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This book contains a study of 65 crops, mostly of American origin, which for social, agronomic or biological reasons have lost their importance over the last 500 years. Some of them have been marginalized with respect to their original function or their potential uses; others have practically been forgotten. They are which, at other times or under other conditions, played a fundamental role in the and food supply of indigenous peoples and local communities. Their neglect was in many cases the result of the deliberate suppression of self-sufficient ways of life which characterized traditional cultures. This work, coordinated by Dr J.E. Hernández Bermejo (Spain) and Dr J. León (), includes the contributions of 31 authors from nine countries. Its preparation was promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in collaboration with the Botanical of Córdoba (Spain) as a contribution to the Etnobotánica 92 Programme. The book comprises an introductory section, which deals with America's plant genetic resources and the processes that caused the marginalization of certain NEGLECTED CROPS 1492 from a different perspective FAO Plant Production and Protection Series No.26

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- ublished incol labor with the taraical Garden of ar (Spain) as part of the botánica 92 Pro)gramir (Andalusia,1992)

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 1994 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

David Lubin Memorial Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Botanical Garden of Córdoba (Spain) Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective (FAO Plant Production and Protection Series, no.26) ISBN 92-5-103217-3

1. Plant product ion2. Marginal farms3. Crops 4. Trends I. TitleII. Series III. FAO, Rome (Italy) IV. Hernández Bermejo, J.E.V. León, J.

FAO code: 11 AGRIS: E01

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

0 FAO 1994 Forewo re

Throughout history, human beings have used thousands of plant species for food, many of which have also been domesticated. Today only 150 plant species are cultivated, 12 of which provide approximately 75 percent ofour food and four of which produce over half of the food we eat. This involution has increased the vulnerability of agriculture and impoverished the human diet. As a result, many local crops that have traditionally been important for feeding the poorest sectors of society are nowadays underutilized or neglected. There can be no doubt that the use, and cultivation of the most widespread plant species have to a great extent been brought about accidentally and are conditioned by the social, economic and political values of the dominant cultures. It is highly likely that, had the process been carefully planned and the species selected on the basis of the scientific data available to us today, the result would have been different. At present, new biotechnologies constitute a powerful means of halting the involution process and, consequently, of accelerating the domestication of other promising as well as the genetic improvement of those that have been neglected. However, the economic and political interest necessary to pro- mote research that would benefit the poorest social strata with the least purchasing power may be lacking. The discovery of America, which brought into contact two different worlds with their own history, cultures and traditions, at the same time formed a bridge between two ecological macrocosms. When the settlers arrived in America, as well as their language, religion and customs, they brought with them plants that were cultivated on the Eurasian continent. In return, together with tales of amazing riches, mysterious cultures and exotic customs, they took back products of the earth that were unknown in the Old World. Thus began a long-lasting exchange of plants and which profoundly transformed eating habits on both sides of the Atlantic in the following centuries. In the course of this exchange, products that in the past had occupied a prominent place in the economies and -food supplies of vast regions, particularly in , either disappeared or were set aside, giving way to crops from the other continent. Eventually, the changein eating habits that was triggered by the introduction of these plants, which were not always well suited to local agro-ecological conditions, created a food and vi

economic dependence in some countries of Central and which, today, remains a serious obstacle to their development. At a time when the world is experiencing an exponential increase in its population and is anxiously wondering if it will be able to bring an end to the hunger and scarcity of food that now exist in many regions without causing fresh damage to our natural environment, it would seem logical to look to the past for possible solutions in species that have fed humanity throughout its history. Such is the aim of this book which, beginning with an analysis of the characteristics of these plants, attempts to identify possible areas of research and development in order to facilitate, where possible, their reintroduction in regions to which they had become so well adapted over the centuries. Its purpose, therefore, is eminently practical and, in cooperation with institu- tions active in this and with possible donors, it aims at reawakening an interest in the efficient exploitation and distribution of these crops. This work is also a first step towards implementing the principles stated at the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, held recently in Rio de Janeiro, and is in keeping with FAO's continuous effort to find systems and methods of cultivation that make it possible to combine development with a respect for the environment.

Edouard Saouma Director-General Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations CC) ntrflitS

Foreword Abbreviations Preface

INTRODUCTION

Plant genetic resources of the 3 Genetic resources 3 The major phytogeographical regions 4 of American flora 7 Cultural relationships 7 Distribution of genetic diversity 8 Changes since 1500 10 The challenge of conservation 10 Ornamental plants 11 Medicinal plants 11

Introduction of flora from the Old World and causes of crop marginalization 23 Degree of marginalization of American plants 24 Causes of the marginalization of useful plants 26 Conclusion 29

AGRICULTURE IN 35

Domesticated plants and neglected crops in Mesoamerica 37 Physical geography and human occupation 37 Past cultures 33 Agricultural systems 33 Domesticated plants 40 Marginalization of crops in Mesoamerica 43

Beans (Phaseolus spp.) 47 Phaseolus coccineus 48 Phaseolus acunfolius 52 Phaseolus lunatus 54 Phaseolus polyanthus 58

Cucurbits ( spp.) 63 Cucurbita argyrosperma 63 Cucurbitct pepo 67 Cucurbita moschata 71 Cucurbita ficifolia 74

Chayote (Sechium edule) 79

Custard apples ( spp.) 85 Annona diversifolia 86 89 Annona scleroderma 90

Grain (Amararghus spp.) 93 , Amaranthus hypochondriacus

Sapote ( sapota) 103

Spanish plum, red mombin (Spondias purpurea) 111

Tomatill sk-to m ato (Physalis philadelphica) 117

ANDEAN AGRICULTURE 123

Neglected crops of *die Andean region 125

Andean and 131 Canihua ( pallidicaule) 131 (Chenopodium quinoa) 135 Andean lupin (Lupinus nuttabilis) 139 Love-lies-bleeding () 144

Andean tubers 149 Oca () 149 Mashwa (Tropaeolum tuberosum) 152 Bitter potatoes (Solanum X juzepczukii), (Solanumx curtilobum) 154 Ullucu ( tuberosus) 159 ix

Andean roots 165 Maca ( meyenii) 165 Arracacha (Arracada xanthorrhiza) 168 Mauka, chago ( expansa) 172 Leafcup (Polymnia sonchtfolia) 176

Andean 181 Pepino (Solanurn muricatum) 181 tomato (Cyphornandra betacea) 185 Mountain papaw (Carica pubescens) 188

AMAZONIAN AND AGRICULTURE 193

Crops of the Amazon and Orinoco regions: their origin, decline and future 195 Origins of agriculture and genetic diversity 196 The decline of the Amazon and Orinoco regions 196 Current erosion of genetic and cultural resources 199 Crops and wild species that deserve attention 200 New directions for neotropical agricultural development 201

Cupuaçu (Thecbrcma grandiflorum) 205

Peach-palm ( gasipaes) 211

Species of Paullinia with economic poterflial 223 Guarana (Paullinia cupana) 223

SulAropical 229 Jaboticaba (Myrciariaspp.) 229

Arazá ( stipitata) 230

Feijoa (Feijoa 233

Guinea arrowroot (Calathea allouia) 239

Maté (Ilex paraguariensis) 245

Tannia, yautia ( sagittifolium) 253 ACROSS THE ATLANTIC: SPAIN 259

Processes and causes of marginalization: the introduction of American flora in Spain 261 Neglected species 262 Arrival o f American species 264 Models and causes of marginalization 269

Grain legumes for feed 273 Composition and use 274 and ecology 278 Genetic diversity 278 Cultivation practices 282 Prospects for improvement 282

Traditional varieties of grain legumes for human consumption 289 Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) 291 Field , kidney bean, garden bean, haricot bean, French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 293 Broad bean (Vicia faba) 294 (Cicer arietinum) 296 Lentil (Lens culinaris) 298 Pea (Pisum sativum) 299

Neglected horticultural crops 303 Rocket (Eruca sativa) 303 Garden cress (Lepidium sativum) 307 Purslane (Portulaca oleracea) 310 Borage (Borago officincilis) 314 Alexanders (Smyrnium olusatrum) 319 Scorzonera (Scorzonera hispanica) 322 Spotted golden thistle (Scolymus maculatus) 326 Spanish salsify (Scolymus hispanicus)

Taxonomic incleN 333 s

FIGURE 1 Major types of vegetation in Mesoamerica, the Caribbean and South America 5

FIGURE 2 Mesoamerica 39

FIGURE 3 : Phase()lus coccinetts and P. acutifolius 49

FIGURE 4 Beans: Phaseolus lunatus and P. polyanthus 56

FIGURE 5 Mesoamerican cucurbits: Cucurbita argyrosperma, C. pepo, C. moschata and C. ficifolia 65

FIGURE 6 (Sechium edule) 81

FIGURE 7 Custard apples: Annona scleroderma, A. diversifolia, A. reticulata, A. cherimola, A. muricata and A. squamosa 87

FIGURE 8 Grain amaranths: Amaranthus cruentus and A. hypochondriacus 95

FIGURE 0 () 105

FIGURE 10 Spanish plum, red mombin (Spondias purpurea) 113

FIGURE 11 Tomatillo, husk-tomato (Physalis philadelphica) 119 xii

FIGURE 12 Andean region 126

FIGURE 13 Andean grains: canihua(Chenopodium pallidicaule) and quinoa (C.quinoa) 133

FIGITE. 14 Andean lupin(Lupinus mutabilis)and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus) 142

FIGU-E 15 Andean tubers: oca(Oxalis tuberosa)and mashwa (Tropaeolum tuberosum) 151

Ple0 IRF 16 Andean tubers: bitter potatoes and ullucu (Ullucustuberosus) 155

FIGURE 17 Diagram of chuño processing 157

FIGURE 18 The origin of bitter potatoes 158

FIGURE 19 Andean roots: maca(Lepidiurn meyenii)and arracacha(Arracacia xanthorrhiza) 167

FIGURE 20 Andean roots: mauka, chago(Mirabilis e-vpansa)and leafcup(Polymnia sonchffolia) 173

FIGURE 21 Andean fruits: pepino(Solanum muricatum);tree tomato, tamarillo(Cyphomandra betacea);and mountain papaw(Carica pubescens) 183

FIGURE. 22 The Amazon and Caribbean region 197

FIGURE 23 Cupuaqu(Theobroma grandiflorum) 207 FIGURE 24 Peach-palm () 213

FIGURE 25 Guarana (Paullinia cupana) 225

FIGU E 26 Jaboticaba (Myrciaria spp.) and arazd (Eugenia stiphata) 231

FIGURE 27 Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana) 235

FIGURE 28 arrowroot (Calathea allouia) 241

FIGURE 29 Maté (1/ex paraguariensis) 247

FIGURE 30 Distribution area of 1/ex para guariensis var. para guariensis and var. vestita 248

FIGURE 31 Tannia, yautia or new cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) 255

FIGURE 32 Grain legumes: one-leaved vetch (Vicia monanthos), bitter vetch (V. ervilia) and Narbonne vetch (V. narbonensis) 275

FIGURE 33 Grain legumes: chickling vetch (Lathyrus sativus), vetchling (Lathyru,s cicera) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) 277

FIGURE 34 Changes in the cultivated area of species for animal feed in Spain 279

FIGURE 35 Changes in the grain yield of legume species for animal feed grown in Spain 280 xiv

FIGURE 36 Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) 292

FIGURE 37 Horticultural crops: rocket (Eruca sativa), garden cress (Lepidium sativum) and purslane (Portulaca oleracea) 305

FIGURE 38 Horticultural crops: borage (Borrago officinalis), alexanders (Smyrnium olusatrum) and scorzonera (Scorzonera hispanica) 315 bbreviaflons

ARARI Aegean Regional Agricultural Research Institute (Turkey)

CATIE/GTZ Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Centre/German Agency for Technical Cooperation

CEPEC Cocoa Research Centre ()

CEPLAC Executive Committee of the Cocoa Farming Plan (Brazil)

CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

CIAT International Centre for Tropical Agriculture

CIFAP Forestry, Agricultural and Research Centre ()

CIP International Centre

CPAA Research Centre of Western Amazonia (Brazil)

CPATU Agricultural Research Centre for the Humid (Brazil)

CSIC Supreme Council of Scientific Research (Spain)

EEC European Economic Community xvi

EMBRAPA Brazilian Agricultural Research Enterprise

ETSIA(M) Higher Technical School of (Madrid)

IBPGR International Board for Plant Genetic Resources

IBTA Bolivian Institute of

ICA Colombian Agricultural Institute

ICARDA International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas

ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

ICTA Science and Agricultural Technology Institute ()

IDIAP Agricultural Research Institute of

IICA Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture

IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

INCAP Institute of Nutrition of and Panama(Guatemala)

INIA National Institute of Agrarian Research (Portugal)

INIAP National Institute of Agricultural Research() xvii

INIFAP National Institute of Forestry and Agricultural Research (Mexico)

INIPA National Institute of Agricultural Research and Promotion ()

INPA National Research Institute of Amazonia (Brazil)

INRA National Institute of Agricultural Research (France)

INTA National Institute of Agricultural Technology ()

IUCN World Conservation Union

JUNAC Cartagena Agreement Board (Peru)

MAG Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Costa Rica)

MID/INRA Ministry of Agricultural Developmen c. raguan Institute of Agrarian Reform ()

NBPGR National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources ()

OAS Organization of American States

SARH Secretariat of State for Agriculture and Water Resources (Mexico)

UACH Autonomous University of Chapingo

UCR University of Costa Rica xviii

UNAM National Autonomous University of Mexico

UNSCH National University of San Cristóbal de Huamanga

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

VIR N.I. Vavilov All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Plant Breeding (CIS) ef ace

