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Further reproduction prohibited without permission. THE BUDDHIST SANGHA: PARADIGM OF THE IDEAL HUMAN SOCIETY by Sunanda Putuwar submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of The American University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree . of Doctor of Philosophy in Philosophy Signature of Committee: Chairman: 9 S j J . Dean of College April 4, 1988 Date 1988 The American University . Washington, D.C. 20016 |*f SBB AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (c) COPYRIGHT BY SUNANDA PUTUWAR 1988 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. THE BUDDHIST SANGHA: PARADIGM OF THE IDEAL HUMAN SOCIETY BY Sunanda Putuwar ABSTRACT This study endeavors to show the Buddhist Sangha as I a model of an ideal society, applying ethics to its politics. The moral and philosophical teachings of the Buddha provide historical evidence to support such an effort. A moral philosophy articulates the legitimate criteria of a moral standard. Its focus is on the sphere of ethical, social and political thought in Buddhist scriptures. This philosophy concentrates upon practical and altruistic values rather than abstract dialectical in t e r e s t s . The important issue of inequality amongst human beings is discussed here. The purpose of ethical practice is to engender order and peace on earth. This practice helps to formulate the concept of an ideal society in which there would be no inequality. The Buddha himself formulated a religio-political constitution which is still valid and adaptable to the constitutions of the world. His moral philosophy transcends the boundary of a class or caste ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. system and views all human beings as equal from the same moral basis, regardless of this status. Greed, hatred and delusion are regarded as the causes of all evil in the world. The primary governmental aspects within the Sangha, conflict and its resolution, are discussed in light of ethical principles. The Buddha's democratic principles show the necessity of decentralization of power for a viable society. Ethics is imperative in a political or governmental regime, according to Buddhism. The Sangha, governed by advanced discipline, represents an ideal society in the democratic manner. Vinaya acts as the constitutional law, connecting the Sangha with the laity. By adhering to the vinaya rules the Sangha is systematic and democratic in determining and administering its affairs. All disciplinary rules are intended to organize the behavior of the Sangha members. The distribution of products, power and positions is similarly systematized by the vinava rules. By pointing to its democratic nature, its emphasis on moral administration and understanding, and its harmonious interaction with kings and general public alike, this work proves the Sangha to be a unique model for an ideal society. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Professor Charles S.J. White, Chairman of my Ph.D. Committee, has been very kind in giving me a helping hand, straightforward advice and welcome, useful comments on my dissertation. Professor David Rodier was the former Chairman of my Ph.D. Committee with whom I worked and from whom I obtained valuable comments on my writing. Professor Roger Simonds, the Chairman of the Department of Philosophy and Religion, has extended his wise assistance to my study. Professor George Zachariah in the Department of Philosophy at the University of the District of Columbia, deserves many thanks for reading my dissertation. I must express profound appreciation to The American University for granting me scholarships and graduate assistantships for this study. My sincere thanks go to the Washington Buddhist Vihara also for allowing me to use its library. iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................... iv Chapter I. HIST O R I C A L BACKGROUND: Introduction ............................... 1 II. BUDDHIST MORAL PHILOSOPHY .................... 14 Ethico-Psychological Causality and Class Mobility The Negative Aspects of Ethical Conduct The Positive Aspects of Ethical Conduct III. THE SANGHA AS AN IDEAL SOCIETY ............... 47 The Sangha The Democratic Nature of the Ordination Procedure The Disciplinary Rules and Regulations IV. SECRETARIAT OR SUPREME COURT OF THE SANGHA.... 81 Methods of Settling Problems Confession and Amendment Schism and Resolution within the Sangha The Requirements and Allowance of Possessions V. CONCLUSION: THE DEMOCRATIC NATURE OF THE S A N G H A ..................................... 113 APPENDIX ........ 123 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................... 133 v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Introduction The main focus of this research is to analyze the ethical aspects of early Pali (Theravada) Buddhism. It is a comprehensive, philosophical, systematic, and critical examination of Buddhist ethics and related political principles, whose purpose is to show the Buddhist Sangha as a paradigm of the ideal society. The theme of political ideas in the original Buddhist texts and commentaries has been ignored both by those who traditionally disdain such an investigation and by modern scholars who dismiss it (See APPENDIX for the detailed source of information). This work will directly address the Sangha politics which have been scorned for so long and exhibit the Sangha as a beau ideal for the society. Such an investigation will show a core of ethical ideas and a political ideal which are applicable to the modern age. These ideas are not connected with a particular political group; rather, they are of a general political nature rarely found within the precepts of most religions. 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 The Buddha placed great emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa) ; therefore, people hold. Buddhism to be a peaceful religion and use it as an implementation for social development as well as an imperative for political peace. The Buddha advocated khanti. which means forbearance, patience, forgiveness, and utthanasampada (progress) in society. It is known how successful he was in his advocacy of peace; therefore, he must have had a strategy which could contribute greatly to the value system in a complex modern society. The way the Buddha viewed social problems and the means by which he solved these dilemmas are the basis of this strategy. His solutions to these problems contribute to the value of Buddhist philosophy and freedom of thought and speech is the essential element of democracy in this Buddhist political system. Thus, we understand the concept of "democracy" as a system in which everyone is treated equally [i.e., under good law (dhamma) all people are e q u a l .] From the study of the earliest teachings in the Vinava-Pitaka. one can safely say that evidently the Buddha did not explicitly create any rules in the early period of the religion. He taught only principles, or good laws (dhamma) necessary for the attainment of nibbana. The dhammas. for example, are the four noble truths fcatu ariva Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited