Gerontocracy of the Buddhist Monastic Administration in Thailand

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Simulacra | ISSN: 2622-6952 (Print), 2656-8721 (Online) https://journal.trunojoyo.ac.id/simulacra

Volume 4, Issue 1, June 2021 Page 43–56

Gerontocracy of the Buddhist monastic administration in Thailand

Jesada Buaban1* 1 Indonesian Consortium for Religious Studies, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia

* Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected] DOI: https://doi.org/10.21107/sml.v4i1.9880

Article Info Abstract

Keywords: This paper examines the monastic administration in Thai Buddhism, dhamma studies which is ruled by the senior monks and supported by the government. It aims to answer two questions; (1) why the Sangha’s administration has gerontocracy been designed to serve the bureaucratic system that monks abandon social Sangha Council and political justices, and (2) how the monastic education curriculum are secularism designed to support such a conservative system. Ethnographic methodology Thai Buddhism was conducted and collected data were analyzed through the concept of gerontocracy. It found that (1) Thai Buddhism gains supports from the government much more than other religions. Parallel with the state’s bureaucratic system, the hierarchical conservative council contains the elderly monks. Those committee members choose to respond to the government policy in order to maintain supports rather than to raise social issues; (2) gerontocracy is also facilitated by the idea of Theravada itself. In both theory and practice, the charismatic leader should be the old one, implying the condition of being less sexual feeling, hatred, and ignorance. Based on this criterion, the moral leader is more desirable than the intelligent. The concept of “merits from previous lives” is reinterpreted and reproduced to pave the way for the non-democratic system.

Citation suggestion: Buaban, J. (2021). Gerontocracy of the Buddhist monastic administration in Thailand. Simulacra, 4(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.21107/sml.v4i1.9880

Received 8 February 2021; Received in revised form 3 April 2021; Accepted 9 April 2021; Published online 25 June 2021. Jesada Buaban

Introduction instrumentalized to assimilate different groups of people into Thai state’s power, Buddhism is the mainstream religion in namely, Nicholas (1999), Tiyavanich (1997), Thailand, which is followed by more than and Taylor (1993). However, reinterpretations 90% of the total population, and around of Buddhism also serve ordinary people in 300,000 men decided to live the monastic daily activities as discussed by Reynolds lives as monks and novices (Rabassó & (2016, 2015), McDaniel (2011), Kitiarsa (2007), Rabassó, 2018). However, a total number Tambiah (1984) and Kirsch (1977). Moreover, of monks and novices in both Mahanikaya some studies explore the ways that religions and Dhammayutta Orders is dynamic adapted to local contexts (including cultural, because the rituals of ordination and disrobe social, and political environments), due to are arranged every day. That is because the stream of modernity and intellectual ordination is Thailand is considered as a critiques. Winichakul (2015), Scott (2009), and duty that all men should practice even for Eaiwsriwong (2003) proposed that Buddhist a short term. Buddhism used to play a vital value in Thailand had been changing from role in nation-building, creating identity, and the charismatic leaders who are experts in legitimizing the Thai elites especially during meditation to those whose reputation is to the regime of absolute monarchy (McCargo, support people’s business purposes. This 2004). However, though Thailand has been changing value is motivated by capitalism as changed to a democratic country in 1932, the well. monastic administration still maintains the In general, various works seem to hierarchical organization and centralizes its perceive Thai Buddhism as a tool for political power. Monks who become the leaders of objectives, on the contrary, it should also temples, sub-districts, districts, provinces, be mentioned that Buddhist institutions regions, and the committee of the Sangha instrumentalize political power to serve Council (Mahatherasamakhom: in Thai) are their aims as well. The empirical examples totally from appointments, not from elections from Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand (Tuan, 2018). As a result, it is not surprising were studied by Helbardt et al, (2013). The to find that most of those leaders are very old researcher, in this paper, proposes that because they are more famous and respected Thai monastic institutions, which are ruled than the younger monks. In technical term, by the old monks, always require supports ruled by the old man was called gerontocracy. from the government and do not want to This paper questions (1) why the Sangha be free from the state’s control. Secularism administration has been designed to serve and humanist issues are therefore not raised the bureaucratic system ultimately monks because of several reasons. In consequence, abandon social and political justices, and relationships among the old administrative (2) how the monastic education curriculum monks, the hierarchical style of organization, are designed to support such a conservative and the semi-democratic government of system. Thailand should be systematically studied. Many scholarly works focus on Theravada Buddhism and Thai society. According to Kulabkaew (2012), Swearer (2010), and Method Jory (2002), Buddhism in Thailand has been Ethnographic methodology was adopted reinterpreted to support social status and in this research paper. The author had been elites’ legitimacy. Meanwhile some scholars joining the monastic life as a monk for asserted that the Sangha institution was almost two decades (2000-2018) in Southern

