FEASEY FROM SOAP OPERA TO REALITY PROGRAMMING EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD, MOTHERWORK AND THE MATERNAL ROLE ON POPULAR TELEVISION
REBECCA FEASEY, BATH SPA UNIVERSITY
Representations of motherhood Les représentations de la maternité dominate the television landscape in a pullulent sous différentes formes variety of popular genre texts, and as génériques dans le paysage télévisuel; such it is important that we consider il est important d’examiner leur the ways in which these women are construction et leur circulation sur leur being constructed and circulated on the petit écran. En dépit d’une littérature fort small screen. Indeed, although much chargée s’intéressant à la représentation work has been done to investigate des femmes à la télévision, il existe peu the depiction of women on television, de travaux sur la mise en scène corollaire little research exists to account for the de la maternité. Cet article retrace dans portrayal of mothering, motherhood, un premier temps les travaux existants, and the maternal role. With this in puis explore les applications possibles de mind, this article introduces extant ces recherches quant à la représentation literature concerning the representation des mères dans les soap-opera, les of motherhood in the media and then comédies de situation, les séries pour examines ways in which this research adolescents, les comédies dramatiques, might be understood in relation to the et la télé-réalité. On y voit émerger les depiction of mothers in soap opera, façons dont un consensus se forme dans situation comedy, teen drama, dramedy le paysage télévisuel alors que chaque and reality television. It considers the représentation cherche à négocier la ways in which popular television texts différence entre une maternité idéale, et form a consensus as they negotiate the une « maternité acceptable » qui pour idealized image of the ‘good’ mother in sa part se distancierait de la perfection favour of a more attainable depiction of inatteignable prônée dans le domaine ‘good enough’ mothering which stands plus vaste du spectacle en général. apart from the romanticized image of the ideal mother that dominates the broader entertainment arena.
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Introduction Although this article seeks to introduce and examine a number of popular Women make up 52 per cent of the television genres in order to consider the world’s population, and yet men ways in which they adhere to or debunk continue to outnumber women on the ideology of intensive mothering, the domestic medium of television by readers will no doubt question the two-to-one. Moreover, when women inclusion of some television categories are seen on screen they are seldom and the exclusion of others. I look to seen in positions of power, authority, justify my choice of case studies by experience, or maturity (Thorpe). It is stating that the genres introduced here no surprise then that extant literature depict women as mothers and appeal from such fields as feminist television to this same demographic. Moreover, criticism, media communications, this article chooses to work across the and gender studies deem it crucial televisual genre spectrum since this to explore those representations of is akin to what viewers do and how feminism and femininity that exist in audiences engage with the small screen. contemporary popular programming. This work does not and cannot offer However, although much of the work an exhaustive overview of the history to date seeks to investigate the depiction of each genre or the minutia of each of women on television, little exists to representation, but rather, it stands account for the portrayal of mothering, as a broad introduction to existing motherhood, and the maternal role. representations of motherhood as they Even though motherhood has developed exist on the small screen. It is my hope as a central issue in feminist scholarship, that the genres presented here will act as evidenced in the wealth of texts as the first point of entry for a reader committed to exploring mothering who will then look to unmask ways practices—in relation to sexuality in which those themes, theories, and (Ferguson), peace (Ruddick 2007), representations are also evident in a disability (Thomas), globalisation broader range of texts, be they in the (Cheng), work (Gatrell), and health UK or the US, daytime or primetime, (Clark)—these texts do little to account long running or pilot programmes. for the portrayals of motherwork I argue that contemporary popular presented on television. Yet the maternal programming presents a myriad of figure is portrayed in a wide range of strained and struggling maternal television texts; these cut across genres figures, which appear in stark contrast and are scheduled at different points to the ideology of intensive mothering, for a variety of audiences. Closer but which constitutes a relief examination of these representations in considering the demands inherent in a broader consideration of the maternal wider entertainment role remains a valid pursuit, justifying further attention within the growing Extant literature argues that a serene field of motherhood studies. and selfless image of ‘good’ motherhood
IMAGINATIONS • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • 26 FEASEY dominates the cultural landscape, and norms and mores for the contemporary women today are struggling to live audience. up to this. Given that television is so pervasive, its role in circulating this The ‘good’ mother myth image can be reasonably assumed. It is therefore important to look at the A myriad of research from within representations of motherhood on the fields of motherhood studies and contemporary television programming feminist media criticism informs us and consider the ways in which popular that the ‘good’ mother is a woman texts either adhere to the image of the who, even during pregnancy, observes intensive mother or negotiate such appropriate codes of style, appearance, motherhood practices in favour of a attractiveness, selflessness, and serenity more attainable depiction of ‘good (Pitt). The ideology of intensive enough’ mothering. This article will mothering suggests that after the introduce extant literature concerning baby is delivered, this woman takes the representation of motherhood sole responsibility for the care of her in the media before looking at the children; she is fully responsible for their ways in which this research might be emotional development and intellectual understood in relation to the depiction growth (Green 33). Most importantly of mothers in a wide range of popular however, she is a full time mother who television genres such as soap opera, is always present in the lives of her situation comedy, teen drama, dramedy, children (young and old), she remains and reality television. It is my point home to cook for them after school, that these television genres can be seen and if she works outside of the home to form a consensus in the ways in she organises such responsibilities which they present mothers struggling around their needs (Chase and Rogers to construct and maintain appropriate 30). Deborah Borisoff makes the point mothering