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Home , Buddhaghosa, Buddhism in Myanmar, Buddhist Society, Kyaung, Manuha, Religion in Myanmar

The Role of Monkhood in Contemporary Society

By Sylwia Gil, Specialist on South East Asia and , Warsaw, Poland, September 2008, (on behalf of Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung)

Introduction for all who expect general changes in Myanmar. Monks, particularly the younger generation, Recent events in Myanmar, particularly the became more aware of their strength and re- “” in 2007 and cyclone sponsibility for the country. In Myanmar most Nargis in 2008 placed Myanmar monks in the independent activity is suppressed or under strict focus of the international community. Not for control of the state. The monkhood, in contrast, the first time in history, the Myanmar ë~åÖÜ~1 enjoys a high level of immunity and freedom, for took a leading role in times of emergency, and instance, with regard to freedom of movement was able to mobilise rapidly their forces in (within the country and abroad)3 or various social order to help and represent the people of activities, mostly in the local area. The recent Myanmar. In 1988 they went to the streets events showed that their role in the society is with other citizens to call for democratic and not limited to the preservation of and economic reforms in the country. Similarly, in rituals. 2007, monks participated in the nation-wide protests against rising fuel and commodity Although there is a developed ë~åÖÜ~ admini- prices.2 The visible and silent support of the stration, the dependence of an ordinary monk monks provided encouragement and moral on the administrative hierarchy is minimal. The guidance for the predominantly Buddhist na- j~Ü~å~ó~â~ State Committee, the tion. Facing the post-Nargis devastation and highest administrative body of the Burmese indecisiveness related to access of interna- ë~åÖÜ~, is regarded by the new generation of tional humanitarian aid, Myanmar monks be- monks rather as a care-taker of the govern- came the only organised group able to re- ment’s religious activities and maintenance of spond promptly with aid for traumatised vic- its ëí~íìë=èìç, than as the body of moral au- tims, providing them with shelter and distrib- thority for ordinary monks. Most of the mem- uting basic commodities in their communities. bers of the Committee are elderly, traditional monks enjoying high privileges and material The saffron revolution did not succeed. How- welfare. They have no real power on commu- ever, for some analysts it was not the end but nity matters, because this lies in hands of the rather the beginning of a new chapter in Myan- Ministry of Religious Affairs. mar’s contemporary history, marking the emer- gence of a new potential social and political The Myanmar ë~åÖÜ~ is not homogenous and force, nourishing hopes of the opposition and the scope of monks’ activities is complex. As a monk is perceived as a renouncer of the world, the question arises to what extent he should be 1 p~åÖÜ~=J=community of monksK= 2 engaged in the social and political life of the It is difficult to estimate the proportion of monks who participated in the protest. According to Gov- country? The purpose of this work is to intro- ernment only 2 %, in opinion of my interlocutors, duce the reader to Myanmar monks from - 60 %. About 2% were strictly and to give some ideas about the role of the against, due to religious conviction, or strong relations monks in contemporary Myanmar. with the government. Both estimations seem to be not adequate, to get it more precisely one should know the approximate number of adult novices and 3 Regarding monks’ opportunities, monastic connec- monks, as sangha includes novices children as well the tions in the whole country and abroad as well finan- number of temporary monks. The media’s estimation cial situation comaparativly better than any average is up to 30 thousand in Yangon. Myanmar layman.

1 1. Historical background of Buddhism in p~åÖÜ~, the community of monks, began to Myanmar exist. The offered strands were enshrined inside the Shwedagon by King Okalappa; and The first inhabitants of Myanmar belonged the place became the most precious treasure for probably to Austro-Asiatic group but they have all the people of Myanmar, a symbol of both left no pursuable traces. They were replaced by religion and country. Traditionally, Myanmar Tibeto-Burman tribes, who came from eastern historians mention four more advents of Bud- Tibet in the beginning of the Christian era. The dhism in Myanmar, among them two visits of oldest of them known by name were the Pyu, the Buddha during his lifetime. An Arakanese the Kanran, the Arakanese and the Thet, who legend relates to his personal visit to the may be the ancestors of the Chin. Other ethnic state, where he left his engraved image, later to groups were Talaings (Mon) in the south-east of be known as the Mahamuni statue. The other the country and the Karens in the east. The arrivals of Buddhism are connected with histori- Shans appeared much later, in the 10th century. cally documented events. The first is related to the visit of the Indian king to the Asoka’s mis- The Pyus found empires of city-kingdoms in the sionaries, Sona and Uttara in the III A.D to Su- Irrawaddy Valley. Similarly, like in other South- varnabhumi6 and another with the work of East Asian countries, the Pyus were under strong , one of the greatest Buddhist and wide influence of the Indian religion and commentators (IV-V A.D.). The people of Myan- culture, which came into the country through mar believe that he was a native Mon from Tha- migration and trade. According to Harvey4 the ton who brought the qáéáí~â~=7, the Buddhist cultural influence from India took root not earlier canon, and other scriptures in Pali from Sri than A.D. 300. However, could have Lanka.8 come to the land long before. In Myanmar tradi- tion, the Pyus are considered to be pious Bud- However, before the Theravada school, one of dhists but the excavations give evidence that the South Indian , came into both Hinduism and Buddhism coexisted. The existence as the religion of the court and spread oldest known Pyu cities carried names related to its influence over the people, there existed dif- Hinduism (Sri Ksetra, Baitkhano – Visnu). The ferent schools of Buddhism. Among them some Hindu religion left its traces in royal ceremonies, obscure Buddhist cults were prac- arts, law and astrology. Some of the Hindu ticed, similar to those known in Bengal and the and goddesses eventually became members of Malay Archipelago. The most powerful one was the indigenous animistic religion and å~í-spirits the order of Ari monks, which was remarkably pantheon5. Although the Pyu are extinct, their different from the Theravada school. Ari monks civilisation is often regarded as a part of Myan- were not celibate; were well skilled in martial mar heritage, as it absorbed Pyu culture. arts, were known for indulgence, and corrupted the doctrine. They practiced í~åíê~ cults and According to Myanmar belief, Buddhism arrived magic, selling spells and absolution from sins. into the country soon after Siddartha Gautama, the founder of the religion, was enlightened and Since the 11th century, with the beginning of became Buddha. The story tells of two merchant the dynasty, Theravada started to prevail, brothers from Lower Burma, who went on a the Ari cult was eradicated and Buddhism infil- journey to pay homage to the Buddha and re- trated many aspects of the Myanmar culture. ceived eight strands of his hair to venerate. The merchants were the first lay followers of the Buddha and the first people who took in 6 Suvarnabhumi according to Burmese scholars was him and the aÜ~ãã~, his teachings, before the the Mon kingdom with the port capital . Thai scholars place Suvarnabhumi on Thai teritory. G. E. Harvey in his History of Burma rather doubts that this 4 G.E. Harvey, History of Burma, From the Earliest visit had ever took place because it is not documented Times to 10 March 1824 The Beginning of the English in Asoka’s rock edicts but mentioned only in Conquest, ed. Frank Cass & Co. Ltd, and j~Ü~î~ãë~I=the Ceylon=Chronicle compiled in VI AD. Edinburgh 1967:4. [Harvey:309] 5 – from Pali å~íÜ~=Ó=protector, saviour, lordK=In 7 qáéáí~â~ – The Buddhist canon, Three Baskets com- Burma: spirits of ancestors, heroes, persons who died prising: pìíí~éáí~â~ – basket of discursive or narrative of violent and sudden death or deities. They can be Buddhis scriptures, sáå~ó~éáí~â~– basket of monastic malicious and capricious but while venerated can discipline and ^ÄÜáÇ~ãã~éáí~â~=– basket of the the- fulfill the wishes of worshipers. Nat worship co-exists ory of the doctrine or philosophy. with Buddhism, which is considered as religion con- 8 The ethnic origin of Buddhaghosa is not ceratain and cerned with life here after, whereas nat worship is the the huge amount of literature written under this way for the material success and protection in the name suggests that there possibly were more than present life. one Buddhaghosa.

