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The London School of Economics and Political Science Dimensions of statehood: A study of public goods in Bukavu, the Democratic Republic of Congo Randi Solhjell A thesis submitted to the Department of Government of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, December 2015 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MRes/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 94.208 words. Statement of use of third party for editorial help I can confirm that my thesis was copy edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by the LSE Language Centre. 2 of 250 Abstract This thesis challenges common political science assumptions about regions, nations, and societies in contexts of state weakness, with a special focus on de facto, rather than de jure, statehood in sub-Saharan Africa. I argue that theories of statehood must reach deeper into the empirical workings of state-society relations. Instead of positing abstract models or normative ideal types of modern states, I conceive of statehood as a set of daily practices that govern, regulate and generate effects on those experiencing and “performing the state”. I look at public good provision and consumption as a way to study these practices of statehood. The arguments advanced in this thesis are based on interpretive and relational methods. Interpretivism focuses on meanings and beliefs, as opposed to strict laws and statistical correlations. Relational methods demonstrate how interactions between consumers and providers of public goods evolve and condition de facto statehood. Qualitative data, which includes semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and participant observations, are drawn from firsthand encounters with service providers and citizens in Bukavu, the capital of South Kivu province in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Empirical observation and analysis shed light on governance patterns, citizen-subject relations, and provide a heuristic approach to statehood dimensions. Approaching the concept of statehood through dimensions is useful in light of the multiple meanings that it holds. Statehood, I argue, is never fixed and does not reach a teleological end point, but rather, embodies different dimensions that can be analyzed through patterns of public goods provision. I argue that the state, often imagined as a coherent entity, is comprised of different practices found in a variety of spaces and social relations. This approach to statehood decreases discrepancies between the literature and empirical realties and engages with “real” experiences of statehood in non-Western spaces. 3 of 250 Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor John Breuilly and co-supervisor Elliott Green. Their support, encouragement, mentoring and humor during the PhD process have been invaluable. I would also like to thank Omar McDoom, for serving as supervisor during my first year at LSE, and for offering essential support in the initial phases of research design and upgrade to PhD. I would also like to thank my committee members, Phil Clark and Christian Lund, for making the viva an enjoyable moment. In particular, I am grateful for excellent suggestions and comments to not only improve the thesis, but also encouraging publications on the study topic. The empirical work in this thesis would not have been possible without the brilliant assistance of Jonathan Magoma and Ali Bitengo in Bukavu. Their assistance, in the form of translations, discussions and friendship, has contributed much to a remarkable learning process for me as a researcher and a person. I have no doubt they will both excel in their chosen fields in years to come. There are a number of colleagues and scholars who I would like to thank. Catherine Boone has been an inspiring mentor during important stages of this PhD. Her keen interest, ability to provide crucial academic input and ever-welcoming demeanor have been much appreciated. Morten Boas who has provided me with essential support, interest and insight since my early years as a Master student, was unique in backing my plans, back in 2007, to visit the DRC; the lessons I learned from this first journey fueled my interest in pursuing empirical research in this country. I thank also Xavier Guillaume, whose support and feedback over the last months before submission have been incredibly valuable by teaching me to write with confidence and to be assertive about my work. I would also like to thank Kevin Dunn for being willing to read and comment on my entire thesis six months before submission; I am forever grateful. I also owe Iver Neumann and Cedric de Coning a particular gratitude for their encouragement and willingness to recommend me to the LSE. To Oyvind Eggen, I owe my deepest gratitude for his time and effort in encouraging and then reading this work. I would also like to thank Maria Eriksson Baaz, René Lemarchand, Séverine Autesserre, Theodore Trefon and Kasper Hoffmann, all of whom, at different stages, encouraged, constructively criticized or inspired me to continue my fieldwork. The institutional support and the wise colleagues at the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) have enabled me to work in a stimulating and inspiring environment. In particular, I would like to thank Mateja Peter, Morten S. Andersen, Ole Jacob Sending, Kristin Haugevik, Ingvild M. Gjelsvik, Francesca R. Jensenius, Niels N. Schia, Julie Wilhelmsen, John Karlsrud, Benjamin de Carvalho, Francesco Strazzari, Stein S. Eriksen, Kari Osland, Erik Reichborn- Kjennerud, Eli Stamnes and Kristin Fjæstad. The NUPI’s two librarians, Tore 4 of 250 Gustavsson and Elin Maria Fiane, provided much-appreciated assistance in my search for appropriate literature. I would also like to thank Madel Rosland, whose friendship and shelter in Bukavu meant the world to me in my roller-coaster journey through my field work. Madel’s house is truly a place I can call home and everyone who lived there became like family to me. My sincere gratitude also goes to Ingeborg, Jill, Thierry, Bisimwa, Deo, Innocent and all the other wonderful people I met in Bukavu: they were always ready to help and I cherish the memories of our laughter and tears. Moreover, I would like to thank the Chinese engineer, who had lived in Congo for more than a decade, and who told me that he enjoyed Bukavu because it was so convenient: an important reminder that everything is relative. I extend heartfelt gratitude to friends around the globe: in particular, thank you to my “London family”, Ellie Knott, Gisela Calderon-Gongora, Pinar Dinc, Marta Wojciechowska and Robert van Geffen. I would also like to thank my “Oslo family”, in particular Annette Wolden, Julie Sandberg, Kristin Breivik, Sigrid Melkeraaen, Maria Indiana Alte, Linette Grann, Ylva Marrable and too many others to mention here for having the ability to listen, support and care about the people around you. The many enjoyable moments I have shared with all my friends whilst working on this PhD have kept me sane and happy. Also, I would like to thank the LSE darkroom community for the creative distraction of analogue photography. Thank you to my family, and in particular to my parents for giving me life and for all their support. A special thanks also goes to my American family, Samantha and Nils Vogth-Eriksen, who took the time to proofread earlier chapters and who sent encouraging messages about my work. Thanks also to my cousin Kristian, who passed away all too young, and who taught me the most valuable lesson of all: Life is short and we should make the most out of it while we are here. Finally, heartfelt thanks go to my dear Christian for his loving support and patience with a girlfriend who always seemed to be leaving. 5 of 250 Contents List of Acronyms and Names .................................................................................................... 8 Maps of the DRC and Bukavu (DRC) ....................................................................................... 9 1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 15 1.1 Aim and purpose ......................................................................................................................... 18 1.2 Locating the site and universe of cases ....................................................................................... 21 1.3 Thesis summary and structure..................................................................................................... 23 2.0 Literature review and theoretical framework ..................................................................... 28 2.1 Conceptual approaches: The problem of the state in African studies ......................................... 30 2.2. The African state, statehood and public goods: Mainstream literature in review ...................... 34 2.3 Theoretical and conceptual approaches to statehood: Modes of governance, citizens –subjects and dimensions of statehood