behaviors. Although one that in order for mothers to adhere might choose to critique such texts for to this maternal image, mothers, and deriding those mothers that dominate only mothers, must supervise each the small screen, I suggest that the childhood activity. They must lovingly sheer volume, scope, and reach of such prepare nutritious meals, review and struggling maternal figures goes some reward every school assignment, way towards exposing the expectations seek out educationally and culturally of a ‘good’ mother as a romanticised appropriate entertainment whilst myth that women are purportedly maintaining a beautiful home and a striving to emulate. This analysis is successful marriage (7). This ‘good’ crucial, not because such representations mother finds this intensive maternal role are an accurate reflection of reality, but to be natural, satisfying, fulfilling, and because they have the power and scope meaningful; she feels no sense of loss to foreground culturally accepted or sacrifice at her own lack of freedom, familial relations and define maternal friendships, financial independence,
27 • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • IMAGINATIONS EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD or intellectual stimulation (Green 33). myth. One might extend this argument The concern here is neither that a new by suggesting that the whole of society mother might want to sacrifice her own stands to lose if women’s feelings of wishes for her newborn’s welfare nor maternal inadequacy continue to be that she seeks to provide an exhaustive perpetuated. After all, the burden of range of educational play dates and welfare states are increased with rising activities. Rather, if a woman does not numbers of stay-at-home mothers emulate this image then “she risks the who have internalized the ideology of accusation of being a bad mother” (qtd. intensive mothering demanded of the in Wolf 50). ‘good’ mother.
If one considers that myths function to The contemporary media environment regulate society, then it is worth noting is saturated by idealised and that the ‘good’ mother myth emerged conservative images of selfless and in response to women’s growing satisfied ‘good’ mothers who conform “social and economic independence: to the ideology of intensive mothering. increased labour participation, entry Susan Douglas informs us that the into traditionally male areas of work, landscape “is crammed with impossible rise in female-initiated divorces, expectations … dominated by images growth in female-headed households, of upper-middle-class moms, both and improved education” (O’Reilly, real and fictional, who “have it all” Mother Outlaws 10). While women with little sacrifice, counterposed by were making social, sexual, financial, upper-middle-class women who have and political progress, this maternal fled the fast track for the comforts of backlash developed to ensure that domesticity” (285). More recently, “women would forever feel inadequate the seminal work of Douglas and as mothers [and to make certain that] Michaels informs us that films, radio work and motherhood would be forever and advertising, print, broadcast news, seen as in conflict and incompatible” and the magazine sector raise “the (O’Reilly, Mother Outlaws 10). In short, bar, year by year, of the standards the ideology of intensive mothering of good motherhood while singling serves as a discourse that attempts to out and condemning those we were return women to their earlier domestic supposed to see as dreadful mothers” place on the back of the second wave and (14). These authors describe the postfeminist agenda. Since the ideology ‘good’ mother, who saturates the of intensive mothering presents mothers popular media environment, as being as effective consumers whilst giving selfless, serene, slim, and spontaneous them the sole responsibility of childcare and above all else, satisfied by her without financial recompense for their maternal role (Douglas and Michaels labour, patriarchal society remains the 110-39). So too, Kitzinger makes chief beneficiary of traditional gender the point that entertainment texts role assignments and the ‘good’ mother “bombard” women with advice about
IMAGINATIONS • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • 28 FEASEY how to construct and maintain socially ‘bad’ mother, they are “both prescribing appropriate motherhood practices, be and proscribing norms for maternal it tips on health, relationships, surface behavior” (Kinnick 9). Douglas and appearances, or maternal practices (qtd. Michaels make the important point in Maushart 464). Advice literature that the mass media has been and and child-rearing manuals are also continues to be “the major dispenser said to play a part in constructing and of the ideals and norms surrounding circulating the ‘good’ mother myth due motherhood” with the popular cultural to the fact that the women in these landscape collaborated in constructing, texts are asked to “serve as a constant magnifying, and reinforcing the new comforting presence, to consider the ‘momism’ or what I refer to here as the child’s every need, to create a stimulating ‘good’ mother myth (11). environment exactly suited to each development stage, and to tolerate The mass media has a long history of any regression and deflect all conflict” presenting the ‘good’ mother archetype, (Thurer 336). Moreover, constructions and this mediated image is depicted as of acceptable mothering demand that the ideal figure of maternal care which these women conform to traditional women in the audience are asked to gender roles, with cooking, cleaning, embody. As I have already noted, this and domestic chores being “embraced” figure of womanhood is exhausting, by the “good” mother (Kinnick 12). physically, emotionally, socially, and Katherine Kinnick goes on to say that: financially. Therefore one might expect mothers to speak out against [T]he media idealize and glamorize this unrealizable myth or rally against motherhood as the one path to what must be seen as a rather limited fulfillment for women, painting a and limiting version of maternal care. rosy, Hallmark-card picture that However, this is not the case. ignores or minimizes the very real challenges that come along with Mumsnet, Britain’s most popular parenthood. Second, media narratives website for parents receives 570,000 often cast motherhood in moral terms, site visits and over 30 million page juxtaposing the “good mother” with views each month, with over 25,000 the “bad mother,” who frequently is a posts each day (Google). Although this working mom, a lower-income mom, site gives parents space for peer-to-peer or someone who does not conform to support, there is a sense that these forums traditional gender roles of behavior, support a narrow and privileged notion ambition, or sexual orientation. (3) of the ‘good’ mother. The website set up by two media professionals turned stay- When the entertainment and news media at-home mothers encourages intensive present motherhood in moral terms by mothering practices as part of a desirable contrasting what they deem to be the identity. Even a cursory glance at the socially acceptable ‘good’ mother with site gives the impression of an upper- what they believe to be the reprehensible 29 • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • IMAGINATIONS EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD middle-class maternal environment, and The media are keen to remind us that the content confirms this even through “women remain the best primary the pattern of consumption that is caretakers of children, and that to be a emphasized. Under a banner entitled remotely decent mother, a woman has to “Money Matters” there is little about devote her entire physical, psychological, tax credits, child benefits, and school emotional, and intellectual being, 24/7, meal entitlements. Rather, a helpful to her children” (Douglas and Michaels list informs mothers on the following: 4). And yet, even though this image “Why you should save, Ethical savings, of motherhood is far removed from How to give to charity, and Mortgage the lived experience of many women calculators.” Moreover, the style and in society, this figure continues to be beauty pages dispense advice on “Hair presented in the popular entertainment care, Skin problems, Botox and filler, environment as the epitome of perfect Home pedicures, and Fake tans.” Under mothering that women in the audience the title “Lunchbox Tips and Ideas” we should all aspire to and strive for. are reminded that “what you pack is Indeed, viewers are told that the ‘good’ open to scrutiny—not just by other kids mother is “the ‘legitimate’ standard to but by other mums. So if your child’s which mothers are compared […] she going to a friend’s house after school, becomes an ideal to believe in, and one make sure that’s not the day you give that people both expect and internalize” in to Fruit Shoots and Greggs sausage (Green 33). Shari Thurer echoes this rolls. Stick a few stray aduki beans/ point when she states that “[m]edia arugula leaves/seaweed sachets in the images of happy, fulfilled mothers, and lunchbox” (“Packed lunch ideas”). the onslaught of advice from experts, When the topic is education, the forums have only added to mothers’ feelings of are peppered with conversations about inadequacy, guilt, and anxiety. We are the differences between private and told that mothers today cling to an ideal state schooling (mumsnet). Savings, that can never be reached but somehow charitable donations, home pedicures, cannot be discarded” (340). Thurer seaweed sachets, and private education continues by commenting that: speak for and about a privileged notion of contemporary family life [T]he current standards for good that appears in keeping with a socially mothering are so formidable, self- acceptable, culturally appropriate, and denying, elusive, changeable, romanticised image of motherhood. and contradictory that they are The bloggers on Mumsnet can be said unattainable […] the current Western to uphold the notion of the serene, version is so pervasive that, like air, it selfless, and satisfied mother. Indeed, is unnoticeable. Yet it influences our rather than critique its hectic nature, domestic arrangements, what we think it is these mothers who contribute to is best for our children, how we want and help to circulate this ideology of them to be raised, and whom we hold intensive mothering. accountable. (334)
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One might look to question why it is The problem here of course is that few that mothers who themselves might be mothers are capable of upholding this struggling to live up to this ideology of idealized image of maternal care. Indeed, intensive mothering put on a mask of working mothers are automatically ‘good’ motherhood or speak with an deemed “poor” or “bad” caregivers due appropriate yet inauthentic maternal to the time that they spend apart from voice. Douglas and Michaels seek to their children (Borisoff 8). Yet, stay-at- address this point when they suggest home mothers also struggle to attain that as mothers we “learn to put on the ideal due to the intensely exhausting the masquerade of the doting, self- physical and emotional demands of sacrificing mother and wear it at all such maternal practices (Held 11). The times” to save maternal shame or fact that many mothers are unable to humiliation (6), and their argument is mother within the ideology of intensive compelling here. motherhood does not seem to lessen the power of this maternal model, rather, it Susan Maushart makes the point that means that many expecting, new, and the “gap between image and reality, existing mothers present what Susan between what we show and what we Maushart refers to as a “mask” of feel, has resulted in a peculiar cultural appropriate motherwork which further schizophrenia about motherhood” reinforces the dominance of the ‘good’ (Mask of Motherhood 7). After all, mother myth (Mask of Motherhood). even though mothers know that the This, in turn, has an impact on gender ‘good’ mother is an exhausting ideal, stereotypes and maternal mores in the “the ideal of motherhood we carry in wider society. our heads is so compelling that even though we can’t fulfil it and know With the popularity of its texts, that we probably shouldn’t even try, television can be understood as a we berate ourselves for falling short battleground for contested maternal of succeeding” (Warner 721). It has ideologies. As such, it is important been suggested that the “ideology of to look at the ways in which popular natural-intensive mothering […] has television texts present motherhood and become the official and only meaning motherwork. We should pay attention of motherhood, marginalizing and to the ways in which a diverse range rendering illegitimate alternative of fictional and factual genres either practices of mothering. In so doing, adhere to or challenge the romanticised this normative discourse of mothering myth. In the following section I provide polices all women’s mothering and a brief overview of the ways in which results in the pathologizing of those motherhood and motherwork are women who do not or can not practice currently being presented on some of intensive mothering” (O’Reilly, television’s most popular texts. What Motherhood to Mothering 7; italics in is presented here is by no means an original). exhaustive list of maternal depictions;
31 • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • IMAGINATIONS EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD rather, it attempts to demonstrate home mother. The characteristics and how the medium of television helps expectations associated with the ‘good’ to challenge the ‘good’ mother myth mother set women up to fail, and this that is in evidence in the wider media pattern of failure is played out in minute environment. Readers are invited to detail in the soap opera. However, consider how such depictions might rather than critique the genre for its speak to audiences, advertisers, or the depictions of ‘bad’ mothers, one might wider entertainment environment. In consider the ways in which these women short, this article seeks to encourage are merely presenting a more candid future research on the maternal version of motherhood that exposes the representation by exposing existing role as “wearing, boring, and, at times, representations. infuriating” (Douglas 284).
Soap opera: challenging the ‘good’ Early British radio soap operas such mother stereotype as Mrs Dale’s Diary (1948-69) were presented as “narratives of maternal Soap opera is routinely understood as sacrifice and redemption” (Plant 42) a woman’s genre. Perhaps it is more and when new television soaps were fitting to refer to it as a maternal genre, introduced, they were based around due to the importance of motherhood, a myriad of mothering roles. While the significance of the maternal Coronation Street (1960- ) presents role, and the acknowledgement of Elsie Tanner/Patricia Phoenix as the motherwork in the weekly narratives. archetypal struggling working-class The soap opera appears committed to single mother, Crossroads (1964-88) presenting a number of poor, single, gave us the epitome of middle-class teenage, homeless, bipolar, abusive, working motherhood in the character and drug addicted mothers, not to of Meg Mortimer/Noele Gordon. mention a diverse range of sexually, However, although the matriarch has socially, and financially independent always been integral to the soap opera mothers and ‘other’ mothers who each narrative, the figure of the housewife in turn confront and confound the has become less prevalent and more ‘good’ mother archetype because they troubled in recent examples of the genre destabilise “patriarchal representations (Brunsdon 81). Peter Buckman states of motherhood and family structures” that “the problems of motherhood” (Reyes). Based on the formal demands of (67) are crucial to soap opera, Christine the genre, Soap opera can never depict a Geraghty argues that the mother figure is ‘good’ mother in line with the maternal the undisputed “heroine” of the domestic ideal. Rather the genre is dominated text (81), and Dorothy Hobson notes by those women whose maternal that “child-rearing” is one of the genre’s identities and motherwork practices principal story-lines (9). The soap opera negotiate the culturally appropriate and does not merely represent motherhood, socially acceptable image of the stay-at- but rather, it represents the “power of
IMAGINATIONS • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • 32 FEASEY motherhood” within the family unit a dramatic shift in representations of and such maternal power is most the family in recent decades. While evident in the ways in which the genre programmes such as Leave it to Beaver foregrounds “the needs of children for (1957-63) and The Donna Reed Show their mothers” in the weekly narratives (1958-66) made it clear that women (Hobson 93). Tania Modleski’s work were entirely satisfied with their role on the soap opera suggests that two of as full time wife and mother, and I the most fundamental and oft repeated Love Lucy (1951-6) offered a partial narrative devices revolve around challenge to traditional gender roles unwed mothers and the difficulties of (Feasey 32-36), the impact of the second- balancing a career and motherhood in wave feminist movement encouraged these domestic dramas (31). titles such as Maude (1972-8), Murphy Brown (1988-98), and Roseanne (1988- It is important to remember that soap 97) to depict more controversial images opera presents female characters as of divorce, single parenting, and the more than mere stereotypes due in working mother. Indeed, the situation part to the sheer volume of time spent comedy has presented such a myriad following their stories, and perhaps this of family units since its emergence on is why the audience can see the women commercial radio in the 1930s that the struggling to adhere to the ideology most daring and unique representation of intensive mothering. Successful in recent years seems to be that of intensive mothering is only available to the traditional, nuclear, middle-class a small number of privileged women, family, with shows such as My Family and even then, these women can find (2000-2011) and Outnumbered (2007- such maternal care exhausting over ) being presented as “plausibly novel” the period of time that we spend with in their depiction of the patriarchal the women of soap opera. From this unit (Hartley 66). After several decades perspective then, female viewers in of divorced, widowed, working-class, general and maternal audiences in quasi, and queer representations, particular are empowered to doubt the middle-class nuclear family has the attainment of the mothering returned to our screens, and what is ideal. Perhaps they can take solace in interesting here is the ways in which witnessing the struggles of others whose representations of motherhood in this experiences compare with theirs. seemingly traditional format challenge the ‘happy housewife’ stereotype Situation comedy: maternal fulfillment by reflecting both the pleasures and and motherwork frustrations comedic frustrations that come with modern day mothering. While the soap opera has, since the Although caring for children might outset, presented a variety of maternal images and motherwork practices, the situation comedy has witnessed
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Fig. 1, Fig. 2 IMAGINATIONS • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • 34 FEASEY at times be pleasurable, fulfilling, the ‘good’ mother myth we are asked and emotionally rewarding, the to acknowledge, as Diane Speier does, contemporary sitcom makes it clear that mothers “are human and flawed, that “the burden of caring for children and are learning on the job,” and can become routine drudgery or since “mothering is a trial and error emotional torment when it is done experience, we need to respect that constantly, repeatedly, because of one’s at best it will be ‘imperfect”’ (149). obligations, and when it consumes Indeed, these shows are not presenting nearly all of one’s energies and time” the unhappy mother and housewife (Held 11). Even though today’s sitcom in order to critique the institution of mother feels demoralised in the home family or traditional family values, and despondent at the lack of care or rather, they are simply trying to critique attention given to the domestic space by those unrealistic and unrealisable ideals the rest of the family, she clearly defines of middle-class suburban domesticity herself as a mother and homemaker. that have historically dominated the Indeed, these mothers routinely want to genre. Therefore, it is not the family remove themselves from the domestic unit that is of concern. On the contrary, role and yet cannot help but continue it is the feminine mystique of the to define themselves in it. They are often contented homemaker that is being frustrated with the day-to-day workings challenged. In this way the comedy of family life yet struggle to let others continues to foreground the importance take over these responsibilities. This of motherhood and motherwork to the desire for domestic control reminds us family, suggesting that this role might be of the ways in which earlier generations frustrating rather than fulfilling for the of the ‘happy housewife’ were granted woman in question. It is this final point power, albeit in limited form, based on that separates the early family sitcom their position in the family home. It is from its more recent counterpart. as if these women understand that any respect or gratitude that they earn from Teen television: toxic and intoxicated their family is based on their position mothers in the home, thus they continue in this role, even though motherwork Teenagers and the teen experience have frustrates rather than fulfils them. been a staple element within both soap opera and the situation comedy since the The contemporary sitcom makes it 1950s. However, the adolescent lifestyle clear that we should sympathise and tends to be presented from the point of potentially identify with the harried view of the adults, particularly that of the and hard working mother figure, even maternal figures in the aforementioned when they are not necessarily depicted television genres. It was not until the mid as the most efficient or organised ’90s that audiences were asked to view figure of maternal authority. Rather the teen experience from their point of than judge these women in line with view in a range of quality small screen
35 • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • IMAGINATIONS EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD productions. Although routinely absent was eventually kicked out of his family or overlooked in “must-see” teen dramas home. Though adopted into another such as Beverley Hills 90210 (1990- home, his nightmare was relived as he 2000), Party of Five (1994-2000), and watched his adoptive mother take to Dawson’s Creek (1998-2003), parents alcohol as well. Likewise, Degrassi: and guardians have taken on a highly The Next Generation (2001- ) depicts problematic role in contemporary teen a young woman having to create a life drama. The genre shows parents as with her alcoholic mother while her weak and irresponsible, be it socially, father is fighting in Iraq. Veronica Mars sexually, or financially, and in many (2004-7) presented a teen investigator cases it is the mother who is delinquent. selflessly sacrificing her college tuition Even a cursory glance at contemporary to put her mother into an alcohol teen programming makes it clear rehabilitation clinic, only to discover that parents are either problematic that the woman is clandestinely drinking forces in the life of the teenager or and stealing from her own family. In entirely absent in their lived reality. Beyond the Break (2006-09) a young Sherri Sylvester makes the point that girl is seen running away from home “fictional adolescents without parents to escape from her alcoholic mother, are a trend [and] parenthood is out of while Hellcats (2010) focused much of the picture” in teen television. Likewise, its drama on the turbulent relationship Joyce Millman tells us that “parents between a young pre-law student and her are mostly dead, absent or background unreliable alcoholic mother. Likewise, static” in the genre in question. 90210 (2008- ) presents a broad range of toxic and intoxicated mother Contrary to the squeaky clean image figures including a glamorous “yummy suggested in the ‘good’ mother myth, mummy” who is more interested in her teen programmes often feature mothers appearance than her daughter’s well- as troubled alcoholics and drug addicts being, a hippy who believes in free love first and maternal caregivers second. and legalised drugs and who sleeps with Future research would be welcome to her daughter’s teacher, classmate, and garner just how frequent these images boyfriend, a secret drug abuser-in-denial are in the genre, but in the first instance and emotionally unavailable Hollywood it is worth noting that Beverly Hills mother, a bipolar drug addict and 90210 introduced us to an alcoholic abusive alcoholic, and a young heiress and drug addicted former fashion who refuses to compromise her life for model who routinely ignored, berated, her new baby. and abused her daughters. Popular (1999-2001) presented viewers with One might suggest that these two alcoholic, abusive, and emotionally representations of motherhood belong unavailable mothers. In the O.C. a firmly within the tradition of teen teenage boy had the painful experience television as one way in which we can enjoy of living with an alcoholic mother and the trials and tribulations of the youth