44 ©2021 Simulacra, Volume 4, No. 1, June 2021 and Central Thailand. Therefore, some data and practical ways of life of Thai Buddhists were written as a self-reflection. However, are analyzed to reveal why Thai Buddhism in order to write this project, the author is fit to gerontocracy. (3) Thai Buddhism for conducted fieldwork again in Nakhon Sri Secular State and Welfare State: demonstrates Thammarat, Suratthani, and Bangkok, for relationships between religion and the Thai five months in 2018. Participant-observations state. Islamophobia is also stated here as one were conducted by staying with monks of the main causes that encourages monks and novices in various temples, while in- struggle for the state’s support and deny dept interviews with five monks who secularism. While some groups of young worked under the Sangha Administration, monks protested to demand secularism, and five monks, as well as ex-monks, who they were accused and punished by the tended to criticize that particular system. Sangha Act of insulting the old monks and However, in order to protect informants, systems. Welfare State and Thai Buddhism pseudonyms were used here. Then, collected are additionally discussed to analyze why data were analyzed through the concept of Thai Buddhism does not respond to social gerontocracy, which has been paid attention issues. by various scholars in social sciences. In terms of Buddhist texts, this research employed both primary sources namely the Results and Discussion Pali Tipitaka and secondary sources such as Ruled by the old monks religious textbooks and explanations by Thai monks in order to provide some differences Literally, monks are people who renounce and discuss how the Thai curriculum have the worldly life and follow the monastic been interpreted to preserve gerontocracy codes (Bhikkhu: in Pali language). However, and promote absolute monarchy. monks in many traditions especially Thai This paper is organized into three parts; Theravada, according to Bunnag (2007), are (1) Ruled by the Old Monks: elucidates the not separated from their family members, governance of old representatives who because the aim of ordination is not only really have no power and creative ideas to to practice meditation and gain Nirvana as run their organization. In this section, it finds mentioned in the scripture, but in practice, that the main role of Sangha administration, the monkhood can help candidates to elevate which is supported and approved by the their social status. Many poor families tend government, is to respond to the state policy. to send their children to join the monastic The case of Dhammakaya is exemplified life for education purpose and many of to show the dictatorial aspects of the Thai them choose to disrobe after graduated. Sangha Council and the state’s authorities, This kind of ordination becomes one of the which always reject the diversity of religions Thai cultures, which is still widely practiced and cultures. Besides, while those old monks nowadays. When the monkhood in the Holy are weak in working, the real workers are Scripture is different from the practical norm, their secretary monks. However, it does not it is not odd to find that livelihood of those mean that those secretaries can freely run men after ordination cannot be free from organizations, because they are chosen to worldly issues. Many of them are interested work for the old system. (2) Theravada Way in learning religion and teaching laypeople, of Governance: explains the perspective of while many of them try to join the monastic governance in Theravada tradition. Both administration, in which monks work as theoretical ideas depicted from the scriptures state’s bureaucrats and earn salaries from