Conceived as a project by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective was copublished with the of Còrdoba, Spain. This cooperation carne about as a result of the "Etnobotánica 92" congress, convened in September 1992 by the Botanical Garden and the City of Córdoba. The contents and aims of the congress were fully consistent with the sentiment behind the planned publication which would thus serve as an initial protocol for discussion at a symposium on neglected crops, oriented towards defining priorities, designing new projects for researching and improving these crops and planning strategies to finance them. The aim of the book is to analyse the present si tuation and the prospects for improving certain traditional crops that were more important in other times and have now either been completely forgotten or relegated to a marginal role. After discussing the repercussions that 1492 had on natural resources and ways of life, both in America and Spain, the discoveryof America and successive eras are studied, not as historic events that gave rise to a great genetic and cultural flow but, on the contrary, as possible immediate or delayed causes of certain crops being neglected. The concept of a neglected or "marginalized" species in agricultural terrns needs to be made clear. It basically refers to cultivated crops and therefore excludes those species which, in spite of their possible ethnobotanical or economic interest, are taken directly from their wild populations. They are crops which, at other times and underother conditions, were of greater importance in traditional agriculture and in the diets of indigenous peoples and other local communities. It does not necessarily imply promising crops. This is because they have already been cultivated and becausethe aim of their reinstatement is not to convert them into crops for intensivecultivation or export. Marginalized crops arethose whose use and productivity need to be considerably increased as a means of raising the livingconditions and improving the diet of ethnic groups and populations accustomed toliving in economic systems that have engaged little interchange. How has this situation of "marginalization" come about? Therehave been various contributing factors: the introduction of speciesthat supplanted traditional ones; the loss of competitiveness of these speciescompared with other more productive species; gradual changes in demand;economic, cultural, political or religious prohibitions; and the disappearanceof ethnic XX

groups that understood the techniques and uses of the plants as well as their cultivation methods. We need to recognize, as the present study does, that among the social, agronomic and biological reasons for the neglect of such plants, it is the social factors that predominate. In many cases this has been a consequence of the premeditated eradication of self-sufficient ways of life and their replacement by other foreign systems, based on outside interests. Thus, in the traditional societies of Latin America, a dependence on external forces developed and subsequently resulted in poverty. Four main sections of this book basically deal with Latin America, where three areas of anthropological action are identified, corresponding to the three main centres of phytogenetic diversity and origin of agricultural experiments: Mesoamerica, the Andean region and the Amazon. In keeping with the general approach of "Etnobotdnica 92"organized to analyse the consequences of 500 years of genetic and ethnobotanical exchanges be- tween the two sides of the Atlanticit seemed logical to include a final section on the marginalization of crops in Spain and its possible connection with 1492. The list of species studied has been restricted to food crops and, with a few exceptions, to those exclusively of interest as human food. This does not mean that the same phenomenon of marginalization, as defined here, has not occun-ed in other types of crops. Perhaps the most drastic cases are to be found among industrial crops: dye, fibre or medicinal plants that have now been replaced by synthetic products, whose cultivation is left to the poorest communities which are unable to obtain the artificial substitutes, or which survive to be used at times when, as a result of certain market contingencies, the natural product once again can claim a limited consumption. Some chapters are monospecific while others refer to groups of crops which are taxonomically and agronomically close. With the aim of meeting the basic objective of improving agricultural species in regions where they are traditionally exploited, attention has been paid to the following points: Importance of genetic resources. Emphasis is placed bothon the direct use of new germplasm with a superior yield, quality or resistance, and its application in previous genetic improvementprogrammes, using more sophisticated techniques. Mention is also m.ade of conservationprogrammes and germplasm banks as well as of national and international institutions that coordinate conservation activities and theuse of these resources. Genetic variability or biodiversity (known cultivars, related species,wild intraspecific variability, etc.) are evaluated and thecurrent risks of genetic erosion are assessed. FOrMS of consumption. The directcauses of or factors contributing to crop marginalization include the losseither through neglect or culturalsuppres- sionof forms of consumption (preparation, preservation,culinary habits, xxi alternative uses) of foods based on marginalized traditional plants. For this reason, it has been considered of the utmost importance not only to reinstate the use of these crops but also to highlight their nutritional values and forms of preparation. Prospects for improvement and limitations. The attention of specialists has been centred on rescuing neglected crops and, therefore, on indicating the direction to be taken in order to improve them. Age-old crops must be developed while taking into account the needs of the communities which consume them. With modern technology, it is possible to put improvement programmes into practice but, for this, the starting-point must be the experience acquired by themselves. Research must be carried out at various levels and should range from the study and evaluation of material and traditional cultivation practices to the inclusion of a biotechnol- ogy suited to farmers' practical problems. In spite of the fact that the editors of this work laid down a very rigorous theme structure, the diverse nature of the subjects dealt with and the different approaches of specialists from more than nine countries have necessarily led to a certain lack of uniformity which has in fact enriched the work. Highly specific information is frequently provided, much of which has never before been published. Also included are value judgements, observations and personal opinions which may be of use to those who carry out field work. The first two chapters present an overall view of the biodiversity of American phytogenetic resources and the processes that caused marginal- ization. This phenomenon is linked directly or indirectly to the introduction of flora from the Old World into America from 1492 onwards. In the section on Mesoamerica, some little-known beans, and other native cucurbits, custard apples and , prince's feather (huautli) and , sapodillas, Spanish plums and tomatilloes or husk-tomatoes are studied. The numerous lesser crops of the region have not beenincluded because of their restricted geographical distribution. In the section on Andean agriculture, crops are grouped into grains and pulses, tubers, roots and fruits. The grains studied include quinoa, canihua (qatliwa), love-lies-bleeding (kiwicha) and Andean lupin (tarwi); tubers include oca, ullucu, bitter potatoes and mashwa; roots include arracacha, leafcup (yacen), maca and mauka; and fruits include the mountain papaw, sweet cucumber and tree tomato. The section dealing with Amazonian and Caribbean agriculture examines neglected crops in the Amazon region understood in the broad sense and, by extension, species of the Caribbean region and others that are subtropical in environment and origin. There is a study of the cupuayu, peach-palm, Paullinia sp., arazd, feijoa, jaboticaba, Guinea arrowroot, and yautia or tanier. The last section examines the possible influence of American flora on the marginalization of various Iberian crops. Leguminous species (for animal feed and human consumption) and horticultural species are considered. Frnit- and groups of plants of separate economic interest for human consumption ought to have been included. Many other crops have not been mentioned and perhaps only a minority of those which urgently need to be rescued have been included but it is hoped that at least a contribution has been made towards increasing awareness of such crops, thereby encouraging an exchange of available information. What is sought now is the participation of different national and interna- tional institutions that may be able to contribute resources, technology and expertise to less developed countries where marginalized crops play an important role as a source of food. Perhaps what should first be achieved is a change of attitude in Latin American countries themselves regarding the species and the products which are derived from them, but which are currently neglected either because of the passive or disparaging attitude of consumers, or because of the lack of incentives to promote and improve them. These efforts must be accompanied by new studies on postharvest handling, marketing channels and the publicizing of nutritional values, bearing in mind that the prime beneficiaries of this undertaking must be the farmers and consumers.

J.E. Hernández Bermejo and J. León d JC 0n Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective

Plant ijnctc resources of the New World

The discovery of America broudit about the va or manioc and the peanut were introduced, biggest exchange of gennplasm in history. Previ-which radically changed the diet in the western ously, only three speciesone cultivated (sweet part of the continent. , originating in South- potato) and two spontaneous (bottle andeast Asia and taken to America from Spain and coconut)were common to the ofAfrica, came to constitute a food; on the both the Old and the New World. After 1492, the other hand, from the New World dis- exchange of cultivated species not only radically placed African and Asian cottons. In commercial changed the diet of the majority of humankindcrops, the influence of exchange was decisive: but also led to commercial crops being developedsugar cane was the first agro-industrial product in the tropics and a new world economic orderof the New World while from Ethiopia, being created. The relationship between human introduced two centuries ago, became the main beings and cultivated plants atTected everything product of Latin America, followed by the ba- from basic food and clothing requirements tonana, originating from Southeast Asia. In the the use of plants for ornamental purposes andopposite direction, cocoa .from. Brazil has be- leisure. come the main commercial product of West Af- The first introductions into America rica and, together with rubber from the Amazon European grains, and fruits plantedregion, an important export item of Southeast in Hispaniola were unsuccessful but, a few Asia. In Latin America during this century, Afri- decades later on the highlands of Mexico and thecan grasses have replaced the local species, , they produced yields which exceededwhich are few and of low yield. those of Europe. On the other hand, , The exchange of germplasm is a continuous sugar cane and citrus fruits, among others, accli-process in agricultural diversification and genet- matized easily to tropical areas. From , ic improvement. The fact that on both sides of the yams and other minor crops were introduced. Atlantic most commercial crops are of foreign From America and Europe, , which arrivedorigin means that their preservation, evaluation shortly after the discovery, had spread through-and trade is of world interest. Germplasm losses out the centre of the continent within three or four in Southeast Asia may have more effect on trop- decades. Later, potatoes, tomatoes, gourds, ical America than on that region itself. beans and chilies were slowly incorporated into European cooking, which thereby assumed its GENETIC RESOURCES present-day characteristics. In Africa, the cassa- At present, the term "genetic resources" is being employed increasingly instead of gennplasm, as it is considered to be broader and more appropri- The author of this chapter is J. León (San José, Costa Rica). ate. Interest in the preservation, documentation 4 Plant genetic resources of he New World

and intensive use of genetic resources is relative- The third category is made up of the cultivated ly recent. As one of the earth's many naturalspecies' wild populations which subsist in the resources, once it is lost the germplasm of culti- area where the species has been domesticated. vated plants may never be recovered. Its concen- They grow spontaneously and sometimes the tration in countries with an incipient agricultureaction of disruptive selection does not allow an creates particular problems regarding its conser- exchange of genes between the wild and cultivat- vation and trade, although the agricultural sys-ed populations. Weeds, which are difficult to tems prevalent in those regions tend to preserve it define, form a separate group. In primitive agri- as seed material. cultural systems, there is no clear line between The range of the genetic resources of cultivat- cultivars, weeds and wild populations because ed plants varies considerably according to the the latter two are also utilized in some cases. species. The first category consists of the primi- In addition to the species, the cultivated or wild tive cultivars, i.e. those resulting from an initial relatives with which an exchange of genes is selection made by the farmers. There is no com- possible constitute a fourth category which may plete list, not even for species of high economichave an important role in genetic improvement. value, by which the number of cultivars could beFrequently, the relations of a cultivated species estimated; in some species there may be dozens, are used in practices, such as grafting, that re- in others hundreds. Most have a restricted geo-quire a physiological affinity. In some cases graphical distribution and many are grown only citrus fruits and ornamental orchidsthe genetic for family consumption. resources are extended to other genera in the Outside their centre of origin they produceformation of multigeneric hybrids. high yields, as certain tests reveal. Their potential value consists of the set of genes resistant to very THE MAJOR PHYTOGEOGRAPHICAL varied environmental conditions, diseases and REGIONS pests and, often, their high nutritional value con- The background to the processes determining the tent. They are very prone to genetic erosion, asrichness of the continent's genetic resources may their populations are small and consequently be understood better if we consider their relation- easy to replace with other cultivars and, since ship with the distribution of the plant formations they are used by the poorest: social groups, they and their biodiversity, and with human factors or, receive scant attention. in other words, cultural factors. The former is The second category, advanced cultivars, is very complex in the tropical region of the New limited in tropical America to a few species; they World because of the number of natural land- are the result of genetic improvement efforts scapes and the differences between them. intended to produce high-yielding cultivars that Around lat. 25°N, the arid regions of North are resistant to diseases and pests or adapted toAmerica, including and semi-deserts, specific environmental conditions. Some cropscome to and end and areas of greater humidity originating from the American tropics have un- begin along the coastal areas of Mexico. Running dergone genetic improvement in regions withparallel to the coast are the Sierra Madre moun- advanced agricultural sectors: North America,tain ranges, traversed by the high and wide Europe and Japan. The cultivars that they gave central valleys which formed the heart of Meso- rise to did not, however, adapt to the prevailingamerica. Towards the south, the mountainous conditions in tropical America. areas, ranges and dividing valleys extend as far Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 5

FIGURE 1 Major types of vegetation in Mesoamerica, the Caribbean and South America

Tropical rain forestM

Tropical deciduous

Subtropical deciduous forestrA

Scrub

Pasture and savannah

'1'010 4:7;44 Ranges

Ceja (edge) of selva, 1111IN took .j.tortiz ...Ir.._ 1 OO ...A. Thorn forest M IksqTr7-!=k:Olf I= -

I

Deserts

r ..trrz ftwr"Coastal vegetation Nt e Cerrado

Palm trees

Swamp

Cotinga

Forests of Chaco

Deforested areas 111103102001r aweinstenrMM 0 OO emat and savannah of southern Brazil Ing:igiiiionsi Oltrt,1;112.1100232. VIJCS 000000 .r4Araucaria forests and clearings 11111Nsisil 100114444,44 1,101 11:4Sko Pampas AO Waso UM 01 UN US 111010101:1110 0111=101111 Scrub and forest omeN, Mang ' :11:-ISSO 111111is oo 7 Patagonian steppe -." o Coastal forests of 6 Plant ,genetic resources o.he New World

as Panama, with a break only in Tehuantepec. As of low humidity, the Orinoco plains, extends far as Nicaragua, the vegetation of the ranges is from the centre of the continent to the Atlantic, predominantly of northern origin, and the firstending in very dry forests on the coast. On the high, bleak Andean plateaus appear in Costa Ri- more humid ground to the east of the Orinoco ca. In the low arcas there are notable differences River, there are dry forests and palm groves. between the two slopes. On the Atlantic slope, The centre of the continent is covered with the the rain forest begins south of Tamaulipas and humid of the Amazon Orinoco, continues over the coastal plains as far as Darienexcept for the high savannah of . This in Panama, broken only in Yucatán by a low, dry forest, the most extensive in the world, can be forest, and in the north of Nicaragua by extensivedivided into several subregions according to the pinewoods resulting from specific soil condi-types of vegetation and composition of flora, tions. On the Pacific slope, on the other hand, incaused by the expansion of the old plant forma- areas with alternating seasons, the dry tropical tions and by environmental conditions. What is forest extends from Sinaloa to central Panama, important from a phytogeographical point of with a single break through the humid tropical view is the Obidos breech which crosses the forest of Osa in Costa Rica. The lowland forests from north to south. It is a separate are mainly of southern origin and penetrate Mex- strip with a lower precipitation of around ico as far as the northern limit of the rain forests 1 500 mm, much less than the rest of the Amazon or dry forests. region receives, which divides the region into a In South America, the tropical rain forest of thewestern and eastern zone and acts as a barrier to Gulf of Darien extends south through the coastal the spread of many species. The upper Amazon, plains as far as Ecuador; it branches north andfrom Obidos to the Andean ranges, is one of the northeastwards in and ,most interesting areas in South America on ac- where it borders on a dry tropical forest, similarcount of its wealth of flora and genetic resources to that of Mexico in Central America, which numerous crops originated here. changes in coastal areas to semi- scrub- The decrease in humidity south of the Amazon land, with C:actaceae extending as far as theforest gives rise to landscapes of open forest and Caribbean coast. savannah. The cerrado is an enormous area in The Andean ranges present a great diversity ofcentral Brazil which is relatively low, undulat- vegetation cover, from the slopes bordering the ing or with mountain ranges which are not very Pacific, which are desert-lik.e in Peru and Chile,high and are covered with scattered, low ever- to the vegetation of the bleak plateaus. The east- green arboreal vegetation which is denser around ern slope is generally much more humid andwater currents. The humidity is favourable to forms a continuous strip from Venezuela to agriculture, which has recently been developed (cejas' and yungas2). The high elevation and, if chemical are used, soilsare causes areas of extreme dryness in the Andes,productive. some of which are completely devoid of vegeta- Northeastern Brazil is for the most partcov- tion, for instance the salt marshes. ered by the caatinga,' with a clear, deciduous In the extreme northeast of the Andes,an areaforest predominated by palms and cacti. Thearea