IMAGINATIONS • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • 36 FEASEY experience without the teen characters Dramedy: single, sexual and sisterly or adolescent audience being impeded motherhood by a controlling voice of authority or a civilising figure of maturity. However, The dramedy, like the teen drama, is a this is less about a lack of parental relatively new television genre that has figures or guardians of authority and received much critical and commercial has more to do with an absence of success since its emergence in the late mothers—potentially problematic for 1980s. Although the classification is a teen audience during their formative relatively broad, recent examples of years as these narratives of maternal the genre tend to focus on a number of abandonment and indifference might alternative family codes, conventions, be seen to signal accepted and expected and complications. Indeed, although norms of mothering. Several of the one might suggest that the mother figure aforementioned programmes make it is not herself the focus of the genre in clear that fathers and male guardians question, many of these programmes are to be respected because they alone seem committed to the presentation “provide structure, guidance and of the family unit in general and the authority” for those teens under their alternative, non-nuclear, and non- care (Banks 19). Teen drama goes to patriarchal family unit in particular, great lengths to debunk the ‘good’ be it stepfamilies, single parenting, mother myth, demonstrating instead surrogate parenting, or homosexual that maternal feelings and motherly partnerships. Moonlighting (1985-9) instincts are not natural, fixed, or innate presented pregnancy and miscarriage, for all women. As such, one might Northern Exposure (1990-5) depicted suggest that the genre is picking up a phantom pregnancy, and the on early second wave feminist writing underlying narrative of Ally McBeal which attempted to denaturalize (1997-2002) seemed to grow out of motherhood and theorise the maternal the central protagonists concern over without recourse to those “natural or her biological clock and the subsequent biological explanations” that inform discovery of her 10-year-old daughter. the ‘good’ mother myth (Miller 56). Six Feet Under (2001-05) depicted That said, the fact that we experience accidental pregnancy, abortion, and the the teen drama from the adolescent death of a young mother, Weeds (2005- ) rather than the adult viewpoint means focuses on a suburban widow resorting that the mothers in question tend to to desperate means to support her be demonized as toxic figures of failed children, while the Gilmore Girls (2000- maternal care rather than feminist 07) was dedicated to the relationship icons challenging idealized images of between a teenage mother and her intensive motherwork. daughter. Parenthood (2010- ) revolves around the trials and tribulations of one extended family, focusing on the pain of divorce and the financial, social,
37 • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • IMAGINATIONS EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD and educational struggles surrounding Although characters such as Susan single motherhood while Desperate Mayer/Teri Hatcher from Desperate Housewives (2004-2012) presented a Housewives are svelte, fashionable number of fascinating representations of and fun, the fact that they are both ‘bad’ motherhood and ‘poor’ maternal incredibly glamorous and inconceivably care, through a myriad of medicated, clumsy goes some way towards taming murderous, “stepford,” and single the potential power of the sexual mothers. In short, the dramedy appears single mother. The fact that Susan “can keen to debunk both the traditional barely walk across the street without nuclear family and the romanticized falling over” (Knowles) may appear ‘good’ mother. endearing to some, but it speaks to the infantilisation or more general We are told that there are still very few incompetence of the sexual figure. In representations of single mothers on short, this comedic device is merely the small screen, be it due to a right a “trait thrown in to tone down the wing political agenda (Skipper 82) or sexuality of a television mom” (Kenner the lack of necessary escapism for the 54). Likewise, cultural commentators audience (Benfer), and yet the dramedy seek to question the appropriateness of routinely depicts this particular a mother who cannot pay her own bills, maternal figure, in part because of the arrange custody conflicts, or orchestrate genre’s interest in contemporary social romantic unions without the help of issues. Angharad Valdivia informs us her teenage daughter. Alice Hart-Davis that on the rare occasion when a single makes this point when she tells us that mother is presented in contemporary the “blurring of generations can be the popular culture, she tends to conform social equivalent of a car crash” because, to negative discourses that suggest that although these mothers may suit their she is failing her children and falling daughters’ youthful attire and want to short of parenting ideals (272). Much be seen as young, fashionable, and on of this negative discourse is associated trend, they are failing to “respect [the] with the woman’s desirability and healthy boundaries” that parenting sexual availability. It is commonly demands. Hart-Davis concludes by understood that those representations telling us that “[i]f your child likes you at of motherhood that are the most the end of the parenting process, great. sexual and alluring are also the same But that’s best if it comes about by being representations that are the most a good role model for them to look up dysfunctional (Kenner 56). Abby Arnold to, rather than being too pally.” From makes this point somewhat bluntly this perspective then, Susan may be a when she tells us that “conventional desirable and desiring single woman, wisdom dictates that a mother who is but she cannot be a desiring, desirable, truly sexy must be […] a slut and […] a and appropriate single mother, because bad mother” (3). being presented in such a way detracts from the selfless nature of the ‘good’