2 King (AD 1044-77) and his religious pointed the head of the ë~åÖÜ~, the so-called guide , a monk from Thaton, under- ë~ë~å~Ä~áåÖ, and ensured the rule of order took many endeavours in order to purify the through ecclesiastical hierarchy. At the same existing religion and establish the Theravada time, he ruled with the support of the Buddhist order. Having been refused= qáéáí~â~ from Mon order and its prestige. Kingdom (with the capital in Thaton), Anawrahta organised a military expedition in 2. Monkhood – from meditative mendi- 1057 and consequently brought home not only cants and renouncers to active members the Canon but also learned monks, artists and of the civil society the Mon king himself. As a result, the Bagan kingdom assimilated the Mon culture and Buddha taught renunciation of the material soon became a centre of religious learning. Pali, world by means of in order to the language of the Buddhist canon, became the attain salvation (åáÄÄ~å~)K=10 He advised his disci- of learning and literature and ples to cultivate a walk of life that strikes a bal- enriched the indigenous languages. Anawrahta’s ance, the – the avoidance of two successors continued his tasks; most of them extremes, such as uncontrolled indulgence in were pious Buddhists, such as Kyanzittha [A.D. sensual pleasures on the one hand, and on the 1084-1112], who was well-known for his reli- other, unnecessary self-mortification leading to gious reforms and the promotion of Buddhism in exhaustion of the body and mind. The cultiva- the region. tion of ëáä~ (morality), é~åå~ (wisdom) and ÄÜ~J î~å~ () leads to the cessation of í~åÜ~ Bagan’s political power waned after the 12th (craving, thirst or desire), which he considered to century. Due to the weakness of the central be the cause of suffering, endless rebirths and power, the country broke into fragmentary prin- infinite entanglement in the worldly matters. The cipalities, but incipient dynasties, in spite of peri- Buddha and his first disciples were wandering ods of unrest, strove to be the patrons and mendicants, living in the forest, eating “what propagators of religion, with very few exemp- was given”, wearing rags found in a cemetery, tions. Myanmar’s kings traced their origin back with neither a permanent place to live nor any to Buddha’s p~âó~ dynasty. The Buddhist doc- possessions. trine of â~ãã~ placed the king in the highest position, as one could only become a ruler after The growing popularity of Buddha’s teachings, the accumulation of the greatest in former which increased the number of followers and lives. The King was believed to be the Å~ââ~î~íJ highlighted the necessity for a during the íáå, a righteous, universal ruler, who rested his rainy season, were the main reasons for the rule on the principle of ÇÜ~ãã~, whose duty disciples to settle down and found monasticism. was to disseminate and support the religion and Soon the need for the establishment of basic to protect his people. The King was also believed rules and regulations for the new community to be the , the incarnation of future emergedI with the aim to avoid corruption and Buddhas. abuse of the original teachings and to regulate the discipline of monks. The moral code of a Scholar Khin Maung Nyunt comments: ^ää= jó~åJ monk is called îáå~ó~K=There are 227 rules that a ã~ê= háåÖë= ïÜÉíÜÉê= åçÄäÉ= çê= íóê~åíI= íêáÉÇ= íç= ÄÉ= monk should respect.= The offences are devised åçÄäÉ= é~íêçå= çÑ= êÉäáÖáçåI= éêçãçíÉê= ~åÇ= ëìééçêíÉê= in seven categories, and only four of them, çÑ= _ìÇÇÜáëã= ~åÇ= ÇÉÑÉåÇÉê= çÑ= Ñ~áíÜ= Äó= ÄìáäÇáåÖ= called é~ê~ààáâ~, involve the so-called defeat, êÉäáÖáçìë= ãçåìãÉåíë= Ñçê= ÉåëÜêáåáåÖ= ë~ÅêÉÇ= êÉäáÅë= which consequently implies the exclusion from ~åÇ=çÄàÉÅíëI=Äó=ÄìáäÇáåÖ=êÉëáÇÉåÅÉë=Ñçê=ãçåâëI=êÉëí= the ë~åÖÜ~ order without possibility of expiation. ÜçìëÉë= Ñçê= ëÜÉäíÉêáåÖ= íê~îÉääÉêë= ~åÇ= éáäÖêáãëI= Äó= They include unchastity, including sexual inter- ÇáÖÖáåÖ=ïÉääëI=í~åâëI=Ç~ãë=~åÇ=Å~å~äë=Ñçê=ëìééäó=çÑ= course even with animals, stealing, murder and ï~íÉê=Ñçê=éìÄäáÅ=ìëÉ=~åÇ=Åìäíáî~íáçå=~åÇ=Äó=ÇçáåÖ= false claiming of supernormal activities. The ã~åó=çíÜÉê=ãÉêáíçêáçìë=ÇÉÉÇëK9 other offences are said to be curable, but this procedure entails a formal meeting of the order The role of the king was to perpetuate the ë~J ë~å~, the Buddha’s= teachings, and to protect them from corruption and dispersion. This could 10 Nibbâna – cessation, extinction, liberation. The only be done by enforcing the rules of a monk’s ultimate goal for a Buddhist, the Absolute, the moral code by means of control. The king - realisation of the Truth; the state is usually described by negative therms as extinction of craving, uncompound, unconditioned and in fact, an 9 Khin Maung Nyunt. 2003. An Anthology of Confer- experience, which cannot be expressed in words. A ence Papers: Culture and History. person who achieved the nibbana is free from future Department of History, University of Yangon: 177. rebirths and consequently from suffering.