1Jutting edges of upland plains. 3Stunted, sparse forest which is leafless in the dry 2Densely wooded valleys. season. Neglected crups: /492 fromddiereut perspective 7

offers natural products for collection, such asgive an idea of the complete situation. It is well camauba wax in the extreme north, but it is aknown that the richness of flora increases from difficult area for agriculture. On the rain forestthe lower latitudes towards the equator and that, border in areas with about I 500 mm of precipi- like the diversity of biological forms, it reaches tation, there are great formations of babassu, its highest level in the humid tropics. The number which is an important source of oil. Thecerrado of higher plants in the tropical New World is and the caatinga are poor in native crops, partly estimated to be between 60 000 and 70 000. A because of their abundance of other natural re-very high percentage of these include the Com- sources and partly because of the adverse condi- positae, Orchidaceae, Rubiaceae, Cyperaceae, tions for permanent agriculture. Araceae and Melastomataceae families, which Between the caatinga and the ocean there .is ahave few components that provide materials for belt of high humidity with rain forest which, inconsumption or industry. It is to be hoped, there- Bahía, is used to a great extent for cacao, canefore, that there is no correlation between a re- and other crops. The coastal rain forests areGion's wealth of flora and the number of broken to the north of Rio de Janeiro by dry areas,domesticated plants in it. Thus, in Costa Rica, but they continue south almost to lat. 30°. only one of about 10 000 higher plant species has From the southern limit of thecerradoto thebeen domesticated. In Ecuador, whose wealth of Tropic of Capricorn there are several regionsflora is unparalleled on the continent, it is sur- with different landscapes, beginning with themised that only four species have been domesti- palm savannahs in Bolivia in the foothills of thecated. On the other hand, the areas with the Andes; changing to the dry forest of Chaco whichGreatest richness of flora are those which offer is the largest of these regions; and then to thethe best prospects for future use, especially in great marshland of the Mato Grosso; and ending industry. in the mesophytic forests which extend east- wards as far as the coastal rain forests. CULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS It is obvious that neither the wealth of flora nor BIODIVERSITY OF AMERICAN FLORA the diversity of the major plant: formations are Plant biodiversity in the American tropics com-primary factors in domestication. On the contra- prises two aspects which have not yet been stud- ry, both conditions may be negative: the first ied in full. The first is the diversity of plant types because, in a wide range of products, it is easy to caused by adaptation to a complex, unstable en-find substitutes if one should become scarce; the vironment where there is much .second because the abundance of a product in a Species have responded to these conditions bynatural formation makes its domestication un- forming characteristics that entail completenecessary. changes in the organism (epiphytism, parasit- Although there is uncertainty as to which spe- ism), or by adapting certain organs, as is the casecies were cultivated in America prior to 1492, of lianas or floating plants which adjust to more their number is estimated to be between 250 and restricted requirements. 300. The great majority of them are still at an The second aspect, the wealth of families, gen- incipient stage of cultivation and they cannot be era and species, has been studied more, but the categorized as domesticated, if we are to follow inventories made in the New World only coverthe norms laid down by specialists who restrict countries or very small regions, which does not this concept to those species that have undergone 8 Plant genetic resources of the New World

genetic improvement. However, if we accept that sources continues to be valid and useful. There is the relationship between human beings and culti- a close relationship between the eight centres vated plants has a broader sense, the develop- which Vavilov identified as areas of high diversi- ment and application of cultivation practices andty and the state of agriculture during the discov- the invention of utilization techniques as factors ery. When the Europeans arrived, there were two in the domestication process of a species may beregions of advanced agriculture in America: considered to be as important as or more impor- Mesoamerica, with centres in Mexico, Guatema- tant than genetic improvement. la and the Andes, with a similar area in southern In tropical America, the paucity of archaeolog-Peru. Not only was agriculture more advanced in ical or historical evidence makes it very difficultthose two regions, but so were industry, trade, to determine the factors which led to domestica-communications and urban development. In tion and to establish whether this occurred in athese areas, agricultural progress was character- limited period or was a long process, whether it ized by a high number of cultivated plants, a occuned in one place or several, and whether itsmall number of domestic animals, the develop- happened just once or recurred in different eras. ment of irrigation and soil conservation, imple- Domestication in the New World may havements for tillage (for which no draught animals been due to the same causes that were believedwere available) and a food preservation technol- to have operated in the Old World: scarcity ofogy which was much more advanced than that harvesting, fishing and hunting resources; po-which existed in Europe. pulation pressure; and environmental changes Mesoamerica and the Andes had no direct or cultural transformations. Secondary causes cultural communication. They were separated by may also be mentioned, such as the convenience an intermediate region, comprising a large part of of having a resource close at hand rather thanCentral America and northeastern South Ameri- having to look for it in the forest, especially if it ca, which was far less culturally developed. required only simple handling and propagation Several plants were cultivated in both regions, an methods. underlying factor common to the whole continent. Once the initial stage of domestication had The most widespread cultivated plant which passed, the expansion of crops exposed species to was grown was maize, from the mouth of the new forces of selection and increased their diver- Saint Lawrence river in Canada (lat. 52°N) to sity. Expansion was able to take place by diffu-central Chile (lat. 35°S) and from sea level to sion or migration, as will be described later. 3 900 m altitude. The beans Phaseolus vulgaris and P. lunatus covered a similar area; the latter DISTRIBUTION OF GENETIC DIVERSITY was cultivated up to the coasts of Brazil. The genetic resources of cultivated plants are notand avocados were also common. It is interesting uniformly distributed. A great number of species to note that different species of the genera Aina- and varieties are concentrated in tropical andranthus, Capsicum, Cucurbita, , subtropical regions, while they are scarce orPhysalis and Pachyrhizus were domesticated in completely absent in very extensive areas ofMesoamerica and the Andes. temperate zones. Vavilov was the first to report Botany, archaeology and history have enabled this unevenness in geographical distribution and, us to confirm that both regions had a significant although his explanation is still not accepted, hisnumber of cultivated native species in their cen- definition of areas with a wealth of geneticre- tral areas, some of which are still found only in Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 9

those areas. These nuclear areas were surrounded america, there were a few isolated cases of do- by others which had different environmentalmestication: sunflower, Jerusalem artichoke conditions and domesticated plants of local ori- (Helianthus tuberosus), Iva annua, Proboscidea gin. From this, a distribution patternemergesparviflora, Chenopodium sp., of which only the whereby the number of cultivated species andfirst two are known in other regions. varieties decreases from the nuclear area of a The intermediate zone extends into South region to its periphery. America, spanning the basins of the Orinoco, To the local component of germplasm in theAmazon and Paraguay Paraná. This immense nuclear and adjacent areas must be added theregion covers the continent's richest areas in foreign contribution from introductions made in terms of species and environmental diversity. It different eras and from various origins. Beforeis here that species of global importance were the discovery, , , groundnutdomesticated: cassava, sweet potato, pineapple, and annato (arnatto) were already cultivated,groundnut and many crops in the incipient stages possibly originating from other areas of the con- of cultivation. In spite of its enormous size, there tinent, while calabash or bottle gourd (Lagenariaare no nuclei with a high concentration of germ- siceraria), probably of African origin, was usedplasm, and only in the Upper Amazon is there an from the United States down to Argentina for its undefined area of native plants that are still in the fruits, which were used as vessels. In the firstincipient stage of cultivation. There is archaeo- stages of agriculture, this process of diffusion logical evidence of extensive ancient human oc- began through exchanges, theft, war and con-cupation in the intermediate region comparable quests among the primitive populations. The in age to the occupations of Mesoamerica and the success of introductions depended on the adapta-Andes, but no human group attained a culture bility of species to new environments and oncomparable with that of these civilizations. In their acceptance by consumers. The case of theorder to explain the absence of an advanced is exemplary; it was introduced at theagriculture it may be adduced that: in some re- start of the discovery period and its expansion ingions, e.g. the Amazon region, the natural condi- tropical America preceded the movement of thetions were such that existing plant and animal conquistadores by ten years. The spread of culti-food resources were sufficient to supply a com- vars resulting from the voluntary or forced mi- munity with a balanced diet throughout the year; gration of human communities may have had less and the low -fertility of the soil, the formation of effect, but there is historical evidence to confirmthe major rivers and prolonged droughts did its occurrence. The concentration of genetic re-not favour the development of a firmly settled sources in Mesoamerica and the Andes, which at civilization. the time of the conquest were two very extensive Finally, in the extreme south of the continent, empires, can be explained by the accumulation ofalready outside the tropics, there were isolated germplasm throughout a long history of domesti- cases of domestication. In Chile, the B1.0- cating local crops and adaptating foreign crops mus mango and Elymus sp. were cultivated until on the basis of a few cultivated species commonEuropean cereals supplanted them; an oleagi- to both regions. nous plant, Madia sativa, was cultivated until the These two regions of intense concentration ofeighteenth century. In Argentina and Brazil, cul- germplasm do, however, occupy a very smalltivation began of Cucurbita maxima, a area. Beyond the tropics, to the north of Meso- of international importance. -10 Plant ,1;ene1ic resources of the New World

The Antilles were not an important source ofintended for subsistence crops. The monocul- cultivated plants. Only the mammee(Mammea tures were transformed by dense sowing and americana),which appears to be of West Indian agronomic practices into veritable deserts in origin, grows wild in the Greater Antilles whereterms of their scarce biodiversity. it is known by the name "tamo". It is doubtful The processes of urbanization, if this is the whether arrowroot()was name that may be given to the building of dwell- domesticated in the Lesser Antilles as has been ings and transport routes, seriously affected the suggested; rather, it may have been introducedpreservation of genetic resources since, in Latin from South America. The Antilles, especiallyAmerica, the expansion of cities mainly took Hispaniola, were where Europeans first became place around the old population centres which acquainted with and adopted indigenous nameswere surrounded by intensely and diversely for a good number of American cultivated plants, farmed fields. Urbanization brought about which then spread throughout the continent. changes in diet which reduced the consumption of traditional foods. CHANGES SINCE 1500 The effects that the change in varieties had on Several processes radically affected the state ofthe survival of genetic resources were less impor- genetic resources after the discovery and theirtant in tropical America. First, because of the action varied according to the crop and region lack of genetic improvement or selection pro- while its intensity varied with the era. It is diffi- grammes in the great majority of crops and, cult to assess the impact of these processes and to second, because of farmers' resistance to adopt- form an accurate idea of the germplasm lost.ing new varieties, especially for food crops. Historical evidence shows that some species dis- (Farmers usually doubt the properties of im- appeared from cultivation, but it is not possibleproved varieties and consequently prefer tradi- to evaluate the losses of cultivars. tional varieties, when they are not fully informed Two new processes were observed immediate- of the methods for handling them.) ly after the discovery. The first was the introduc- Another factor that favoured genetic diversity tion of livestock, leading to was the sowing of mixtures of cultivars in order which still exists within colonial settings in some to ensure that at least one of them was harvested. regions of Latin America. Extensive livestock The aesthetic aspect of this practice is reflected in 'farming first occupied the cultivated land that the the diversity of shapes, colours and sizes of , Indians abandoned either because of the con- tubers and other products. In some cases, eating quest or because of depopulation resulting from habits and the nutritional and culinary superiority disease. To sustain livestock farming on the high- of the primitive cultivars contributed to their lands, Eurasian forage species were introduced survival. while, for the lowlands, African grasseswere introduced, some of which turned into obnoxious THE CHALLENGE OF CONSERVATION weeds and practically eliminated the nativeIn what way can a region comprising 30 inde- grasses. pendent countries and undergoing serious prob- The second process was the introduction oflems in all areas of development maintain the export crops sugar cane, indigo, coffee, banana,gennplasm of approximately 350 cultivatedspe- oil-palm which were established by cuttingcies? Much is being done at the national and down primary forests or using agricultural land regional level, especially for prioritycrops that Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 11

are arousing world interest. However, the foodseed banks have been successfully combined production capacity of most crops has not yetwith research on agronomic management and been studied. marketing. Preservation of this genetic stock is a complex Table 1lists plants originating in the New task which requires the shared responsibility ofWorld. This catalogue would be incomplete if we national institutions and regional and interna-did not mention ornamental and medicinal tional bodies as well as political decisions plants. guaranteeing the permanent conservation of gei-mplasm. As the great majority of tropicalORNAMENTAL PL.ANTS crops have recalcitrant or are propagatedThere is historical evidence of the prehistoric vegetatively, they will have to be conserved incultivation of ornamental genera such as Dahlia, live collections. New techniques will have to be Tagetes and others in Mexico, but it is in the last developed for the establishment and handling of two centuries that a great number of American collections as well as their duplication in differ- species have been introduced for cultivation, first ent locations. in Europe then in the United States, many of Many of the crops of the American tropics arewhich have been genetically altered. The fami- exotic and, therefore, more gemiplasm and an lies that have provided a great number of species international policy of introduction and ex- include the Araceae, Bromeliaceae, Cactaceae change will also be required. This genetic wealth and Palmae. Other families of commercial im- should then ensure rich and varied sources ofportance are the Amaryllidaceae, (Hymenocallis, food and industrial products for the most diverseHippeastrum, Zephyranthes), the Compositae uses in the future. (Cosmos, Tagetes, Zinnia) and the Solanaceae Preservation of the native gem-iplasm of tropi- (Browallia, BrUgmansia, Nierembergia, Petu- cal America will also depend on the establish-nia, Salpiglossis). Numerous genera in very ment of gene banks and protected areas and willdifferent families contain species that are exten- be based on the development of markets and sively cultivated; for instance the genera Canna, technology for the handling and preparation ofCleome, Euphorbia, Fuchsia, Ipomoea, Salvia agricultural products for consumption. To widenand Verbena. Of special importance are orna- the market for such products, it will be necessarymental plants originating from North America, to diversify their uses and to launch informationincluding genera such as Calochortus, Gaillar- campaigns based on traditional knowledge ofdia, Lewisia, the cultivation of which began in their nutritional value and organoleptic qualities. the colonial era and rapidly expanded to other With this aim, ethnobotanical research will needtemperate regions. to be stepped up and a systematic study of agro- nomic management and technologies of product MEDICINAL PLANTS preparation undertaken. Recent experience hasAmerican medicinal plants, particularly those of shown that, with a little time and effort, it is Mexico, attracted attention immediately after the possible to convert certain neglected crops intodiscovery and it was with these plants that scien- supermarket goods. Notable failures have alsotific studies of the New World began. For Euro- been seen as a result of insufficient planning andpean medicine, which was still at a medieval experience. However, in some cases traditionalstage, the discovery of the purgative properties of approaches to establishing live collections andIpomoea jalapa, the Michoacán root, was evi- 12 Plant genetic' resourcesofthe New World

TABLE 1 Cultivated plants originE .Lig in the New World, and their probable distribution at the time of the discovery

Family and species Common names Distribution

CEREALS AND OTHER GRAINS

Amaranthaceae Amaran thus caudatus Love-lies-bleeding, cat-tail, Inca , Ecuador, Argentina tumbleweed achís, achita, ataco, coima, kiwicha, sangorache Amara nthus cruentus Chian, alegría United States (New Mexico), Guatemala Amaranthus hypochondriacus Prince's feather, huautli, alegría United States (New Mexico), Guatemala

Gramineae Zea mays Maize Canada, Argentina Bromus mango' Brome(grass), wild Chile Elymus sp.' Teca Chile

Compositae Iva annual United States

Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium pallidicaule Canihua, claniwa, cahahua Peru, Bolivia Chenopodium quinoa Quinoa, quinua, suba Colombia, Chile Chenopodium sp.' (aff. buschianum) United States

Martyniaceae Proboscidea parviflora New Mexico devil's claw United States

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS

Apocynaceae Femaldia pandurata Loroco Quararibea funebris Cacaoxochitl Mexico Cyperaceae Cyperus sp. Flatsedge, pripreoca Amazon region Compositae Eupatorium ayapana Ayapana Amazon region Porophyllum ruderale Poreleaf, quillquifla Bolivia Spilanthes oleracea (Spilanthes acmella var. oleracea) Para cress, berro Peru Tagetes graveolens Huacatay Peru, Bolivia Tagetes mandoni Huacatay, sulco Peru, Bolivia Myrtaceae Pimenta dio/ca Allspice, pimento, Mexico, Guatemala, Antilles (Pimenta officinalis) pepper

Orchidaceae Vanilla plan/folia Vanilla Mexico Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium ambrosioides Wormseed, Mexican tea, epazote Mexico, Peru

'Species that have disappeared from cultivation. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 13

TABLE 1 (cont.)

Family and species Common names Distribution

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS (cont.)