45 Jesada Buaban the national budget. Notably, becoming to the next generation is possible in order to a monk gains a lot of advantages such as, prevent them from protesting the system. free from conscription for army service if he As a result, though some young monks are maintains a monastic life until the age of 30, approved to work, but they must respect the accessing to education, if passing the Pali old law. This causes many modern educated exam Grade IV, will be able to work in the monks decided to leave the monkhood military as a high-ranking soldier. Moreover, instead of serving the old system, according if maintaining in the monkhood, many to the interview with Sakda (pseudonym), an priorities from society such as special seats ex-monk who works as a high school teacher in the public transportation, airplane, and now, in 2019. This is also one of the reasons so on are available for them (Kamjaiboon, that there is no protest and reform from 2019). the young monks themselves. According to The old monks are generally approved the interview with Samath (pseudonym), in the positions of abbots until the Supreme secretary of the regional leader in March Patriarch (Sangharaja). All positions 2018, any monk who wants to elevate the get salaries from the government and high ranking should create relationships interestingly there is no retirement age with the secretaries, because they are the for these two positions. It means that ones who gather the names and propose to those positions will remain until the death the regional leaders. Theoretically, semi- time. For the leaders of sub-districts to the democratic or dictatorial regimes experience leaders of regions, the retirement age is at more violence than “pure” democracies 80 while other worldly Thai bureaucrats because the later regimes allow opposition are at 60 (Thirapanyo & Pipitkun, 2018). groups to access power in a coming period Consequently, most of ranking monks are (Berton & Panel, 2018), however, it cannot be not active due to their physical conditions. denied that the dictatorial regime also has a It then comes to the question that who do trick of governmentality such as employing really govern? The answer is that their religious teaching to affirm its legitimacy, as secretaries, young monks who are chosen will be discussed below. due to their loyalty to the old monks and In general, the annual work of Sangha old system. However, though this paper Administration is limited into few things employs the concept of gerontocracy, it does namely, elevating the ranking positions of not generalize that all elders are passive some candidate monks, collecting the list or conservative as found in many kinds of of those who want to take exams in Pali stereotype (Wilkinson & Ferraro, 2002). language and Buddhist Studies (Naktham), Instead, it persuades to analyze the Buddhist and arranging the blessing ceremonies to the organization run by the old monk, which is king and other monarchical members. There also supported by religious interpretations. is, of course, no room for raising issues about Based on the concept of gerontocracy, democracy and social welfare. In order to see it emphasizes in age criteria, perhaps the more effects from such administration, the +60-year-old leader is desirable (Atella & case of Dhammakaya should be demonstrated Carbonari, 2017; Bytheway, 1995). However, to show that Buddhism in Thailand is very this system always gives an opportunity to fragmented. Each organization is actually the young generation, in the case that it must free to run their social activities as long as it make sure that the next candidates will be still identifies itself as under the Thai Sangha loyal to the old system. In this aspect, it can council. This causes a lot of problems, be said that giving some positions and power like the Dhammakaya, whose teaching is