3 or, in the case of the less grave ones, involve and services. However, regardless of the place forfeiture, eventually only confession. All of they live and their intellectual level, monks enjoy these rules are not only precisely elaborated, but the highest respect from society. they also cover all aspects of a monk’s life and conduct, his relationship with the lay commu- It must also be stressed that the general respect nity, his way of dressing, taking food or acquir- they enjoy is not directed to an individual monk ing and keeping properties. Respecting the rules but to the robe he wears, which is the symbol of is indeed the only way to make extinct desire the Buddha. Monks might not be ideal, but they (í~åÜ~) and to follow the way leading to salva- strive for an ideal and that is important. In tion. Myanmar’s culture, there are three kinds of people worthy of being worshipped: monks are In the handbook „How to Live as a Good Bud- the first, before parents and teachers. According dhist”, edited by the Department for the Promo- to Buddhist belief, to become a human being in tion and Propagation of p~ë~å~, the duties of the circle of uncountable lives is very difficult, the order are defined as follows: „qÜÉ=ÅçããìJ what more about becoming a monk, who is the åáíó= çÑ= ariya-sangha11= ëÉêîÉë= ã~åâáåÇ= Äó= ÅçåJ closest to liberation? ëí~åíäó= éê~ÅíáÅáåÖ= ãçê~äáíó= ~åÇ= ÜáÖÜÉëí= éìêáíóK= qÜÉó= ëÉêîÉ= ~ë= kçÄäÉ= fÇÉ~ä= íç= ÑçääçïI= ÇÉëÉêîáåÖ= What must be understood is the notion that êÉëéÉÅíI=ÇÉîçíáçå=~åÇ=îÉåÉê~íáçå=Ñêçã=ÇÉîçíÉÉëK= monks differ and among them there are repre- qÜÉ= bhikku-sangha= Äó= äÉ~êåáåÖ= çêáÖáå~ä= ëÅêáéJ sentatives from the whole spectrum of society. íìêÉëI=Äó=éê~ÅíáÅáåÖ=~åÇ=Äó=êÉ~äáò~íáçå=çÑ=ÜáÖÜÉëí= The motivation to join the order may vary. E.M. íêìíÜëI= ëÉêîÉ= çíÜÉêë= Äó= Éñ~ãéäÉI= éêÉÅÉéí= ~åÇ= Spiro, in his research, points out five main - íÉ~ÅÜáåÖK=páåÅÉ=íÜÉó=~äçåÉ=éêÉëÉêîÉ=íÜÉ=çêáÖáå~ä= tives for becoming a monk, such as disgust with sasana=Ü~åÇÉÇ=Ççïå=Ñêçã=íÉ~ÅÜÉê=íç=éìéáäI=íÜÉ= the world and its misery, to avoid labour, to ÇÉîçíÉÉë= é~ó= íÜÉã= ÇìÉ= êÉëéÉÅí= ~åÇ= ëìééçêíK= have an easy life, to achieve the state of åáÄJ qÜÉó=ëÉêîÉ=ÄçíÜ=sasana=~åÇ=éÉçéäÉ=Äó=íÉ~ÅÜáåÖ= Ä~å~, to acquire merit and good â~ãã~NP or to íÜÉ=ëÅêáéíìêÉëI=äÉ~êåáåÖI=éê~ÅíáÅáåÖ=~åÇ=êÉ~ÅÜáåÖ= promote and teach Buddhism.14 The wish for íÜÉ=Öç~ä=çÑ=nibbana=~êÉ=íÜÉ=íÜêÉÉ=~ëéÉÅí=çÑ=íÜÉ= education as the main motive to become a í~ëâ=çÑ=íÜÉ=bhikku=sanghaI=é~ëí=~åÇ=éêÉëÉåíKÒNO monk should be added here. The majority of monks are villagers, who have no other oppor- At present, about 90 percent of Myanmar’s tunity to study or raise their status. The village population are Buddhist and an estimated 500 monk is also the highest authority known to 000 inhabitants are practicing monkhood. The them and whom they follow. In case of the first encounter with Myanmar monasticism may monks, who were raised in the from be somehow astonishing and raise the question a very early age, they are not able to contem- of contemporary monkhood and the renuncia- plate on their motivation in childhood and they tion of the material world. The most striking are just learned to like the life in the monastery. certainly the monks’ obvious liberties. In the big When they reach the age of twenty, that way of cities, the monks sitting in the coffee shops, life is the only one they have known and they do smoking, chewing betel, watching television and not see any other opportunity or reason to quit. roaming around without obvious purpose is quite a common sight. Another fact is that they To leave the order is easy in theory, as it only enjoy a visibly better material status than most requires the recitation of a special formula in the of their followers. The first impression would of presence of one witness. However, taking this course be different, if the first encounter was kind of decision after many years of monkhood taking place in a meditation centre, where the usually involves strong resistance and disap- way of life is strictly regulated and most of the pointment from the monk’s family, due to the monks are meditating, or in any of the Buddhist prestige the family enjoyed, thanks to having a academic centres, where monks specialise in Pali monk among its members. Supposedly, the language and Tipitaka. In the villages, a monk is years of material support might also have a under stronger surveillance of the community negative impact and often cause a hysterical and is mostly concerned with traditional rites reaction.

11 Ariya (pali)– noble, right, good, ideal; ariya-sangha – 13 h~ãã~ – (more common in literature under the order or community of noble ones” synonim with term- â~êã~ ) the acquisition of good or bad „ sangha” – order of monks. deeds which brings the fruits in the next life.= 12 eçï=íç=iáîÉ=~ë=~=dççÇ=_ìÇÇÜáëí. 2000. Vol. I. De- 14 Melford E. Spiro. 1984.=_ìÇÇÜáëã=~åÇ=pçÅáÉíóI=^= partment for the Promotion and Propagation of the dêÉ~í=qê~Çáíáçå=~åÇ=áíë=_ìêãÉëÉ=sáÅáëëáíìÇÉëI=Univer- Sasana, published by U Tun Mya Aung, Director of sity of California Press: 137.= D.P.P.S., Yangon, Myanmar: 58.

