about national sovereignty, national culture, national heritage, national identity. Digital media play very disturbing role in this context and facebook and internet are used by „quasi experts“ who make themselves popular by writing about the end of the European civilization. Various ahistorical, ungrounded and unwise statements revealing a chaotic state of mind are spread via internet and social media and acquire an aura of credibility and expert opinion.Yet, an avalanche of partial information does not mean a deeper awareness, more complex understanding of current events, and wisdom. Anxiety and uncertainty which dominate prevailing strata of European society nowadays bring an urgent feeling that „something“ new has to be found, done, that „something“ has to be changed. This is very obvious for example in Central European area. Questions whether the existence of European Union has any sense started to appear particularly in the context of mass immigration to Europe. Some publicists and commentators express a need of new narratives of national histories.5 At the same time, there is an emphasis on historical memory, which is now an increasigly popular research area, and on national identity. Would

5 In selected Czech cases, this is mainly Jan Macháček and Petr Zídek. In more general terms, these ideas have been expressed at preparatory meetings to the strategic document about sustainable development 2030 – 2050 (see belolow) as the author of this article witnessed. 364 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

it be possible to interlink historical memory and new narrative? New narrative could be rather different from a traditional image that we have about ourselves and which is build on historical memory. A narrative is less related to academic historical research, it is closer to propaganda or another stereotyped simplification, and it is doubtful whether this is the way we should go. It would be wise to do a change, particularly if there are any delusions and attachments such as historical injustices, wrongs, misinterpretations, which are harming other nations. The reconsidered and rewritten narratives have difficult perspectives though because the deeply rooted stereotypes have often a strong charisma. The ageing of population also contributes to the preservation of vital force of many of these stereotypes Do we need a new narrative? Do we need any? Maybe yes, but not in the sense of rewriting history, but in using the wisdom of Buddhist teaching on impermanence. Buddha said in the Dhammapada: „Victory begets enmity; the defeated dwell in pain.“ Also „Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this world.“ 6An exemplary Buddhist approach has been that of Venerable Maha Ghosananda of Cambodia who urged to abstain of anger and hatred against Khmer Rouge for their genocial régime in Cambodia and to turn, instead, toward compassion and peacefullness. Another example could be an apology by Czech President Václav Havel for atrocities committed against Germans after the end of second World War. Václav Havel was until his death in 2011 in frequent contact with His Holiness who influenced him deeply.7 Basic afflictions of craving, hatred and ignorance represent major causes of human suffering -individually, nationally and internationally. Even the historical memory of greatness as an important element of national identity, culture and national heritage is may be damaging the neighbor states if it had been build on expansion, conguer of their territories, oppresion of their people and disrespect of their culture. The most fundamental, influential and widely damaging is ignorance (avidya), the inability to understand reality. „Because we are ignorant, we crave for things that destroy us, and we get angry at many things. We try to grasp the world of our projections, and we

6 Dp.15,201 and Dp.1,5. The Dhammapada:The Buddha‘s Path of Wisdom. Translated by Buddharakkhita. http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/scrndhamma.pdf 7 His Holiness Dalai Lama attended regularly annual international conferences in Prague Forum 2000 and had a long meetings with Václav Havel in inter-faith dialog. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 365

suffer.“8 If we look deeper into the causes of conflicts between individuals and between nations, craving is always present. Nation, national identity, national culture are historically conditioned which already implies their impermanence. Yet, the books on national histories and national cultures usually interpret the national histories going back to times prior the respective nations had existed. As a result, the nations and national identities have been traditionally considered as ever lasting and permanent entities. The national identities represent a significant source and scale of values. They are linked - with a considerable conservatism - to memory, stereotypes, images and emotions and to the ways how they are communicated. The Western culture considers a nation to be of a permanent duration even if nowadays at expert academic level there is a consensus that the nations are historically conditioned. European Union member states developed recently a fundamental strategic document about sustainable development 2030 - 20509 focusing, besides economy and environment, on various other issues including identity which has been culturally defined. In Czech case for example, the material understands this world as one whole and a sustainable development as a complex and dynamic system of components which are interconnected and which require an integrated approach towards them. This is a right and fundamental attitude. It is also important, that an emphasis is on education. However, the preparation of this strategic material revealed a number of disturbing deliberations caused particularly by an urgent feeling of standing at the edge of something. These thoughts remained however at discussion platform and did not appear in the final version of the material. This also demonstrates that European Union today is rather confused about its orientation, path and means. Process of drafting and of finalizing the document shows how much a more insightful, midful approach would be needed and how much the Western thinking would benefit from Buddhist philosophy.

8 Thich Nhat Hanh. The Three Dharma Seals. In: Cultivating the Mind of Love - The Practice of Looking Deeply in the Mahayana Buddhist Tradition. Berkeley, California: Pa- rallax Press, 1966. Quoted from http://www.abuddhistlibrary.com/Buddhism/G - TNH/TNH/The Three Dharma Seals. 9 https://www.vlada.cz/en/ppov/council-for-sustainable-developm 366 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

First Dharma Seal: Impermanence and Western perception of impermanence

In this subchapter, I introduce briefly basic principles of Buddhist teaching on impermanence and contrast this teaching with the traditional Western approach to this concept. Then, I focus on two manifestations of Western delusionary phenomena of „thick line“ and of „historical and natural right“, both causing suffering both in earlier times and now, in the Digital era. The Buddhist teaching on impermanence brings us to understanding of a continuous and unceasing flow of interactions and mutual influences between the phenomena. This never ending process has a universal character taking place at all levels, from cosmic to the quantum size, from aeons (kalpas) to picoseconds, a shortest time measurement used in physics today. Impermanence appears in two ways: momentary impermanence and periodic impermanence, which accumulates momentary and gradual impermanences and finaly reaches a stage of a substantial change which again is of impermanent nature. 10 A noted Buddhist scholar Thich Nhat Hahn teaches to use impermanence as an instrument to penetrate deeply into reality and obtain liberating insight; that there is suffering because things are impermanent, but that thanks to the impermanence we can transform our suffering. Suffering is not caused by the impermanence. It is caused by the fact that we believe things are permanent or we struggle - often desperately, unwisely, manipuatively, violently, populistically, egoistically and in many other ways - to make them permanent. We can not say that the Western culture would be not aware of the impermanence of the phenomena. There are countless quotes of various personalities, philosophers, writers, politicians and many others, who expressed themselves about transience of everything. Even the contains several statements related to transience and the Symbol of the Apostles, which stands at the beginning of the prayer of the rosary, contains the transience. In Western culture, however, the understanding of impermanence is different than in Buddhism. Symbol of the Apostles finishes by words: „I believe in ……….the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting.“ In difference of Buddhism, which understands the impermanence as a foundation of its teaching, in Western culture it is rather a denial of this

10 http://hsingyun.org/the-three-dharma-seals/ JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 367

impermanence motivated by fear of the impermanence. This fundamental attitude has a deep Christian, even Judeo-Christian foundation and is very deeply rooted even in our present secularized and digitalized Western society. We have to be aware of impermanence of everything. With impermanence, change is always possible and it is up to human beings to decide wisely about their actions. A delusion of a „ thick line under the past“ is closely connected with impermanence. It represents, in reality, a distinct, widespread effort to achieve a permanent status, i.e. an opposite of impermanence. It appeared frequently in history and is requent nowadays as well. It would be not possible to bring here examples of all its appearances. It is disguised by various political programs, proclamations, personal decisions and so on. Even if this effort has been having various manifestations, there is only one outcome – it never separated permanently the past from the present and present from the future. Even the success always proved to be illusory, despite it sometimes lasted for long period of time. „Making a thick line“ under the past, vision of separation of the „bad past“ or „bad present“ from the „glorious future“ caused many suffering and tragedies in history of nations and in personal life of many people.11 From the point of view of Buddhism, there is an impportant connecting point – futility, shortsightedness and lack of wisdom, often also hatred, violence and even wars. Goal of this is always to achieve something of permanent duration, something, which will last forever. This is impossible, though. There is another very frequent example of struggle to achieve the permanence. It is so called historical right 12 and its antithesis - natural (i.e. ethnic) right13. A rivalry between these two principles caused not only many academic disputes, but also political fights and even suffering of many people. Principle either of historical or natural right everything justifies and the only wise way to follow is an understanding of impermanence, wisdom and refraining of harming others.

11 The most drastic example of this was the Nazi Final Solution. Its goal had to be an achievement of a permanent order - elimination, through annihilation, of all Jewish population. Despite immesurable suffering of Jews in Holocaust the Final Solution was not achived. 12 Principle of historical law is claiming of a territory which sometimes in history was part of respective state but may be now, even for a very long time and based on international agreements, part of another state. The argument is: „that land was ours and has to be again, this is our historical right“. 13 Principle of natural (ethnic) law is claiming a territory of another state (neighbor state) where is a minority people of the same nationality who live in the state which is claiming that territory. 368 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

In the Digital era, much stronger, more disturbing and devastating manifestations of this phenomenon take place. Despite an informative and documentary capacity of digital technology, the mass ethnic cleansings and atrocities during the civil war in Yugoslavia (1991- 2001) took place. They were clearly visible on satellites but it was not possible to stop them. In Russo-Ukrainian conflict which has deep historical preconditions, the digital technology allowed to target and shoot down a Malaysia Airlines plane flying from Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur and to kill hundreds of innocent people. Drones became technologies commonly used in military conflicts for intelligence and for destruction of strategic targets being navigated distance of hundreds and even thausands of kilometres. Development of military technologies has been always faster than the advancement of spiritual maturity of people, and military was always ready to use their newest technologies. The great spiritual leaders and teachers need to be followed by much larger community of supporters and students so that their voice is more audible and influencial globally. In conclusion of this subchapter it has to be said, that every person is a component of society, even if we could think that for example monks are exempt of this. It is very imporant to be alert and to try everywhere, where it is in our capacity, to spread wisdom of Buddhist teaching on impermanence. It is important, besides other reasons, as a protection against populist or manipulative decisions or actions disguised by „thick line“ , as particularly here a suffering of people is at stake. Impermanence as a First Dharma Seal is a basic principle. Nevertheless, human society and human beings need a certain stability. Stable family with good interpersonal relations based od trust, love and respect is extremely important. A state needs a political, economic and international stability. It is not possible to confuse impermanence with a chaos at individual, interpersonal, societal and international level.

Second Dharma Seal: Non Self

This subchapter presents in its introductory part the very basics of Buddhist teaching on non-self and contrasts it with the Western approach to self as independent entity. The core of this subchapter brings some examples of extreme attachment to physical body and interconnectivity of „dictate of eternal youth“ and ageing with a digital culture, and related stress and tentions. Teaching on non-self which is the second Dharma of Buddhism is interconnected with the teaching on impermanence. Non-self means that all things and phenomena are JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 369

without self-nature, do not have an “independent self”, that they have no independent existence on their own, while all phenomena are impermanent and their existence depends of other phenomena. The second Dharma seal is closely connected with human psyche. Human beings are phenomena as anything else, and therefore they are also subject to permanent change and do not have a self. Buddhist concept of impermanence and non - self could be, however, also a comfortable disguise of laziness, lack of discipline, lack of caring which do not correspond to Buddhist teaching and should be avoided. People have the tendency to consider the self as something real and durable, as something which is foundation of their personality. Particularly Western culture inclines to see self as a separate, independent entity. In Christianity, this independent permanent entity is a soul. Even secular Western thinking is very deeply influenced by this Christian backgroud and considers the self as something real and durable for the time of one´s life. Often it is said that someone, usually politicians, are persons of integrity, that someone´s opinions do not change and are firm, that someone is „as a rock“ etc. In reality we change all the time. However, even Ancient Romans recognized, that Tempora Mutantur and Nos Mutamus in Illis (Times change, and we change with them). 14 Buddhism teaches that attachment of many people to their bodies makes them to believe that there is some absolute essence inside of them that is the “real” self, but that it is a temporary form caused by a brief congregation of the physical and mental components of existence. Once those parts are separated, no real self will be found anywhere.15 However, some European mystics inclining to Buddhism, and yogis, such as very influential František Drtikol, Eduard Tomáš and Míla Tomášová, differentiated the mind from a soul which they saw as permanent entity subject to reincarnation. The teachings of these thinkers have been more linked to Christian belief in an eternal soul, than to Buddhist teaching about no substantial existence or absolute self present anywhere in the body. Their major merit however lays in the fact that these thinkers were great propagators of Eastern thinking, particularly of Buddhism, in Europe. In contrast to Buddhism, Western culture is very attached to the people´s physical bodies, despite the church in the past tried to redirect the Christians toward perception of the

14 From Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid). 15 http://hsingyun.org/the-three-dharma-seals/ 370 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

body as a vessel of sin. These sometimes extreme Christian approaches belong to the history. The human body is nowadays, in Western predominantly liberal and non spiritual society, valued to such a high level, that a dictate of „eternal youth“ prevails. Digital media and printed magazines are full of pictures and stories of celebrities whose face and body deny their age. It is good to be fit, to exercize, to take care for one´s own health, to feel well. But there is a big business behind the “eternal youth“, such as plastic surgery and paparazzi spying who has undegone a plastic surgery and who has not (yet). The pictures of the celebrities are almost always digitally retouched by a photoshop which increases the delusion and strenghtens the virtual reality of our Digital era. 16 The „dictate of the „eternal youth“ has much deeper impact on the Western society in Digital era than just pictures and tabloid stories. Young people are exposed to stress spread mainly by digital media and various internet pages that having a family and a successfull career is almost to „square the circle“. Examples of brilliant managers - women, who have career, children, travel constantly internationally, do extreme sports, look „eternaly young“ etc. are for most women a stressor as well. The men are exposed to similar pressures, too. Instead of encouraging and offering positive guidance toward quiet mind and inner peace the effect of digital culture is opposite. There are also noticeable changes in the approach to elderly people. In the Digital era, the average life expectancy increased substantially, population in developed countries is ageing while preserving the physical and psychical capabilities much longer than in the past. Nowadays, progressive universities have programs of studies and projects on ageing and the policies prohibiting age discrimination have been adopted in many countries. The digital media however develop a stressful atmosphere that there is very difficult or no chance for people who actually represent majority of population to find or keep a job or to be valued. The model example of a sage, of a wise scholar, of a teacher, who is grealy represented in Buddhism and used to be present also in Western culture, in our Digital era disapeared.