46 ©2021 Simulacra, Volume 4, No. 1, June 2021 different from the mainstream Theravada, dead-standing tree that cannot function but it cannot be allowed to generate the new anymore in the modern time. Its best way in sect. The law was always reinforced to deal maintaining the power is to try to be neutral with this problem instead of freeing them to and playing no role in any risk situation. In grow in their ways (Kulabkaew, 2019). so doing, its way of running organization Dhammakaya is one of Buddhist temples is sometimes called the “Rule of Anicca” as under the Thai Sangha Council. It faced discussed below. a lot of problems with the government and other Buddhist monks. Its way of Theravada way of governance reinterpreting of Theravada Buddhism is criticized by many scholars; one of them Theravada is one of the main three is P.A. Payutto, a conservative scholar. In schools in Buddhism apart from Mahayana addition, Dhammakaya foundation and the and Vajrayana. It literally means those who abbot were accused to commit corruptions, believe and follow what is taught by the “old which ultimately brought to arrestment the monks.” Of course, the term “old monks” here abbot and secretaries in 2017. That situation refers to 500 Arahantas who participate for satisfied many Buddhists who perceive gathering the Buddha’s teaching after three Dhammakaya as heretic. Unfortunately, months of the Buddha’s passing away. Pali neither Thai people nor Dhammakaya is the language used to note the Theravada followers themselves solved the problem by scriptures, which have been memorized and separating religion from the state based on written from generation to generation. Until the concept of secularism. In turn, while the now, most Theravadins always perceive first group wants to use the state’s power their school as authentic (Gornall, 2020). to destroy Dhammakaya, Dhammakaya As depicted in the Mahapari nibbana sutta itself also tries to strengthen relationships No. 141, the Buddha allowed monks to edit with the government in order to gain more and adapt some monastic codes if they see supports and make sure its stability. This is something not suitable with particular time one of several reasons why Thailand cannot and place. However, those 500 arahantas develop to the secular state. As usual, the agreed to follow whatever said by the Buddha Sangha administration, which is ruled by without changing or adapting anything. This the old monks, was passive in solving this makes the Theravada’s identity different problem. from Mahayana and Vajrayana, while those The passiveness of the Sangha two schools are able to adapt teachings and administration can be understood as a monastic codes to respond to the modern dilemma. It means that if Dhammakaya world. However, it does not necessarily is allowed to stand outside the Sangha mean that Theravada does not change at all. administration, other Buddhist Thai monks gain salaries and work as state’s organizations must also want to go out from bureaucrats are the new things not based on that conservative institute. In turn, if the the Pali scripture. This kind of adaptation Sangha administration is active in solving occurs as a social acceptability, but they conflicts and punishing Dhammakaya do not change the monastic codes in the in terms of its heretic doctrine, Sangha scripture. administration itself must be condemned by In practice, Thai people tend to respect scholars, secular people, as well as NGOs the old monks. Teachings from the forest who support pluralism. In this respect, the traditional masters, Luangpu Mun, Luangpu Sangha administration can be seen as the Dul, Luangta Maha Bua, and so forth are

47 Jesada Buaban quoted much more than the Pali scriptures. modern democratic system that many parts King Rama IX often visited temples of the of members can equalize the power and old famous meditative monks. Similarly, examine each other. On the contrary, it Khruba, famous traditional monks in maintains the top-down style, and reinterpret Northern Thailand, are always the old Theravada concepts to serve its system. The monks. Though some young monks begin next two sections are elaborate examples. to establish themselves as the reincarnation The researcher is going to entitle this of previous Khruba, they still must pretend part as ‘rule of Anicca’ or ‘administration of to behave like the old monks, using sticks, uncertainty’ to demonstrate the gerontological chewing betel, and so on (Duongkaew, 2016). way of Sangha administration in detail. The characteristic of charismatic leaders in When the old monks must be respected, it Theravada is not only from reincarnation also means that their administration should as found in Hinduism, but they also have not be questioned. Anyone will be elevated to practice meditation for a long period, in the higher-ranking status is up to this full of self-control, destroy the negative dictatorial council. Some scholars such emotions; greed, hatred, and illusion as as Visalo (2003) and Sangkhawijit (2017) much as possible as found in Foucauldian view the requirements to upgrade monk’s idea (Voyce, 2016). It means that religious ranking as problematic, because it depends practices can be seen as bio-power used to on achievements of constructing expensive train and control its members. In addition, it pavilions or chanting halls. This limits the cannot be denied that those who pass such ranking position to those monks who are tests will be appreciated and gain legitimacy. respected and gain a lot of donations only. Of course, such kind of character is suitable On the contrary, Pirapat (pseudonym), a for the old man rather than the younger. It Ph.D candidate in Asian Studies Program, is therefore normal to find that most of the argues that this is really not a problem, respected monks are old and interestingly because to find donation in Thailand is they are also approved to play a vital role in not difficult, and most of the abbots have administrative positions in terms of the head pupils to support their projects. The main of the monastery and many other levels. obstacle is that, though many monks already After the three-month retreat of fulfill the requirements, only those who are Theravada Buddhists in the rainy season, familiar with the old leaders in the council there is an important ritual called Pavarana. will be elevated their ranking. This kind of The purpose of Pavarana is to open an administration, according to Prajak, an abbot opportunity for monks who stay in the same of village A, is called the “Rule of Anicca” or temple to warn or criticize each other in Administration of Uncertainty. It means that order to develop one’s behavior. This ritual no one can predict the future that he will be in Theravada countries, especially Thailand, rewarded or not though he works very hard. cannot be functioned because Thai people That is because everything depends on the also have a norm of respecting the senior. old boss. It means that to criticize or even to question “How many times do I have to give the older is considered as impolite. Not only sermons in order to be elevated in ranking?” among the members of monastic orders, Prajak asked Samai, one of the high-ranking but arguing teachers of students in the members in the Sangha Council. The answer secular schools is also viewed as a negative is that “giving sermons is a duty, don’t manner. Consequently, the structure of expect anything in return, if you perform a Sangha organization is different from the good action, based on the idea of Karma, a