4 for their followers, not only concerning reli- Traditional monks start as novices while still in gious matters but also as part of a monk’s en- their childhood, between 7 and 14 years of gagement in other village activities. age. They might stay in the monastery since their initiation ceremony (ëÜáåJÄóì). This cere- It is fairly easy to become a monk in Burma and mony is compulsory for all Buddhist boys, usu- the way to liberation is open to all. One can ally from the age of 7 to 12 years. However, it become a monk at any age, regardless of life often depends on the financial situation of the circumstances. That is why generalisations con- family whether the ceremony takes place, since cerning the ë~åÖÜ~ should be avoided. the performance involves serious expenses. The family has to cover the costs of a set of robes A person can become a “a temporary monk”, and other requisites, donations to the monas- coming to the monastery for a limited period of tery as well as food for the invited guests. The time to regain clarity of mind, which is strongly ceremony symbolically reflects the renounce- advised and appreciated by the society, as the ment of the material world by the Buddha, who monastery is a refuge from daily turmoil and abandoned his comfortable life of a prince and meditation is the highest remedy for the people became a homeless mendicant. So does a boy, of Myanmar. It is common that the head of the wearing the costume of a prince, who is carried family stays in the monastery for some time to the monastery on a white horse or on a lit- and the rest of the family supports him with ter. There he has his head shaved; he puts on food. It is also believed that meditation and the robe and is instructed by the senior teacher. temporary seclusion are auspicious for future He stays in the monastery for at least a week, undertakings, because it helps one attain the during which he is taught the basic principles highest merit. It is common that the whole of Buddhism. This performance is the most department of an administration unit joins a important stage in a boy’s life, because only monastery for a few weeks, in order to work then he formally becomes a part of the Bud- better. dhist community and society. He, as it is stressed, becomes “a human being” Although the îáå~ó~ rules strictly prohibit any additional occupation in the areas of medicine, The monks brought up in the monastery enjoy magic, alchemy, fortune telling, choosing lucky generally a higher degree of respect than the lottery numbers, exorcism etc., these additional ones who become a monk at an older age, as activities are quite common for a monk and they they are considered to be “pure”: they neither are not really despised by the majority of lay had any sexual experience, nor experienced the supporters. On the contrary: if a monk is suc- burden of family life. But this might also depend cessful, he can become quite popular and rich. on personal qualities, skills and motivations of a But whatever is outside of the realm of formality person who joins the order. and religious dogma often happens to be the most expressive aspect of human nature and Some of the monks, according to their own represents the true needs of religious followers. interests and inclination, may also undertake However, this kind of performance may not be some kind of specialisation. Those interested in accepted or ignored by educated monks. studies and propagation of Buddha’s teachings, can undertake studies up to the academic level. The easy access to the monastic life, in conse- They later become abbots or teachers in monas- quence, makes the monastery a place open to all tic schools, the so-called éÜçåÖóá= âó~ìåÖ; they sort of bogus monks, people who avoid respon- may also perform some tasks in dis- sibility or hardship and who just want to enjoy tant regions of the country. Those interested in the privileges of monkhood. Unless they do not any particular school of meditation can be commit any serious offence, they will not be trained as meditation teachers and serve the driven away from the order. One can also often community in meditation centres. hear about infiltration of by intelli- gence officers ordained as monks. Monks who do not pursue higher degrees of studies usually stay in a monastery and serve In conclusion, the modest and austere life of the the community with religious, daily life services ë~åÖÜ~ is rather a rare ideal. Contemporary or those related to Buddhist festivals. In fact, monks asked about their strivings for liberation any important enterprise in the lifespan of a lay and becoming an ~ê~Ü~åí (a Buddhist saint) devotee should be accompanied by religious usually answers that it is difficult, and they rites such as, for instance, recitation of prayers doubt if it is still possible in the present life. They and offerings to the monastery. Monks living in a village serve also as teachers and counsellors

5 often claim that the é~ê~ãá (the perfections15) Without practicing Ç~å~=one is not able to make are also important on the way to åáÄÄ~å~, so any religious progress. That is why important first they should fulfil them. They try to explain events in the life of a layman cannot be cele- that they are just human beings and they should brated without the act of donation. Monks are be perceived as such. Educated monks stress the vessel through which laity can aspire to the their duty as religious teachers. A monk may live better here and after. The most generous donors in a comfortable monastery, using computer and deserve also the highest respect and prestige in mobile phone, but he still is a renouncer as long society. Monkhood, due to the vows, is also a as he does not break any of the four é~ê~ààáâ~ë. kind of sacrum. In this way, both sides are living On the other hand, monks are in the middle of in symbiosis and depend on each other, materi- mundane life and they do participate in it. The ally and spiritually. most active and educated monks believe that they should adapt to the times, they are no relics 4. The monastery as the centre of cultural and as teachers and moral guides they have the and social life in the village right to represent the community they live in and to work on behalf of their people. The monastery in a village is a centre of social life. It is supported through the joint effort of 3. Mutual exchange between sangha and the whole village community. Monasteries in lay society Burma have always been centres for education for the people. In pre-colonial times, Burmese The formally organised and numerous ë~åÖÜ~ society was, like few other Asian societies, liter- certainly cannot exist without the material sup- ate. During colonial rule (1886- 1948), the role port of the lay people in the field of basic needs of monasteries was partly weakened due to such as food, habitat or clothing. This obvious Christian missionary schools and educational material dependence on the lay society from the reform, but since independence in 1948 and very beginning seems to have created a need for through the turbulent modern history of an a religious option for the lay supporters, since independent state, they are still fulfilling the the Buddha’s doctrine was based on the renun- educational role. In contemporary Myanmar, the ciation of the material world. The moral code for state is not able to guarantee access to free laity is simple and embodied in , education for all and rather tries to adapt exist- also known as é~åÅ~ëáä~: not to kill, not to steal, ing monastic centres. If they can secure the basic not to commit adultery, not to lie and not to use standards, they are registered as self-reliance intoxicants. There are also a few Buddhist ëìíí~ë schools within the state education system and concerned with the life of a layman and the their pupils can sit for state examinations. Mo- most important of them is the jáåÖ~ä~Jëìíí~ nastic schools not only educate a new genera- (pìíí~ of Blessings). It is composed of 38 so- tion of novices, but they also widen the curricu- called “blessings” or moral guidance notes re- lum for other children. They usually accept all lated to various aspects of life, for instance social village children who cannot afford to go to a association, good living, education and skills, state school or who have difficult access regard- meditation practice, avoidance of sin, nobility, ing distance. The education in a monastic school mental maturity, achievement of åáÄÄ~å~. is free, often accompanied by free meals and lodging. But the main religious offer for the laity is the cultivation of the Ç~å~: donations for the monks Myanmar monasteries are also a place for pres- and worship of sacred relics. Through the act of ervation and transmission of Myanmar cultural donation lay followers can acquire the highest heritage. The children are taught basic morals religious merit, which accumulates and brings and civics, social rights and duties towards the fruits in one of their next lives and will eventually others. bring them closer to salvation. They can also achieve the so-called “five great benefits” in What is also stunning is that Myanmar’s temples present life by alms food, such as lon- are a place of rest and enjoyment. It is indeed a gevity, beauty, happiness in mind and body, place of refuge for villagers. People come to the bodily strength, great wisdom and insight. monastery to take a rest after work, to give of- ferings to the monks, meditate or seek for reli- gious or mundane advice. Monastery buildings

15 are usually of better quality and provided with The ten perfections include: generosity, morality, better equipment than any of the village houses. freedom from lust, wisdom, effort, peace, truthfull- It is possible that the monastery is the only place ness, resolution, universal love, equanimity. The Buddha had to fulfill all of them in his various, in the village with electricity, and, what is more, previous lives, before he had become enlighted.