16 Sophisticated dimension offers Fukushima, Masato in his Corpus Mysticum Digitale (mystical body digital)? by presenting the idea of our digital body surviving the death of our natural body. This concept of two bodies in the era of digital technology is influenced by a medieval European concept of royal corpus mysticum. http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/UCpUKXaMEThNKPPmVE57/full JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 371

Buddhist Precepts

This subchapter contrasts Five Buddhist Precepts with Ten Commandement and then examines each of the Five Buddhist Precepts within the context of societal and cultural developments in the past and in present with particular emphasis on digital culture. Middle Path based on „Noble Eightfold Path“ is a fundamental principle for appropriate conduct at the level of individual life, family life, communities and at national and international level. Even if it goes back to the beginning of Buddhism, it can very effectively help us to adapt and balance with the forces of globalization and digitalization. We should think and live in moderation and reasonableness. Way of life based on patience, perseverance, diligence, wisdom and prudence is indispensable in creating balance and sustainability of life, economy, society and environment.17 Five Buddhist Precepts are closely linked to the teaching on „Noble Eightfold Path. “ Lay Buddhists should observe „Five Precepts“. They use to be translated in slightly different ways but their meaning is the same: 1. to avoid taking the life of beings; 2. to avoid taking things not given; 3. to avoid sexual misconduct; 4. to refrain from false speech; 5. to abstain from alcoholic and other narcotics.18 These Buddhist precepts are sometimes compared with Judeo-Christian Ten Commandments. However, even if these principles are close each to other or even overlaping, there is a substantial difference – while the Old Testament speaks about a sin and punishment for a breach of any of the Ten Commandments, in Buddhism, the Five Precepts mean ethical and moral instruction or guidance.19 In principle, in Christian tradition, the Commandements are respected based on discipline and fear of punishment while in Buddhism, a skilled mind should avoid causing suffering or remorse. Despite fear and punishment, in Christian environment the Commandements have been not respected and observed in the past and in present. 20 Five Buddhist Precepts

17 Religions in the Kingdom of Thailand. Bangkok: Department of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Culture, 2000. 76. 18 There are three other precepts designed for special occasions. However, the Buddhist clergy has to observe much higher number of rules (200-300). http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/budethics. 19 There is no concept of sin in Buddhism. Buddhist concept of karma as one of the most fundamental amongst Buddhist doctrines relates in principle to action and its consequences. 20 People could exculpate themselves by a confession, indulgencies, repentance and some other ways. Even if under some historical conditions the observance of Ten Commandements was strict, in general, the breach of Ten Commandements stretches accross history of Christian civilization like a red thread. 372 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

consist of instructions that are for our present world much better applicable. Buddhism as an atheistic religion can offer through the precepts a perspective for a good quality of a private and public life of individuals and society as a whole. Buddhist precepts make a simple impression, but they are multilayered and the intepretation and teaching about these deeper layers and connections is very important. Under a simple formulation lays a holistic concept of interconnected meanings. Buddhist society however also was not and is not immune against not respecting the precepts what could be documented by many examples. Basically, we can just wish that these principles or precept which reflect a deep human wisdom would find more space and more attention in our present time. The observation of the precept on refraining from false speech (which means also gossiping and listening to gossip, lying, senseless chatter, spreading ungrounded news etc.) would be particularly important in the Digital era. We can not and should not isolate ourselves from information about the world around us. Instead of quality information, however, we are exposed to fragmented, superficial information and even gossips and tabloid type „news“. We are so used to it that we are even addicted to it. This kind of information suggests to be our reality, our world. It is not, it is a virtual reality, a delusion. The impact of this virtual reality is damaging and in recent years it became a subject of research at the intersection of spiritual sciences and media studies. 21 The digital media have an enormous role in this but major responsibility is lays upon us ourselves, as we should have more inner discipline to resist these „temptations“. A strong manifestation of not right speech and not right conduct is when personal issues of celebrities, politicians and people from showbusinees fill in the digital media. Some even offer themselves to paparazzi in order to gain more attention and popularity (as many think that bad popularity is better than any), some, on the other hand, are chased by paparazzi who are stealing their privacy, and some cases happened that the paparazzi chased someone even to death. It is necessary to distinguish, though, what is related to our Digital era and what is a common nature of people who do not care about their spiritual growth. In principle, this is not just a phenomenon of this present era. People were always attracted to watch violent, bloody spectacles – gladiator games in ancient Rome, public executions, etc.

21 See for example Sunath, Senarath et al. Mindful Jounalism et New Ethics in the Digital Era. New York: Routledge, 2015. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 373

“Right conduct“ creates a foundation to Buddhist precepts of abstaining from harmul actions including harming and even killing others, taking of what was not given and sexual misconduct. Particularly in observation of these precepts present society should go through a deep selfreflection. This should start first from everyone individually and then spread accross larger strata of society. Observation of these precepts and of precepts based on Right Livelihood Path would be very beneficial for everyone and for the society as well. At the same time, unfortunatelly, we see that there is little perspective to achieve in this point substantial results in near future. Europe became a theatre of military operations in recent two decades, i.e. after the end of the Cold War. Interconnection between political, lobbyist and capitalist circles is widespread and corruption scandals from time to time erupt. In terms of sexual misconduct, the situation in Western society is very unsatisfacory and it is of a serious concern of sociologists, psychologists, medical and othe experts. Marriage in Christianity is a sacrament and even today, many marriages are concluded in church and then a divorce is considered an improper breakdown of a relationship and is even impossible without a papal consent. 22 In reality, people marry often without strong foundation of their relationhip and they divorce hastily. It is certainly very unhealthy when one half of marriages finishes by a divorce, very often within 3-5 years after the wedding. Who suffers are the children. It is very unfortunate that more than 50% of children in school classes to not have home both their own parrents. 23 At the same time, the number of people who live together, have children, but did not marry, is also high. Influential or rich men, businessman or politicians divorce their wives who for decades were their companions, helping hands and mothers of their children, and marry young attractive women, often secretaries or spokespersons. It is almost a rule that the men gain more popularity this way and their reputation of strong leaders increases, while the divorced women are often victims of digital media paparazzi who ridicul their ageing. It would be naïve to think that these manifestations are just product of our times. The saying „cherchez la femme“ has an old history and is based on old social experiences. Yet, today we live in an emancipated society and women can be leaders without harming others.

22 Still the practice in Italy while in strict Catholic Poland a divorce without papal consent is possible. 23 Czech example, but other European countries have similar data. https://www.czso.cz/csu/cz- so/0b00225862. 374 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Important therefore is that Buddhism places a heavy emphasis on „self-reliance“.24 This can make it well accessible to Western people.

Conclusion

From Schopenhauer to John Paul II sometimes in the West we hear that Buddhism is a pesimistic or even nihilistic teaching. This is a reaction on its emphasis on impermanence and non - self. Particularly people educated in Western traditions of thought may have this impression. It is however just a superficial impression coming from lack of knowledge, lack of understanding or even ignorance. In reality, a better knowledge of Buddhism and better understanding of Buddhist teaching could bring a considerable benefit. There is a lot of stereotypes about Buddhism in the Western world. Buddhism did not became yet part of a larger cultural and religious heritage in Europe. It would be unrealistic to imagine that all Europeans would become Buddhist and we should not go that far. I am convinced that we should value our Christian foundation and take care for it. It would be highly desirable, though, if the characteristics from the introduction of my article on Buddhism – Buddhism philosophically, Christianity culturally and religious affilitation yes or not, by personal decision – would find in Europe much larger implementation. It is necessary to refrain from the attachment to the historical wrongs and stereotypes, to be alert, insightfull, to understand the processess in their permanent development and changes, to adapt to the situation, to abstain from „tick line“ thinking and solutions. At the same time it is important to achieve steadiness, to go to the inner and respect the values. The mobiles phones could be used to detonate a bomb on a distance, with the Facebook, large social unrests can be initiated very quickly. People start short term relationships through mobiles and they sometimes terminate relationships of many years by sending a short sms. The cinemas are dominated by films on living or artificial monstres destroying the world, eventually the entire universe. If a hero chases someone through a city smashing everyone and destroying everything in his way, it is considered OK. Consequently, negativity and aggresivity spreads in the society.

24 Religions in the Kingdom of Thailand, 99. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 375

This article described rather negative aspects of digital technologies. However, there are not just negatives. Maybe we just do not have enough of distance from the arrival of Digital era, which dates only one and half decade back. It would be not right to judge the digital technologies only negatively because they have many important positives as well. One old Czech proverb says that a fire is a good servant but a bad master, and the same applies to digital technologies. Digital era does not mean only social media. Advanced digital technologies are used in medicine, astronomy, astronautics, cartography, oceanography, aviation, naval navigation, architecture, criminology, statistics and many other academic and practical disciplines, even in history. Internet does not mean only digital paparazzi, leaking information and hackers. Internet is a very important databaze of primary sources, such as academic editions of historical, religious and other texts, we can use on line catalogs of libraries of the entire world, we can use archival materials, we use the translator….. the usage is very large. In my own academic work as a historian, I do use an internet and various webpages and am teaching the students the methods of usage of internet in history. In respect of Buddhism, thanks to the internet, the access to Buddhism is much easier than ever before. Many primary and secondary sources are available on line and information about retreats, conferences, discussions and consultations are easily available. Nowadays, almost everyone is constantly watching his or her mobile phone. Not necesserely this has to be negative. Mobile phones can help to find people after earthquakes, people often can také picture of accidents etc. To some extent the mobile phone culture helps people to be grounded in their own world and to stay focused there. Internet and other digital technologies have to be used wisely to avoid negative impact on mind. Thanks to the digital opportunities we in the West can have more access to and possibly get more isnpiration from the Buddhist wisdom and this is a very good perspective. 376 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

References

The Dhammapada:The Buddha‘s Path of Wisdom. Translated by . http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_fi le/scrndhamma.pdf Grieve, Gregory P. and Veidlinger, Daniel M. Buddhism, the Internet and Digital Media: The Pixel in the Lotus. Routledge Studies in Religion and Digital Culture. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 2014, 2015. Fukushima, Masato in his Corpus Mysticum Digitale (mystical body digital) http://www. tandfonline.com/eprint/UCpUKXaMEThNKPPmVE57/full Religions in the Kingdom of Thailand. Bangkok: Department of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Culture, 2000. Sunath, Senarath et al. Mindful Jounalism et New Ethics in the Digital Era. New York: Routledge, 2015. Thich Nhat Hanh. The Three Dharma Seals. In: Cultivating the Mind of Love - The Practice of Looking Deeply in the Mahayana Buddhist Tradition. Berkeley, California: Parallax Press, 1966. Quoted from http://www.abuddhistlibrary.com/Buddhism/G - TNH/ TNH/The Three Dharma Seals. https://www.vlada.cz/en/ppov/council-for-sustainable-developm http://hsingyun.org/the-three-dharma-seals/ http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/budethics. https://www.czso.cz/csu/czso/0b00225862. Buddhist Psychology: A Study based on Mental Cultivation to Establish Harmonious Society in the Digital Era

Miss. Tran Thi Nghia (Bhikkhunī: Thich Nu Lien Hoa) Sanchi University of Buddhist-Indic Studies Email: [email protected]

Abstract

As we live in the period of technological modernization of the human being, this is approaching a digital era. We are also facing up to problems of advantage and disadvantage. The urgent need for digital era is how digital technology is affecting better human life. According to view of Buddhism taught that the return of the human reality separated from metaphysical ideals could keep us away from exacerbations of ideas and the dehumanizing automatisms of technology. The human being is not only a mechanic, operational construction; on the contrary, he has a consciousness that mind is the focus of all activities from awareness to express of words and actions. So, he can opts for actions himself, which may prove, in the end, to be genuine or not, thanks to the success or due to the failure in the concrete reality. The aim of this paper is to underline that the development the insight of highlight factors of humanity such as fraternity, non-violence, loving-kindness, compassion and wisdom so on, combine the cultivation of inner peace with active social compassion in mutually supportive and enriching practice. The digital era must be perceived as a product of human ingenuity and its applicative potentialities and should not be seen as the domination of technology, but only as a stage of the developments in the technologies that must assist our life.

Keywords: Buddhist Psychology, Mental Cultivation, Harmonious Society, Digital Era. 378 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Introduction

As we live in the period of technological modernization of the human being, this is approaching a digital era. We are also facing up to problems of advantage and disadvantage. The urgent need for digital era is how digital technology is affecting better human life. According to view of Buddhism taught that the return of the human reality separated from metaphysical ideals could keep us away from exacerbations of ideas and the dehumanizing automatisms of technology. The human being is not only a mechanic, operational construction; on the contrary, he has a consciousness that mind is the focus of all activities from awareness to express of words and actions. So, he can opts for actions himself, which may prove, in the end, to be genuine or not, thanks to the success or due to the failure in the concrete reality. The aim of this paper is to underline that the development the insight of highlight factors of humanity such as fraternity, non-violence, loving-kindness, compassion and wisdom so on, combine the cultivation of inner peace with active social compassion in mutually supportive and enriching practice. The digital era must be perceived as a product of human ingenuity and its applicative potentialities and should not be seen as the domination of technology, but only as a stage of the developments in the technologies that must assist our life.

Brief Introduction about the Characteristics of the Digital Era

The period characterized by the existence and development of digital technology. The “Digital Era” refers to a time in which there is widespread, ready and easy access to, sharing of, and use of information (knowledge) in electronically accessible, i.e., digitized, form, in economic activities.1 Today, impact in technology in human life is immeasurable. People use technology every day, in different ways and people also do that to harming up the society we live in. “But what we are used to call modern technology, technically it is not as new as we think. For instance, if we have a great Smartphone today we can figure out that it is just an advancement of an ordinary mobile phone that we had years ago. Or look at a train today - we used to use steam powered trains and now we have electronic trains - just to get faster to some place. The technology evolves, but it finds old ways and old technologies to evolve.”2 Now let’s look

1 (Lawrence J. Lau, 2003), p. 5. 2 http://www.ubiwhere.com/en/news/2015/05/25/technology-advantages-and-disadvantages/#. WdYMXsIX7IU. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 379

at these advantages and disadvantages: Advantages; Improved communication - advanced communication technology tools, Easy access to information - at anytime and anywhere, Social Networking is great improvement for individuals and businesses, Convenience in education such as online, Convenience of traveling are very important in our lives and in the business world, Efficiency and productivity to helping businesses increasing production, saving time and money in the industry, etc. In addition to such advantages, there are also significant disadvantages such as; Job loss - machine replacing humans, World destruction weapons - increasing endless wars, increased loneliness - social isolation, Competency - increased dependency on modern tools that reduces our creativity and intelligence. Therefore, the use of our daily technology should be reconsidered their harming. This paper is confined to the major method of Buddhist Psychology. The importance of Buddhist Psychology in the society and practice of Buddhism is highlighted. The problems of the paper describe and analyze Buddhist Psychological key including: basic drives that motivate behavior, perceive the right problem, personal development, and behavior change. The relationship between theory and practice in Buddhist Psychology is commented on, with special reference to techniques of mental cultivation and other behavior change strategies. Finally, comments are made on the possible interaction between Buddhism and the Digital Era in the most effective technology use possible.

