Ghana is a country of western Africa situated on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea.1 While it is renowned for its diverse ecology and picturesque beaches, Ghana is celebrated for its rich history and deeply rooted cultural heritage that continues to thrive and permeate the lives of Ghanaians. Evidence of this deep cultural heritage remains most evident in the dietary customs and behaviors of Ghanaians today.

Staple Foods The Influence of religion Plantain and Starchy roots. Staple starchy roots consist of Almost two thirds of Ghanaians profess the Christian 1,2 cassava, yams, and cocoyams (taro). Plantain is also a faith, while the remander practice either Islam or a 1,2 staple starchy food in the Ghanaian diet. Root and tuber form of traditionalist indigeneous religion.1 However, crops are eaten mainly in the form of fufu (a dough-like many who practice Christianity or Islam , still food consisting of pounded boiled cassava and plantain, continue to practice tradtional beliefs and customs. yams or cocoyams) and ampesi (boiled yam, boiled Subsequently, Ghanaians participate in many ritual plantain, boiled cocoyam or boiled cassava or a mix of systems and it not uncommon for these rituals to 2 these, served with a spicy gravy, vegetable stew or soup). converge.6 The spirit of Ghanaian cuisine is tied to Cassava is also traditionally eaten in the form of Kokonte tradition and ritualized events such as naming (cooked, dried pounded cassava meal, mixed with boiling ceremonies, weddings and funerals.4 A food water and seasoned with salt), gari (grated and fried commonly eaten at many of these events is oto, a cassava), agbelima (fermented cassava meal), banku sacred dish made from hardboiled eggs, mashed yam, (fermented maize and cassava dough) and kenkey and palm oil. After the first and thrid weeks of a 1-4 (fermented cornmeal dough steamed in corn husks). dealth in the family, oto is also sprinkled around the Grains and cereals. Maize and rice are consumed the most house to “satisfy the dead”.4 Oto is always frequently. Maize is most commonly consumed in the form accompanied by hardboiled eggs as they are a key of kenkey and banku.2Rice is consumed mainly boiled and symbol in Ghanaian culture and are often used as served with stew or as jollof (a tomato-based rice dish)..2 sacrifices or gifts, thanksgiving, and purification rites.4 Fruits and vegetables. Consumption is only high when in Christmas in Ghana. Christmas is one of the most season. Fruits that are typically consumed include mango, significant holidays in Ghana, with celebrations pineapple, papaya, and watermelon.2 With respect to lasting up to eight days.7 The most popular dish at vegetables, Ghanaians generally consume peppers, onions Christmas is chicken, although goat and mutton may and tomatoes on a daily basis.2 be prepared for the occasion.7 Yams and stew or soup Fats and oils. Palm oil and palm fruits are the predominant are often served with the main dish. Fresh, seasonal sources of fat in the Ghanaian diet.2 fruits are usually served for dessert.7,4

Animal products. Fish is the major source of animal protein due to the geographic location of Ghana.2,5 It is consumed mainly in soups and stew or as an accompaniment to other staple foods.2 Traditional eating patterns Food Preparation

Ghanaians eat one to two main meals per day (usually Food is processed and cooked at home by women. 7 Food lunch and dinner), supplemented by snacks also known preparation is done predominantly with the right hand in 2,4 as small chop or a lighter meal. large pots with wooden utensils.4 The left hand is reserved Lunch and Dinner: only for personal hygiene.4 In Ghana, it is still considered an insult to hand a person something with the left hand.4  heaviest meals of the day2  emphasize traditional foods and usually consist Dining of a staple tuber, root or grain, with sauce (soup or stew) made with vegetable oil (palm oil, but Family members seldom eat together, however, affluent sometimes peanut, coconut or corn oil), and households generally have a large dining table.8 Women vegetables (dark green leafy vegetables, tomato, usually eat in the kitchen with the children, while men eat onion, okra, peppers).7 Soup and fufu, rice and in some other part of the living space.8 Subsequently, stew, or kenkey and fried fish are examples of women and children will share a communal bowl, while 7 main meals. men will eat independently.8 The sharing of food by the Small chop: mother with her children is viewed as an opportunity to  seasonal fruit (mango, banana, avocado, teach the children how to eat correctly: with the right hand pineapple)7 and no utensils. 4,8 7  roasted plantain or peanuts Traditional Health Beliefs  chichinga or kyinkyinga (a kebab of beef, mutton, lamb, or goat, seasoned with a mixture of ground There are many traditional health beliefs in Ghana that are peanuts, ground red pepper, salt and ginger)4,7 still observed today. For instance, overweight and obesity is considered to be a sign of good health and happiness in Accompanying beverages: marriage.9 It is also believed that cocoyam leaves and the  Due to Ghana’s roots as a British colony in the water used to boil kenkey can be used to treat fever.10 late 19th to mid-20th century, British influence is seen in the preference for tea, although “tea” is Table 1 outlines various food taboos in Ghana. In many often the generic word used for “hot drink”.4 circumstances, abstaining from certain foods classified as  Typically, only water is consumed with meals taboo according to traditional beliefs, results in and soda may be consumed on special malnutrition, particularly among pregnant women and for occasions.7 those already experiencing food insecurity.10

Current Food Practices of Ghanaians in the United States

Research shows that migration to the United States is associated with environmental and lifestyle changes that increase the risk for nutrition-related diseases. Healthy components of the traditional diet are often replaced by processed convenience foods. 11 Many migrants express a desire to maintain continuity in their diet.7 Dinner is still typically prepared and eaten at home, but made with slightly different ingredients such as canola oil instead of palm oil, powdered fufu instead of freshly pounded fufu, and seasonally available vegetables. While traditional ingredients are easy to find, they are often more expensive because they are imported.7 Specifically in rural Ghana, the diet is largely composed of starchy roots and tubers due to limited food availability.12 However, significant diet diversification, as a result of increased food availability, is reported among migrants to more affluent countries.12 Individuals who have close relationships with Ghanaians including friends and family, and church members experience better dietary continuity.11