6 radio or television is available. It is the first place Buddhist doctrine and education in general. The where all the news is received and distributed. YMBA developed in 1920 into the General Council of Burmese Associations, which advo- 5. Organisation of the Buddhist sangha in cated constitutional reforms and staged a strike Myanmar and its relation to the state at Rangoon University against University Act perceived to be restrictive for Burmese. Buddhist In Myanmar’s history the ruler was always the clergy took an active part in national resistance main supporter and propagator of religion, re- movement. The most prominent among them sponsible for its maintenance and purity. The were and U Ottama who applied a king was the sponsor of state Pali examinations åçåJîáçäÉåí= strategy in the struggleK In 1930- and Buddhist places of worship. p~åÖÜ~ enjoyed 1932 Saya San, a Buddhist monk initiated the the king's protection and served him with reli- first armed resistance, which turned into na- gious instructions. tional revolt.

According to Khin Maung Nyunt, ë~åÖÜ~=had a After independence, the new authorities were sort of constitutional check upon the ruler. Some aware of the role of Buddhism for national iden- of the traditions and customary practices were tity in the new state. Prime Minister organ- preventive measures against despotism and tyr- ised the Sixth Buddhist Synod and invited the anny.16 The monks were forbidden to be in- most learned Buddhist monks from all Theravada volved in secular matters and politics, but they countries to recite and edit the qáéáí~â~ and could act as advisers. The head of the order commentaries. However his achievement to appointed by the king, the qÜ~íÜ~å~Ä~áåÖI= or declare Buddhism as the official state religion in other distinguished teachers could even admon- 1961 created mistrust among Karen and Kachin ish the king, demand to pardon a condemned Christian ethnic minorities and strengthen ani- person and stand up for the subjects in times of mosity in the already weak union. natural disasters, to lessen their obligations to- wards the state. Sometimes kings entrusted At present, Myanmar authorities follow the ex- political missions to monks, as in the case of the ample of the past regarding the support and Mongol invasion and occupation of the country control over the order, still being aware of the in the 14th century, to settle the conflict peace- potential strength of the Buddhist ë~åÖÜ~ and its fully. One case is known where a monk became moral impact on the nation. However, the for- king (Dhammazedi – 1453-1472), chosen for his mer balance and respect seems to have declined. wisdom by queen Shin Saw Pu (1453-1472) as her successor to the throne. Generally, kings and As stated in the Brochure of “The Department ë~åÖÜ~ were dependent on each other, cooper- for the Promotion and Propagation of p~ë~å~Ò ating and balancing each other with mutual of the Ministry of Religious Affairs, monks and respect. novices in Myanmar live inside the system of hierarchy and according to the sáå~ó~ rules17 , Without the king’s strong central support, the free from the direct administration of the gov- ecclesiastical hierarchy the order easily divided ernment. In 1980, nine Myanmar Buddhist and declined. During colonial times, the seculari- sects18 were united in one body of monks and sation of Burma caused a weakening of the novices. After having elected one thousand, order. Prominent Buddhist teachers appealed to three hundred were appointed to the p~åÖÜ~ the British to assume religious duties of the for- Central Working Committee and then forty mer rulers as patrons. But due to the policy of seven of their members were chosen to organise non-interference in religious matters, the British the Executive Committee – the State p~åÖÜ~= response was rather superficial and not effective. j~Ü~å~ó~â~= Committee. One hundred This negligence, in effect, was one of the rea- ë~ó~Ç~ïëNV from different parts of the country sons for growing nationalism with a strong Bud- are organised in the State lî~Ç~Å~êáó~ Commit- dhist religious background and the beginning of tee, the advisory board supervising the different the resistance movement. levels of ë~åÖÜ~ organisations.

In 1906, the Young Men's Buddhist Association was established with the objective to promote: 17 They hierarchy is based on the years (î~ë~) spent in national spirit, national language and literature, order, counted from the higher monk’s ordination. 18 The nine sects (or schools): Sudhammâ, Shwe Kying, Veluvan, Anout Chawing Dvâra, Mûladvâra, Mahâd- 16 Khin Maung Nyunt. 2003. ^å=^åíÜçäçÖó=çÑ=`çåÑÉêJ vâra, Catubhummika Hnget Twin, Gaòavimutti Gatot, ÉåÅÉ=m~éÉêëW=oÉäáÖáçå=áå=jó~åã~ê=`ìäíìêÉ=~åÇ=eáëíçêóK= Maggarî. The schools differ mostly in their Department of History, University of Yangon: 181- interpretation of îáå~ó~ rules. 182. 19 p~ó~Ç~ï is a teacher.