Meaning of Buddhist Psychology

The word “psychology” derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, or soul about 15th century or early 16th century.3 This term closely connected to the scientific study of the human psyche. And the term “Buddhist Psychology” was coined by Caroline Rhys Davids. For the first time she mentioned this term in her book entitled “A Buddhist Manual Psychological Ethics, From the Pali of the Dhamma-Sangani.”4 The term “Buddhist psychology” is commonly used to characterize elements of Buddhist thinking and practice that touch upon the observation, description, and analysis of phenomena deemed psychologically.5

3 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology, 25 October, 2017. 4 (Caroline A. F. Rhys Davids, 1900). 5 (Teo, T. (Ed.), 2014), p. 185. 380 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Buddhist psychology states that because of evil conditions of mind, one commits evil deed and defiles one’s mind; and as a result, one becomes victim of his own deeds and loss health. Therefore, Buddhism emphasizes the importance of developing one’s own mind. In Buddhism, mental development is of greatest importance because without it, it is impossible to gain complete health. 6 Buddhist Psychology is regarded as a science of mind as it deals with mind. The study of what the mind is and the study of how the mind functions (epistemology) are understood to be crucial aspects of the spiritual path. And all the teachings of the Buddha was recorded the Buddhist canon, is meant to help human beings relieve suffering and achieve happiness, and that only happens through control the mind. The fundamental teachings of the Buddha holds that external things are manifested of the mind. Therefore, pure mind must be trained and cleansed of evil propensities. “To purify one’s mind” is said to be the sum-total of the Buddha’s teachings: “To avoid all evil to cultivate good, and to cleanse one’s mind. This is the teaching of the Buddhas.”7 According to Buddhism, physical is linked to mental states. Thus the real threats to our well-being are evil psychological elements such as attachment, anger, and ignorance. They are the three fundamental deluded minds that lead to all other afflictions, both mental and physical. Only with thorough understanding about the mind and its functions, human can hope to transcend the disturbing thoughts and emotions that plague for himself, family and society. The ultimate goal of studying the mind is complete freedom from suffering, we can also study the mind for controlling it like person who is boatman. Investigating the mind by analyzing our thoughts, emotions, and control by mental cultivation of Cognition, right decide about social balance, harmony, development in the society. This is unique way lead to harmony and development society both spiritual and material life.

General Ideas about mental cultivation

One of basic teachings of Buddha about man, Five Aggregates (pancupadanakkhandha) are compound elements of man namely, the aggregate of material form (rūpa) which is known as body or physical and the last four factors which are known as mind, mental or non- physical factors in man. “The Buddha denies the existence of any permanent entity whether

6 (Ashin Sumanacara, 2014), p. 125. 7 Dhammapada verses, 183. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 381

we describe it as mind or consciousness. What we refer to as mind is really a psycho-physical complex (nāma-rūpa). Nāma is used to refer to the four non-material groups (khandhas): these are vedana (feeling), saññā (sense-impressions, images, ideas, and concepts), saṇkhāra (conative activity, dispositions) and viññāṇa (consciousness). The term rūpa refers to the four great dements: extension, cohesion, heat, and the material shape derived from them. The mental and physical constituents form one complex, and there is a mutual dependency of the mind on the body and of the body on the mind.”8 When we speak about mental cultivation then we really are speaking about not just dealing with psychological problems but dealing with the more fundamental spiritual problems of defilements, delusions, illusions, and ignorance, states of ignorance. These are the things that we need to deal with. Because if we deal with these mental defilements, delusions, and if we are successful in our effort to purify the mind of these pollutants, for want of a better word, then we will receive spiritual illumination and we will then become more enlightened, not just more sane, less crazy, and get on with our friends and other fellow human beings better. But it’s more. The transformation is more fundamental, that’s what I am trying to say.9 The main purpose of the Buddhism, as the Buddha commences his spiritual training, is to study and analyses his own mind, to observe its inner nature and how it works; and how good and bad ethical states arise therefrom. That is why in Buddhism so much emphasis is laid on the psychological aspect of ethics. The motive of Buddhism is not just a scientific evidence having bearing on living, but the ultimate desire to cultivate the good mind, avoiding all evil psychological states.10 What we have to renounce is the ignorance, which is behind all our deluded states of mind. Trained and cleansed of evil mind are teachings of innermost core that are central teaching system of Buddhism.

An Analysis through Activities Process of Man

According to the Five Aggregates (khandhas (Pāḷi), Buddhism analyses the whole of man into five aggregates, (pancupadanakkhandha) namely, the aggregate of material form (rūpa), the aggregate of feelings and sensations (Vedanā), the aggregate of perception

8 (Padmasiri de Silva, 2000), p. 16. 9 (Ven. Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche, 2003). 10 (O.H. De. A), pp. 2-3. 382 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

(Saññā), the aggregate of disposition (sankhara) and consciousness (viññana). This Five Aggregates is divided into two parts: Body and mind of man; the aggregate of material form (rūpa) which is known as body and the aggregate of feelings and sensations (vedana), the aggregate of perception (Saññā), the aggregate of disposition (sankhara) and consciousness (viññana) the last four factors are non-physical factors in man, they are generally implied by the word “mind”. Another analysis, personality is also analyzed in a more dynamic way as have three divisions of man. These are body, speech and mind. Meanwhile, all our actions are performed by control of mind. The main way in which the mind produces effect in the body is through states of mind leading to speech. The basic actions consist of two types to be good and bad. The good actions produce from good thought of mind, and bad action produce from bad thought of mind. The mind precedes all action. In Buddhist psychology, mind has an important position in man. “Experiences are preceded by mind, Led by mind, and produced by mind. If one speaks or acts with an impure mind, Suffering follows even as the cart-wheel follows the hoof of the ox” And: “Experiences are preceded by mind, Led by mind, and produced by mind. If one speaks or acts with a pure mind, Happiness follows like a shadow that never departs.”11

Practice to mental Cultivation

In Buddhism we have many different kinds of practices, but you find that they all emphasis just the meditation really, fundamentally speaking. In terms of meditation: one technique of meditation is designed for us to be able to get some kind of handle on how to deal with our conflicting emotions, this is called meditation of tranquility; and then there is a type of meditation which is designed to help us, to aid us in our effort to overcome discursive thoughts, the proliferation of thoughts that we spoke about, which is dealt with by this practice called meditation of insight.12 The life-current, the stream of existence which we call the self; and it is only with self-delusion that unsatisfactoriness or suffering can exist. By the destruction of that which holds together the delusion of the self, the root cause of suffering is also destroyed. The ultimate aim of Buddhist practice is to annihilate the self. This is where a great deal of

11 Dhammapada verses; Verse 1 & 2. 12 (Ven. Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche, 2003). JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 383

misunderstanding arises, and naturally so; but once it is realized that to annihilate the self is to annihilate a delusion, this misunderstanding disappears.13 When the delusion is removed, the reality appears; so that to destroy delusion is to reveal the reality. The reality cannot be discovered while the delusion of self continues to obscure it. Hence, in the Buddhist texts is often explained as the final elimination from one’s own mind, of greed, hatred and delusion was replacing the three evil roots by three good ones, that is, to replace greed by non-greed, hate and ill-will by kindness and goodwill, ignorance by wisdom. This, of course, also implies the perfection of the opposite positive qualities of selflessness, loving-kindness, and wisdom. The attainment of the ultimate aim of all Buddhist practices, and is the same as complete liberation from dissatisfaction or suffering. What motivates human action? What drives people in their behaviors? According to Buddhist analysis, the all action of man is governed by mind. The ordinary person’s behavior, according to Buddhism, is governed and driven by psychological aspects like desire, hatred, delusion, etc. and psychological aspects of mind which is associated with the mind. The Buddhist way of life is an intense process of cleansing one’s speech, action and thought. It is self-development and self-purification resulting in self-realization. The emphasis is on practical results and not on mere philosophical speculation, logical abstraction or even mere cogitation.14 The goal of metal cultivation to evil psychological changes for towards the achievement of ultimate goal is practicing the meditation base on the path of the Noble Eightfold Path, involves steps which can be described as right psychological aspects such as Right Understanding (Samma ditthi), Right Thought (Samma sankappa), Right Speech (Samma vaca), Right Action (Samma kammanta), Right Livelihood (Samma ajiva), Right Effort (Samma vayama), Right Mindfulness (Samma sati), Right Concentration (Samma samadhi) and the level of achieving this goal was dependent on each individual’s efforts. The actual task of achieving the goal was up to each individual’s efforts. And method of meditation is considered a central method in Buddhist texts. Buddhist Psychology are described using in the digital it look like manual to guiding for harmonious society. “These include: fear reduction by graded exposure and reciprocal inhibition; using rewards for promoting desirable behavior; modelling for inducing behavioral

13 https://www.bps.lk/olib/bl/bcccccl042_Bullen_Buddhism--A-Method-of-Mind-Training.html 14 (Padmal, Vol. 9 No. 3 Fall. 1990), pp. 236-254. 384 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

change; the use of stimulus control to eliminate undesirable behavior; the use of aversion to eliminate undesirable behavior; training in social skills; self-monitoring; control of intrusive thoughts by distraction, switching/stopping, incompatible thoughts, and by prolonged exposure to them; intense, covert, focusing on the unpleasant aspects of a stimulus or the unpleasant consequences of a response, to reduce attachment to the former and eliminate the latter; graded approach to the development of positive feelings towards others: use of external cues in behavior control; use of response cost to aid elimination of undesirable behavior; use of family members for carrying out behavior change programs; and cognitive-behavioral methods.”15

Application of mental cultivation in the Digital Era.

In the four noble truths, the Buddha compares the stages of freeing the mental factors to recovery from illnesses. If we don’t first recognize that we are sick, we won’t seek help. And if we don’t know the origin of our sickness, we cannot choose the most effective therapy to cure. The Buddhism is considering the four noble truths like the framework to formulate this insight: we can apply them equally well to the nature of the mind. To transform the mind, we must see that it can be transformed, an understanding that can arise only out of true knowledge of its nature. And there are applications like below in the society.

Education for self – responsibilities

To established harmonious society, the individual is the key factor. Man is the most important matters for social change. The individual change well then harmony, peace, happiness be established. Because, per individual is as cell of society. Therefore, for the betterment of world each individual has to improve. Consequently the social reformation will be established by acquiring the peace of individual-mind. So we can say the peace of each mind is the source of world harmony. Harmonious society is the basic teaching of Buddhism. As the means of practice, peace cultivated in a person’s mind is a source of an act of peace and a moral deed. Only a peaceful mind can originate a peaceful act. The Buddha’s teaching encourages a person to keep our mind in peace and demand peace from others. Therefore, universal responsibility is the key to human survival and development. It is believed to be the

15 Ibid. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 385

best foundation for the world peace. It helps us to recognize that the most secure foundation for a new world order is not simply broader political and economic alliances, but each individual’s genuine effect of action. Education of Buddhist Psychology toward to the mental power - the mental power to create machines. The power to create happiness. The people, have the power to make this life free and beautiful, a world of reason - a world where science and progress will lead to all men’s happiness.

Development for moral action

The evil actions, which are to be avoided, relate to the three doors or means of action, and these are action of body, action of speech and action of mind. Meanwhile, all actions are performed by control of mind. The evil actions of mind produce evil results - suffering, moral actions of mind produce moral results - happiness. The benefits of understanding the action of mind are that understanding discourages one from performing evil actions, which have suffering as their fruit. Once we understand that in our own life every action will have a similar and equal reaction, once we understand that we will experience the effect of that action, moral or evil, we will refrain from evil behavior, not wanting to experience the effects of these evil actions. Similarly, understanding that moral actions have happiness as their fruit, we will cultivate these moral actions. Reflecting on the law of karma, of action and reaction in the moral sphere encourages us to renounce evil actions and cultivate moral actions.

Balance between spiritual life and material life

Balance between spiritual life and material life is characteristics of an ideal society. Morality is cultivated in the mind that keeps the world in balance and equilibrium. Those who think, speak and act morally always keep themselves to this normative balance leading to harmony and happiness with others. On the other hand those who act against this equilibrium create disturbances. Thus moral cultivation is indispensable for the harmony in the society. A course of life conditioned by these moral factors is bound to bring satisfaction, happiness, progress and peace in life. When mental factors be cultivated it is a great force for harmony in the world. The Buddha’s policy of peace, self-sacrifice, kindness and charity find also in India and another countries. 386 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Buddhist Psychology teaches us to free ourselves from that kind of grasping – not in an emotional, rejecting way but rather by taking the middle way, between the two extremes. If you put your mind wisely into this balanced space, you will find their happiness and joy. We need to pay equal attentions to both material and spiritual development. These two aspects need to be concerned. Because, our spiritual happiness and inner contentment without them, life will difficult. No matter how abundant the materials are. The external material aspects are also important since we can’t only live solely on spirit. We need material resources as a support for simply surviving and being in the world. But rather emphasizes a balance between material and spiritual cultures. Because, that will bring benefits to our lives. We should maintain a reasonable balance between our inner and outer realities. It is great importance. We are concerned about all the related knowledge of inner heart and its significance we also have to care about the benefit and shortcomings a materials focus has brought to human and society.

Harmonious Nourishment in Mind

Mind is main key for every action of men. Therefore, mind nourishment is as root nourishment. Mind that introduces the individual to the most important scientific problems of man, how to understand mind and behavior in life, lead to a better the life. The origin of all phenomena comes from mind, does not have a phenomenon that exists outside mind. So, if you understand the concern with mind. Then all phenomena are available in the mind. For example large tree whose branches are full, leaf, flower, fruit.... but all them from a root, if the root of tree is cut tree, leaves be would die. Likewise, if we do not know the origin of the mind that apply wrong ways and methods to practice, like a person cooks sand that hope become the rice. So, for directing the learners recognize the source of the mind to practice is important, most essential, and indispensable. If you do not understand the mind lead to wrong thought like cooking sand that hope become the rice is impossible. And the twelfth-century Vietnamese Zen master Thuong Chieu (“Always Shining”) said, “When we understand how our mind works, the practice becomes easy.”16 The lesson from this doctrine points out practical values of Buddhism which should be kept and acted on in one’s daily life. Nourishment of harmonious thoughts are produced harmonious actions from harmonious thoughts of mind, the basic and chief aims and objectives of Buddhist Psychology.

16 (Thich, 2002), p. 4. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 387

Organization for the harmonious society

The method of mental cultivation is the key factor to inter-faith harmony and to reducing terrorism have joined hands towards community building, inspiring people of different castes and classes to work together. The Buddha’s policy of peace, self-sacrifice, kindness and charity applied also successful through ages such as Asoka in India, Trần Nhân Tông in Vietnam, and Tang Dynasty in China...... Tolerance is the special characteristic of universal love. Asoka was greatly influenced by Buddha’s teaching and he succeeded to establish harmonious society in conquest by Righteousness and ultimately win peace and tranquility for India that time. The basic aims and objectives of mental cultivation of Buddhism, are to soften and fill the hearts of people with compassion. These method provide strong and sound foundation for controlled and disciplined human life. When one will follow that then one will think for others. In another sense, neither for one’s own nor for other’s sake one should do any evil. So the Buddha’s moral teaching, these precepts help to stop civil unrest struggle for power among political parties, racial prejudices, narrow selfish motives, different religious sects, economic status, fame and war between nations. Finally it can be said that if we practice to cultivate positive psychological aspects, then we can be able to establish a tension free peaceful society. But we should remember one thing that we have to practice all these Buddhist ethics honestly and completely.

Conclusion

In the digital era, most people are influenced by the boon of scientific technology, and believe that the way of human life is to develop and utilize it. Having discovered the laws of the natural world, modern science and technology have misused them, and freely manipulated the world of nature in order to obtain material wealth. As a consequence of putting spirituality aside, man has become a threat to the existence of other beings. All serious problems in society are created because of man’s ignorance and illegitimate desires; people inflict pain on others to gain their own happiness or satisfaction. But true happiness comes only from a sense of inner peace which must be achieved through the cultivation of altruism, love and compassion and through the elimination of anger, selfishness and greed. According to Buddhism, peace is not merely the absence of war, weariness, conflict, disturbance, and suffering but also a positive feeling of contentment, pleasure and happiness, the development of a good heart, love, compassion, joy, equanimity and so on. And These Buddhist doctrines have a great role to play in reminding us of our humanity. 388 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Mental cultivation is bound to bring satisfaction, happiness, progress and peace in life, being the vital force in the lives these nations were enabled to live peacefully, with mutual goodwill toward, friendship with and appreciative understanding of each other verily a great traditional contribution to the well-being of human family. changing bad psychologies status certainly help safe living in this world which is otherwise riddle with instability and uncertainties in the sphere of peace. When mental factors be cultivated it is a great force for harmony in the world. Understanding the meaning of Buddhist Psychology can help man to create a harmonious life not only in the human world, but it can also give an effective solution in re-establishing a harmonious life between man and his environment. If the mental cultivation can be applied in the modern world, it can make people aware of the true meaning and lead to the attainment of happiness.