48 ©2021 Simulacra, Volume 4, No. 1, June 2021 good result will come to you automatically. Studies for a century. These programs were Moreover, giving sermons should be designed to systematize religious knowledge conducted by the positive intention, educating by providing the national curriculum based people in the Buddha’s teaching, not by the on the Pali commentary texts as well as Thai negative courage, gaining the high ranking.” Dhamma books, but they ultimately function This answer is based on the Buddhist for strengthening the charismatic leader teaching of action and result. However, it is position and unquestionable beliefs, instead. also based on the law of uncertainty, because Dhamma Studies (Naktham) has been people cannot know when and what kind of initiated in 1892 in Wat Bowornives Vihara, result will happen. This kind of explanation the main Dhammayutta monastery that serves the dictatorial administration well. has been supported by the monarchy. That Ven. Prajak argued that “the administration particular period was under the regime of must base on certainty, which is clear and king Rama VI, in which national education fair for everyone. If the contract mentions had also been flourishing. However, it is that he will be elevated after giving sermons assumed that the Dhamma Studies had been for 100 times, therefore, if anyone can reach started before that by Vajiranyana Bhikkhu that point, he must be rewarded. But now, (who was becoming a monk since 1824- only those who are familiar with and serve 1851 and later became the king Rama IV). the old administrative monks can get the When Buddhist monks played an important ranking reward.” role in teaching the villagers, educating From the above examples, it does not those monks in the state-based knowledge mean that the researcher agrees with such was therefore important. In 1912, the centralized Sangha Council, which is tied state-based curriculum divided Naktham to the state power. The researcher totally program into two kinds; Ordinary (Saman) supports secularism. However, if Thai and Extraordinary (Visaman). Three main monks and government want to maintain subjects have been taught in the Ordinary such relationships, the fair and clear methods Program; Buddha’s biography, Buddhist as proposed by Prajak should be considered. doctrines, and Monastic Codes, while the Organizations should base on consensus. Extraordinary Program also had the basic Therefore, in order to prevent corruptions, Pali skills (Pansa, 2018). the workers must be investigated by the fair Interestingly, the new Act of national system, not to find the old ones who claim his military was announced in 1905. All Buddhist morality and works without transparency. monks and novices must participate in the The next section will demonstrate how national military conscription as other Thai the Sangha’s education paves the way for male did. The Sangha council therefore preserving the old system. negotiated by proposing that only uneducated Though one of the purposes of modern monks and novices must disrobe and follow education aims to deal with traditional or the military program. It means that anyone supernatural belief, which is considered who passed the Naktham exam would have as unscientific according to the modern rights to continue his monastic life. This knowledge driven, the researcher argues new Act, undeniably, helps to promote the that it still cannot change the worldview of Naktham program for those who do not want Buddhists in general. This section discusses to join the military training by becoming a the monastic education system that has monk and focusing on Buddhist studies been organized by the national Sangha (Chandaeng, 2019). Notably, Naktham administration namely Dhamma and Pali program is centralized by the National