Solanaceae Capsicum annuum Pepper, chili, pimento, bird pepper United States, northern South America Capsicum baccatum South America Capsicum chinese Northern South America Capsicum frutescens Mesoamerica Capsicum pubescens Ecuador, Bolivia

Umbelliferae Eryngium foetidum Mountain coriander, eryngo Mesoamerica, Antilles

STIMULANTS

Agavaceae Agave cocui Cocuy Venezuela Agave mapisiga Mexico Agave salmiana Pulque, aguamiel Mesoamerica

Aquifoliaceae 1/ex para guariensis Mate, Brazilian tea, Paraguay tea Paraguay, Argentina

Erythroxilaceae Erythroxylum Coca, ipadt:i Northern and central South America Erythroxylum novo-granatense Peruvian cocaine Western South America

Sterculiaceae Theobroma angustifolium Monkey chocolate Mesoamerica Cocoa, cacao Mesoamerica

Sapindaceae Paullinia cupana Guarana Brazil Paullinia yoco Yoco Colombia, Ecuador

FIBRES

Agavaceae Agave angustifolia Salvador henquen, maguey, El Salvador var. letonae letona agave Agave cantata Cantala, Manila maguey, Bombay aloe Mexico Agave fourcroydes Henequen, henequen agave Mexico Agave sisalana , Bahama , true sisal, Mexico sisal agave, green agave Furcraea andina Furcrea, chuchao, cabuya Ecuador, Peru Furcraea cabuya Cabuya, pita, furcrea Costa Rica, Colombia Furcraea foetida (Furcraea gigantea) Piteira furcrea, giant lily, Mauritius Colombia, Venezuela hemp Furcraea humboldtiana Cocuiza, Humboldt furcrea Colombia, Venezuela Furcraea macrophylla , fique furcrea Colombia

Bromeliaceae Aechmea magdalenae Pita floja Mexico, Venezuela, Ecuador Ananas erectifolius Carúa Brazil Neoglaziovia variegata Caroa, carúa Brazil

Cyclanthaceae Carludovica palma ta Toquilla, Panama hat palm Guatemala, Peru, Brazil 14 Plant genetic resources of the New World

TABLE 1 (cont.)

Family ancl species Common names Distribution

FIBRES (cont.)

Malvaceae Gossypium barbadense Sea island , West Indian cotton Northern South America, Guatemala, Belize, Antilles

Gossypium hirsutum Upland cotton, hairy cotton Mesoamerica, Antilles

Palmae Attalea funifera Bahia piassava, piassalba, coquilla, Brazil piasava, piasaba

FRUITS AND NUTS

Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale Cashew nut, acajou Venezuela, Brazil Spondias mombin (Spondias lutea) Yellow mombin, taperebá, jobo Mexico, Brazil, Antilles Spondias purpurea (Spondias mombin) Spanish plum, red mombin, ciruelo, Mesoamerica jocote Spondias tuberosa Imbù Northeastern Brazil

Annonaceae Annona cherimola , cherimoyer, chirimoyer, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico (?) custard apple Annona diversifolia , papausa Mexico, El Salvador Annona muricata , guanabana, graviola Panama, Brazil, Antilles Soncoya Mexico, Panama Annona reticulata Bullock's heart, sugar apple, custard Mesoamerica, Antilles apple Annona scleroderma Poshte, quave Guatemala Sweetsop, sugar apple, custard apple, Mexico, Antilles anona Rollinia jimenezi Anonillo Mexico, Costa Rica Ro/finja mucosa Biriba Brazil Rollinia rensoniana Churumuyo El Salvador

Apocynaceae Couma utilis Sowa, sorva Brazil, Amazon region Macoubea witotorum Colombia, Amazon region

Araceae Monstera deliciosa Ceriman, cheeseplant Mexico, Panama

Bignoniaceae Parmentiera aculata Yellowtaper candletree, cuajilote Mesoamerica

Bombacaceae Patinoa almirajo Almirajo Colombia Quararibea cordata Sapote, zapote, sapodilla Colombia, Brazil, Peru

Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus Pineapple, ananas, nana Mexico, Brazil Cactaceae Acanthocereus pentagonus Barbwire acanthocereus, pitaya Mexico, Antilles Hylocereus ocamponis Pitaya Mexico (?) Hylocereus undatus Night-blooming cereus Mexico Opuntia amyclaea Prickly , tuna blanca Mexico Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 15

TABLE 1 (cont.)

Family and species Common names Distribution

FRUITS AND NUTS (cont.)

Cactaceae (cont.) Opuntia ficus-indica Indian fig, Barbary fig, prickly pear, Mexico (?) tuna castilla Opuntia megacantha Tuna, mission prickly pear Mexico Opuntia robusta Tuna camuesa Mexico Opuntia streptocantha Tuna cardona Mexico Opuntia undulata Mexico Pereskia aculeata gooseberry, guamacho Northern South America, Antilles Caricaceae Carica x heilbomi (Carica pentagona, Carica chrysopetala) Babaco, higacho Ecuador Carica Papaw, papaya Southern Central America Carica pubescens Mountain papaw, papayuela Northern South Arnerica, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador

Caryocaraceae Caryocar villosum Piquiá, piquia-ete Amazon region Chrysobalanus icaco Icaco, icaco cocoaplum Tropical America bracteata Pajora Amazon region Couepia longipendula Castanha de galina Amazon region Couepia polyandra Olosapo Mesoamerica Couepia subcordata Umarirana Amazon region platypus Zunzapote, sansapote Mesoamerica

Cucurbitaceae Melothria dulcis Ococa Costa Rica, Panama

Sterculiaceae Theobroma bicolor Tiger cocoa, Nicaragua cocoa Amazon region Theobroma grandiflorum Cupuagu, cupuassu Brazil

Ebenaceae Diospyros digyna (Diospyros ebenaster) Black sapote, Indian ebony persimmon Mexico

Guttiferae Mammea americana Mammee apple, toddy-tree Antilles Platonia insignis Bacury, bakury bakuri guiana orange Brazil, Paraguay Rheedia madruno Madrone rheedia, arbutus Colombia, Ecuador Rheedia macrophylla Longleaf rheedia, bacuripari, bakupari Amazon region

Icacinaceae paraensis Umari Amazon region

Lauraceae Bielschmieidia anay Anay Mexico, Guatemala Persea americana Avocado pear, aguacate, alligator pear, Mexico, Peru palta Persea schiedeana Coyo avocado Mexico, Costa Rica

Lecythidaceae Bertholletia excelsa Brazil nut, Pará nut Amazon region Gusta via superba Paco, membrillo Panama, Colombia Grias neuberthi Sacchamango Amazon region Lecythis usitata Sapucaia nut Amazon region 16 Plant genetic resources of the New World

TABLE 1 (cont.)

Family and species Common names Distribution

FRUITS AND NUTS (cont.)

Leguminosae, cinnamomea Inga, Amazon region Inga densiflora Guamo, guabo Costa Rica, Venezuela Food inga, ingá-cipo Amazon region lnga fagifolia Inga-chichi Mexico, Brazil, Antilles Inga feuillei Pacae, pacay Peru Inga jinicuil Jinicuil Mexico Inga macrophylla Ingá-péua Amazon region lnga paterno Paterno El Salvador lnga ruiziana Gumo Nicaragua, Peru, Brazil Inga setifera Ingá dos Indios Amazon region

Leguminosae, Cesalpinioideae Cassia leiandra Marimari Amazon region

Leguminosae, Papilionoideae Arachis hypogaea Peanut Mexico, Argentina, Antilles

Malpighiaceae armeniaca Green plum, ciruela de fraile Amazon region Byrsonima crassifolia Nance, golden spoon Mexico, Brazil glabra Barbados , acerola, azarole Antilles

Myrtaceae Campomanesia guazumifolia (Britoa sellowiana) Guabiroba Brazil Eugenia brasiliensis Grumichama, Brazilian cherry Brazil Eugenia floribunda Rumberry eugenia Antilles Eugenia cabelluda Cabelluda Brazil Eugenia klotz Peradocampo Brazil Pitomba Brazil Eugenia pyriformis Uvalha Brazil Eugenia stipitata Arazá Amazon region Eugenia un/flora Surinam cherry, pitanga Brazil Feijoa sellowiana Feijoa, pineapple guava Brazil Myrciaria cauliflora Jaboticaba Brazil Myrciaria dubia Camucamu Amazon region Myrtus Ugni (molinae), Chile guava Chile Paivaea lansdorfi Cambuci Brazil Psidium acutangulum Arazá, pera Brazil Psidium cattleianum Pineapple guava, purple guava Brazil Psidium friedrichsthalianum Costa Rican guava, cas Mexico, Panama Psidium guajava Common guava, apple-shaped guava Mexico, Brazil Psidium sartorianum Arrayán Mexico, El Salvador

Moraceae Brosimum alicastrum Breadnut, ramon, ojoche Mexico, Brazil Pourouma cecropiaefolia Uvilla, mapati Amazon region Palmae Bactris gasipaes Peach-palm, pejibaye, pupunha, , Brazil pejivalle chontaduro Passifloraceae Pass/flora edulis Purple granadilla, passionfruit, Brazil maracuyá Pass/flora ligularis Sweet granadilla Mexico, Peru Pass/flora maliformis Granadilla Antilles, northern South America Pass/flora mollissima Banana passionfruit tacso, curuba, Colombia, Peru curuba passionfruit Neglected crops: 1492 from a dfferent perspective 17

TABLE 1 (cont.)

Family and species Common names Distribution

FRUITS AND NUTS (cont.)

Passitioraceae (cont.) Passiflora popenovii Granadilla de Quilos, Ecuador softleaf passionfruit Passiflora quadrangularis Giant granadilla, badea Northern South America Passiflora tripartita Tacso Ecuador

Rhamnaceae Ziziphus joazeiro Jujube Brazil

Rosaceae Crataegus pubescens Mexican hawthorn, manzanita, tejocote Mexico Fragaria chiloensis Pine strawberry, pineapple strawberry Peru, Chile serotina ssp. capuli Capulin Mexico, Guatemala Rubus glaucus Mora Guatemala, Ecuador

Rubiaceae Borojoa patinoi Borojó Colombia Borojoa sorbilis Puruí grande Brazil Genipa americana Genip Mexico, Brazil, Antilles

Rutaceae edulis , Mexican apple, Mexico, Costa Rica casimiro apple, matasano

Sapindaceae Melicoccus bijugatus Mamoncillo, mamón Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela esculenta Pitomba Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia Talisia floresii Coloc Mexico, Guatemala Talisia olivaeformis Cotoperis Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, Venezuela

3apotaceae Thrysophyllum cainito Star apple, caimito Antilles, Northern South Ame ca fanilkara zapota Sapodilla (plum), chiku, chicle, Mexico, Costa Rica chicozapote, naseberry, beef apple 9uteria arguacoensium Manzano Colombia >Walla caimito Abiu, calmo Amazon region >uteria campechiana Canistel Mexico, Panama Mena hypoglauca Pan de vida Mexico, El Salvador )uteria macrocarpa Cutiti grande Amazon region )uteria macrophylla Cutité, riba Amazon region ,uteria obovata Likumo Ecuador, Chile uteria pairiry Pariri Amazon region ,uteria sapota Sapote, marmalade plum, Mexico, Panama mammee zapote ,uteria ucuqui Ucuquí Amazon region

Ilanaceae phomandra betacea Tree tomato, tamarillo Andes, Colombia, Bolivia ysalis peruviana Cape gooseberry Colombia, Bolivia Ilanum muricatum Pepino, sweet cucumber, pear melon Colombia, Bolivia Ilanurn quitoense Naranjilla, lulo Colombia, Ecuador lanum sessiliflorum Topiro, cocona Amazon region

glandaceae glans boliviana Bolivian black walnut Peru, Bolivia glans honorei Ecuador walnut Ecuador glans neotro pica Ecuador, Peru 18 Plant genetic resources of the New World

TABLE 1 (cont.)

Family and species Common names Distribution

VEGETABLES

Agavaceae Yucca elephantipes Izote, bulbstem yucca Mexico, Guatemala

Asclepiadaceae Vincetoxycum salvini Cuchamper Guatemala, Costa Rica

Araceae Xanthosoma brasiliensis Belembe Brazil

Cactaceae Opuntia spp. Prickly pear Mexico

Caricaceae Carica monoica Col de montaña Peru

Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita argyrosperma Cushaw, calabaza, saquil, pipián, Mexico, Guatemala pipitoria Cucurbita ficifolia Cidra, sidra, fig squash, Mexico, Guatemala chilacayote, Malabar gourd Cucurbita maxima Winter squash Argentina Cucurbita moschata Pumpkin, winter squash, musky Mexico, Guatemala squash, cushaw squash Cucurbita pepo Pumpkin, vegetable marrow, summer Mexico, Guatemala pumpkin, autumn pumpkin Cyclanthera explodens Artillery cyclanthera, pepino diablito El Salvador, Peru Cyclanthera pedata Prickle cyclanthera, caigua Andes Sechium edule Chayote, cho-cho, chow chow, Mexico, Guatemala christophine, Madeira marrow, vegetable pear Sechium tacaco Tacaco Costa Rica Sicana odorifera Casabanana Northern South America (?)

Euphorbiaceae Cnidoscolus cha yamansa Chaya, spurge Mexico, Guatemala Manihot esculenta Cassava, manioc, mandioca, , Amazon region gari

Leguminosae, Papilionoideae Crotalaria longirostrata Tachipilin Mexico, El Salvador

Marantaceae Cala thea macrosepala Chufle Guatemala, El Salvador

Palmae Bactris gasipaes Peach-palm, pejibay(e), pejivalle Honduras, Brazil Chamaedorea tepejilote Pacaya Mexico, Guatemala oleracea Assai, assai palm, assai enterpe, Brazil cabbage enterpe

Portulacaceae Talinum triangulare Potherb fameflower Northeastern South America Chenopodiaceae Pitseed goosefoot Mexico spp. nuttalliae

Solanaceae Lycopersicon esculentum Tomato Mexico Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 19

TABLE 1 (cont.)

Family and species Common names Distribution

VEGETABLES (cont.)

Solanaceae Physalis philadelphica Tomatillo, ground cherry, husk-tomato, Mexico, Guatemala jarnberry Solanum americanum Hierba mora, nightshade Guatemala, El Salvador Solanum sp. Nightshade Guatemala

Vitaceae Cissus gongyloides Marble treebine Amazon region

GRAIN LEGUMES

Leguminosae, Papilionoideae Canavalia ensiformis Jack bean, sword bean, sabre bean, Peru Jamaican horse bean edulis Basul Colombia, Peru Lupinus mutabilis Andean lupin, South American lupin Colombia, Bolivia Phaseolus acutifolius Tepary bean United States, Costa Rica Phaseolus coccineus Scarlet runner bean, ayacote, patol, Mexico, Guatemala botil Phaseolus lunatus Butter bean, Burma bean, duffin bean, United States, Chile Rangoon bean, Lima bean Phaseolus polyanthus Botil Mexico Phaseolus vulgaris Kidney bean, French bean, flageolet United States, Argentina bean, dwarf bean, navy bean, string bean, haricot bean, baked bean, field bean

OIL CROPS

Compositae Helianthus annuus Common sunflower United States, Mexico Madia sativa Madia oil plant, tarweed, melosa Chile

Chrysobalanaceae Licania sclerophylla Oiticica Brazil

Euphorbiaceae Caryodendron orinocensis Tacay nut, inchi Amazon region, Orinoco

Labiatae Mexican chia Mexico, Guatemala

Leguminosae, Papilionoideae Dipteryx odorata Tonka bean Northeastern South America

Myrtaceae Pimenta racemosa Bay rum tree Antilles

ROOTS AND TUBERS

Araceae Xanthosoma sagittifolium Tannia, tania, tanier, new cocoyam, Mexico, Brazil, Antilles yautia

Species chal have disappeared from cultivation. 20 Plant genetic resources of the New World

TABLE 1 (cont.)

Family and species Common names Distribution

ROOTS AND TUBERS (cont.)