IMAGINATIONS • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • 38 FEASEY mother who is said to sacrifice her own mundane, and otherwise, motherwork desires for those of her children. practices on the small screen. These programmes do not shy away from Parenting documentaries and reality showing these women as sexual, selfish, television: maternal shame, scandal and and unfulfilled by their maternal role, humiliation and as such, we are asked to view these texts as a more believable, albeit still While the dramedy presents fictional privileged, example of contemporary women as selfish, sexual, andmotherhood . The fact that these scarce mothers, a growing number women appear happy to demonstrate of documentaries, docu-dramas, their motherwork on camera makes reality shows, and celebrity formats us question whether they are either seek to expose a range of salacious unable to uphold the mask of perfect and scandalous images of real, motherhood, or uninterested. Either lived motherhood practices. Such way, celebrity reality television can be programming offers some of the most seen to provide one more challenge to conservative distinctions between the the ‘good’ mother myth that dominates ideology of intensive motherhood and the wider media environment. real examples of ineffectual mothers. By purporting to highlight the aberrant, In the broader televisual landscape, the genre invites its viewers, and asks reality programming continues to mothers, daughters, and grandmothers exploit the image of the struggling in the audience, to judge these women mother. Help Me Love my Baby (2007) and find their maternal practices focused on the traumatic journey of a wanting. maternal mother who only bonded with one of her twin girls, while Cotton Wool Celebrity reality shows that feature Kids (2008) allowed us to condemn the new breed of accessible, available, one particularly anxious mother for and candid celebrity such as Kerry wanting to have a chip implanted in Katona’s The Next Chapter (2010- ), her daughter for the purposes of safety, Katie Price’s Katie (formerly known security, and surveillance. The World’s as What Katie Did Next) (2009- ), Oldest Mums (2009) focused on a and Alicia Douvall’s Glamour Models, number of women who had chosen to Mum and Me (2010) present mothers use fertility technologies in order to who struggle to maintain the mask have babies long after the menopause, of perfect motherhood, or rather, Octomom: Me and My 14 Kids (2009) who are unwilling to adhere to the detailed the daily motherwork of rules of intensive mothering. Katona, Nadya Suleman, the woman who gave Price, and Douvall are examples of birth to the world’s only surviving recognisable women who are currently octuplets, leaving audiences to question challenging these maternal myths by the appropriateness of an unemployed letting audiences view their day-to-day single mother who uses artificial
39 • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • IMAGINATIONS EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD insemination to produce her children motherhood are at best conservative and and uses media contracts to provide at worst critical of real mothers and the for them. The programme thus called lived maternal role. And while parenting attention to those who used motherhood documentaries depict biological and as an excuse for ‘scrounging,’ living off other mothers as problematic and charity, or the largesse of the state. Such pathological, their reality televisual practices are generally associated with cousins routinely depict mothers mothers from low-income groups. This struggling with the maternal role, genre tends to deal with real social issues, emphatic on the attainability of the ideal. like the case of gender preferences. Programmes such as Supernanny (2004- 8 Boys and Wanting a Girl (2010), ) Nanny 911 (2004- ) and Extreme examined the psychological condition Parental Guidance (2010- ) routinely of “gender disappointment,” whereby emphasise the mother as the primary a mother who has a number of sons is caregiver in the nuclear family, even if desperate to have a daughter. Viewers she works outside of the domestic space. are left to question the appropriateness Mothers are portrayed as the domestic of those women who are unhappy with manager, in charge of meal times, bath or unfulfilled by their existing children. routines, bed-time stories, school runs, These preferences have serious cultural grocery shopping, household chores, undertones, therefore the programmes and general children’s entertainment help viewers confront and challenge planning and activities. In short, mothers the cultural practices which value one are portrayed as the primary parent particular gender over the other. Four even when the contribution of fathers Sons versus Four Daughters (2010) is acknowledged. As such, mothers are questioned the gendered mothering also depicted as being responsible for taking place in two family homes, existing behavioral problems. Indeed, whilst also condemning what they set several of the infants, toddlers, and older up as hypothetical maternal practices. children who swear at, kick, punch, and Even from their titles, the regulatory spit at their mothers tend to act very mission of these programmes is evident. differently when their fathers are present Misbehaving Mums to Be (2011) in the home. Indeed, it is often clear that focused on a number of mothers whose the “men in the families are peripheral pregnancy practices do not adhere to the to these titanic struggles, as the mothers ‘good’ mother myth, while Fast Food are ultimately left with the burden of Baby (2011) was committed to showing raising the children” (Tally 21). the ways in which ‘bad’ mothers failed to provide the correct nutritional food Parenting documentaries and reality for their children, and witnessed their programming hold up the ideology of efforts to shift their inappropriate eating intensive mothering as the only model habits and maternal practices. of motherhood to aspire to. That said, rather than critique or condemn these Documentary representations of programmes for exposing shocking