49 Jesada Buaban

Dhamma Study Unit, an organization that motivate people to do good things. under Dhammayutta’s control (Sairarod Atta-dhipateyya is used to demonstrate a & Kumar, 2020). It means that monks and person who does it by his own desire (self- novices have to study Theravada Buddhism motivation). Lokka-dhipateyya is used in the way of national interpretation, while to explain a person who does it by being other ways of interpretations are not taught. persuaded by other people. And Dhamma- Simply put, this kind of state’s curriculum dhipateyya is used to denote a person who does not support multiculturalism in the does it by believing that such a thing is modern world, because its key purposes are righteous. Nonetheless, all three factors are to prioritize Thai Theravada Buddhism and good under the reason that they motivate preserve the old system. people to do good things, but is has been The concept of sovereignty (adhipateyya) reinterpreted in the new way to destroy in Naktham curriculum exemplifies the political idea of democracy in Thailand, my claim. According to the page 22 of where the absolute monarchy is still needed, Dhamma Book II provided by the Office of especially by the old monks in the Sangha National Buddhism, the term adhipateyya is council. translated as sovereignty, power, or rule. Similarly, the Pali Studies is another Interestingly, in chapter 3 of Naktham Grade curriculum designed to centralize II, it translates this term as “rule” in order interpretations of Buddhist knowledge in to promote the national political idea. There Thailand. It has been started since 1928, are three kinds of political rules in this book, while the textbooks are from commentary as mentioned by this curriculum, namely; (1) sources. The curriculum is quite the same Rule by Dictator (atta-dhipateyya), Rule by for a century and recently it is controlled the Majority (loka-dhipateyya), and (3) Rule by Mahanikaya monks, Wat Paknam and by the Dhamma (dhamma-dhipateyya). The Wat Samphraya in Bangkok. A novice who second one, majority, refers to democracy, graduates the Pali Grade IX (the highest and also provides the negative explanation level) before the age of twenty-three will be by emphasizing that the majority of the ordained in the palace, and supported by the fool and immoral will make to country king. 126 USD from the state’s budget will be backward. Therefore, the best thing is rule provided for all clerical students who pass by the Dhamma, meaning that the ruler the ninth level of Pali exam as a salary. practices Buddhism and organizes without In addition, this higher level can be bias (Office of National Buddhism, 2016). approved as a university degree in Master of Strictly speaking, this kind of political power Arts. There are always some efforts to elevate does not care about the process of voting it to the Ph.D. but was rejected by the Ministry the leader, instead, it prefers the moral one, of Education. In general, Thai people have the king and military leader for examples, to study about 12 years to accomplish their which can be called the moral dictator in master degree; 6 years for secondary / high Buddhadasa’s idea (Puntarigvivat, 2003). school, 4 years for B.A. and 2 years for M.A., This way of teaching may help to produce while the monk can graduate Pali Grade IX the anti-democracy monks on the ground within 8 years, is approved to be equal with that democracy, based on Buddhist tenets M.A. Of course, this phenomenon happens taught in Thai monasteries, is opposite to the because of the Buddhist state of Thailand, Dhamma or righteousness. while other religious language skills such as In contrast, these three sovereignties in Arabic and Hebrew have not been approved the Pali text originally refer to the powers by the government.