Basellaceae Ullucus tuberosus Ullucu, Oca quina Venezuela (Andes), Argentina

Cannaceae Canna edulis Achira, Queensland arrowroot, tous-les- Western Andes mois

Compositae Helianthus tuberosus Jerusalem artichoke United States Polymnia sonchifolia Leafcup yacen Venezuela (Andes), Argentina

Convolvulaceae lpomoea batatas Sweet potato, , kumara, Mexico, Brazil, Antilles Brazilian arrowroot

Cruciferae Lepidium meyenii Maca, pepper grass, pepper weed Peru (Andes)

Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea trifida Cush-cush, yampi yam Northern South America

Euphorbiaceae Manihot esculenta Cassava, manioc, mandioca, tapioca, Mexico, Brazil, Antilles gari lridaceae Tigridia pavonia Tiger Mexico

Leguminosae, Papilionoideae Pachyrhizus ah/pa Ahipa, yam bean Peru, Argentina Pachyrhizus erosus Yam bean, manioc bean, jícama Mesoamerica Pachyrhizus tuberosus West Indies yam, jícama Colombia (western Andes), Peru

Marantaceae Calathea allouia Guinea arrowroot, topinambour, Northern South America, Antilles topi-tampo, topi-tamboo Mirabilis expansa Mauka, chago Ecuador, Bolivia

Oxalidaceae Oxalis tuberosa Oca Colombia (Andes), Chile

Solanaceae Solanum tuberosum Potato Venezuela, Chile

Tropaeolaceae Tropaeolum tuberosum Anu, mashwa Colombia (Andes), Bolivia Umbelliferae Arracacia xanthorrhiza Arracacha, , Peruvian , Colombia, Bolivia white

DYESTUFFS

Bixaceae Bixa ore/lana Annato, arnatto, roucou, achiote, bixa Mexico, Brazil, Antilles Cucurbitaceae siceraria Calabash, bottle gourd United States, Argentina, Antilles Neglected crops: 1492 from a d' erent perspective 21

TABLE 1 (cont.)

Family and species Common names Distribution

MISCELLANEOUS

Bambusa angustifolia Bamboo, guadua Colombia Stevia rebaudiana Caa-ehe, cahahé Paraguay Nicotiana rustica Aztec tobacco, wild tobacco Canada, South America Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco Mexico, South America

dently sufficient reason to justify Dr FranciscoLeón, J. 1987. Botánica de los cultivos tropica- Hernández' (1517-1587) expedition to New les. San José, Costa Rica, IICA. Spain. Numerous plants were included in theMartínez, M.A. 1988. Contribuciones ibero- European pharmacopoeia and some of them, de- americanas al mundo. Botánica, medicina, spite their synthetic substitutes, are still of world- agricultura. Madrid, Anaya. wide importance; for example, the generaPatifio, V.M. 1963-74. Plantas cultivadas y ani- Cinchona, Dioscorea, Ipecacuanha and Smilax. mates domesticados en América equinoccial, The first three of these have been cultivated but a Vol. 1-4. Cali, Colombia, Imprenta Departa- large proportion of their supply for consumption mental. is gathered. Most medicinal substances areReed, C.A., ed. 1977. Origins of agriculture. obtained from the wild plants and, in many cases, The Hague, the Netherlands, Mouton. it is not certain if they have the properties attrib- Sapper, K. 1936. Geographie und Geschichte uted to them. Bordering on the medicinal area are der Indianischer Landwirtschaft. Hamburg, the hallucinogenic plants, distributed among nu- Germany, Ibero-Amerikanisches Institut. merous higher plant families; for instance, the Sauer, C. 1950. Cultivated plants of South and Cactaceae (Lophophora, Trichocerus), the Le- Central America. In J.H. Steward, ed. Hand- guminosae (Adenanthera, Erythrina), the Myris- book of South American Indians, 6:487-543. ticaceae (Virola) or fungi (Psylocibe). Smith, C.E. 1988. Evidencia arqueológica ac- tual sobre los inicios de la agricultura en Amé- Bibliography rica. In G.C.L. Manzanilla, ed. Coloquio V. Brticher, H. 1989. Useful plants of neotropicalGordon Childe, p. 91-112. Mexico, UNAM. origin and their wild relatives. Berlin, Sprin- Stone, D., ed. 1984. Pre-Columbian plant migra- ger Verlag. tion. Peabody Mus. Arch. Ethnol., Paper No. Graham, A., ed. 1973. Vegetation and vegeta- 76. tion history of northern Latin America. Vavilov, NJ. 1931. Mexico and Central America Amsterdam, Elsevier. as the principal centre of origin of cultivated Harris, D.R. & William, G.C., eds. 1989. plants in the New World. Bull. Appl. Bot. Foraging and farming. London, Unwin. Genet. Plant Breed., 26: 135-199. Hart, R.D. 1987. Indian agriculture in America. Vavilov, N.I. 1949-50. The origin, variation, Lawrence, USA, University of Kansas Press. immunity and breeding of cultivated plants. Hueck, K. 1978. Los bosques de Sudamérica. Waltham. Chronica Botanica, 131(16): 1366. Eschbom, Germany, GTZ. Neglected crops: 1492 from a difterent perspective 23

lintroitiction of S. raro

auses of ci p GAF.ilrnaHzatiorl

The effects of the diffusion of American crops processes which have occurred on the such as the potato, maize, sunflower and tomato Latin American subcontinent over the last in Europe, and of the extensive use of agricultural 500 years and the difficulty of conducting a products derived from other American plants general analysis of the phenomenon; such as cotton, cocoa and cochineal are the size of Latin America and its natural, fairly well documented. What are not so well cultural and historical diversity, which re- known are the repercussions of the introduction quires a regionalized approach to under- into America of crops and products from other standing the marginalization of plants. parts of the world. In this chapter, an attempt will From an economic point of view, the fact that be made to analyse the marginalization of nativevarious previously neglected plants are being plants in Latin America, especially in face ofused more intensively holds great promise now introduced European agricultural crops, productsthat both modern society and traditional commu- and methods and ideas as well as their subse-nities are requiring additional products to meet quent local development. their numerous needs. The study of traditional Several problems arise when studying theagriculture is providing very valuable informa- neglect of native crops that resulted from thetion that serves to reinforce the modern trend of conquest of the greater part of America. These seeking sustainable agricultural development. include: This research also benefits biology and agrono- difficulties of a conceptual nature concern-my by contributing knowledge on the evolution- ing ten-ns such as cultivated plant and mar- ary process under domestication, the adaptation ginalization; of crops, production techniques and agricultural the destruction of pre-Hispanic vestigesdevelopment. which may have shown the stage reached in There is much illustrative information on the agriculture when the Europeans arrived onlarge number of plants that were being used in the new continent (the accounts given by thesome American areas when the Europeans ar- conquistadores, the main ones to have beenrived and on those that are being used nowadays handed down to posterity, are lacking inin traditional rural communities. In the "Códice objectivity); florentino", 724 plants are mentioned of which the variety of events and contradictoryonly 382 have been identified botanically. At the moment, one Totanac community is using 325 species of a total of 482. The Seris, Tarahu- The authors of this chapter are M.A. Martínez Alfaro (Botanical Garden of the Institute of Biology, UNAM, maras and Huastecos are using 75, 137 and 201 Mexico City), R. Ortega Paczka and A. Cruz León species, respectively, for food. This indicates (Subdirectorate of Regional Centres, UACH, Chapingo, that the traditional communities, including the Mexico). 24 Introduction of flora from the Old World and causes of crop marginalization

indigenous American communities at the time ofof view is accepted, it would follow that, on the Europeans' arrival, used several hundredaccount of the European conquest, the extent of plants from their environment, while the popula-the marginalization of American plants has per- tions with a heavy Western influence used muchhaps been somewhat wider than could be evalu- fewer. ated at the species level only. A distinction should be made between: wild The basis for an assessment of the marginaliza- plants, which appear spontaneously in natural tion of useful plants should be a comparison of ecosystems; plants that appear spontaneously on the area's inventory of its flora as well as of the tilled ground and generally in areas disturbed by useful plants indicated in the codices and early human beings; cultivated iplants, which are the studies carried out by Europeans in America, on product of human toil and dedication; and do-the one hand, with those plants currently used in mesticated plants, which have undergone pro-traditional communities and in commercial agri- found genetic transformations as a result ofcultural production, on the other. The close rela- domestication and which are generally unable totionship existing between the diversity of flora, SUrViVe unless cared for by humans. The plants useful plants and native crops must always be used by American societies fit into all of the kept in mind. categories mentioned. In traditional societies, especially, plants are If this classification is acCepted, it would benot cultivated individually but in complex agro- appropriate to include among wild plants almostnomic ecosystems. Although one or more plants all the plant diversity existing when the Europe-are the central agricultural objective (maize, ans arrived, while cultivated plants would com- beans, gourd, potato, peach-palm or pejibaye), prise at least the majority of those indicated by many others are also used: therefore, in order to Vavilov (19:31) and other authors as crops origi-evaluate the displacement of useful plants nating from America between 49 and 104brought about by the conquest, it would also be species for Mesoamerica and 45 for the Andeannecessary to consider the damage suffered by region. The number of species actually domesti-pre-Hispanic agricultural systems and the mar- cated by the indigenous peoples before theginalization of many plants that were used in arrival of Christopher Columbus was lower, as earlier times as a result of the destruction of many of the species mentioned earlier were onlyhydraulic infrastructure, the annihilation of in the process of domestication while some local populations, the development of livestock should be considered wild and a high numberrearing, etc. spontaneous on tilled ground. It is known that traditional societies frequently DEGREE OF MARGINALIZATION OF use and conserve a variety of cultivars of one AMERICAN PLANTS single species. For this reason, the phenomenonFrom the literature on the exploration, conquest of marginalization should riot be reduced to the and colonization of America by the Iberiancoun- displacement of botanical species but should also tries, it is not clear whether the introducedcrops include the neglect of cultivars and traditionalthat displaced the existing oneswere imposed varieties within the same species throughre- immediately and extensively. Moreover, in the placement by others or by a small number ofsixteenth and seventeenth centuries there does variants or forms of that same species. This isnot seem to have been a profound transformation usually referred to as genetic erosion. If this point of American agriculture. Indeed, accordingto Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 25

recent studies, no proof has been found to suggestmix introduced crops with nativecrops. Conse- that the production of plants such as amaranth,quently, the biodiversity and abiotic elements of clearly intended for religious and idolatroususes the ecosystem were protected. and therefore contrary to the ideas thatwere In the documentation on tributes, encomien- being imposed, stopped as a result of specificdas,' allotments and haciendas, only isolated prohibitions. cases are mentioned in which the seeds of crops The introduction of plants from the old conti- from the Old World were handed over. In colo- nent began in 1493 with the second voyage ofnies directed from the Iberian Peninsular,we Christopher Columbus. For many, the Antilles know of attempts by the Spanish crown to intro- served as a centre of adaptation and dispersion. duce such crops as wheat, , rye, olive trees Hernán Cortés, in the Cuarta carta de relacióna and sugar cane. Except for the latter case, which CarlosV, requested that every ship "should carry was an important economic stimulus, these crops a quantity of plants and should not set sail with- seemed to fare no better than American products. out them because it will be a great thing for the It actually proved more efficient and convenient population and its perpetuation". The introduc-to pay homage with indigenous products than tion of plants and animals established the basiswith exotic products. for colonization. Wheat, for example, was sown on maize fields With a few exceptions (banana, sugar cane, or close to land given over to livestock. In the mango and others), the Spanish brought Mediter- Caribbean or on tropical lowlands, it prospered ranean crops which could only adapt to the highonly occasionally while, in areas with a long temperate zones of America. These were denselyagricultural tradition, such as the Andean high populated areas which were supplied. with Span-plateau and Mesoamerica, it did not manage to ish products cultivated in adjoining regions. displace maizewhich it did, however, on bor- Monasteries served as acclimatization centres derlands inhabited by hunters and gatherers. for European plants which, in some cases, ex-These zones were found in semi-arid or arid areas panded further and were grown in the new pro- where the climate was favourable but labour was ducer areas. One advantage of the introduceddifficult to find, since such zones were sparsely crops was that they could be used in cold areas populated and their inhabitants were nomads where mild frosts were recorded in the winterwho lacked an agricultural tradition. Hence, for periods. Many crops of the Old World werethe most part these areas were populated with maintained on small plots such as those of the indigenous people from other regions and Euro- religious orders who, through their monasteries, peans. The olive- and -growing areas were were the first to introduce agriculture based on similar in character. 'These crops, like many from non-American species. The indigenous commu- the Old World, were introduced by religious nities maintained this tradition in their familyorders in the middle of the sixteenth century. fruit and vegetable and on their cultivat- Some crops that were important for the Spanish ed land. Several colonial historical sources ex-economy were imported into America in later plained the ecological and social alterationsperiods with negative results for the mother brought about by the introduction of new crops country, as occurred in New Spain with indigo, and livestock into the indigenous agriculture and economy. It was customary and a very common 'Land and inhabitants granted to Spanish colonists by practice among the indigenous populations to royal decree. 26 Introduction of flora from the Old World and causes of crop tnarginalization

and hemp which were unable to become No substantial advances are evident in the established. development of agricultural technology as re- Most of the crop displacement seems to have gards the methods and instruments that arrived in taken place in modem times, especially since theAmerica from the end of the fifteenth to the second half of the nineteenth century, by whichmiddle of the sixteenth century. From the time of time the former Spanish and Portuguese coloniescolonization to the present, both the mining cen- were independent countries and capitalism andtres and the urban centres have demanded pre- commercial agriculture we-re expanding. dominantly American products. In American It is interesting to note that 500 years after thecountries with a strong indigenous influence discovery of America, in the pre-Columbian tra- there may be vast expanses devoted to introduced ditional agricultural regions of the highlandscrops, but native flora and crops also play a (Mesoamerica and the Andean region), Euro-considerable role. pean crops do not display the qualities normally In areas that formerly had dense Indian popula- attributed to them and by virtue of which their use tions, there is in the best of cases a syncretism has been advocated for centuries. On the contra-between the pre-Hispanic agricultural traditions ry, their failure to adjust to the climate, theirand those of Iberia, resulting in a mixture of susceptibility to pests and diseases, the competi- products of local and European origin for use in tion with native products, their insufficient qual-food, clothing, medicine and ceremonies. ity, low acceptance by the aboriginal populations and, more recently, their poor compatibility withCAUSES OF THE MARGINALIZATION OF industrial products are factors which have dis- USEFUL PLANTS couraged their exploitation, thereby emphasizingMarginalization is a complex phenomenon that the marginal or non-existent role frequentlyrequires a multidisciplinary analysis: however, played by exotic plants in local production. its general causes are biological, agricultural, The situation is very different in the sparselycultural and economic in nature. populated arid and semi-arid borderlands where colonization principally began in the seventeenthBiological and agricultural causes century. Here, livestock production as well as, toAgricultural methods. Plough and draught ani- a lesser extent, the cultivation of European cere- mals were the most revolutionary introductions als andalthough only exceptionallyvines and to agriculture, since they enabled it to expand other introduced crops, were converted into ma- through wide fertile areas of heavy soils such as jor activities, thus resulting in a countryside sim-El Bajío and many valleys of northern Mexico. ilar to that of the Iberian Peninsula. New irrigation facilities also appeared. The in the tropicalareas Another fundamental innovationwas the in- after the conquest consists in the struggle ofpre-troduction of livestock. With European coloniza- Hispanic crops and the traditional agriculturaltion and extensive interbreeding, vastareas systems especially slash-and-bum clearing based on the practice of hunting and gathering against livestock production and plantations,re- were transformed into agricultural-livestock gardless of whether the commercialcrops werezones, which most cutainly caused the marginal- native or introduced (sugar cane,cotton, prickly ization of plants that were gathered in earlier pear for cochineal, and then coffee, banana,times by hunters who were in largemeasure henequen, tropical fruits, stimulants, etc.). exterminated. Neglected crops: 1492.1'i-wiz a different perspective 27