References

Dhammapada verses; Translated from the Pāli by , Originally published by Wind horse Publications, 1996. Ashin Sumanacar. A Psychological Analysis of Physical and Mental Pain in Buddhism. JIA- BU, Vol. 7 No. 2, 124-136, 2014. Caroline A. F. Rhys Davids. A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics. London: Oriental Translation Fund, 1900. Ch. Venkata Siva, S. Buddhism A Practical Psycology. Delhi-110007: Eastern Book Linkers, 2014. David J, K. (1992). The Principles of Buddhist Psychology. Delhi, India: Sri Satguru, 1987. Lawrence J. Lau. Economic Growth in the Digital Era. Welcoming the Challenge of the Digital Era (p. 5). Taipei: Stanford, U.S.A., 2003. O.H. De. A, W. (n.d.). The Buddhist Concept of Mind. Retrieved Sep Friday 6, 2013, from Buddhist Publication Society: http://www.bps.lk/index.php Padmal, S. Buddhist psychology: A review of theory and practice. Current Psychology, Pp. 236-254, Vol. 9 No. 3 Fall. 1990. Padmasiri de Silva. An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefi eld, 2000. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 389

Piyadassi, T. The Psychological Aspect of Buddhism. Colombo Y, M. B. A. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1972. Teo, T. (Ed.). Encyclopedia of CriticalPsychology. In P. Chakkaratha, Buddhist Psychology (pp. 185 - 188). New York: Springer, 2014. Thich, N. H. Understanding Our Mind. California: Parallax Press , 2002. Ven. Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche. Mental Cultivation in Buddhist Spirituality. Thigsum Chokyi Ghatsal, Launceston, 2003. Buddhism and the Ecology in the Digital Age

Anthony Le Duc Asian research center for religion and social communication, St. John’s University Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The modern day ecological crisis characterized by increasing human estrangement from the natural environment has the potential to be exacerbated in the digital age, in which human beings become more preoccupied with cyberspace at the detriment of the physical and natural environment. Age old religious traditions, in particular Buddhism, are asked to address the ecological issues in this new social milieu in order to contribute to solving the crisis. Buddhism as a religion that historically has been able to adapt to technological changes and employ technology in the spreading of its teachings is in a good position to speak to this issue. However, in order to make an effective contribution, Buddhism should not only examine fundamental Buddhist teachings that promote healthy human-nature relationship, but also undergo the threefold process of retrieval, reevaluation and reconstruction in order to make itself relevant to the new social context.

Keywords: Buddhism, environmental crisis, digital age, digital era, technological nature JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 391

Introduction

As humanity enters the digital age, one of the most pressing issues facing the world is the ecological crisis that threatens not only to debilitate the natural environment but also possibly result in humanity’s own destruction. It is imperative to reflect on environmental issues in the digital age because in so many ways, the entities that are associated with the digital context—the Internet and cyberspace—are increasingly drawing people mentally and emotionally, if not physically, away from the space of the analog world. As digital technology becomes more conspicuous in human life, the digital environment has gained greater grounds on the natural environment and people are becoming more preoccupied with the former while neglecting the role and significance of the latter in their lives. In the face of this new social milieu and the accompanying environmental predicament, religious traditions, which naturally are interested in the fate of the human lot, are often expected to help make sense out of the present reality as well as devising ways that contribute to solving problems that it presents. Buddhism, despite being an age old tradition is still asked to make available its wisdom in order to shed light upon issues that affect the well-being of human beings and the natural world around them. This paper examines how Buddhism can address the ecological crisis in the digital age in order to make itself relevant in a new social milieu where human beings are becoming increasingly detached from the natural environment around them.

Implications for human-nature relationship in the digital era

The ushering in of the digital age some three decades ago with the introduction and eventual prolific use of the Internet and its numerous applications has led to the creation of a new entity called cyberspace. This notional environment or metaphorical space is increasingly becoming an important place where people exchange information and experience a sense of social interaction and interconnectivity. People’s lives, especially the younger generation, have become greatly attached to this non-physical environment as the place to go for engaging in online activities, building relationships, and finding news, information and entertainment. People in the Philippines, for example, are reported to spend over a quarter of their day online (6.3 hours). The people of Thailand on average spend 5.5 hours per day on the Internet either for work or leisure activities.1 In Thailand, the largest percentage of users (64 percent)

1 Go-Globe, http://www.go-globe.com/blog/digital-landscape-asia/, accessed 10 October 2017. 392 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

comprises of individuals born between 1977 and 1994. It has been estimated that this group spends time equaling 2.26 days every week online.2 While technological development is inevitable, it is important to reflect on the ramifications of a technology based society. A pertinent question in this process of reflection concerns the future of the environment in an age where people seem increasingly removed from nature while opting for more technologically based methods of managing their lives as well as keeping themselves entertained. The relationship between human and nature in many cultures, especially in the past, is characterized by intimacy, connectedness, and symbiosis, so much so that one can even claim that nature and human beings constitute a single entity or organism (Miller 1991). This kind of horizontal human-nature relationship of interdependency is often seen in nomadic societies where environmental sustainability is essential to such a way of life. The role of the natural environment has always been important in the cultural sensibility of the people of Asia. In Vietnam, for example, the word for country (đất nước) is a combination of the two words, “earth” and “water.” Another word combination that Vietnamese people often use to refer to their sovereign nation is “sông núi” which means “river” and “mountains.” This linguistic expression is indicative of Vietnam’s geography, which comprises of thousands of rivers and long mountain ranges, and make up three quarters of the country’s land area. Vietnam’s two river deltas, the Red River Delta in the north and Mekong River Delta in the south are seen as the rice baskets that feed the people. Water geographical features have always been important to the Southeast Asian way of life. In Thailand, the traditional saying that expressed one’s optimism for the abundance that nature brought to their life is: “There is rice in the field and fish in the waters.” Modernization or urbanization which is a technology driven process is seen to create dynamics that go against the natural affinity that human beings have towards the natural environment. George Monbiot (1995) calls this phenomenon the human “estrangement from the ecosystem” in which there is a “gradual loss of meaningful involvement” with nature with the benefits as well as dangers that it presents. While this process of estrangement may have started as early as the beginning of the agricultural revolution and escalated during the industrial revolution, it is manifesting itself dramatically in this digital age. In this era, relationships (whether human-human or human-nature) are less and less the result of direct

2 AIS, “Thailand ICT Business Landscape and Digital Trend 2016,” http://messepl.com/wp/ wp-content/uploads/2015/11/5.-Connect.W-2015-Global-Telco-Conference-AIS.pdf, accessed 11 October 2017. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 393

interaction and increasingly mediated by digital technology. In the past when infants cried, they were picked up by grandmas and aunts who would comfort them so that they would stop crying. Nowadays, when children cry, they are more likely to be given a smart phone to watch Youtube video clips so that the adults can go on doing their business. Many children of Burmese and Cambodian migrant workers in Thailand are only able see their parents a few times a year, even only once every few years, because the parents have to migrate to neighboring countries to make a living. Parent-child bond, instead, is mediated by digital social network applications such as Line and Facebook. Human-nature relationship, likewise, is affected in the digital age. In the past, children in Vietnam and Thailand used to make horse figures out of banana stalks and raced with one another in the field. Nowadays, children are more likely to get their adrenaline rush by racing cars on a tablet or a smart phone. Traditionally people ordered their daily activities of work and rest basically in accordance with the natural cycle of day. However, with digital technology presenting distractions such as on-demand entertainment programs, online games, and social networks that allow continuous interaction with people all over the world, many forget the natural body rhythms that have evolved over millions of years. One must admit that in certain cases technology has helped in promoting environmental sustainability and conservation. The development of the light bulb, for example, consumes 50 times less energy than the kerosene lamp used in many developing countries. The ability to send correspondences by email reduces the need for paper products. Nowadays, the International Anti-Poaching Foundation (IAPF) trains Green Army rangers to use surveillance technology such as thermal imaging cameras and drones to monitor animals and their habitats in order to prevent poachers from hunting endangered species. The Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) uses sophisticated sensors to monitor the pH levels of the Pacific Ocean in order to help take preventative measures to preserve marine ecosystems.3 Digital technology has also helped us to see and experience nature in wonderful ways, allowing us to discover details that were unavailable to the average person before. Access to information, photographs and videos of natural places all over the earth are available with a few clicks of the mouse or touches on the smart phone or tablet. Despite all the positive things that technology, especially digital technology has brought to human life and the effort to promote environmental sustainability, the question

3 http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/5-ways-tech-will-save-environment/, accessed 10 November 2016. 394 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

remains whether these technological developments have reduced the feeling of estrangement and drawn us back into a more intimate relationship with the natural environment. In many ways, one can argue that technology has further hindered opportunities for encounter between human beings and the natural environment. Nowadays, people can easily take a tour of any part of the world—both natural and man-made—by searching for videos on Youtube and other Internet applications. One can even take virtual tours of the majestic redwood forests in California or the awe inspiring Son Doong Cave in Vietnam. Technology has enabled us to “experience” the most extraordinary events and places in the world with just a click of the mouse. Such digitally mediated encounters, for many, often serve as the prevalent mode of interaction between human and nature. After all, why spend money and time getting on a ship heading into the ocean for days on end without knowing if you’ll actually encounter a blue whale if you can see it up close and personal via Youtube? In fact, the virtual tours and the recording of natural places and events with sophisticated equipments are oftentimes much more picturesque and exciting than the experience of going to the actual place. Many have been let down after having seen photos or taken a virtual tour of a particular place only to be sorely disappointed upon making the actual visit there. For those who do get to the place, many seem more concerned with taking “selfies” and uploading the photos onto social networks than really taking the time to engage in anything meaningful with that particular place. The natural setting becomes nothing more than an interesting background to highlight one’s own image to be broadcasted to friends and followers. Therefore, the irony of the digital age for human relationship with nature is that while it seems to help bring us closer to nature intellectually and even physically, this closeness often does not translate into emotional connection and intimacy.

Buddhist intervention in the digital age

Religion and technology has always gone hand in hand, usually with religion making use of available technology in order to promote its teachings and spread its presence to new territories. The invention of the printing press, for example, did wonders for making the Christian Bible available to the faithful over the centuries. The digital age that the world now finds itself in is having profound impact on how religion presents itself and reaches out to humanity. By employing digital technology and mass media, religions are able to support their adherents in understanding and practicing their faith, but also introduce themselves to potential faith seekers in every corner of the world who can get online. In a globalized world, religions can also impact the society with teachings that address spiritual, social, and political dimensions of human life. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 395

In this manner, Buddhism has never lagged behind when it comes to putting available technology to good use. According to Daniel Veidlinger (2016), “Buddhism has long had an affinity for the latest technologies and has used every means at its disposal to transmit the Dharma far and wide.” Just as Buddhist monks and laypeople took to the Silk Road to spread their teachings, they are now doing the same on the information highway to communicate its teachings to people of all sorts of cultural and ethnic backgrounds. In the same manner that the printing press made the Bible accessible to all kinds of people, digital technology has now put the Pali Canon in multiple languages at the fingertip of anyone with Internet access. In the scholarly community, the Journal of Buddhist Ethics established in 1994 was the first online peer reviewed journal in Religious Studies. As a religion that has always kept up with technological developments, Buddhism is in as good of a position as any not only to understand, employ, but also critique digital technology and its ramifications for human- nature relationship in this new social environment. Despite Buddhism’s demonstrated affinity for technology, the tradition has always emphasized the essential role and place of the natural environment in human life, especially in the human endeavor of self-cultivation and self-transformation. In the Buddhist tradition, nature is intimately connected to the life and livelihood of humanity. In the canonical texts, processes and events taking place in nature were often employed to shed light on the reality of human life. For example, in the Samyutta Nikāya, the process of how a seed sown in the field is able to grow serves to reinforce the teaching that human life is also affected by various causes.

As when a seed is sown in a field It grows depending on a pair of factors: It requires both the soil’s nutrients And a steady supply of moisture: Just so the aggregates and elements, And these six bases of sensory contact, Have come to be dependent on a cause; With the cause’s breakup they will cease. (S.I.9)

Another example from the same Nikāya asserts that the processes that lead to spiritual progress have parallels with what is observable in nature. 396 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Again and again, they sow the seed; Again and again, the sky-god sends down rain; Again and again, ploughmen plough the field; Again and again, grain comes to the realm. Again and again, the mendicants beg; Again and again, the donors give; When donors have given again and again, Again and again they go to heaven. (S.I.12)

These nature analogies affirm the understanding that human life processes are subjected to the mechanisms of cause and effects that are operative in human life as much as in other entities in the universe. David J. Kulupahana points out that contemplating the events that take place in nature is beneficial to individual spiritual cultivation because the natural settings draw attention away from distractions pertaining to sense pleasures as well as providing a natural experiential ground conducive to understanding the true nature of the world as impermanent and dependently arising (2009, 5). It is not surprising that the Buddha insisted that his monks search out for natural locations such as the forest, mountain, or a hillside cave in order to carry out their effort towards spiritual progress (M.I.181; I.346; I.441; III.4; III.116). In these rustic and wild locations fraught with danger and inconveniences, by contemplating on these aspects of nature, one is able to more deeply understand the reality of life as characterized by impermanence and suffering. When monks reside in the forest and must deal with nuisance from pests and insects that damage their abode and beddings, they are encouraged to contemplate on this reality as reflecting impermanence of all things and to persevere in their difficulties. At the same time, leading a forest life also leads to the danger that comes from wild animals. Monks are told to be aware of this situation, and by contemplating on the fear aroused from this danger, they can be led closer to the dhamma (Harris 1991, 106). The important role of nature in one’s spiritual quest and daily activities, many have pointed out, can be demonstrated in how the Buddha led his own life. The fact that the Buddha was said to be born, achieved enlightenment, and died under various types of trees, lived and taught in natural environments, and often taught his disciples using examples from nature is evidence that there is an intimate relationship between spiritual well-being and the natural environment. The Theravadin forest tradition in which monks build temples in the wilderness or other natural locations in order to live and teach testifies to the legacy of the important role of nature since the earliest days of the religion. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 397