It is generally believed that Pali language Buddhism for secular state and welfare is more difficult and complicated than state other languages, therefore a few students Thailand recognizes five religions will pass the exam each year. Based upon namely; Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, this claim, it is therefore reasonable to say Hinduism, and Sikhism, as under the state that merits (punna) are the main factor to support. Buddhism receives a budget much success. The author, an ex-Pali student, was more than other recognized religions. Sangha always recommended to pray, meditate, as administration is supported by the monarchy well as conduct pilgrimages, on the ground and government, it is therefore difficult to that those acts would facilitate in passing an discuss secularism as long as the monarchy exam. More interestingly, if the wise student is so strong and monks are considered as failed the exam and wanted his answer the king’s partner. Monks always arrange sheet to be rechecked, he will be told that various ceremonies to support the king’s the committee members are fair and full of legitimacy (Larsson, 2020), therefore, to awareness, because they are senior monks secularize the monks is like to destroy the who should be respected. So, all faults are monarchy because the king’s legitimacy is his’ and he should accumulate more merits also eliminated. for the next round. The concept of merit- Many Thai monks do not support making appeared in Pali curriculums will secularism because of several reasons. be elucidated below. Simply put, it can be Firstly, Buddhism is already the mainstream said that the seniority of those old monks religion in Thailand that get a budget from is also used to claim their respected and the government the most. Secondly, all unquestionable status. welfares as mentioned above such as priority A sentence, the successful person seats in the public sphere and transportation must accumulate merits from the previous will disappear if religions are removed lives or pubbekatapunnata, has been often from the state’s support. Thirdly, and most mentioned in Pali curriculum Grade IV importantly, Islamophobia is spreading (Sirimaggalacariya, 1987). Though the word in the Buddhist communities. Some Thai “pubbe” can be interpreted as the “past” of this Buddhists believe that their culture will very life, most examples shown in this book be swallowed by Islam and Buddhism in refer to the previous lives, the processes to Thailand would be destroyed as happened enlightenment of the Buddha for example. In in Indonesia in the 13rd century (Buaban, consequence, our effort in the present is not 2020). Of course, this kind of fear clearly only the key factor to determine our success. reveals the weakness among Buddhists In fact, the unfair or unquestionable system themselves in the sense that they cannot makes Buddhists to believe in merits of the organize religious institutions and spread previous lives, because it is only one way to teaching to attract the new followers without explain their destination in a society ruled by any help from the government. The case of the law of impermanence (Anicca). The next anti-hijab will exemplify this claim. section continues to trace the development Wearing Hijab of Muslim students was of Theravada Buddhism in social aspects protested by Buddhist monks and laypeople and analyze why its doctrines are difficult to in many places of Thailand, especially in be interpreted to serve modern society. the case that those schools are in the temple area. Muslims try to fight by claiming religious freedom, which is guaranteed by

51 Jesada Buaban the Thai constitution. However, the Ministry to exemplify the concept of Kamma or actions of Education supported Buddhists’ demand in previous lives. by using the Sangha Act of 1962. This Social status of all beings, according to Act clarifies that, schools in the Buddhist the Pali scriptures, is different because of temples are considered as the Buddhists’ their actions in the previous lives, Kamma. property. Therefore, the authority must High-class people are from those who used belong to the abbots and their instructions to conduct a lot of generosity, help other should be respected. It means that if the people and animals. While the poor are abbot does not allow Muslim students to opposite (Silasutta, 213). Therefore, this wear hijab, his command must be final. particular life is the result of their previous Rakchart Chusuwan, the leader of Buddhists actions that must be faced, of course, they for Peace in Three Southern Provinces, as are supposed to develop their behavior in reported by BBC Thai (2018), stated that it order to get the new good life, but they must was important to protest wearing Hijab in accept that fact as fundamental teaching. the Buddhist schools in order to maintain According to Jory (2002), the Siamese elites peace and prevent separatism. Muslim could gain religious and political legitimacy students should not differentiate themselves through this idea, in which the poor people from Buddhists. If we allowed them to wear perceived the rich and the leaders as from Hijab, they will ask for the halal kitchen in moral actions at least in the previous lives. the next step. According to Rakchart and In order to educate Buddhists in the other Thai officials, religious peace can be Kamma belief, the gap of social status must gained through unity, not diversity. be maintained and reproduced. If everyone However, not only Buddhists ask many can access the good quality of medication, supports from the government, Muslims the results of previous actions will be themselves also conduct such behavior. destroyed. If A, for example, dies because of Supporting Muslim pilgrimage to Saudi, inaccessibility of good medication, it means initiating halal industry, providing salaries that he deserved such a result because of for Muslim leaders, and so on are also his bad actions in a previous life. What the supported by the government. Conflicts Theravadins must do is to conduct charity in between Buddhists and Muslims can be order to get a better life and to meditate for seen when one religion got support while gaining the purity of mind, Nibbana. Because another did not. Unfortunately, both of them of this idea, Theravada is normally perceived never want to find the solution by discussing as individualism, which is totally different secularism. Therefore, concepts of human from Mahayana, a school of thought that rights and democracy will be referred to only tends to be more focused on social structures. when they lose some advantages but not for Mahayana organizations such as Tzu Chi the sake of other religions. and Soka Gakkai are therefore famous in Welfare state is the system that allows all building hospitals, schools, houses for the citizens to equally access the state’s services poor, providing scholarships for students such as education, medication, and so forth. and so on (Julia, 2005; Metraux, 1996). This system can occur if all citizens, especially In addition, when a group of young the rich, pay more tax. In Theravada idea, monks and novices, called the Carrot Gang, it also difficult to initiate the welfare state protested the government as well as the because the gap between rich and poor Sangha council in 2020-2011, alongside pro- people is something to be preserved in order democracy groups, they were accused of