7 Under the leadership of the pí~íÉ= p~åÖÜ~= teaching. Alongside them, there is also the In- j~Ü~å~ó~â~ Committee there are different ternational Theravada Buddhist Missionary Uni- levels of organisations: State and Division, Town- versity. The government sponsors different ship, Village and Wards Committees. ceremonies such as hoisting the Pagoda Um- brella, ceremonies to honour the relics of the There are also three judicial levels of sáå~ó~ Judi- Buddha and ~ê~Ü~åíë. cal Courts: Township sáåáÅÅÜ~ó~ Courts State and Division sáåáÅÅÜ~ó~ Courts and the Highest The government supports many monastic sáåáÅÅÜ~ó~ Courts. schools, particularly in the cities, where up to one thousand novices and monks live together The government of Myanmar sponsors the state in one monastery, which could otherwise not Pali examinations and confers the titles. The survive without central support as well, is in basic one - m~íÜ~ã~Äó~å=Pali Examination – has charge of maintenance and preservation of Bud- four levels. To continue their education, students dhist monuments. In 1991, a new body was may sit for the aÜ~ãã~Å~êáó~ examinations, established, the Department for the Promotion testing their knowledge of qáéáí~â~ and confer- and Propagation of p~ë~å~, with the aim to ring them the title of p~ë~å~ÇÜ~à~= aÜ~ãJ spread Buddhist teachings in the country and ã~Å~êáó~. There is also a Honorary aÜ~ãJ abroad. ã~Å~êáó~ examination, which confers students the title of p~ë~å~ÇÜ~à~= páêáé~î~ê~= aÜ~ãJ The fact is that ë~åÖÜ~ cannot exist without the ã~Å~êáó~. For especially talented candidates, state, at least not in such numbers as at present. there are qáéáí~â~ÇÜ~ê~ (The Bearer of Three Itdepends on the central power materially and Baskets) Examinations. A candidate must be able judicially in case of civil disputes for instance to memorise at least one of the three baskets in about the land or monastery property, criminal the term of five years. If he passes all three ex- offences. Regarding the numbers of monks and aminations, he obtains the title of qáéáí~â~ÇÜ~ê~, the easy access to the monkhood there is no qáéáí~â~âçîáÇ~ or qáéáí~â~ÇÜ~ê~= aÜ~ãã~Ä~åÇ~J question about the need of the State p~åÖÜ~= Ö~êáâ~. The successful candidates are held in j~Ü~å~ó~â~ structure and controlling role. The highest respect in the country. The conferring of problem is how to restore its moral authority, the title is accompanied by donations and con- real representation of the community and execu- vocation ceremonies. máí~â~ÇÜ~ê~ë enjoy special tive power, so that it could be perceived as more facilities as free travel by air, water and road and than a puppet institution, exercising regulations they receive monthly cash donations by the gov- of the Ministry of Religious Affairs. ernment. All ceremonies are sponsored by the government and held annually.20 6. Myanmar monks and their recent socio- political engagement Apart from the above mentioned examinations for monks and novices, there are also national In accordance with state directives, monks are Pali Examinations of different levels held for the prohibited from participating in secular affairs. members of the ë~åÖÜ~,=praised with donations “qÜÉ= ãçåâë= ëÜçìäÇ= ëí~ó= ~ï~ó= Ñêçã= ÑçêãáåÖI= from lay devotees. àçáåáåÖ=çê=ëìééçêíáåÖ=~åó=áääÉÖ~ä=ë~åÖÜ~ çêÖ~åáJ ò~íáçå= íÜ~í= ÇçÉë= åçí= ~ÅÅÉéí= ëìéÉêîáëáçå= ~åÇ= The titles of ^ÄÜáÇÜ~à~ã~Ü~í~íí~Öìêì= and ^ÖJ ~Çãáåáëíê~íáçå=çÑ=ë~åÖÜ~=çêÖ~åáò~íáçåë=~í=ÇáÑÑÉêJ Ö~ã~Ü~é~åÇáí~ are annually conferred to Éåí= äÉîÉäëKÒ [Directive no 83 of 13 July 1991]. prominent ë~ó~Ç~ïë by the government. These “m~êíó=éçäáíáÅë=áë=ÅçåÅÉêåÉÇ=çåäó=ïáíÜ=ä~ó=éÉêëçåëK= and twenty other new titles are annually an- kç= ã~ííÉê= ïÜáÅÜ= é~êíó= ÅçãÉë= íç= éçïÉêI= ãÉãJ nounced on Independence Day, 4 January, and a ÄÉêë= çÑ= íÜÉ= ë~åÖÜ~= ~êÉ= íç= íêó= íç= ã~áåí~áå= íÜÉ= titles’ presentation ceremony is held in March. éÉêéÉíì~íáçå= çÑ= íÜÉ= _ìÇÇÜ~= p~ë~å~= ìåÇÉê= íÜÉ= These ë~ó~Ç~ïë can also travel free by road, air ~Çãáåáëíê~íáîÉ= ã~ÅÜáåÉêó= çÑ= íÜ~í= é~êíóKÒ [83.5] and water and they receive financial donations “^ää=áå=~ää=íÜÉ=ãÉãÄÉêë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ë~åÖÜ~=êÉëáÇáåÖ=áå= by the government. jó~åã~ê=~êÉ=ÇáêÉÅíÉÇ=íç=~îçáÇ=ÖÉííáåÖ=áåîçäîÉÇ= áå=é~êíó=éçäáíáÅë=~åÇ=áåëíáÖ~íáçåK [83.6]Ò There are two State Pariyatti Sasana Universities (Religious Universities) in Yangon and , The moral dilemma about monks’ participation with both traditional and modern systems of in socio-political affairs arises for both the monks and the state. According to U. Acara and U.

20 Parami, îáå~ó~= teachers ~í= International Thera- Buddha Sâsanâ and Myanmar, The Department for the Promotion and Propagation of the Sasana, Minis- vada Buddhist Missionary University in Yangon, try of Religious Affaires, Union of Myanmar. in îáå~ó~= code= there are no direct restrictions regarding monk’s activities in politics. Undoubt-

8 edly, according to the rule, the best for the form is the annual International Buddhist Con- monk is to keep far from all social or political ference on the United Nations Day of , affairs, even from the modern education, re- which this year took place in Hanoi and con- garded as to being mundane for the attainment cluded with approval of the “Hanoi Declaration of gain and fame in the world. There are few of the Fifth International Buddhist Conference rules related to the subject: on the United Nations Day of Vesak”. The decla- 1. Monks should not go to watch the soldiers’ ration includes articles outlining the international parade, Buddhist community’s commitment to build a 2. One who is giving a service to a king must just, democratic and civilised society including not be ordained without the king’s royal urging international communities to strengthen permission, efforts for world peace, advocating for social 3. Monks are allowed to follow the ruling justice and solutions to social problems.23 kings if the rulers are righteous. But there are also a few examples of the Bud- In September 2007, the so-called “Saffron Revo- dha’s engagement in social affairs or21 even act- lution” in Myanmar was a spontaneous act, ing as a negotiator. There is compromise that if without coordination and permission from the anything good could be done for the welfare of highest levels of monastic hierarchy. This sudden many without serious transgression of îáå~ó~, it and courageous act was also quite unexpected should be done. for the opposition.