The introduction of many plants wasaccompa-introduced. The neglect of American native nied by a technology to 'facilitate their cultiva- plants became more acute in the nineteenthcen- tion, either because of the specific agriculturaltury and was basically due to socio-economic practices they required or because theircare de- causes and, to a lesser extent, the failure of vari- manded less time. These qualities were generally eties originally introduced to adapt. Only when not found in native crops, which needed a gyeatthese plants had developed under domestication deal of attention and were labour-intensive. were they able to expand extensively. Proof of The American Indians liked to experiment and this is the existence of specific Americaneco- use many plants and they therefore tended to- types of many of the plants introduced, which wards mixed cultivation. The result was that have played a fundamental role in production and several introduced crops were combined with in local plant improvement programmes. native crops, especially on family vegetable Major obstacles had to be overcome to intro- plots. The Indians also favoured ecologicalduce crops even into areas very similar to those of complementarity, in other words cultivation in southern Spain, a region which was of fundamen- different environments. tal importance in the transfer of a Mediterranean auiculture to America. There were enormous Length of life cycle. Owing to the climatic differ- difficulties in acclimatizing barley, wheat, vine, ences with the Iberian Peninsula, in the majority olives and fruit-trees in locations with a climate of the different regions of America it was impos-very similar to that of Andalusia and Estremadu- sible to adapt perennial species, in spite of thera or southern Portugal, whose biological and repeated efforts to introduce the vine, olive tree,social conditions were very favourable. When 'fruit-trees and other arboreal species. Instead, inNew Spain became independent, European crops various areas and from early times green vegeta-were already well established in this part of bles and other short-cycle herbaceous plants in- America. troduced by the Europeans prospered. This Nowadays, chemical synthesis has displaced allowed the sufficient cultivation -- especiallysome natural products: synthetic vanilla has during the cold season of such crops whichcaused a reduction in the cultivation of vanilla, were of limited availability in America. It wasfor instance, while synthetic anilines have re- possible to introduce without too much difficultyplaced erythoxyline, derived from campeachy small-grain cereals, rice and other annual crops . with an average cycle. Cultural causes Adaptation of introduced crops. The distribu-The pre-Columbian indigenous societies had tion and unit yield of the world's current majormanaged to meet a certain amount of their re- crops show that domesticated plants frequentlyquirements in food, clothing, health and tools, reach their optimum yield in a place that is veryetc., so the adoption of some European products different from its origin. It is sufficient to consid-and the consequent abandonment of native prod- er the development in Latin America of crops ucts took a long time. Even at present it frequent- such as coffee, banana, citrus fruit, soya andly happens that indigenous communities mainly various E.,,rasses. This phenomenon can be ex- resort to native plants, while they grow intro- plained by the initial absence of pests and dis-duced plants or rear livestock for the market or eases in the place where they have beenfor food on special occasions. Rather than dis- 28 Introduction ()jtIO/atO1fl the Old World and causes of crop marginalization

placing the use of American products, the adop- development necessarily leads to a more diversi- tion of European products has complementedfied agriculture. Rather, with the economic im- them in gastronomy, medicine and religious cer-provement of a region or country, or with their emonies, for example, which are generally theentry on to the international market, some mar- result of cultural syncretism. ginalized plants, whether native or introduced, The colours and flavours or textures of the Old may be converted into major crops (prickly pear World's plants satisfied the indigenous commu-for the cochineal berry, indigo, cereals, fruit- nities' demands. In several parts of America, trees, henequen, etc.). The transformation of tra- vegetables introduced by the Europeans wereditional agriculture into commercial agriculture assimilated very easily. Indeed, certain non-generally results in the specialization of produc- American plants contained colours with a sym-tion, with the cultivation or utilization of many bolic importance and, moreover, coincided with species being abandoned. The paradox of under- the food habits of the indigenous peoples. development is that it prevents certain crops from An important cultural factor was the role of the finding an adequate market, which is why they African cultures and their effect on agriculture: are kept by the Indians to meet possible personal the slave trade brought crops of African andor collective needs. However, with economic Asian origin, for instance. development some of these neglected plants do Catholicism was integrated into various Amer- find a market, or their market is widened, while indian religious currents, which explains whymany others disappear and various crops that exotic and native plants were grown to meet thewere previously important may even become requirements of the indigenous Catholic ritual. marginal owing to the monetarization and prole- Religious orders encouraged the introduction oftarianization of the peasant farmers. crops; the use of American magical plants or Economic and agricultural transformations are amulets was prohibited and they were replacedrelated to factors such as considerable changes in by European ones. Utilizing Old World plants, the size and distribution of the population; the using horses, carrying a sword or dressing in adevelopment of infrastructure (especially com- European way were cultural signs which con-munication routes, irrigation and produce stor- ferred prestige. These uses and habits mainlyage systems); land occupancy, the marketing of influenced the indig,enous nobility, such as local products and agricultural inputs; industrializa- rulers or traders. tion; the financing of production; and consump- tion patterns. Economic causes It is known that after the conquest therewas a Most frequently, the reasons for the neglect ofa collapse and partial relocation of the population native or introduced species that was ecological-in Latin America, which certainly brought about ly and agriculturally adapted toa region werechanges in the plants used. The demographic socio-economic. Underdevelopmentwas one ofupset was not only quantitative, as it particularly the main reasons for the existence ofmany ne- affected the indigenous aristocracy whowere the glected species on the subcontinent. The lowrepository of the culture and, therefore, of theuse purchasing power of the vast majority of theof many plants for specificpurposes such as population diminished the market ofmany prod- medicines, rituals and decoration. Until thesev- ucts, which subsequently disappeared or wereenteenth century, the population madeno signif- marginalized, This does not mean that economicicant recovery and colonial cities developed in Neglected crops: 14192 from a different perspective 29

old indigenous regions as well as around congre-profound changes in land use. It brought fodder gations, missions and mining centres. Until then, and crops such as wheat, barley and rice. A great there was an accelerated development in intro-deal of land was originally devoted to livestock duced crops, above all to meet the demands of therearing and then to the farming of introduced population of European and mixed origin. plants. These changes are well documented in A key to understanding the slow adoption of a both South and North America as well as, to a European lifestyle in America is to consider thelesser extent, in the Caribbean. low number of the white population, compared The marketing, industrialization and financing with the millions of the native population. Theof agriculture were limited during colonial settle- former is estimated to have been 849 000 around ment, so they did not have much influence on the 1650, while the indigenous population is calcu-choice of plants grown. Tributes, taxes and reli- lated to have been 10 035 000 and the black, gious contributions certainly had an effect on the mixed and mulatto population 1 527 000. changes in cultivation patterns, particularly The conquest and colonization resulted in the when they were demanded in coin. However, partial destruction of many hydraulic works, payment in kind with native products was gener- medicinal plant gardens, schools, etc., which pos- ally permitted. sibly caused the marginalization of many plants The policy of the Spanish and Portuguese without their immediate replacement by othercrowns on colonization made it obligatory by European plants. The building of infrastructureroyal decree for colonists to take plants from was only significant at the end of the sixteenththeir region to the New World (Santa Fe de century. In the area of botany, Francisco Hernán- Bogotá, Puebla de los Angeles, Huancayo etc. dez collected and studied Mexican plants be- were places in America where this type of oblig- tween 1570 and 1577. Under the Bourbons,atory introduction was practised). Cities were science and technology received a great impetus thus created which imitated as ar as possible and Spanish botanical expeditions to Americathose of the Iberian Peninsula. were organized, although these seem to have had little effect on agriculture and the plants used. CONCLUSION Changes in land occupancy are fundamental toThe situations presented here are the most mani- an understanding of the marginalization or ex-fest; through the period of discovery, conquest pansion of certain plants. However, it is knownand colonization, Latin America experienced an that the motive behind the expropriation of indig-evident case of agricultural cross-breeding, al- enous land was generally not to tum it over tothough each region responded in different ways exotic crops, but rather to oblige payment for theto the arrival of plants from the Old World. One hire of native products or services and to channelonly has to reflect on the elimination of indige- labour forcibly towards mining, livestock rear- nous populations; epidemics and famine are well ing, building, etc. However, the Spanish anddocumented for the three main vice-royalties: Portuguese crowns were obliged, because ofNew Granada, Peru and New Spain. European their own interests, to limit the expropriation ofagronomic culture did not develop in major sec- indigenous communities' lands and, in doing so, tors of the indigenous population, except in small they protected agricultural traditions while also areas where there was no culture with an agricul- halting the marginalization of native plants. tural tradition or in those where the population The expansion of livestock rearing led to veryaccepted the changes with ease. 30 Introduction offlora from the Old World ancl causes of crop marginalization

TABLE 2 Plants marginalized as a result of Old World crops

Species Common names

ARID AND TEMPERATE ZONES OF NORTH AMERICA

As/mina triloba Papaw, pawpaw

Cyrtocarpa procera Chupadilla, jocote

Diospyros virginiana Persimmon, kaki

Gossypium hopei Arizona cotton

Helianthus tuberosus Jerusalem artichoke

Myrtillocactus geometrizans Garambullo

Opuntia spp. Prickly pear, tuna

Panicum sonorum Arrocillo

Phellopterus montanus Gamote, pastinaca de monte

Photinia arbutifolia Holy fruit (fruta santa)

Ribes grossularia Gooseberry

TROPICAL LOWLANDS AND THE CARIBBEAN

Aniba roseodora Palo rosa

Annona cherimola Cherimoya, cherimoyer, chirimoyer, custard apple Annona muricata Soursop, guanabana, graviola

Annona reticulata Bullock's heart, sugar apple, custard apple

Calathea allouia Topinambour, topitampo, topi-tamboo

Dioscorea trifida Cush-cush, yampi yam

Helicomia bihai Platanillo or "wild banana"

Malpighia glabra Acerola, azarole

Maranta arundinacea Arrowroot, Bermuda arrowroot Monst era deliciosa Ceriman, cheeseplant

Pachyrhizus erosus Yam bean, manioc bean, jfcama

Platonia insignis Bacury, bakuri guiana orange Canistel

Xanthosoma sagittifolium Tannia, tania, yautia, new cocoyam

MESOAMERICA

Amaranthus hypochondriacus Prince's feather Bixa ore/lana Annato, arnatto, roucou, achiote, bixa Byrsonima crassifolia Nance, golden spoon Casimiroa °dulls White sapote, Mexican, casimiro apple, matasanoapple alata Cirian, tecomate Neglected crops: 1492 froni a different perspective 31

TABLE 2 (cont.)

Species Common names

MESOAMERICA (cont.)

Cucurbita ficifolia Cidra, sidra, chilacayote, Malabar gourd Dahlia excelsa Dahlia

Diospyros digyna Black sapote, Indian ebony persimmon lndigofera suffruticosa Anil, indigo plant

Manilkara zapota Sapodilla (plum), chiku, chicle, naseberry, beef apple Phaseolus acutifolius Tepary bean

Pouteria sapota Sapote, marmalade plum, mammee zapote

Spondias mombin Yellow mombin, jobo, taperebá

ANDEAN REGION

Arracada xanthorrhiza Arracacha, apio, Peruvian parsnip Bertholletia excelsa Brazil nut, Pará nut Canna edulis Achira, Queensland arrowroot, tous-les-mois Fragaria chiloensis Pine strawberry, pineapple strawberry Lepidium meyenli Maca

Oxalis tuberosa Oca Passiflora ligularis Sweet granadilla

Solanum phureja Andean potato (papa andina)

Tropaeolum tuberosum Mashwa, aflu

Ullucustuberosus Ullucu, oca quina

The process of marginalization in the nine- Faced with the current ecological crisis, it is teenth century was no clearer; the agriculturalnot surprising that the countries advocating re- pattern remained constant in spite of the collapseductionist policies in the handling of germplasm, of the dominant population sector. The inde- which are the same countries that brought about pendent Latin American countries depended onthe marginalization of crops, should be the first to other nations looking for commercial products; want to restore biodiversity. the United Kingdom, France, Germany and the Consideration is now given to how several United States dominated the agricultural sector.crops were wiped out, mainly in areas where The plants cultivated were those demanded bypopulations and indigenous cultures disap- the growth of modernization, which caused apeared; it is worrying that, in the tropics, deserts areater specialization but left room nevertheless or temperate zones, not even the peasant framers for American crops of which the agriculturalhave any recollection of certain plants that were landscape was previously composed. once cultivated. 32 Introduction offlora from the Old World and causes of crop marginalization

Bibliography Gibson, C. 1987. Los aztecas bajo el dominio Anderson, E. 1952. Plants, man and life. Bos-español (1519-1810). Mexico City, Siglo ton, Little, Brown. XXI. Archibald, R. 1978. The economic aspects of the Gómez Pompa, A. 1985. Los recursos bioticos California missions. Washington, DC, Aca- de México (Reflexiones). Jalapa, Guatemala, demy of American Franciscan History. INIREB. CATIE-GTZ. 1979. Los recursos genéticos deHernández, X.E. 1985. Biología agrícola. las plantas cultivadas de América Central. Mexico City, CECSA. Turrialba, Costa Rica, CATIE-GTZ. Hernández, X.E. & Zárate, M.A. 1961. Agri- Chevalier, C. 1985. La formación de los latifun- cultura tradicional y conservación de recursos dios en México. Mexico City, Fondo de genéticos in situ. In R. Ortega, G. Palomino, Cultura Económica. G. Castillo, V. Gonzalez & M. Livera, eds. Crosby, A.W. 1972. The , Avances en el estudio de recursos fitogenéti- biological and cultural consequencesof cos de Mexico, p. 7-28. Chapingo, Mexico, 1492. Westport, USA, Greenwood. SOMEFI. Cuevas, S.J.A. 1991. Definición, aprovecha-Hirshberg, J. 1978. La fundación de puebla de miento y conservación de los recursos fitoge- los angeles - mito realidad. Historia mexica- néticos en una comunidad indígena totonaca. na, 28(2): 185-223. Centro de Botánica. Colegio de Postgradua-León, J. 1987. Botánica de los cultivos tropica- dos, Chapingo, Mexico. (thesis) les. San José, Costa Rica, IICA. Delgado Salinas, H.A. 1988. Variation, taxo-Martínez, J.L. 1984. Pasajeros de . Ma- nomy, domestication and germplasm poten- drid, Alianza Universidad. tialities in Phaseolus coccineus. In P. Gepts, Miranda, J. 1980. El tributo indígena en la ed. Genetic resources of Phaseolus beans, p. Nueva España durante el siglo XVI, 2nd ed. 441-463. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Kluwer Mexico City, El Colegio de México. Academic. Moreno, T.A. 1968. Geografía económica de De Solano, F. 1977. Tierra y sociedad en el reino México (Siglo XVI). Mexico City, El Colegio de Guatemala. Guatemala, Editorial Univer- de México. sitaria. Patirio, V.M. 1969. Plantas cultivadas y anima- Dressler, R. 1953. The pre-Columbian cult- les domésticos en América Equinoccial. ivated plants of Mexico. Bot. Mus. Leafl. Tomo IV: Plantas introducidas. Cali, Colom- Harv. Univ., 16(6): 116-172. bia, Imprenta Departamental. Estrella, E. 1988. El pan de América, etnohis-Patirio, V.M. 1980. Los recursos naturales de toria de los alimentos aborígenesen el Colombia, aproximación y retrospectivas. Ecuador. Quito, Ediciones Abya-Yala. Santa Fe de Bogotá, Colombia, Carlos Valen- García, M.J. 1959. Lo que España llevóa Amé- cia Editores. rica. Madrid, Taurus. Rindos, D. 1984. The origins of agriculture. An Gibson, C. 1967. Tlaxcala in the sixteenthcen- evolutional-y perspective. Orlando, Fla., tury. Stanford, USA, University of California USA, Academic. Press. Rojas, T. 1983. Evolución histórica de lasplan- Gibson, C. 1977. Españaen América. Barcelo- tas cultivadas en las de lacuenca na, Grijalvo. de México. In T. Rojas, ed. La agricultura Neglected crops: /492 fi-orn a different perspective 33