For Buddhism, evidence of one’s progress in the effort of personal self-cultivation is in the virtues that he demonstrates in his relationship with others. To this extent, the state of the natural environment can function as a measure of the degree of human virtuousness. In his sermons, the Buddha drew connections between these two realities. For example, in the Cakkavattasihanada Sutta (D.III.58-77), the Buddha said that when people behaved degenerately, filling their actions with ignorance, anger, and hatred, what resulted were war, famine, epidemics and other calamities. However, when people changed their hearts and their way of living, nature was restored to balance, and humanity experienced prosperity and peace. The claim of the state of nature as manifestations reflecting human virtuousness can also be seen in other suttas of the Anguttara. In one sermon, the Buddha asserted that the regularity of the course of the sun, moon and stars, the stability of the seasonal rains, the bountifulness of the crop, and the health of human beings were the direct result of the behavior of kings and leaders (A.II.74). Similarly, in another sermon of the same Nikāya, the Buddha warned, “When people are excited by illicit lust, overcome by unrighteous greed, afflicted by wrong Dhamma…sufficient rain does not fall leading to famine and lack of grains; wild spirits are let loose harming human lives” (A.I.159-160). As environmental well-being is directly correlated to human virtuousness, exercising virtues towards nature is no less important than doing so towards fellow human beings. As a person trains himself in the Noble Eightfold Path and understands that the life of sentient beings is characterized by suffering, he is encouraged to practice loving kindness (mettā) and compassion (karunā) in his life. A person filled with loving kindness and compassion sincerely desires that all sentient beings be freed from any suffering in their lives. Loving kindness is to be directed towards other creatures regardless of their strength, size, or proximity. It is to be wished upon others whether they are seen or unseen (S.I.8). Monks were enjoined by the Buddha to exercise loving kindness even in the face of challenges and difficulties (M.I.123). He exhorted them to vigorously train themselves so that they could display these virtues not only to those immediately around them but also to the entire world. Indeed, a person who is truly imbued with loving kindness and compassion would extend these virtues to human beings as well as non-human entities. Otherwise, it would not be accurate to characterize that person as truly compassionate (James 2007, 457). Closely related to loving kindness and compassion is the virtue of gentleness. Gentleness can be seen as the positive derivative of non-violence (ahimsā), the first precept in Buddhism. In the Dhammapada one is reminded that all sentient beings, human or otherwise, avoid things that cause them pain (Dp.129-130). Therefore, any actions that inflict pain upon 398 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

others, whether through everyday interactions with those around us or through means of livelihood, ought to be avoided (A.V.177). Earning a living as pig and sheep butchers, hunters, thieves and murderers result in grave consequences to the individual that no water ablution can eliminate (The.242-3). Just as loving kindness and compassion has a universal ethical thrust, so does gentleness. One would expect that those who display gentleness towards people and animals would also extend this demeanor towards plants and even non-living things like a sand dune or a mountain cave. Another virtue that greatly affects the well-being of nature is generosity (cāga) in giving (dāna). Bhikkhu Bodhi points out that the spiritual quality of generosity is important because it directly counters the poisons of greed and hatred while “facilitating that pliancy of mind that allows for the eradication of delusion” (1995). True generosity is the underlying impetus for the practice of dāna parami, the perfection of giving that brings about wholesome kamma essential to the path of enlightenment (Jootla 1995). Indeed, giving is an admirable act and Buddhism focuses a great deal on giving. However, the kind of giving that Buddhism is interested in is not just any act of giving, but those acts of giving that are motivated by the genuine internal disposition of generosity. There is no question that without nature, human beings cannot survive. Without the oxygen produced by plants, human beings would not be able to breathe. The processes taking place in nature is also extremely conducive to the spiritual progress of human beings when they meditate and reflect on them. The service that nature offers to human beings is constant and unceasing. Human generosity through acts such as planting trees and preserving forests demonstrate a sense of gratitude towards and an awareness of reciprocity in dealing with the natural environment. As the states: “A person who sits or sleeps in the shade of a tree should not cut off a tree branch. One who injures such a friend is evil.” Buddhist teachings demonstrate that in many ways the well-being and the flourishing of the natural environment is part and partial of the very success of the human effort towards spiritual advancement. In the digital age where human interaction with the natural environment is increasingly being facilitated through the digital environment or replaced by preoccupation with cyberspace, Buddhism needs to actively refer to its fundamental teachings and traditions in order to promote healthy and wholesome human-nature relationship. Those who are technologically inclined might argue that the digital environment with its ever changing content and shifting identities can represent just as good a means for reflection on impermanence as the forest environment. One might also argue that “technological nature” such as a virtual tour of a nature site or a plasma “window” with a view of nature is an adequate JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 399

replacement of the actual experience. The truthfulness of these assertions, however, has not been corroborated by any known studies. Rather studies have indicated that interaction with authentic nature can lead to improvement in one’s mental and physical health. Even minimal exposure to nature such as looking at it through a glass window has been shown to help hospitalized patients to heal faster, decrease the rate of illness of prisoners, and promote health in the workplace (Kahn et al. 2009, 37). While benefits of interaction with nature has been proven persuasively, studies that compare the benefit of technological nature with authentic nature have shown that the former brings fewer enjoyments and benefits, even if the presence of technological nature is better than having no nature at all. Facing the reality of global urbanization and modernization, it seems many people are willing to reconcile with the fact that experiencing actual nature is becoming increasingly rare, and are more willing to accept having technological nature rather than no nature at all. This attitude reflects a situation described by Daniel Pauly as the “shifting baseline syndrome” (1995). Pauly came up with this syndrome after examining how fisheries scientists determined their baseline upon which to evaluate changes. As it turned out, as successive generation of fisheries scientists embarked upon studying the composition of stock size and species in a particular place, they would often take what they observed at the beginning of their career as the baseline. Because the composition changes with each successive generation, the baseline continually shifts and accommodates for the loss of stock and species. The shifting baseline in relations to the composition of fish is also observable in other areas such as air quality, moral and ethical standards, or spiritual well-being. Accepting technological nature as a legitimate substitute for actual nature, or even reconciling with the fact that there might not be any nature at all in one’s living environment represents this shift in determining what are the standards for human physical, mental and spiritual flourishing. Likewise, one can propose that cyberspace is as good an environment as the natural forest to meditate on the nature of reality; but chances are we will suffer from the shifting baseline syndrome mentioned above. In this digital age, Buddhism is called to apply its age old teachings to the new social context in order to maintain standards for human spiritual well-being as well as ecological flourishing. Just as Buddhist ethics have been advanced on serious matters affecting human society such as genocide and suicide, Buddhist ethics can also be formulated to address biocide and ecocide. Buddhism can engage in this developmental endeavor through the threefold process proposed by Mary Evelyn Tucker and Jim Grim (2017), which comprises of retrieval, reevaluation and reconstruction. In retrieval, Buddhist experts peruse scriptural and 400 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

commentarial sources in order to uncover and highlight aspects of the tradition that are relevant to human-Earth relations as well as identify applicable ethical codes for practice. This step involves close examination of both historical and textual sources in order to discover relevant content that may have not been previously evident. Reevaluation involves the examination of traditional teachings, customs, and religious tendencies and models of ethics in order to discover their impact on the environment. Reevaluation requires raising important questions about whether traditional religious tendencies and preoccupations with other-worldly matters hinder the addressing of more urgent ecological issues. Finally, reconstruction involves the creative effort by Buddhist scholars and leaders to adapt the teachings to address the contemporary circumstances. According to Tucker and Grim, “This is the most challenging aspect of the emerging field of religion and ecology and requires sensitivity to whois speaking about a tradition in the process of reevaluation and reconstruction.” For Buddhism itself, this deliberative process is no small challenge because in addressing ecological issues, the Buddhist scholars and leaders must maneuver between “bilingual languages, namely, their languages of transcendence, enlightenment, and salvation” and the “languages of immanence, sacredness of Earth, and respect for nature.” While this developmental process can be painstakingly slow and requires tremendous sensitivity, it must be done if Buddhism is to make itself relevant in the digital age. As Bikkhu Bodhi asserted:

If any great religion is to acquire a new relevance it must negotiate some very delicate, very difficult balances. It must strike a happy balance between remaining faithful to the seminal insights of its Founder and ancient masters and acquiring the skill and flexibility to formulate these insights in ways that directly link up with the pressing existential demands of old-age. It is only too easy to veer towards one of these extremes at the expense of the other: either to adhere tenaciously to ancient formulas at the expense of present relevance, or to bend fundamental principles so freely that one drains them of their deep spiritual vitality. Above all, I think any religion today must bear in mind an important lesson impressed on us so painfully by past history: the task of religion is to liberate, not to enslave. Its purpose should be to enable its adherents to move towards the realization of the Ultimate Good and to bring the power of this realization to bear upon life in the world. (Bikkhu Bodhi 1994) JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 401

As a religious tradition that knows how to make sense out of and employ technological developments, Buddhism is also asked to challenge those tendencies in technological developments that lead human beings away from spiritual progress and ultimate emancipation. Buddhist teachings on nature must be emphasized and highlighted in the new social milieu in order to counter against further alienation of the natural environment from the daily experience of people. While cyberspace and virtual reality are legitimate entities of modern human society that must be accepted, it does not serve us well when our daily life is overly consumed by these notional spaces as to lead to further separation of human beings from the natural environment.

Conclusion

In conclusion, as technological development continues to be advanced, the digital landscape will take shape in more dramatic ways. The digital environment and the associated entity called cyberspace will in some ways distract or even draw people away from the natural environment, causing further human alienation from nature. Facing this prospect of alienation and estrangement, Buddhism can play a vital role in reminding its adherents of the importance of nature in one’s spiritual development. Buddhism, as a religion that understands and knows how to use technology in propagating its teachings, can advance ideas that promote healthy and wholesome human-nature relationship to counter against negative inclinations brought about by increasing preoccupation with the digital environment at the peril of the natural environment. By actively bringing environmental issues to the forefront and emphasizing the fundamental need for a healthy human-nature relationship, Buddhism can serve as a force to prevent apathy towards environmental degradation and a catalyst for promoting environmental well-being. Buddhism can do this by implementing the threefold process of retrieval, reevaluation and reconstruction. By seriously and methodically engaging the tradition from the environmental perspective, great wisdom can be drawn out and applied for the greater good of humanity as well as the ecology. 402 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

References

Bhikkhu Bodhi. (1994). A Buddhist response to contemporary dilemmas of human existence. Retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/ response.html. . (1995). Introduction. In Biddkhu Bodhi (Ed.). Dāna: The Practice of Giving. Retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/various/wheel367.html. . (trans.). The connected discourses of the Buddha: A translation of the . Second edition. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2005. . (trans.). The numerical discourses of the Buddha: A complete translation of the Anguttara Nikaya. Annotated edition. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012. Bhikkhu Nanamoli (Trans.). The middle discourses of the Buddha: A new translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1995. Harris, I. How environmentalist is Buddhism? Religion, 21, 101–114, 1991. James, S.P. Against holism: Rethinking Buddhist environmental ethics. . Kahn, P.H., Severson, R.I., and Ruckert, J.H. The human relation with nature and technological nature. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(1), 37-42, 2009. Jootla, S.E. (1995). The practice of giving. In Biddkhu Bodhi (Ed.). Dāna: The practice of giving. Retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/various/ wheel367.html. Kalupahana, D.J. Buddhist approach to the environmental problem. In Padmasiri De Silva (Ed.). Buddhist Approach to Environmental Crisis. The International Buddhist Conference on the United Nations Day of Vesak Celebration, 4-6 May 2009, 1-10, 2009. Miller, A. Gaia Connections: An Introduction to Ecology, Ecoethics, and Economics. Lanham: Roman & Littlefi eld, 1991. Monbiot, G. (1995) The hunters and the hunted, The Guardian,3 March 1995. Retrieved from http://www.monbiot.com/archives/1999/03/03/thehunters-and-the-hunted. Oldenberg, H. and Pischel, R. (Trans). Therıgatha. London: PTS, 1966. Pauly, D. Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fi sheries.Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 10, 430, 1995. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 403

Sangharakshita (trans.). Dhammapada: The way of truth. Windhorse Publications Ltd, 2013. Tucker, Mary Evelyn and Grim, Jim.. The movement of religion and ecology. In Jenkins, W., Tucker, M.E., and Grim, J. (Eds.). Routledge handbook of religion and ecology. New York, NY: Routledge. Kindle edition, 2017. Veidlinger, Daniel. Introduction. In Gregory Price Grieve & Daniel Veidlinger (Eds.). Buddhism, the internet, and digital media: The pixel in the lotus (Kindle edition). New York: Routledge, 2016. Walshe, Maurice (trans.). The long discourses of the Buddha: A translation of the Digha Nikāya. Second edition. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995. The Relationship between the Brain and the Base of the Mind from the Perspective of Yogācāra Buddhism

Ven. Hui Chen Department of English Language and Culture, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. Email: chanfi [email protected]

Abstract

Yogācāra philosophy seems to be in contradiction with modern science in terms of the base of the mind. The former says the base of the Six Consciousness (mano vijñāna) is the Seventh Consciousness (mana vijñāna), while the latter seems to indicate that the mind has a lot to do with the brain. In order to give a proper explanation on this contradiction, this research tries to study the relationship between the brain and the base of the mind from both the early Buddhist texts and the discoveries of modern science. The fi ndings of this study show that the brain is actually not mentioned in early Buddhist texts as the base of the mind, and modern science cannot offer suffi cient proof to show that the brain is essential to the function of the mind. Finally, the explanation on the proposed contraction is given from the perspective of Yogācāra Buddhism claiming that the brain is not the base of mind rather a kind of tool assisting in the function of the mind.

Keywords: Brain, Base of the Mind, Early Buddhism, Modern Science, Yogācāra JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 405

Introduction

Buddhism has generally been considered to be a religion consistent with science. However, there are certain areas that seem to be unable to go hand in hand. One of these is the base of the Sixth Consciousness (Skr. mana-), or the essential base of the arising of the human mind. According to modern science, the human mind is the result of functions in brain. Based on many experiments and observations concerning the correlation between stimulation or damage of different parts of the human brain and corresponding behaviors, scientists have made the conclusion that certain regions of the brain are actually responsible for certain types of mental activities. This seems to be contradictory to what Yogācāra Buddhism says. Yogācāra thinks the base of the mind, or the Six Consciousness, is the Seventh Consciousness which is immaterial. This means a material brain is absolutely not the base of the Six Consciousness according to Yogācāra. From this, it can also be inferred that according to Yogācāra, the brain is not the most important condition of the arising of the mind.

This discrepancy leads to concerns from modern Buddhist Scholars. Yogācāra Buddhist specialist Lin says: The scientific conclusion can be undoubted that the brain plays an important role in the thinking process. ... it’s quite difficult to accept (according to Yogācāra) that the brain is even not the most important condition for the arising of the thinking consciousness. ... Therefore, is the base of the Sixth Consciousness the brain or the Seventh Consciousness? Or what is the proper way to ask the question? These should be seriously answered by Yogācāra.1

From above, it is obvious that this traditional Buddhist theory is facing a serious challenge from modern science. There must be a plausible explanation for this contraction, Otherwise, “Yogācāra will be in great danger”2.

1 Master Xuanzhuang, Cheng Weishi Lun Zhijie (A Direct Translation and Commentary to Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition), Lin Guoliang, (tr.), (Shanghai: Fudan Press, 2007), p. 31 2 Ibid.,p.31 406 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

In order to give such an explanation, it’s necessary to answer these questions: 1) Is the brain the base of the mind according to early Buddhist texts? 2) Is the brain the base of the mind according to modern science? 3) What does Yogācāra say about the function of the brain? By answering these questions, one will have a deeper and more complete understanding on the nature and cause of the contradiction between Yogācāra and modern science concerning whether the brain is the base of the mind or the Sixth Consciousness, thus a better explanation can be given.