Usually, where there is no direct restriction in the The monks tried to use their immunity to urge church rule, and special circumstances arise, the authorities to consider the economic situa- there is a space and need for interpretation. tion of Myanmar citizens and to protest against Buddhist community itself should elaborate the a sudden fuel price hike. After violent events in extent and area of monk’s participation in socio- the town of Pakkoku24 ended with the death of political life and the right and way of expressing a monk, the protests spread over the whole general concerns. Particularly, given that monks’ country. The monks launched the m~íí~åÉáâJ grassroots activity is already given. âìò~å~25, an excommunicative boycott, the so- called “turning the bowls upside down”, not The Myanmar monks’ involvement in politics has accepting donation from the Buddhist offender. a long tradition dating back to the colonial Ingrid Yords in her article “qìêåáåÖ= çîÉê= íÜÉ= times. Similarly, in several other Buddhist coun- Äçïä=áå=_ìêã~”, comments: qÜÉ=ëí~íÉãÉåí=ï~ë= tries there is a phenomenon known as “engaged ~=ëáÖåáÑáÅ~åí=êÉÄìâÉI=Äìí=êÉã~áåÉÇ=ÜáÖÜäó=ãçê~ä= Buddhism” or “liberation movement”, con- ~åÇ=~åíáJéçäáíáÅ~äK=qÜÉ=ä~åÖì~ÖÉ=çÑ=âáåÖëÜáé=~åÇ= cerned with monastic activities in social and êÉÑìë~ä= çÑ= Ççå~íáçåë= êÉã~áåÉÇ= ïáíÜáå= íÜÉ= íê~ÇáJ political life. Regarding neighbouring , íáçå~ä=ÄçìåÇë=~î~áä~ÄäÉ=íç=íÜÉ=p~åÖÜ~=áå=ÇÉëéÉêJ the most prominent Buddhist reformers are ~íÉ=íáãÉëK=OS Buddhasa Bhikkhu and Ajaan Sulak Sivaraksa, founder of various non-governmental organisa- 23 http://english.vietnamnet.vn/social/2008/05/783550/ tions that deal with issues of development, edu- 24 Pakkoku – town in western central Myanmar, cation, ecology etc. Ajaan Sulak Sivaraksa is also Magwe division. a co-founder of the "International Network of 25 Any important decision in the monastery is taken by 22 Engaged Buddhists". Another Buddhist plat- an announcement, repeated three times, if there are no opposed voices the decicion takes effects. The 21 Dispute of and on the share of wa- excommunication announcment of 18-th september ters from Rohini rivers, his effort to stop Vitadubha to in unoficial translation was as follow: oÉîÉêÉåÇ= kill people . One example is even devastating, Ñ~íÜÉêëI=ã~ó=óçì=äÉåÇ=É~êë=íç=ãÉ>=qÜÉ=ÉîáäI=ë~ÇáëíáÅ= regarding tolerance – when king Kosala allowed reli- ~åÇ=éáíáäÉëë=ãáäáí~êó=êìäÉêë=ïÜç=~êÉ=êçÄÄáåÖ=íÜÉ= gious sect Titthiyas to build monastery near the Bud- å~íáçåÛë=Ñáå~åÅÉë=~åÇ=áåÇÉÉÇ=~êÉ=ä~êÖÉJëÅ~äÉ=íÜáÉîÉë= dha’s place, the Teacher appealed to the King to Ü~îÉ=ãìêÇÉêÉÇ=~=ãçåâ=áå=íÜÉ=`áíó=çÑ=m~ââçâìK=qÜÉó= remove the building of neighbours. Sources: ~äëç=~ééêÉÜÉåÇÉÇ=íÜÉ=êÉîÉêÉåÇ=ãçåâë=Äó=ä~ëëçáåÖK= Commentary of Sahassabhikkhunisamgha-sutta, qÜÉó=ÄÉ~í=ìé=~åÇ=íçêíìêÉÇI=ëïçêÉ=~åÇ=íÉêêçêáëÉÇ= Mahavagga-samyutta, Samyutta-nikaya, Commentary ãçåâëK=mêçîáÇÉÇ=íÜ~í=ãçåâë=ÄÉ=ÄÉëíçïÉÇ=ïáíÜ=Ñçìê= of Kunala-jataka, Vitatubha-vatthu, - ÇÉëÉêîáåÖ=~ííêáÄìíÉëI=íÜÉó=çìÖÜí=íç=ÄçóÅçíí=íÜÉ= atthakattha. ÉîáäIë~ÇáëíáÅI=íóê~åíëI=~åÇ=áããÉåëäó=íÜáÉîáåÖ=ãáäáí~êó= 22 „INEB issues of interest revolve around integration êìäÉêëK=qÜÉ=ãçåâë=çìÖÜí=åçí=íç=~ëëçÅá~íÉ=ïáíÜ=íÜÉ= of spirituality and social activities. Issues that INEB íóê~åíëI=åçí=íç=~ÅÅÉéí=Ñçìê=ã~íÉêá~ä=íÜáåÖë=Ççå~íÉÇ=Äó= emphasised included peace reconciliation, ecology, íÜÉã=~åÇ=åçí=íç=éêÉ~ÅÜ=íÜÉãK=qÜáë=ãìÅÜ=áë=áåÑçêãáåÖI= women issue and empowerment, health, education, êÉÅÅçãÉåÇáåÖ=çê=éêçéçëáåÖK=[Burma Update by PDC human rights, community building, alternative devel- 181- 18 September 2007].= opment, role of spiritual leaders in modern world 26http://caribou.cc.trincoll.edu/depts_csrpl/RINVol10No context, etc.” http://www.inebnetwork.org/ 3/turning%20over%20the%20bowl.htm

9 = seemed to give more attention to their own In the meantime four political demands were image than to constructive actions, the monks presented to the government by activated All took a leading role in giving assistance to the Burma Monks Alliance Group: helpless people. The monasteries become shel- 1. The SPDC must apologise to the monks until ters and aid centres for those left out from the they satisfy and can forgive and pardon government or international aid workers’ relief them, efforts. The clergy particularly filled the lack of a 2. Reduce all commodity prices, fuel prices, sufficient number of effective organisations in rice and cooking oil prices immediately, the country, such as NGOs, reaching distant and 3. Release all political prisoners including Daw forgotten areas, distributing aid, organising Suu Kyi and all detainees arrested temporary hospitals and orphanages. As many in ongoing demonstrations over fuel price noticed, the leading role of monks in these times hike, of emergency certainly galvanised their ranks 4. Enter a dialogue with democratic forces for and gave them a way to express their political national reconciliation immediately to re- voices. Moreover the open critique of the gov- solve the crises and difficulty facing and suf- ernment from inside the country became visible, fering by the people.27 as in the case of Sitagu U Nanissara29. The protest ended with a violent crackdown by There is hope that this voice will be considered the military, with many deaths, arrests and a more seriously in the future.30 clearout of the monasteries, which in only a few days became empty, as most of monks fled to 7. Towards a more active role of monks in the villages. The events were publicly considered society by authorities as an attempt to destabilise the country by the opposition and foreign agents, A monk’s engagement and active participation which is more comfortable interpretation, than in social or political life is controversial due to admit that that expression of concern had arisen their religious purpose to search for spiritual originally from inside. That violent reaction liberation. But it seems that for many of the brought a silent but permanent anger to many younger generation, involvement in social life is Myanmar people. The lack of respect towards unavoidable because of their importance in a the social sacrum had a very negative impact on community and numerous duties they are in the authorities’ prestige. The government, which charge of. Moreover, in times of emergency it uses religious symbols in everyday rhetoric, re- seems that there is no other group in the acting with violence against the ë~åÖÜ~I lacks Myanmar society which is more fitted, flexible credibility. Moreover, regarding that the doctrine and accepted by the nation. Even if political of “åçåJîáçäÉåÅÉ” is a foundation stone in the activity might be more controversial, any peace- Buddhist religion. After the crackdown, the gov- ful action is acceptable as long as it is not con- ernment forcefully tried to improve its image by trary to the îáå~ó~ rules. providing huge donations to the ë~åÖÜ~ hierar- chy and organised many Buddhist ceremonies Quite a few younger monks, who have travelled, and events, in which the main political players studied and preached abroad, are in closer con- participated. There was also a notable side ef- tact with the outside world and have had an fect: the violent reaction brought about a revi- opportunity to widen their perspectives. They are talisation of religion in its social dimension but as more conscious about underdevelopment of well visible political activities of monks in the their country caused by isolation, lack of access country and abroad.28 to the means of communication such as inter- net, mobile phones etc., and they realise the In another example, after the ’ impact of overwhelming poverty on their people. devastation of the Irrawady Delta in May 2008, They are more open towards working for the with over one hundred thousand dead and miss- benefit of others. Although salvation in Bud- ing and about 2 million homeless survivors, monks came into focus as a group with high 29 Sayadaw U Nanissara, born in 1937 in Thegon, mobilisation. In contrast to the tardiness and founder of International Buddhis Academy in suspiciousness of the government, which Hills, prominent Buddhist teacher, known for his missionary work. 30 Althought the strict polarisation sangha îÉêëìë=state 27 www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=8610 - 31k is an exageration. One should not forget that in a 28 The foundation of Sasana Moli – International Bur- Burmese family it often happens that there is one mese Monks Organization by Myanmar monk and one soldier, being also quite common that abroad, strongly connected with the Myanmar oppo- a retired soldier becomes a monk. As is the case in sition in exile and Monks Supporting Commitee of the many palces monks and army cooperate in post- National Council of the Union of Burma. Nagris works.