chinampera. Compilación histórica, p. 181- España: la introducción de cultivos y anima- 213. Chapingo, Mexico, UACH. les domésticos euroasidticos en México. Schmit, V. & Debouck, D.G. 1991. Observa- Cuadernos americanos, 25: 143-158. tions on the origin of Phaseolus polyanthus Vavilov, N.I. 1931. Mexico and Central America Greeman. Econ. Bot., 45(3): 345-364. as the principle centre of origin of cultiv- Serrera, R.M. 1974. Cultivo y manufactura de ated plants in the New World. Bull. Appl. Bot. lino cáñamo en Nueva España (1777-1800). Genet. Plant Breed., 26: 135-199. , Spain, Publicaciones de la EscuelaVavilov, NJ. 1949-1950. The origin, variation, de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla immunity and the breeding of cultivated No. 120. plants. Waltham. Chronica Botanica, Toscano, S. 1946. Una empresa renacentista de 131(16): 1366. riicutire in Mesoamerica Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 37

o i'cate?d san( neglectc crop, in RilleGoamerica

"In southern Mexico and Central America, areas rising up to the central valley. Towards the the plant researcher finds himself, in the full southern end of the region, there are intermoun- sense of the term, in a veritable centre oftain depressions and valleys which are intersect- creation." ed by rivers. The result is a very complex relief. (Vavilov, 1931) Between the ranges and the coast, alluvial plains and the Yucatán peninsula spread out over - Mesoamerica was defined by Paul Kirchoff in stone rock. 1943 as the area of influence of Mexican cultures Mesoamerica's position, between the Tropic in the pre-Columbian era. Its boundaries are ofof Cancer and lat. 10°N places itin an area course wide: the basins of the rivers Pánuco and affected by great climatic forces originating in Santiago mark its northem limit while its south-the surrounding oceans. The interaction of the ern border runs from the Atlantic coast of Hondu-climatic elements, latitude and relief creates a ras along the Pacific slope of Nicaragua and the variety of environments, ranging from the coast- Nicoya peninsula of Costa Rica. In addition to al plains of the Atlantic, with a precipitation of being a cultural region, Mesoamerica is one of3 000 to 5 000 mm, to the semi-arid areas of the areas of origin of agriculture, comparableMexico. The region is principally divided into with the Near East, China and the Andean region. zones with continuous humidity on the Atlantic Vavilov considered it to be the continent's most slope and zones with alternating seasons, includ- important "centre of origin"nowadays refen-ed ing a dry period, on the Pacific slope. This period to as centre of genetic diversity. corresponds to the northern winter, which the Spanish called summer. The area with alternat- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ing seasons, which stretches from the Pacific A.ND HUMAN OCCUPATION coast to the mountain heights, was the first to be Mesoamerica is a region of complex physicaloccupied by humans and is still the area with the environments. Starting from the centre of Mexi-greatest population density. co, two mountain ranges stand out. They are the The plant cover is also very varied in Meso- Sierras Madres, which run parallel to either coastamerica since the elements of northern origin and extend along other mountain axes, some of pines reach as far as Nicaragua, for instance them with very active volcanoes, from the centre merge with South American species, many of of Mexico to Panama. Between the ranges inwhich have penetrated deep into the lowlands of Mexico, there are extensive, fairly flat and dryboth slopes in Mexico. Under these conditions, isolation and selection have naturally created a high level of biological diversity and consequent The author of this chapter is J. León (San José, Costa Rica). endemism. As in other tropical areas, the main 38 Domesticated plants and neglected cros in MCSOC1171CriCa

landscapes are determined by the interaction ofsoil types had names which were used climate and relief, soil factors being of lesser from Sinaloa to Costa Rica, and some beyond the importance. frontiers of Mesoamerica. The current landscape of Mesoamerica is de- ined by human occupation. In general, it gives AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS the impression of a rather dry, highly erodedAgriculture was the basis of the Mesoamerican region, with original plant cover localized in civilizations. It is estimated to have taken centu- small isolated spaces. Of the subdecicluous for- ries to develop and its final stagewhich became est which covered the region from Sinaloa to known to Europeans in 1500is thought to have Guanacaste, only small areas remain, some inbeen the esult of an accumulation of practices Mexico and others in Costa Rica. In most of the and materials invented and perfected by the var- countries, the agricultural boundary has broken ious cultures that liad survived wars, famines and down and the humid tropical forests are beingnatural disasters. It cannot be assumed that this reduced at such a rate that within ten to 20 years result was a linear process; it inust have taken they will have disappeared. shape slowly in centres of economic and political power,,expanding or contracting according to the PAST CULTURES fate of the human groups. Efforts to improve The first inhabitants of Mesoamerica were immi-crops and invent production and utilization prac- grant groups from the north who advanced to- tices were undertaken more or less continuously wards South America and formed small nomadic and were perhaps safe from many hazards be- communities about 25 000 to 40 000 years ago. cause activities were in the hands of farmers, who The first traces of utensils appear about 18 000were the least affected by power changes. years ago and the first culture known was that of From gathering plant products, people went on the Olmecs, a conglomeration of populationsto protecting and cultivating certain plants. It is which extended from the coastal plains of thethought that fruit-trees, which supplied a good Gulf of Mexico to the highlands. A series ofpart of the produce gathered, were also the first cultures, which occupied different areas and had species lo be protected and cultivated. During the separate periods of development, succeeded oneexpedition to Honduras, the Spaniards of Cortés another in Mesoamerica. There are remnants ofmanaged to survive thanks to the sapodillas their complexity and origins in the indigenous which they found in the forest. One could ima- languages, which appear to be ancient and pro-gine that the primitive seed plantings were simi- found ramifications of a few basic stocks of lar to the ones that can still be seen in the plots of North American origin. Some of the successivehouses in some parts of Chiapas and Guatemala. cultures became fully developed, progressingThese plots are a mixture of fruit-trees, edible from settlements to empires. When the Spaniards and medicinal plants, cocoa and ornamental arrived, Mesoamerica was not dominated, asplants, sown and harvested without any order were the Andes, by a hegemonic power. Theunder native trees which serve no other purpose Aztec empire coexisted alongside tiny indepen- than to provide fuel and shade. There is nothing dent tribes but the Aztecs were the chiefpowerto indicate that selection was practised under and their language, Nahuatl, virtually becamea these conditions, nor that the types chosenwere lingua franca throughout Mesoamerica. Plants,sown. In dry regions, primitive sowings could equipment for their cultivation and use andeven have been based on plants that produce seeds and Neglected crops: 1492 from a diff.erent perspective 39

FIGURE 2

Mesoamerica 40 Domesticated plants and neglected crops in Mesoarnerica

require clean soil to grow. Eventually, the systemgroups to acquire food, clothing and adornments of slash-and-bum clearing developed, and this is through tributes. Regarding cultivation systems, practised in all regions, especially those withmethods and equipment, Mesoamerica did not alternating seasons. contribute any new or special item that was not Another line of development was the control ofalready known in other agricultural systems. soil humidity. Irrigation dates back to ancient Among the Mesoamerican agricultural sys- times in Mesoamerica and., in the central valley tems, that of the Mayas has received most atten- of Mexico, it was practised over very extensivetion. Much has been written in an attempt to areas using different systems. They did not reachunderstand how, in an extremely unfavourable the point of constructing engineering works as inenvironment with very poor soils and very abun- Peru, but they did manage to cover sufficientdant or scarce rainfall, a culture could develop areas to supply the big urban centres of Teoti- whose ',Advances in mathematics, astronomy and huacán and Tenochtitlán. Major irrigation devel- architecture were superior not only to those of opment began in the colonial period with theother pre-Columbian cultures, but also contem- cocoa plantations, which extended this crop toporary European and Asian cultures. The con- new areas such as the Pacific lowlands as far as struction of major urban centres must have Sinaloa. In an opposite process, drainage systemsrequired a great number of workers, and the for wet soil were invented, based on the construc- subsistence of the latter and of the ruling classes tion of terraces. The most spectacular were thecannot be explained satisfactorily by the region's chinampas of the valley of Mexico, now reduced current agricultural production system. Although to a tourist attraction. They made a considerablepartial theoretical explanations have been put contribution to Mexico City's food supplies be-forward, the question is still far from being re- fore the conquest and during the colonial era. In solved. It is known that the Mayas depended on the low-lying lands of Campeche and Veracruz, three basic productsmaize, beans and gourds terraces were used from the time of the earlyas well as minor products, all of which were cultures and were also developed on the lowlands Mesoamerican. It has been argued, without any occupied by the Mayas. reliable evidence, that it was they who domesti- The development of agricultural systems de- cated cocoa, although it has been proved that they pends to a great extent on labour implements and prepared a kind of chocolate. Two other plants the availability of animal traction. Mesoamericaused and probably sown were Brosinmm alicas- did not make a special contribution to either oftrum (breadnut or ramón) and Talisia spp., both these, however. Only the most primitive farming fruit-trees. When the Europeans arrived, the equipment was known: the coa, a pointed stick Mayan culture had disappeared almost complete- for sowing seed, was in general use in Mexico,ly. Their descendants, particularly in Yucatán, coas and bronze spades were invented while, in practise a system of agriculture that does not other parts of the region, large shells were used seem to have changed much since the classic era. or this purpose but no tillage implements were developed as they were in the Andes. Thecom- DOMESTICATED PLANTS plete lack of draught animalswas characteristic It would be too academic an exercise to classify of the entire New World. Humanresources pro- the plants of Mesoamerica according to their vided the necessary energy while slavery, wheth- process of domestication into tolerated, cultivat- er concealed or evident, enabled the dominanted and domesticated species as if thesewere Neglected crnp,s-: 1492 from a different perspective 41

distinct categories because plants occur in all the a crop. In Mesoamerica, numerous variantsor intermediate states as well. It has not beenpossi- races were developed which adapted to almost all ble to identify the factors that allowedtheir do-environmental conditions, from sites with high mestication, but some must be thesame thathumidity and temperatures toareas at a height of favoured domestication in the Near East, South- 3 100 with a cold, dry clirnate. east Asia or China. On many occasions it has Mesoamerica can be credited with having in- been stated that this process occurredat more orvented the greatest number of ways of eating and less the same time throughout the world but that drinking maize products as well as the equipment it was slower in Mesoamerica. and methods for preparing them. Limewas used The information available on domesticationto separate the husk from the grain, which in- covers aspects such as botany (the existence of a creased its value and produceda top- great species diversity and of wild relatives),quality food. This was definitely a chance archaeology (plant remains, representations ordiscovery which was not applied in other regions impressions on utensils) and history and lin-of the world. Among the uses of maize in Mexi- guistics (documents, names in indigenous co, in 1520 Hernán Cortés cited the production of languages). Archaeological proof carries thecanes "which are as sweet and honeyed as sugar greatest weight but is restricted to those species cane". and regions whose conditions have favoured the At least three species of Cucurbita originated preservation of organic remains and thereforein Mesoamerica: Cucurbita argyrosperma, per- allowed a correct identification and reliable dates haps the first to be cultivated, which is suited to to be given. Consequently, the information de-altitudes between 0 and 1 500 un; C. moschata, rived from archaeological evidence in Meso- the most common and useful, which is found america and in other regions of primitive between 300 and 1 500 in, and C. pepo, which is agriculture must be gathered within these limits.less important in Mesoamerica than in Europe Excluded are those species which do not preserve and the United States and which grows up to an well and areas of high humidity which, according altitude of 2 000 m. A fourth species, C.ficOlia, to Vavilov, might have been those with the oldest is eaten in a different way from the others and forms of agriculture. inay also originate in Mesoamerica. Although Mesoamerica did not make any val- Among the cucurbits, two species of Sechium uable contributions to cropping systems, in the are also grown: Sechium eclule (chayote), whose domestication of plants its place is comparable tofruit, roots ancl tender stems are eaten and whose that of any other region, both in the number and distribution is very wide in the American tropics importance of species domesticated. It is an abso- (its centre of origin is Mexico and Guatemala); lute certainty that maize was domesticated inand S. tacaco, although this is restricted to its Mesoamerica and that, from the time when agri- original area, the highlands of Costa Rica. culture was first practised (about 3 000 years The tomato (Lycppersicon esculentum) was ago), it already formed part of the earliest pro- first known in Mexico, where it was described in duction systems along with a species of Cucur- detail by Francisco Hernández around the period bita and Capsicum. With regard to maize, 1571 to 1577. It was not of great importance as a archaeological evidence discovered by Mac-vegetable, as it was an extra plant in the maize Neish in Tehuacán, central Mexico, constitutesfields, although its fruit was the size of modem the most complete proof of the local evolution ofvarieties. 42 Domesticated plants and neglected crops in Mesoanierica

A vegetable with a similar use is Physalis5 500 years ago. Other fibre plants, today re- philadelphica, commonly called tomato or husk-placed to a great extent by synthetic fibres, are tomato in Mexico; it is also grown in Guatemalahenequen (Agave ftmrcroydes), sisal (A. sisala- and a few varieties of it are preserved. na), A. angustifolia var. letonae of El Salvador The Mesoamerican species of chili, Capsicum and several species of Furcraea. annuunt, from which peppers are derived, has Of the leaf vegetables, mention should be wild populations and a very broad varietal diver- made of Crotalaria longirostrata, SO1(11111177 sity in this region. americanum5. wendlandi, Cnidoscolus chaya- The common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, ap-mansa, Chenopodiunt berlandieri spp. nuttalliae peared about 5 500 to 7 000 years ago in centraland Opuntia leucantha, which are eaten fresh or Mexico where wild populations of it abound, but cooked, as well as the tender stems of Cucurbita intensive cultivation of it began between the firstand Sechium species. The of and seventh centuries. P. coccineus, a perennial Chamaedorea tepejilote (pacaya) is a widely species of high ground, was already to be foundconsumed item in Mexico and Guatemala, but its in Mexico about 2 200 years ago; another very cultivation is still limited to kitchen gardens. The similar species, P. polyanthus, is grown together chayote (Sechium Mule) is used for its fruit, roots with P. coccineus; and P. acuttfolitts, which was and tender stems. grown about 5 000 years ago in TehuacAn, ex- Probably the majority of domestications has tends from the United States to Costa Rica. occurred with fruit-trees. Archaeological re- One of the main crops of pre-Columbianmains of some of them exist, although it is not Mexico was Amaranthus hypochondriacus,known with any certainty whether they were whose seeds were eaten in the same way asgathered or cultivated. A1111011a diversifolia, cereals. Another species cultivated, especially inA. reticulata and A. scleroderma are natives of Guatemala, is A. cruentas. Mesoamerica and wild populations of some of Native roots and tubers have not been impor-them are known; Casimiroa edulis is cultivated tant in Mesoamerican agriculture. The yam beanfrom sea level up to 2 500 m; archaeological (Pachyrhizus crasas) is an ancient crop which is remains dating back 5 000 years have been nowadays very widespread. The potatoes offound. This is a complex species because of its Mexico's highlands, of great value as an energy different local populations. Couepia polyandra food, produce small edible tubers but are notand Diospyros digyna, exhibiting numerous vari- cultivated. eties, grow wild from Mexico to Costa Rica and Cacao (Theobroma cacao), which is found also date back about 5 000 years. higa jinicuil growing wild in southern Mexico, was possibly and /. paterno originate from Mexico and El domesticated in this region where there are aber- Salvador, respectively. is found rant varieties, and its pre-Hispanic cultivation from Mexico to Panama; zapota, with did not go beyond the present frontier between numerous varieties, is now grown in all tropical Costa Rica and Panama. areas. Persea americana, the avocado pear, is Upland or hairy cotton (Gossypiunt hirsutum)one of the fruits which, in Mesoamerica, are is the most extensively grown fibre plant;one ofgrown at any altitude between 0 and 2 500 m; its centres of domesticationseems to have been wild populations of this plant still exist. The the Gulf of Mexico and archaeological remains following also grow: Parmentiera edulis,Persea in that country indicate that itwas known about schiedeana, Pouteria campechiana, P.sapota, Neglected crop.s7 1492 from a different perspective 43