The Base of the Mind in the Early Buddhist Texts

In Buddhism, the English word “brain” is translated from the Pali word “Matthaluṅga”3 which can be found in many suttas4 in the Tipitaka:

1) ... grease, spit, mucus, synovial fluid, urine; and the brain in the head... (Kp 3 : The Thirty Two Fold Nature) 2) ...fat, bile, phlegm, suppuration, blood, skull, brain, full of manifold impurities he reflects with right... (Arv 12 : The Four Cultivations Of Meditation) 3) ... oil that lubricates the joints, the urine, or the brain, or any or all of these, that is Nāgasena?... (Mil 3.1 1 : Individuality And Name; The Chariot Simile) 4) ... fat, bile, phlegm, suppuration, blood, skull, brain, excrement, urine full of manifold impurities...(Arv 19 : The Noble Eightfold Path) 5) ... And then within its hollow head bundled brains are stuffed— the fool thinks all is beautiful ... (Snp 1.11 : Victory Over Fascination With Bodies) 6) ... uttered this stanza— Your mangled corpse, your brains mashed into clay, Prove how you’ve shone forth... (Ja 143 : Virocana Jātaka)

From verses above, it is clear that the Buddha mentioned the brain mostly in the context of the human body without showing any specific relationship between the brain and the mind.

3 Buddhadatta Mahathera, A.P., Concise P-E Dict, 2003. 4 Sutta Central: https://suttacentral.net/search?query=brain JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 407

Concerning the base of the mind, there are different opinions from different Buddhist Schools. Generally these opinions can fall into two categories: form (Pali: rupa) and non- form (Pali: nama). For those who support the base of the mind as form, they often cite this verse:

Bhikkhus, though someone might say: ‘Apart from form, apart from feeling, apart from perception, apart from volitional formations, I will make known the coming and going of consciousness, its passing away and rebirth, its growth, increase, and expansion’—that is impossible.(SN22.54)5

Here the Buddha seemed to indicate that the understanding of the functions of consciousness should be based on form, feeling, perception. It doesn’t directly say that the base of the mind is something specifically physical. However, belief on a physical base for the mind is seen from later commentaries, typically composed by Buddhaghosa in The Path of Purification:

This is the heart flesh ... In those who possess understanding it is a little expanded; in those without understanding it is still only a bud. Inside it there is a hollow the size of a punnága seed’s bed where half a pasata measure of blood is kept, with which as their support the mind element and mind-consciousness element occur.6

This cardiac theory, which has long been used to explain the base of the mind in some Theravada traditions has been challenged by modern Buddhist scholars. They believe that it is due to the popular contemporary belief in India as well as ignorance of the modern scientific knowledge of the brain that these early commentators created this “heart fallacy”.

Gunasekara says:

Thus in Aung’s view the original discourses of the Buddha do not take any stand on the question of which human organ acts as the seat of the mind (manoindriya) and that the association of this organ with the heart (hadayavattu) is a later innovation

5 Sutta Central: https://suttacentral.net/en/sn22.54 6 Bhikkhu Buddhaghosa, The Path of Purification,(English version of Visuddhimagga)(4th Ed.), Bhikkhu Ñáóamoli Buddhaghosa, (tr.), (Kandy, Sri Lanka: 2010), p. 25. 408 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

in the Abhidhamma and the Commentaries. We then proceed from this position that the tenor of the Buddhist analysis in conjunction with the modem scientific view lead us to the conclusion that the organ involved is the brain.7

According to Gunasekara, not only Aung, but also Narada, Nyanaponika and other modern Buddhist scholars are also against the concept of the heart as the base of the mind, rather it should be the brain according to the modern science. There are also ideas that the base of the mind is not something physical, but mental. The primary source is Saṃyuktāgama in Chinese Tripitaka:

The mental inner entering place, just like the heart, the mind, and the consciousness, is not form, invisible and forms no barrier. This is called the mental inner entering place.8

Except Tamra-satiyah, which considered the base of mind to be the heart flesh, all other believed that the mind is actually based on a stream of continuously rising and perishing thoughts, each thought considered to be the condition of the next one. So the base of the mind is the preceding thought that triggers the following thought. However, different schools seem to hold different opinion towards what the preceding thought is: Kośa thinks it is the thought in the past; Sarvastivada thinks it is the Six Consciousnesses in the past; Mahāsāṃghika said it is the consciousness at present.9 From the analysis above, it can be concluded that, in Buddhism, there is not strong support from Canonical or commentary record concerning whether the brain is the base of the mind or not. The Tipitaka does mention the brain, which indicates that the Buddha and His followers knew there was a brain organ in the body. As the Buddha was the fully awakened one, He must have known well the structure and the function of the brain as well as the heart in the same way He pointed out knowledge of microorganism and the process of fertilization, which was discovered by science thousands of years later. While He taught the physical

7 Gunasekara, V. A., “The Heart and the Brain in Buddhism”, BSQ Newsletter, Nov-Dec, 1995. 8 《雜阿含經》卷13：「意內入處者，若心、意、識非色，不可見，無對，是名意內入處」 (CBETA, T02), no. 99, p. 91, c8-10. 9 Yinshun, Source Exploration of Yogācāra (Weishi Xue Tan Yuan, Chinese Edition), Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011), p. 84 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 409

base for each of the five sense of consciousness, eye faculty for the Eye Consciousness, ear faculty for the Ear Consciousness, and so on, He seldom directly mentioned the base for the Six Consciousness. This may lead to the conclusion that the brain nor the heart is the base of the mind. It is no wonder that most early Buddhist schools chose to propose that the base of the mind is not something physical.

The Base of the Mind in Scientific Discovery

Arguments concerning the base of the mind in the modern era are largely due to the development of cognitive psychology. Indeed, there is countless evidence that show certain parts of the brain are closely related to certain behaviors. It is obvious that certain damage to the brain will result in certain dysfunctions of the mind. Yhese significant discoveries of the brain seems to have led to many Buddhist scholars rethinking the authenticity of what is recorded in the Canonical scriptures as well as the commentary. Some may have hastily made the conclusion that the brain is actually the physical base of the mind. However, what some scholars seem to have not noticed is that even some of the scientists themselves dare not claim that the brain is the source of the mind, because so little is known about the relationship between the brain and the mind. Moreover, recent research reports from neurologists have shifted people’s attention from the brain to the heart, as more and more evidence has revealed that the heart seems to have a more significant role to play in the mental activities, which seems to have been ignored in the modern time. According to Dr. Dominique Surel, in the mental activities, the heart and the brain are working cooperatively, with the heart taking the leading role:

The heart is in a constant two-way dialogue with the brain. But, McCraty explains, the heart and cardiovascular system are sending far more signals to the brain than the brain is sending to the heart. ... Cardiovascular afferents have numerous connections to such brain centers as the thalamus, hypothalamus, and amygdala, and they play a direct and important role in determining our perceptions, thought processes, and emotional experiences. Recent work in the relatively new field of neurocardiology has firmly established that the heart is a sensory organ and an information encoding and 410 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

processing center, with an extensive intrinsic nervous system that’s sufficiently sophisticated to qualify as a heart brain. Its circuitry enables it to learn, remember, and make functional decisions independent of the cranial brain. To everyone’s surprise, the findings have demonstrated that the heart’s intrinsic nervous system is a complex, self-organized system; its neuroplasticity, or ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections over both the short and long term, has been well demonstrated.10

From this, it can be inferred that the concept of the heart in many ancient cultures was not a ridiculous fallacy, thus Buddhaghosa wasn’t completely wrong in The Path of Purification. The heart plays a larger role than the brain in the process of man’s thinking and other mental activities. That is to say, if one really insists there is a physical base of the mind, then it seems to be safe, according to modern science, to say that the base is the heart together with the brain.

However, before making such a conclusion please read this:

On an average a brain has nearly 100 billion neurons and is the seat of all our thinking. The gut (digestive system of the body) has close to 500 million nerve cells and 100 million neurons and is almost the size of a cat’s brain. Not only does the gut “talk” with the brain chemically (by releasing chemicals which are then taken to the brain by blood) but also by sending electrical signals via the vagus nerve. Vagus nerve is one of the longest nerves inside the body whose central purpose is to relay the information and status of internal organs like gut and heart to the brain...Nevertheless recent researches have revealed that there is a tremendous amount of information flow from the gut to the brain via the vagus nerve and this flow is mostly one sided – almost all of it is from the gut to the brain and not the other way around. This is how it should be since gut works continuously whether we are aware of it or not. ...Recent scientific evidence also suggests that a big part of our emotions are probably influenced by the chemicals and nerves in the gut. For example 95% of body’s Serotonin is found in the gut. Serotonin is an important

10 Surel, D. “Thinking from the Heart - Heart Brain Science”, Noetic Systems International, 2014: http://noeticsi.com/thinking-from-the-heart-heart-brain-science/ JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 411

neurotransmitter which is a well known contributor towards feelings of well being. Sometimes it is also called a “happiness hormone”. 11

Now here again comes the point. It seems that as long as one tries to label a physical base for the human mind there seems to be more than one. No one can be sure that science will not find new evidence of other physical bases that correlate with mental activities. Therefore, it is not advisable that data and knowledge from modern science should be taken as something definite to judge the reliability of the Buddhist records.

Base of the Mind in Yogācāra

Holding the same opinions with most of the early Buddhist schools, Yogācāra says the base of the Sixth Consciousness (Skrt: Mano Vijñāna) is immaterial (Pali: non-rupa). What makes Yogācāra different from other schools is that this base is another consciousness, the Seventh Consciousness (Skrt: Manas Vijñāna). This assures that the continuity of the awareness of “I” will not be interrupted when the Sixth Consciousness stops functioning at certain occasions such as deep sleep, shock, or non-conceptual concentration (Pali:asamjni- samapatti). Seventh Consciousness is the consciousness that clings to the fundamental consciousness the Eighth Consciousness (Skrt: Ālaya Vijñāna) and considers it as “I” due to delusion. Since the awareness of “I” is such a basic condition for the Sixth Consciousness to function, it seems to be the base of it. Besides the Seventh Consciousness, there are four other indispensable conditions for the Sixth Consciousness to arise: 1) the objects of thought; 2) seeds from the Eighth Consciousness; 3) the phenomenon of paying attention; 4) the Eighth Consciousness as the fundamental support. These conditions, though indispensable, are not the only conditions for the Sixth Consciousness. There can be conditions that can assist or strengthen the arising of the Sixth Consciousness, these conditions, theoretically, can include physical parts of the body not limited to the brain and the heart.. Altogether, these parts of the body then serve as tools in assisting the function of the mind. The function of the mind can also be reflected by these parts in the form of certain kinds of acting phenomena. Any damage of these parts, of course,

11 Rajvanshi, A. K., “The Three Minds of the Body - Brain, Heart and Gut”, Speaking Tree (Times of India), May 2011.:http://www.speakingtree.in/blog/how-brain-heart-and-gut-minds-work-together- to-produce-happiness/ 412 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

will affect the function of the mind in the sense that the tool is not working properly, and, accordingly, the function of the mind cannot be reflected properly. So it is damage to the tools of the mind not the mind itself. There are cases where significant damage to the brain doesn’t result in significant loss of mental activities according to scientific researches. A French man with 90% brain loss lived a relatively normal life.12 There several mental activities that cannot be explained by physical organs of the human body.

Walshe says:

The human brain is a very remarkable organ, which has still been only very superficially explored, owing to obvious practical difficulties in addition to its own quite extraordinary complexity. But quite certainly not all mental activities can be related to it. The various forms of ESP (extra-sensory-perception) phenomena are facts, and nothing in the physical brain has been found to account for them, even by officially materialist Soviet-bloc scientists who have a vested interest in establishing such a connection. Telepathy, for instance, is not (except metaphorically) a form of “mental radio”: as the late G.N.M. Tyrrell, who was both a distinguished psychic researcher and a radio expert, long ago pointed out, it does not obey the law governing all forms of physical radiation, the inverse square law connecting intensity with distance.13

Therefore, the brain or any other physical parts of the body should not be exalted to a status where it plays an essential role in mental activities.

Conclusion

Although some modern Buddhist scholars advocate that the brain should be considered as the base of the human mind, the early Buddhist texts do not give such information. There are two popular opinions regarding early Buddhist texts: the base of the mind as something material such as the heart organ; the other as something immaterial. The prevalent scientific

12 Macdonald, F. “Meet the Man Who Lives Normally With Damage to 90% of His Brain”, Science Alert, 13 July 2016, http://www.sciencealert.com/a-man-who-lives-without-90-of-his-brain-is-challenging- our-understanding-of-consciousness/ 13 Walshe, M. O’C. “Buddhism and Death”, Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/walshe/wheel261.html. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 413

view holds that the brain is the main organ responsible for mental function but it is being challenged by many. Yogācāra doesn’t put the brain on the list of essential conditions for mental function, however, it doesn’t deny that as part of the human body it can serve as a strengthening condition for the mind to arise and function.

References

I. Primary Sources

Tipitaka, Sutta Central: https://suttacentral.net/. Tripitaka, CBETA: http://www.cbeta.org/ Buddhaghosa,B., The Path of Purifi cation (English version of Visuddhimagga)(4th Ed.), tr. from the Pali by Bhikkhu Ñáóamoli Buddhaghosa, (Kandy, Sri Lanka: 2010), p. 25. Master Xuanzhuang, tr. Lin Guoliang. Cheng Weishi Lun Zhijie (A Direct Translation and Commentary to Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edi- tion), (Shanghai: Fudan Press, 2007).

II. Secondary Sources

Buddhadatta Mahathera, A.P., Concise P-E Dict, 2003. Gunasekara, V. A., “The Heart and the Brain in Buddhism”, BSQ Newsletter, Nov-Dec, 1995. Macdonald, F. “Meet the Man Who Lives Normally With Damage to 90% of His Brain”, Science Alert, 13 July 2016:http://www.sciencealert.com/a-man-who-lives-without- 90-of-his-brain-is-challenging-our-understanding-of-consciousness. Rajvanshi, A. K., “The Three Minds of the Body - Brain, Heart and Gut”, Speaking Tree (Times of India), May 2011:http://www.speakingtree.in/blog/how-brain-heart-and- gut-minds-work-together-to-produce-happiness Surel, D. .“Thinking from the Heart - Heart Brain Science”. Noetic Systems International, 2014: http://noeticsi.com/thinking-from-the-heart-heart-brain-science/. Walshe, M. O’C. “Buddhism and Death”. Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), 30 November 2013: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/walshe/wheel261.html. Yinshun. Source Exploration of Yogācāra (Weishi Xue Tan Yuan, Chinese Edition). (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011). The Legacy of Atiśa: A Reflection on Textual, Historical and Doctrinal Developments to Enrich Buddha Dhamma from the Azimuth of Vikramśilā to Modern Era

Sanjoy Barua Chowdhury Guest Lecturer at Mahapajapati Buddhist College, Mahamakut Buddhist University, Thailand. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) was a great Bengali Buddhist legend and a former Vikramśilā scholar (paṇḍita) who came to Tibet to propagate Buddha Dhamma in the 11th Century. He promulgated Mahāyāna and Vajrāyāna traditions in Tibet among that were subsequently transmitted to Southeast, Central and East Asia. Ācāriya Atīśa’s monumental compositions, such as Bodhipathapradīpa (A Lamp for the Path to Awakening), Satyadvayavatara, Bodhisattvamanyavali, Madhyamakaratnapradipa, Mahayanapathasadhanasangraha, Shiksasamuccaya Abhisamya, Prajnaparamitapindarthapradipa and compilations of Dhamma texts have enriched Buddhist commentarial literature and doctrinal contents, revealing subtle and profound Buddhist teachings. This paper explores the legacy of Atīśa through demonstrating his dharma endeavors around Asian countries along with illustrating his compilation of masterpiece-texts in order to propagate Buddha Dharma. It is a comprehensive review, and assessment of the meticulous research on the infl uence of Atīśa’s scholarly works and composition of Tibetan epic texts, such as The Jewel Ornaments of Liberation by (1079-1153 CE.), Lam Rim Chen by Tshongkhapa (1157-1419 CE.) along with related doctrinal contributions of Tibetan Buddhist schools principally in the Geluk and . The paper further investigates the infl uences of Atīśa’s teachings from the time of the azimuth of Vikramśilā (a sister university of Nālandā) to modern day Buddhism, especially focusing on the teachings of His Holiness the Dalai Lama and the , head of the School of Tibetan Buddhism.