52 ©2021 Simulacra, Volume 4, No. 1, June 2021 insulting the Supreme patriarch (Sangharaja) Buddhist institution have not been reformed that should be punished for a year in prison, to respond to democratic system. according to the Sangha act, article 44, and of course it was cooperated by the state’s police. In fact, those monks and novices criticized Conclusion the non-updated status of Sangha system Gerontocracy or “rule of old men” in the and reciprocal relationships between state Thai monastic administration is supported and religion, but to respect the old powerful by Theravada concept of respecting the old monks were still used as a reason to reinforce priests who exert to reduce negative emotions the law to prevent criticism of dictators and as suggested by the Buddhist scriptures. gerontocracy. Their legitimacy automatically came after Relationships between Thai monks entering the monastic life for many years. and the king should also be addressed. Perhaps, this is normal in a semi-democratic The Sangha Council, issued by dictatorial country like Thailand, where many people government in 1962 and used until today, still prefer moral dictators rather than those is not corresponding to democratic system. who are from elections. Also, it found that the Monk leaders are not from elections, but young generations who are loyal to the old approved based on their rankings. In general, system and old monks are always chosen to the king approved the supreme patriarch, work in this organization in order to prevent while other rankings were approved by their protest. However, this paper proposes the Sangha Council. Nonetheless, in 2020, that monastic gerontocracy causes religious the king wanted to broaden his power by organizations passive in raising democratic becoming the one who approves all kinds and social issues. Those powerful monks of high-rankings (Chaokun in Thai status), commonly seek stability by strengthening therefore the Sangha Council deals with relationships with the government and the only the low-rankings (Phrakhru). In fact, monarchy rather than supporting human some Sangha Council members are not rights. The case of Dhammakaya and Anti- satisfied with such a change, according to Hijab are depicted to show the problems an interview with Ven.Suthat, a provincial in terms of idea and management of the secretary monk, but they preferred to keep old monks as well as other Buddhists in silent on the ground that the power of the promoting peace in the diverse society. king is overwhelming. As a result, it can be Moreover, the national curriculum for said that gerontocracy in Thai Buddhism monks are also designed to preserve such a is also preserved by the monarchy. It is a conservative system, in which the old monks reciprocal relationship in the sense that should be respected and are unquestionable. those old monks are approved to play a ruling role, while they also help to educate people to be loyal to the king as an significant icon Declaration of Ownership of the Thai identity. Of course, both of them This article is my original work. have not only a traditional norm to prevent criticism, but also a criminal law; article 112 for Lèse-majesté and article 44 of the Sangha Conflict of Interest Act for insulting the Supreme Patriarch. There is no conflict of interest to declare in It cannot be denied that gerontocracy is this article. an obstacle for democratization (Rotila & Celmare, 2017), while the monarchy and

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