10 dhism is not acquired through charitable work, One may argue that the traditional curriculum one still accumulates merit. The Buddhist doc- and lack of basic education in other fields such trine provides room for vivid interpretation in as economics or politics does not entitle monks terms of social matters. Monks have access to to claim the position of advisers. Still, they are the people and the subject of preaching is open. very close to the ordinary people and their hard- The “Saffron Revolution” brought more people ship and, as illustrated above, they live in com- to the monasteries to listen to “what is right”. plete dependence and symbiosis with their sup- The present role of monks in the time of disaster porters. In fact, in Burma it would be difficult to certainly proves their importance as an active find better mediators and respected authorities group, enjoying respect, being easy to mobilise than the members of the ë~åÖÜ~=and their voice and getting access to everyone. In Myanmar it is could be valuable and beneficial for both the often emphasised that “monks are powerful”. authorities and the people. They are. They have real power to positively influence the society they live in. The question is if the present revival can develop into a more organised and representative movement, where the engaged ë~åÖÜ~ would be able to formulate postulates and define their area of activity.31 That depends on the participation of prominent and respected teachers, with authority in the ë~åÖÜ~ and among the followers.32

31 Probably the areas of activity of the monkhood should be defined wider than stressing the political postulates formulated by the opposition in exile, which is ~Ç=ÜçÅ labelled by the military government as being manipulated by hostile and foreign forces. The role and influence of the monks is quite incomparable on the grassroot level, as for example in the develop- ment of civil society, human and citizens’rights, edu- cation, ecology etc. 32 After the crackdown monks in Yangon claimed that there was no strong leadership in the movement, no plan, and that this was one of the reasons why the demonstarations were not successful.

11 Bibliography: Khin Maung Nyunt. 2003. ^å=^åíÜçäçÖó=çÑ= Bishof, Roger. 1995. _ìÇÇÜáëã=áå=jó~åã~êK=^= `çåÑÉêÉåÅÉ=m~éÉêëW=oÉäáÖáçå=áå=jó~åã~ê=`ìäíìêÉ= pÜçêí=eáëíçêóK=_ìÇÇÜáëí=mìÄäáÅ~íáçå=pçÅáÉíóI= ~åÇ=eáëíçêóK=Department of History, University of h~åÇó=pêá=i~åâ~K=The Wheel Publication no. Yangon 2003.= 399/401.= Khin Maung Nyunt. 2006. o~Çáç=q~äâë=çå= _ìÇÇÜ~=pßë~åß=~åÇ=jó~åã~ê. The Department jó~åã~=`ìäíìêÉI=Ministry of Information, Union for the Promotion and Propagation of the Sa- of Myanmar. Printing and Publishing Enterprise. sana, Ministry of Religious Affaires, Union of Myanmar. Maung Htin Aung. 1967. ^=eáëíçêó=çÑ=_ìêã~I= `çìäãÄá~=råáîÉêëáíó=mêÉëëI=kÉï=vçêâ=~åÇ=içåJ båÖ~ÖÉÇ=_ìÇÇÜáëãI=_ìÇÇÜáëí=iáÄÉê~íáçå=ãçîÉJ ÇçåK= ãÉåíë=áå=^ëá~, ed. by Christopher S. Queen and Sallie B. King, State University of New York Oldenberg Hermann. 1994. óÅáÉI=å~ìÅò~åáÉ=á= Press, Albany, 1996. ïëéµäåçí~=_ìÇÇóK=Kraków: Oficyna Literacka.

Harvey G.E. 1967. eáëíçêó=çÑ=_ìêã~K=cêçã=íÜÉ= Smith Donald Eugene. 1965. oÉäáÖáçå=~åÇ=mçäáJ É~êäáÉëí=qáãÉë=íç=NM=j~êÅÜ=NUOQK=qÜÉ=ÄÉÖáååáåÖ= íáÅë=áå=_ìêã~K=Princeton, New Jersey: Pronceton çÑ=íÜÉ=båÖäáëÜ=`çåèìÉëíK=içåÇçå=~åÇ=bÇáåÄìêÖÜ. University Press. = Jordt Ingrid. 2007. _ìêã~Dë=j~ëë=i~ó=jÉÇáí~íáçå= Spiro Melford EK1984.=_ìÇÇÜáëã=~åÇ=pçÅáÉíóK=^= jçîÉãÉåí, University of Chicago Press. dêÉ~í=qê~Çáíáçå=~åÇ=áíë=_ìêãÉëÉ=sáÅáëëáíìÇÉëI= råáîÉêëáíó=çÑ=`~äáÑçêåá~=mêÉëëK= Jordt Ingrid, 2007. Turning Over the Bowl in = Burma, Religion in the News, Winter 2008, Taylor, Robert H. 1987K=qÜÉ=pí~íÉ=áå=_ìêã~K=`K= vol.10, No.2, eìêëí=C=`çãé~åóI=içåÇçåK== http://caribou.cc.trincoll.edu/depts_csrpl/RINVol1 = 0No3/turning%20over%20the%20bowl.htm ======

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