Keywords: Atīśa, Bodhipathapradīpa, Lam Rim Chen Mo, Vikramśilā, Tibet, Dalai Lama, Karmapa. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 415

Introduction

Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982-1054 CE) was one of those rare altruistic Buddhist master (guru) who tirelessly spent his entire adult life to compile texts and propagate Dhamma for the sake of boundless beings. His texts were eminently and continue to be highly value for their subtle, profound and lucid explanations and instructions. They have subsequently impacted and enriched Buddhist Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Schools both scripturally and doctrinally. In the development of Buddha Dhamma from India to Central Asia in the eleventh century, the immense contribution of Atīśa was undoubtedly boundless and immeasurable. One of his remarkable decision was to leave the chief (upadyaya) position from Vikramśila University along with his motherland Bengal in order to restore the light of the Buddha’s teachings for Dhamma seekers in Tibet. Various versions of these teachings transmitted by Atīśa launched a new golden age of Dhamma in the Land of Snows (Currently referred to as Tibet), after the attempted destruction of Buddhism there by their king Langdharma. Eminent Atīśa’s Dharma endeavor started from Jambudvīpa (Present Bengal, India and Nepal), then Java (present Indonesia) and subsequently in Tibet. Buddhist followers are respectively says His Highness Atīśa was initiated Dhamma renaissance throughout the Asia in the eleventh century, which has been continuing up to this current millennium due to His clear and practical methods are taught in places as diverse as India, central Asia and Europe, USA and Australia at the modern era. The aim of this paper is to explore the legacy of Atīśa through demonstrating his dharma endeavors in Asian countries along with illustrating his compilation of masterpiece- texts in order to propagate Buddha Dharma. It is a comprehensive review, and assessment of the meticulous research on the influence of Atīśa’s scholarly works and composition of Tibetan epic texts, such as The Jewel Ornament of Liberation by Gampopa (1079-1153 CE.), Lam Rim Chen Mo by Tshongkhapa (1157-1419 CE.) along with doctrinal contributions of Tibetan Buddhist schools namely Geluk and Kadam. This paper further investigates the influences of Atīśa’s teachings from the point of the azimuth of Vikramśilā (a sister university of Nālandā) to modern day Buddhism, especially focusing on the teachings of His Holiness the Dalai Lama and the Karmapa, head of the Karma Kagyu School of Tibetan Buddhism.

416 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

Atīśa’s Life Story: From to Tibet

Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna was born in Vajrayogini village, Vikrampura1 (located in the same area as present Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh) in 980 CE2, 3. He was born into a royal family4 and was given the name Candragarbha, meaning “Moon Essence”.

1 Vikramapura was one of the eminent political and cultural place (Vanga Janapada) in ancient Bengal, located in Munshiganj district of Bangladesh. Eminent Indian historian and archeologist Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay (1885-1930), also known as R.D. Banerji identified the birthplace of Atīśa and also noticed structures of the village of Vajrayogini. Vikramapura was the capital of Pāla Dynasty (750-1174). 2 Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh, published by the Bangla Academy, Web http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Dipankar_Srijnan,_Atish> 2nd September, 2017. 3 According to the Tibetan eminent master Lama Tsong Khapa (from the introductory section of Lam-Rim-Chen-Mo or Great Treatise on Atīśha’s Light on the Stages in spiritual practice), Tibetan people noticed the ancient Bengal as Zahor towards the Tibetan people. Moreover, the ancient Bengal’s name ‘Zahor’ is also appeared on the text ‘The Eighty Verses in Praise of Atīṥa’, was compiled by Nag-tso Lotsawa, who was one of the remarkable disciple and translator of Atīṥa’s. Guru Nag-tso Lotsawa depicted on Atīṥa’s birth and birthplace in the aforementioned text as follows: “In the east of India, in Zohor, Is a wondrous and mighty city Known by the name of Vikrama-pura At the centre of this royal city Is a splendid, majestic palace Known as the palace of the Golden Banner. As for the wealth and prosperity of this city, It is said to equal that of the Chinese Emperor Tong-Khum.” [Doboom and Glenn H. Mullim (Tr.) Atisha and Buddhism in Tibet. (New Delhi: Tibet House, 1983). P.2] 4 Atīśa was born into royalty. He was a son of King Kalyansree and Queen Prabhavati Devi. Ac- cording to the Tibetan historians ( notes from Lama Yeshe achieve), during the time of Atīśa’s birth there were many auspicious signs, and that from his very childhood prince Chandragarbha displayed an unusually peaceful and compassionate nature, and an aspiration to spiritual practice. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 417

He subsequently was given the name of Atīśa, meaning “peace”, by the Tibetan king Jangchhub O5 (984-1078 CE.)6. According to the Tibetan records, at an earlier age, Atīśa was influenced by some renowned Indian masters (gurus) of his day such as the great teacher Jetari who first offered him teachings on taking refuge on bodhicitta7, Vidyakokila who taught him the essence of

5 The Tibetan King Lbhalama Yeshe O was a serious Dharma practitioner; his strongest wish was to re-establish the pure lineage of teachings in Tibet. Hence, Yeshe O requested twenty-one brightest Tibetan students for travelling to India in searching for a great master who might be capable of teach pure Dharma. Those groups of Dharma-seekers found master Atīśa and immediately reported to the King Yeshe with sharing an expression for bring him to Tibet for the benefit of entire Tibetan communities. According to the Tibetan records, when King Yeshe O heard the name of Atisha, he was exhorted an unshakeable faith in him and his auspicious dharma qualities. The King Yeshe O had an immense faith to Atisha that he wanted to bring him to Tibet by means of any cost. Having observed King Yeshe O’s heartfelt feeling on Atisha and a potentiality of further Tibetan Buddhism, Atisha accepted the King’s invitation and moved to Tibet for propagate Dharma towards Tibetan people that subsequently noticed as a remarkable dharma milestone for Buddhist world. 6 Lama Yeshe Wisdom Achieve: The Life of Atisha (Short teaching by Lama Zopa Rinpoche), Web < https://www.lamayeshe.com/teacher/lama-atisha> 2nd September, 2017. 7 Bodhicitta is a mind (including thought, action, feeling and speech) totally dedicated to others and to achieving full enlightenment in order to benefit all sentient beings as fully as possible. According to the śāntideva’s epic text Bodhicaryāvatā, the term ‘bodhicitta’ is often called the ‘Wish Fulfilling Jewel’, because like a magic jewel it brings true happiness. There are two levels of bodhichitta: (1) aspirational bodhicitta that refers to complete wish to overcome emotional afflictions and delusions to realize one’s full potentials to bring all fellow beings to the enlightened state free from suffering and (2) engaged bodhicitta, which denotes as to take bodhisattva vows the trainee bodhisattva vows to abstain from certain negative acts that would defer the bodhisattva reaching enlightenment and thereby to be of as much benefit to others as is possible. [Alexander Berzin (trans.), Bodhisattvacharya-avatara: Engaging in Bodhisattva Behavior (A Text by Shantideva : Translated from the Tibetan, a Clarified by the Sanskrit), 2005. pp.25-32. Web < http://www.buddhistische-gesellschaft-berlin.de/downloads/bca.pdf> 25 October, 2017.] 418 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

emptiness (śūnyatā)8, Rahulagupta, Avadhutipa and Bodhivadra9. Among the aforementioned gurus, Atīśa was paarticularly influenced by Rahulagupta (widely known as black mountain yogi) who suggested to him that he receive ordination as a monk10. Subsequently, Atīśa was given his monastic ordination under the great master Silarakshita and given his ordination name Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna11. Having been ordained as a monk, Atīśa systematically practiced morality and compassion in order to acquire wisdom. Atīśa made pilgrimage to Bodhgaya where he experienced a clear vision of the practice of bodhicitta, loving-kindness and compassion12. After successfully completing his pilgrimage, Atīśa decided to learn from a highly qualified master called Suvarnadvipi (known as Serlingpa by Tibetans). Master Suvarnadvipi lived on the distant island of Sumatra (now part of Indonesia). Atīśa made the journey to Sumatra by boat with a group of traders which took more than thirteen months to arrive13. He spent twelve years by learning and practicing the methods of aspiring and engaging bodhicitta under

8 The concept of Śūnyatā (emptiness) is a popular term in Buddhism, especially connected to the School which was founded by Ācārya Nāgārjuna in the second century CE.. the early Bud- dhist teaching describes the notion of ‘emptiness’ (śūnyatā) from threefold perspectives, namely, treating it (śūnyatā) as a meditative dwelling, as an attribute of objects, and as a type of heedfulness-release, whereas Madhyamaka and Yogācāra Schools used the concept of emptiness as a skillful means for understand- ing doctrinal expositions, such as the dependent nature (parikalpita-svabhāva) among the three natures’ (trisvabhāva), ascribing middle way (madhyamā-pratipad), using as remover of all wrong views (drŗti). [Sanjoy Barua Chowdhury, “An Analytical Study of the Concept of Emptiness (Śūnyatā) Doctrine and Its Connection with Dependent Origination”; JIBSC; Vol 3, Issue 2. (Ayutthaya: The Journal of the International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand, 2017 pp13- 27)] 9 Lama Yeshe Wisdom Achieve: The Life of Atisha. Ibid. 10 Apart from the suggesting to become monk from guru Rahulavagupta, it was saying that Atisha had several more dreams in which his teachings and deities appeared and gave him similar advice to receive monk-ordination for the benefit of his own practice along with many beings, which also approached him to enter ascetic life from worldly life. 11 Ibid. 12 While Atisha was practicing in the vicinity of the great of Bodh Gaya, he was approached by his invisible spiritual master Tāra who instructed Atisha for taking all of his important decisions along with providing Dharma insights. 13 Ibid. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 419

the compassionate supervision of master Suvarnadvipi14. This practice involves the use of various slogans used as guides to train one’s mind in compassion and is most widely known today as the Seven Points of Mind Training involving fifty-nine stanzas for how to train. After spending twelve years in Sumatra, Atīśa returned to India. His reputations for the brilliance of his dhamma teachings rapidly spread throughout the India. Atīśa’s extraordinary abilities in debate became so famous that he was appointed as the abbot of Nālanda Monastery, which at that time was considered as the greatest Dhamma center among all of the monasteries in India. The legacy of Atīśa flourished even more widely when he left Bengal (present Bangladesh) moved to Tibet to propagate the Dhamma. According to the Tibetan history, Tibet had received Buddha Dhamma three centuries before Atīśa was arrived in Tibet.

Atīśa’s Textual Compilations and Its Dhamma Enrichment

The textual contributions from Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna were acknowledged as greatly enriching the Buddhist textual instructions and explanations in the 10th and 11th Century. Apart from Atīśa’s numerous compilations, he was engaged in Dhamma translation from Sanskrit to Tibetan language and edited over two hundred books (some of which are now lost or difficult to locate)15. According to Tibetan sources, it says that Atīśa discovered several Sanskrit manuscripts in Tibet, which he and others subsequently translated into Tibetan language for the sake of Tibetan Dhamma-seekers. The most notable texts from Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna still in use today are, namely, Bodhipathapradīpa (A Lamp for the Path to Awakening), Cārya-sangraha-pradīpa, -dvyavatāra, Vimala-ratna-lekhā, Bodhisattva-manyavāli, Madhyamāka-ratna-pradīpa, Mahāyāna-patha-sāhana-saṅgraha, śiksa-samuchchaya Abhisamya, Prajñāa-pāramita- pinḍartha-pradīpa, Ekavira-sādhana, pradip Prājikā, Budhipat Pradīpa, Ratna Karandowtghat Madhyamopadeśa, Sangrahagarbha, Hridayaniscita and so forth.

14 The trip to Sumatra by Atīśa was undoubtedly a remarkable journey and Atisha received the transmission of all the bodhichitta teachings from master Suvarnadvipi. From the seventh century to eleventh century, the zone ‘Suvarnabhumi’ (including Sumatra) had strong lineage of Mahayana. ‘Suvarnabhumi’ is considered Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Sumatra (present Indonesia). Despite Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar have been strongly observing Theravada tradition, earlier it was a strong zone of Mahayana and tradition which could be observed by its archeological evident. 15 Lama Yeshe Wisdom Achieve: The Life of Atisha. Ibid. 420 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

The noteworthy text Bodhipathapradīpa (A Lamp for the Path to Awakening)16 from Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna is considered one of his masterpieces. He summarized and simplified the Buddha’s teachings within sixty-eight verses17. These verses had such tremendous philosophical and doctrinal depth that it became an orthodox for Lamrim (Graduate Path)18tradition of steps to attain enlightenment. Verses from the Bodhipathapradīpa are so subtle, profound and lucid instructions for Dhamma seekers, eliminating doubts, and obtaining heedfulness and the perfection of wisdom. Another remarkable composition from Atīśa was Cārya-sangraha-pradīpa, which is a collection of his poetry compiled during his residing in Tibet19. The style of this poetic compositions were influenced by the verses of the ancient Bengali literature known as the Charyapada20. Moreover, Satya-dvyavatāra (Entry to the TwoTruths) is another tremendous work addresses the nature of valid cognition and the importance of spiritual authority as regards the three characteristics of Buddhism; namely, ethical value, concentration and wisdom, it also