IMAGINATIONS • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • 40 FEASEY maternal practices or for exploiting Although little research exists to fragile mothers, these shows might be account for the myriad representations understood as a powerful, necessary, and of motherhood, motherwork, and real voice for negotiating the constraints maternal roles seen in contemporary involved in contemporary motherhood television, this article has begun to practices. Indeed, if one considers explore the ways in which motherhood that contemporary mothers are said is being constructed, circulated, and to bring inaccurate or ill-informed, interrogated in both fictional and disabling, and delusional expectations factual programming, considering the to motherhood and the maternal role ways in which such representations (Maushart, Mask of Motherhood xviii), can be understood in relation to the one might suggest that reality television ideology of intensive mothering and the shows on parenting which feature ‘good’ mother myth that dominates the strained and struggling mothers serve contemporary period. to bridge the gap between expectations and lived experiences. The soap opera presents a self-serving rather than serene image of motherhood; Conclusion the situation comedy highlights the pleasures and frustrations of Although television is an entertainment motherwork; the teen drama introduces driven medium that lends itself to a number of toxic and intoxicated extreme representations for the sake of maternal figures; the dramedy text audience escapism, the sheer scope of portrays the trials and tribulations of struggling maternal figures on the small the single mother, while reality television screen cannot, and indeed should not, positions mothers as fragile, failing, and be dismissed in the name of amusement ineffectual. Although each genre has its or distraction. I would argue that own repertoire of elements, thematic the fact that the domestic medium is codes, and narrative conventions, they understood as mere entertainment and appear to form a televisual consensus in the fact that the genres outlined here their representations of ‘inappropriate’ address in the main to the woman in the or ‘unacceptable’ mothering. audience means that these depictions must be taken all the more seriously Many of these televisual mothers are for the ways in which they speak to, devoted to their children. They consider inform, or frustrate the viewing public. their maternal role to be a privilege and In short, representations of motherhood want to create happy and harmonious have the power and scope to foreground families. This aspiration echoes the culturally accepted familial relations, desire to be ‘good,’ evidence that the and as such, it is crucial that we examine ‘good’ mother myth continues to persist. those representations of motherhood However, the fact remains that many and motherwork that dominate the of the women are single, sexual, and contemporary media landscape. scared, and even those within otherwise
41 • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • IMAGINATIONS EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD stable familial relations still struggle to salon.com 2 Nov. 2000. 10 Aug. maintain authority in the home, finding 2011
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Maushart, Susan. “Faking Motherhood: Hart-Davis, Alice. “One generation The Mask Revealed.” Maternal Theory: wants to appear younger, the other to Essential Readings. Ed. Andrea O’Reilly. seem older. So when did mothers and Toronto: Demeter, 2007. 460-81. daughters start looking like sisters?” Mail Online 8 June 2010. 10 Aug. 2011 Maushart, Susan. The Mask of 43 • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • IMAGINATIONS EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD Pretend it Doesn’t. London: Pandora, Representations of Mothering.” Paper 1999. Presented at Re-Imagining Sociology. Melbourne, Australia, 2008. Miller, Tina. Making Sense of Motherhood: A Narrative Approach. Plant, Rebecca Jo. Mom: The Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2005. Transformation of Motherhood in Modern America. Chicago: U of Millman, Joyce. “The Parent Trap.” Chicago P, 2010. salon.com 14 Nov. 2000. 10 Aug. 2011 IMAGINATIONS • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • 44 FEASEY “Reality Television and Contemporary Family Life: Make Over Television and the Question of Parenting.” Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Boston, 2008. 10 Aug. 2011 Thomas, Carol. “The Baby and the Bath Water: Disabled Women and Motherhood in Social Context.” Maternal Theory: Essential Readings. Ed. Andrea O’Reilly. Toronto: Demeter, 2007. 500-19. Thorpe, Vanessa. “Big Gender Gap on the Small Screen: Men Outnumber Women on TV Two-to-One.” guardian.co.uk 6 Mar. 2010. 30 Aug. 2011 Thurer, Shari. “The Myths of Motherhood.” Maternal Theory: Essential Readings. Ed. Andrea O’Reilly. Toronto: Demeter, 2007. 331-44. Valdivia, Angharad. “Clueless in Hollywood: Single Moms in Contemporary Family Movies.” Journal of Communication Inquiry 22:3 (1998): 272-92. Wolf, Naomi. Misconceptions: Truth, Lies and the Unexpected on the Journey to Motherhood. London: Vintage, 2002. 45 • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • IMAGINATIONS EXAMINING MOTHERHOOD Bio Rebecca Feasey is Senior Lecturer in Rebecca Feasey est senior lecturer en Film and Media Communications at communications, cinéma, et média à Bath Spa University. She has published l’Université de Bath Spa. Elle a fait a range of work on celebrity culture, paraître de nombreux textes sur la contemporary Hollywood stardom, and culture de la célébrité, le star-system the representation of gender in popular hollywoodien contemporain, et la media culture. She has published in représentation des sexes dans la culture journals such as the Quarterly Review médiatique populaire. Elle a publié of Film and Video, the Journal of dans des revues comme le Quarterly Popular Film and Television, the Journal Review of Film and Video, le Journal of of Gender Studies, Continuum: Journal Popular Film and Television, le Journal of Media & Cultural Studies and the of Gender Studies, Continuum: Journal European Journal of Cultural Studies. of Media & Cultural Studies et le She has written book length studies European Journal of Cultural Studies. on masculinity and popular television Elle est d’autre part auteure d’études (EUP, 2008) and motherhood on the approfondies sur la masculinité et la small screen (Anthem, 2012). She is culture télévisuelle populaire (EUP, currently writing a research monograph 2008), ainsi que la maternité au petit on maternal readings of motherhood écran (Anthem, 2012). Elle rédige on television (Peter Lang, 2015). actuellement une monographie sur IMAGINATIONS • ISSUE 4 - 2, 2013 • 46