16 The Bodhipathapradīpa (Tibetan Byang-chub lm-gyi sgron-ma) is regarded as one of the most important text of Atiśa, which was composed during his stay in the Western Tibet (more specifically, mtho-iding monastery in Tibet). This text was translated into Tibetan language by Lama Lotsaba-dGe-ba- blo-gros. [Helmut Eimer, Again: On Atisa’s Bodhipathapradipa; , 1 November, 2017] 17 Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Buddhism in Practice, (USA: Princeton reading in religious, 1995), pp. 208-220. 18 Atīśa was the founder of Lamrim tradition in Tibetm which subsequently initiated one Buddhist school, name Kadampa. According to Tsong Khapa’s monumental text ‘Lam Rim Chen Mo’ (The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment), Atīśa took the number and order of the subjects in and Asanga’ Abhisamyalankara (Ornament of Clear Realizations), which was based on the wisdom Sutras, as the basis to wrote the Bodhipathapradīpa. Another fascinating thing is that, Tsongkhapa, the founder of School which primary based on Atīśa’s Kadampa School, and wrote one of his masterpieces on Lamrim. 19 Dr. Sayed Ahmed, “An Imagination of Bikrampur Buddhist Vihara from the footprint of Atisha Dipankar’s Travel” (USA: American Journal of Engineering Research; Vol -02, Issue-12), pp276- 295. Date of Access:2nd October, 2017. 20 The Charyapada is the erliest Bengali poems; it is a collection of mystical poems, songs of realization in the Vajrayāna tradition (Tantric tradition); mostly found in ancient Bengal. The main verses of Charyapada were composed by monk-poets like Kanupa, , Haripa, Siddipa and so forth poets.The manuscript contains 47 verses, composed by 23 people, estimated to have lived between 9th and 11th Cen- tury CE. Chayapada was hidden for many years from history; subsequently it was discovered by famous Bengali scholar Harisprasad Shastri, from the royal of Nepal, seems to be most ancient literature works in Bengali language. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 421

advocates the Two Truths: convention truth and ultimate truth which previously expounded in Nāgārjūna’s epic Madhyamaka doctrine21. Textual compilations from eminent Atīśa were certainly enriched the Buddha Dhamma in doctrinally and scholarly, which subsequently helped propagate Buddhism around the world. According to Tibetan source, Atīśa also wrote on engineering and agriculture apart from composing many treatises in Buddhism. Master Atīśa’s task, however, were full of altruistic, out of compassion for the sake of humankind. Impact of Atīśa’s Teachings: From Vikramśilā to Modern Era Based on Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s teachings and his treatise called “lamrim” (Translated as “Instructions on the Gradual Path”) was emerged in Tibet. This subsequently influenced most all Tibetan Buddhist Schools, most especially the Kadampa and Gelukpa Schools. After Atīśa had returned from Suvarṇadvīpa (previously a ‘Golden land’, possibly somewhere Southeastern Asia), he was immediately appointed as the ‘High Priest’ (the upadāya) of Vikramaśīla22 by former Bengal King Mahīpāla (988-1038 CE.) and Nayapāla (1043-1058 CE.) of the Pāla dynasty23, 24. Vikramaśīla monastery (vihāra) was noted for the

21 Dr. Sayed Ahmed, “An Imagination of Bikrampur Buddhist Vihara from the footprint of Atisha Dipankar’s Travel”, Ibid 22 Vikramaśīla is a great monastic based educational institution, established by Pāla king Dharmapāla (775-810 CE.) in the late 8th to early 9th Century in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholar- ship at Nālānda. It was one of the largest Buddhist universities, with more than one hundred teachers and about one thousand students. It produced eminent scholars who were often invited by foreign countries to spread Buddhist learning, culture and religion. 23 The Pāla Dynasty was the ruling dynasty in Bihar and Bengal, from the 8th to the 12th Century, was founded by Gopala. The word ‘Pāla’ is Bengali word that literal meaning is “protector”. The Pāla-s ruled Bengal from the chas into which it had fallen after the death of Shashanka. The Pāla dynasty ruled the Bengal over 400 years and under Pāla patronage a distinctive schools of art arose, of which many noteworthy sculptures in stone and menal survive. Pāla dynasty was contributed to establish Sompur Mahavihāra at Paharpur, Vikramśīla Mahavihāra. The legacy of religious-social-cultural synthesis that was evolved during the rule of the Pāla-s was a glorious achievement of the period and this trait was an important ingredient in the ‘personality’ of ancient Bengal. Buddhism spread to Tibet, Java, Sumatra and Malayasia during the Pāla period. The pundits from the Buddhist Vihāra-s of Bengal played very significant role in the propagation and spread of Buddhism in these countries. 24 Alaka Chattopadhyaya, Atīśa and Tibet, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Private Limited, 1996) P.127. 422 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

high moral character of its monks25, and had been established under the royal patronage of eminent Pāla ruler Dharmapāla (781-881 CE.)26. After Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna was appointed chancellor of Vikramaśīla university (somewhere near what we now call Bhagalpur, Bihar state, India), his reputation spread inside and outside of India. There is said to Atīśa have initiated a new scholastic method of disseminating Dhamma. He became known by his title “Dhammapāla” (the protector of the Dhamma)27. Atīśa was further engaged to take the position of chancellor of Odantapuri and Sompura Vihāra where he also taught over a period of fifteen years2829. Some commentators believe during his stay at Sompura Mahavihāra, he translated one of his masterpiece text Madhyamākaratnapradīpa30. While Atīśa’s resided at Vikramaśīla University, his reputation as known as ‘the best’ all over the India and known as ‘the one who holds in hand the keys of all the vihāra-s of India’31, spread throughout Indian kingdoms and then to Tibet32. He became further titled as Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna. An eminent Tibetan master Nagtso Lotsā from Ngari (from western Tibet) started his journey to Vikramaśīla University for the purpose of inviting Guru Atīśa

25 Ibid, p. 105. 26 Dharmapāla was the second ruler of the Pāla dynasty of Bengal region and son of Gopāla (the founder of Pāla dynasty). During the reign of Dharmapāla Buddhism was tremendously flourished throughout the India and outside of India as well. He successfully ruled for about 40 years. 27 Dr. Sayed Ahmed, “An Imagination of Bikrampur Buddhist Vihara from the footprint of Atisha Dipankar’s Travel”, Ibid. 28 Somapura was one of the most famous Buddhist monastic institutions of ancient Bengal, founded by the second Pāla kind Dharmapāla. According to A.M. Chowdhury (attributed from Banglapedia), “Tibetan works (Tibetan translations of Dharmakayavidhi and Madhyamaka Ratnapradipa, ’s history and Pag-Sam-Jon-Zang) record the glory of . Many Tibetan monks visited the monastery during the period between 9th and 12th century AD. atish dipankar srijnan stayed here for many years and translated the Madhyamaka Ratnapradipa into Tibetan. His spiritual preceptor, Ratnakara Shanti was the sthavira of the vihara. Mahapanditacharya Bodhibhadra was a resident monk of this vihara. Several other scholars like Kalamahapada, Viryendra and Karunashrimitra spent some part of their lives at this monastery.” 29 Atisha Dipankhara Srijana: Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 The reason was to mention Atisha as ‘the one who holds in hand the keys of all the vihāra-s of India’ that he was not only the ultimate authority and ‘the comparable’, but also he was thoroughly versed in each of the ‘eighteen philosophical schools’. 32 Hubert Decleer, “Atisa’s Journey to Tibet”, p.159. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 423

to Tibet to promulgate Buddha Dhamma. Tibetan king Jangchub Ö selected Nagtso Lotsā further sought master Atīśa to bring his incredible linguistic skills to Tibet. Initially Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna refused King Jangchub Ö’s invitation go to Tibet3334. However, Atīśa prayed to Avalokiteśhvara and consulted his invisible master Tara as regards three matters related to the possibility of going to Tibet. To what result would sentient beings be benefitted that should he go to Tibet? i. To what extend could King Jangchub Ö’s aspiration be fulfilled? ii. Would there any danger to Atīśa’s own life35. iii. The same night Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna had an auspicious dream36. The next day when he went to pay homage at a secret temple where he met a yogini through whom

33 Nogtso Lotsā and his accompanies invited Atīśa in dramatic way; they purposively tried to approach Atīśa for bring him to Tibet of which they are trying for many years. When they managed appointment to meet with Atīśa in his chamber, they placed a piece of unwrought gold on a (ac- cording to the Tibetan source, the mandala was fifteen inches high) and also presented other gold pieces to Atīśa, (the gold were brought from Tibet, collected by Tibetan King); they placed the gold on the top of the circle of offering. After that Gyatsundru Singhe related what had transpired earlier in Tibet, and then repeated the invitation, saying: “Again a reverend one has come to invite you. PLeace, out of sympathy for us Tibetans, do not refuse us as you did in that previous year.” Afterward, Atīśa answered, “No doubt the rulers of Tibet, the three religious kings and the great lamas, were incarnations of the bodhisattvas. Otherwise they could not have revived Buddhism after its destruction. It is unfitting for me to disregard the order of the bodhisattvas and also I feel ashamed that those people have lost much wealth and many men for my sake. O! I feel pity for Tibetans. However, I am advanced in age, holding many keys (having many administrative duties) and with many tasks that remain undone. Nevertheless, I will consult the omens; in the meanwhile take back your gold.” [Lama Thubten Kalsang (tr.), Atisha (Bangkok: The Social Science Association Press, 1974), pp 49-50.] 34 Lama Thubten Kalsang (tr.), Atisha (Bangkok: The Social Science Association Press, 1974), pp 48-52. 35 Ibid. 36 In the dream, Atīśa heard the words: “Go to where you will find a small and enquire of the yogini who comes there.” Having thus dreamt, in the morning he took a handful of flowers and proceeded to a temple where he met a yogini, hair flowing to the ground. To his enquiry, she replied, “There will be benefit if you set forth for Tibet, especially with the help of an upasaka.” Then Atīśa set up a trip to Bodh Gaya for his final decision where he met a woman who demanded, “Give me the cowries that were sent to me.” Atīśa, having paid homage mentally and questioned her in his mind, got the same answers as he had received before (from the yogini). But when he enquired about physical danger, she replied that if Atīśa did not set forth for Tibet, he would live to the age of ninety-two years, whereas if he did set forth, he would live to be only seventy-three. At this Atīśa courageously decided that he would not care about his health if his journey would benefit Tibet. [Lama Thubten Kalsang (tr.), Atisha, pp. 49-50.] 424 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

his invisible teacher Tara advised him to make and prepare him for a trip for Tibet for the sake of uncountable beings, and to protect Buddhism as well. Atīśa then decided to make a pilgrimage to Bodhgaya where he sought further advised from Tara. He was told that his lifespan would decrease by nineteen years if he went to propagate Buddhism in Tibet37 In spite of the obstacles he realized the flourishing of the Buddha Dhamma required him to move to Tibet. His mission to Tibet opened new era for Tibetan Buddhism and the people of Tibet. After Atīśa had secretly arrived in Tibet, he was officially exalted as a spiritual leader by the Tibetan King, Dharma masters and locals. He reintroduced and promulgated Mahāyāna teachings and the veneration of the five Tathagatas (Buddhas) in the land of snow, and merged this framework with Tantric ideas38. In Tibet, he composed the monumental compositions, Bodhipathapradīpa (A Lamp for the Path to Awakening)39, which described three levels of spiritual capacity and established the foundation for the Lamrim teachings in sixty-eight verses. The text Bodhipathapradīpa had tremendous philosophical and doctrinal depth and was used by Tibetan Dhamma seekers and later introduced into the Lamrim. Tradition taught by Tibetan master Tsongkhapa (1357-1419 CE.). Tsongkhapa consolidated and expanded his epic text “Lam Rim Chen Mo” upon Atīśa’s Bodhipathapradīpa and Nāgārjūna’s Mulamadhyamakakārika. From Tshongkhapa’s “Lam Rim Chen Mo” text, the Gelupa tradition emerged in Tibet, and all other Tibetan Buddhist sects, Nyingma, and Kagyu were deeply impacted40. Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna and his glorious teachings impacted the next thousand years of Mahāyāna teachingsand have endured from Nālānda period to modern Tibetan Buddhism including the transmissions of such acclaimed Tibetan Gurus, such as His Holiness Dalai Lama, Karmapa and Lama Zopa Rinpoche.

37 Ibid. 38 Kurt Behrendt, Tibet and India: Buddhist Traditions and Transformations (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2014), p.31. 39 Actually the initial body of Bodhipathapradīpa (A Lamp for the Path to Awakening) was the teaching of Atisha which he taught for the King Jankhub O at Ngari. In addition, Atisha first took residence in Ngari. 40 Tsongkhapa, The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment; translated by the Lamrim Chenmo Translation Committee; Vol. I (New York: Snow Lion Publications, 2004). JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018) 425

Conclusion

Since the tenth century, Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s legacy has enriched the Buddhist world through his masterpiece textual compilations and translations. Though the fruits of his scholarship have been lost to his Bengali homeland, centuries of Buddhist civilization has been the primary heir to his contributions. One heart touching verse is as follows:

“He crossed the mountain; Covered with perilous frost: He is the Atisha of Bangla; who lit the light of leaning in Tibet.”41

The sage Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna transmitted the Buddha’s teaching in a manner that was never imprisoned by his own words, sacred scriptures, ecclesiastical ritual, or a rigid conceptual system. His explanations of the Buddha’s teaching have become a legendary bequest sought by Dhamma seekers in centuries that followed after his death. Atīśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna was an extraordinary figure who came from Vajrayogini village in the land now associated with Bangladesh. From his own country, he wandered in search of Buddhist teaching preserved by Buddhist master in the ancient empire of Suvarnabhumi. He preserved these teachings and returned to his motherland where he became one of the leading scholars of Nālanda University and the chancellor of Vikramaśīla University. At great risk to his own life, he carried these teachings to Tibet and restored the Mahāyana teachings to that land. Not only did he transmit teaching there, but he transmitted his own deep understanding and realization to his Tibetan disciples. Through compilations and translations these have been carried forward centuries to enrich and propagate the Dhamma over many generations to an even wider audience.

41 This verse is depicted on white-stone at Atisha’s birthplace Vajrayogini, located in Current Dhaka city in Bangladesh. 426 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.1 (January – June 2018)

References

Alaka Chattopadhyaya, Atīśa and Tibet. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Private Limited, 1996. Doboom Tulku and Glenn H. Mullim (Tr.) Atisha and Buddhism in Tibet. New Delhi: Tibet House, 1983). Hubert Decleer, “Atisa’s Journey to Tibet” In Religious of Tibet in Practice, edited by Donald Lopez. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997. Kurt Behrendt, Tibet and India: Buddhist Traditions and Transformations. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2014. Lama Thubten Kalsang (tr.), Atisha . Bangkok: The Social Science Association Press, 1974. Tsongkhapa, The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment; translated by the Lamrim Chenmo Translation Committee; Vol. I . New York: Snow Lion Publications, 2004. Sanjoy Barua Chowdhury, “An Analytical Study of the Concept of Emptiness (Śūnyatā) Doctrine and Its Connection with Dependent Origination”; JIBSC; Vol 3, Issue 2. Ayutthaya: The Journal of the International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand, 2017. Dr. Sayed Ahmed, “An Imagination of Bikrampur Buddhist Vihara from the footprint of Atisha Dipankar’s Travel” (USA: American Journal of Engineering Research; Vol -02, Issue-12). Helmut Eimer, Again: On Atisa’s Bodhipathapradipa; , Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh, published by the Bangla Academy, Web http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Dipankar_Srijnan,_Atish> Lama Yeshe Wisdom Achieve: The Life of Atisha (Short teaching by Lama Zopa Rinpoche), Web < https://www.lamayeshe.com/teacher/lama-atisha> Bodhisattvacharya-avatara: Engaging in Bodhisattva Behavior (A Text by Shantideva : Translated from the Tibetan, a Clarified by the Sanskrit) Web < http://www. buddhistische-gesellschaft-berlin.de/downloads/bca.pdf>