the sapote and a related population, P. viridis; MARGINALIZATION OF CROPS IN Pouteria hypoglauca, Prunus capuli. Psidium MESOAMERICA friedrichsthalianum and Spondiaspurpurea,Of the causes which contributedto the neglect with many varieties anduses. In Mexico, thereof certain crops, the replacement ofa natural are numerous wild cactus species whose fruits product by a synthetic one has perhaps been the are gathered and there is an incipient cultivation most drastic. The indigo (Indigo/era spp.) agro- of a few species. industry, which still has a great commercial im- Spices and condiments include Capsicuman- portance, has now almost been entirely displaced 111111171 and C. frutescens; Pimenta dioica, whichby the production of chemical dyes, while Agave grows wild from Mexico to Costa Rica andand Furc:raea have been replaced by synthetic whose cultivation dates back to ancient times;fibres. The rubber plant (Castilla elastica), Vanilla plamfolia, produced more outside thewhose use was already known in pre-Hispanic region; and pandurata. Some spicestimes, was a budding crop at the turn of the are obtained from semi-wild plants, such as Cym- century but it was then replaced by a more effi- bopetalum penduliflorum, chufle (Calathea sp.)cient plant, Hevea brasiliensis,which was in turn and Quararibea fUnebris. replaced by synthetic rubber. Fermented drinks (pulque) or fresh drinks (ma- In food plants, marginalization has been a guey juice) were known in the pre-Columbian longer and less straightforward process. Culinary period and are obtained mainly from two species preparation and eating habits instilled from of Agave, A. salmiana and A. mapisiga. Thechildhood have resulted in the permanence of origin of the preparation of distilled drinks (mes-these species. However, violent social changes cal, tequila) obtained from A. tequiliana andsuch as the conquest brought about profound other species also dates back to that period. alterations. Indigenous products were replaced There are a great number of medicinal plants,by introduced products which competed with most of which are in the early stages of cultiva- the former and were favoured by the prestige tion. Mesoamerica's most recent contributionattached to them by the dominant social group. has been the Dioscorea species which is used forIndigenous crops were abandoned first of all by the production of diosgenin-cortisone and isthe upper social strata and then by the lower grown for this purpose in Mexico. strata. Only the very poor communities and in- No less important are ornamental plants. Thedigenous populations maintain the traditional Spanish found gardens in Mexico similar to those crops as well as the methods for handling and of Europe and, in the centuries following the using them. conquest, numerous species of orchids and bro- The change, based on social prestige, occurred meliads from Mesoamerica have been grown in without taking into account the intrinsic value of Europe and the United States. A group of Com- the crops, for in.stance their nutritional properties positae,Ageratum,Cosmos,Dahlia,Tagetes and or production costs. In El Salvador, a compara- Zinnia, which were cultivated in the region from tive study between native vegetables, such as the pre-Hispanic period, have been intensivelychipilfn or tachipilin (Crotalaria spp.) and hierba selected in Europe and the United States. Wildmora or nightshade (Solanum americanum) and populations are to be found of all of these genera European vegetables (lettuce, cabbage), showed as well as of Tigridia, Zephyranthes, Euphorbia the superiority of the former as sources of vita- and other ornamentals. mins and amino acids, not to mention that their 44 Domesticated plants and neglected crops in Mesoamerica

production requires less care and costs for ferti-them available to growers. Fundamental to this lizers and insecticides. process are agricultural extension campaigns that The non-acceptance of a crop because of its show the advantages of the neglected crops over lack of social prestige is reflected in many as-exotic ones as regards their nutritional value and pects. Growers in Guatemala can obtain credit onease of production. their citrus fruit but not on such a prized local These aspects require intensive study and an fruit as the papausa (Annona diversifolia), inevaluation of varieties, traditional production spite of the fact that the latter has a good market. systems and ways for indigenous groups or rural Moreover, there are no extension services forworkers to utilize the products in order to adapt native crops, perhaps because a knowledge ofthem to modern methods. Furthermore, a study them is part of the heritage of the indigenous must be made of market conditions and the pos- people. sibilities of widening the market to other regions, Many foreign technical experts concentrate on while research should be done on the way the exotic crops and not on native ones, as theirproduct is presented as well as on the standards experience, information and extension equip-which guarantee the consumer a stable quality ment relate only to the former. On the other hand, and promote a wider acceptance. The diversifica- it is frequently foreign anthropologists who drawtion of uses in agro-industries will create new attention to native crops and, in particular, to themarket possibilities and provide a guarantee for processes known to the indigenous communities the producer. regarding their use. There is one interesting case of marginaliza-Bibliography tion, that of huautli or prince's feather (Amaran- Bukasov, S.M. 1931. The cultivated plants of thus hypochonclriacus), which is dealt with in a Mexico, Guatemala and Colombia. Bull. later chapter. Appl. Bot. Genet. Plant Breed. 47: 1-553. Numerous Mesoamerican crops have not ex- Turrialba, Costa Rica, CATIE-GTZ. panded beyond limited areas. The chayaorDressler, R.L. 1953. The pre-Columbian culti- spurge (Cnidoscolus chayamansa) is cultivated vated plants of Mexico. Bot. Mus. Lectfl. Harv. in Yucatán and Petén; the ixtlán (Solanum wend- Univ., 16: 115-172. landi) in southeastern Guatemala; the lorocoFlannery, K.V., ed. 1987. Maya subsistence. () in El Salvador; the huau- New York, Academic. zontl (Chenopodium berlandieri) in centralHarrison, P.D. & Turner, B.L., eds. 1978. Pre- Mexico. There are local studies on agronomic Hispanic Maya agriculture. Albuquerque, handling of most of these plants and it is possible USA, University of New Mexico Press. that some might expand to new areas. Martínez, M. 1959. Las plantas titiles de Méxi- The ftiture of neglectedcrops in Mesoamerica co. Mexico City, Botas. depends on the combined action of several fac- Palerm, A. & Wolf, E. 1961. La agriculturay el tors. One is research on production and handling, desarrollo de la civilización en Mesoamérica. aimed at obtaining superior varieties and im- Rev. Interam. Cienc. Soc., 1: 1-345. proved agronomic practices, especially inpro-Rojas Rabiela, T. 1988. Las siembras deayer. tection against pests and diseases. Anotheris La agricultura indígena del siglo XVI. establishing reliable and permanentsources of Mexico City, SEP-CIESAS. seeds and other propagating material andmaking Rojas Rabiela, T. & Sanders, WT., eds. 1985. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 45

Historia de la agricultura. Epoca prehispáni- as the principal centre of origin of cultivated casiglo XVI, (2 vols). Mexico, INAH. plants in the New World. Bull. Appl. Bot. Vavilov, N.I. 1931. Mexico and Central America Genet. Plant Breed., 26: 135-199. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 47

a hase

Of the Phaseolus sensu stricto, which The ancestral form of P. vulgaris grows with- includes 55 species, five have been domesticat- in the boundary between two climatic zones ed. The pre-Columbian peoples grew them forsubtropical dry and tropical temperate where thousands of years as a main source of protein,pre-Columbian societies established many set- since animals did not have an important role as a tlements, a fact which may explain the accept- source of food or draught power, particularly inance of the species. To cover the greater part of Mesoamerica. the area occupied (except for certain Andean As early as the pre-Columbian period, the kid- regions), the Pre-Colurnbians domesticated four ney bean (P. vulgaris L.) had gained wider ac-other species. ceptance and was selected more intensively. The The five ancestral forms were lianas which early chroniclers inform us that, in the Aztec and Grew in different ecoloGical niches. Biochemical mean empires, great importance was given tostudies have shown how P. imams was domes- this species and it was used to pay tributes. Itticated in several points of Mesoamerica and gained even more popularity after the conquestP. vulgaris in the Andes. Except in the latter and, from 1880, with the exception of isolatedregion, uniformity in selection pressure led to a studies the work on genetic improvement wasconsiderable similarity in evolutionary stock. mainly concentrated on this bean. This preferen-With the exception of the tepary bean, the asso- tial treatment was detrimental to the other spe-ciation with maizealthough it was late in the cies which are of greater or comparable interestAndesalso contributed to this standardization. in modem agriculture, at least in arcas that doThe levels of evolution of the five species have not offer optimum ecological conditions for theirbeen varied and there is a great potential for development. exploitation; for example, as regards the growth habit in P. polyanthus and the size and colour of the P. acutifolius seed. The ecological potential of these species would enable some of them to The author of this chapter is D.G. Debouck (Interna- be developed even more profoundly than tional Board for Plant Genetic Resources [IBPGR], P. vulgarts. Rome). The author wishes to express his thanks to G.F. At a time when the model of an agriculture Freytag (USDA), J. León (University of Costa Rica), G. which is both sustainable and productive has Ballesteros (University of Córdoba, Columbia), O. Toro been accepted, beans deserve to be given re- (CIAT) and O. Youdivich. He also thanks the following institutions: IBPGR (Rome), CIAT (Colombia), IUCN newed attention. (Switzerland), INIFAP (Mexico), ICTA (Guatemala), ICA (Colombia), INIAP (Ecuador), INIAA (Peru), CIF (Bolivia), INTA (Argentina) and the University of Costa Rica. 48 Beans

Phase°lus coccineus (for example in Huehuetenango, Guatemala). The Botanical name: Phaseolus coccineus L. root of this legume has medicinal uses in Mexi- Family: Fabaceas co and the are also eaten. Its gaudy Common nanzes. English: scarlet runnerinfluorescences may be the reason for its recent bean; Spanish: ayocote (name of Nahuatlexpansion as an in Europe and origin, central Mexico), patol (Mexicothe United States. The green pod is used as a [Zacatecas 1)botil (Mexico [Chiapas]),vegetable in western Europe and the dry seeds chomborote, piloy (high plateau of(white seeds) are eaten in soine traditional Guatemala), cubd (Costa Rica) dishes.

This species has been cultivated in the high parts Botanical description of Mesoamerica for man.y centuries. In pre- A pluriannual species of great vegetative vigour, Columbian Mexico, the people of the Anahuacwith stems of several metres (only in a few cultivated it extensively and ensured its distri- modem cultivars are there shrubby forms) which bution. Its introduction into southern Colombia emerge from a fleshy root, P. coccineus is easily (Antioquia and Nariiio) and Europe (where it is distinguished by: its large seeds (the weight of known as scarlet runner bean and haricot 100 seeds is 80 to 170 g and 6 to 12 g for the d'Espagne) could have occurred in the seven-wild form) and small, narrow, elliptical hilum; teenth century before reaching other parts of theand its large influorescences (20 cm and in ex- world, such as the Ethiopian highlands. It hascess of 20 fruit-bearing stems) with scarlet, white been found in archaeological remains only inor, more rarely, two-colour flowers. It carries Mexico, in Durango and Puebla, and wild only out hypogeal gemination, has a fleshy root which in Tamaulipas. Although archaeological infor- is divided and generally fusiform and which al- mation is very scarce, it could be assumed that lows cotyledonary young to resprout over its Mexican domestication took place in humid several consecutive years. It flowers 50 days high zones. after sowing, with early varieties, or at the start Changes in maize varieties (earlier-maturing of the rains, and continues to produce flowers and with softer stems) and the use of fertilizers over a long period, except in the shrubby varie- (for example, urea) and herbicides in maize fields ties. In the majority of cases P. coccineus under- led to the gradual abandonment of this crop ingoes cross-pollination, assisted by its extrorse eastern Guatemala and in Costa Rica. It is rea- stigma and nectaries and through the action of sonable to suppose that the same is happening in bees and humming birds. Thus far, it is consid- other areas of its cultivation. Because of its eco-ered self-compatible. logical niche, P. coccineu.s has suffered heavy The seed of wild varieties is dispersed through competition from exotic crops with a higher con- explosive dehiscence of the pods during the dry sumption and better market, for instance vetch, period. In some wild populations there is a short broad bean, cabbage, garlic and onion. latency; the seed's viability in natural conditions P. coccineus has been used in its nuclear area, does not exceed three years. particularly f'or its dry or green seeds. The con- sumption of young seeds enables thecrop to be Ecology and phytogeography expanded to higher altitudes, since the fleshyLike P. polyanthus, P. coccineus tolerates high- root produces a second growth after light frostser precipitations than other species of Phaseolus Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 49

FIGURE 3 Beans: A) Phaseolus coccineus; Al) legume; 42) seeds; B) R acutifolius; B1) legume; 132) seeds 50 Beaus

(Table 3), provided that the soil has good drain- since in some cases it can be crossed with the age; that is with derivatives of volcanic ash, fine latter, as in Putumayo, Ecuador or in Imbabura, particles, etc. It grows at cooler temperaturesColombia. Likewise, P. vulgaris may be consid- than other cultivated species and is generally ered to be at the boLmdary of the primary genetic heliophytic, although it tolerates mists. stock of the scarlet runner bean. Its nuclear area extends from Durango to There are only a few definite cultivars, partic- Veracruz ancl Puebla. In Guatemala, it is tradi-ularly among the climbers; among the indeter- tionally sown on the slopes of the Cuchumatanesminate shrubby cultivars, "Patol Blanco" may range, on the high plateau of Huehuetenango upbe mentioned and, among the determinate to Alta Verapaz and Sacatepéquez, and in thecultivars, "Hammond' s Dwarf '. highest parts of the rest of Central America. There are risks of genetic erosion in areas The wild form of P. coccineus (although Linable where the traditional maize field has been to be confirmed as ancestral throughout its dis-changed, as some parts of Mexico (Chiapas, tribution) extends from Chihuahua in Mexico toOaxaca, Puebla and Veracruz), Guatemala and Panama, generally between I 400 and 2 800 mCosta Rica. Along with maize, the three species in the humid high .forest. of bean (P. coccineus, P. polyanthus and P. vul- garis) and gourds were -frequently sown in these Genetic diversity areas. In the high plateau of Mexico (Durango, In its wild form, this species displays a greatZacatecas), the recent spread of the kidney bean phenotypical variation in its current state of evo- may displace the "patoles" for reasons of cost. lution, in contrast with the other wild species of P. coccineus material exists in collections of the genus (there is some similarity with P. au- germplasm, mainly in Chapingo in Mexico gusti of South America). Wild P. coccineus may (INIFAP), Pullman in the United States (USDA) be considered to be a complex of several forms, and Palmira in Colombia (CIAT). The cultivat- now in active speciation, throughout its distribu-ed material has already been collected to a great tion range. Some very differentiated forms, suchextent, except in some areas of Guatemala (for as P. glabellus., may have become separated,example, Quiché), Honduras and Costa Rica, constituting an early form of a group of which itwhere it may be already too late to make such a is now difficult to distinguish all the variants.collection. Allogamy is frequent in these plants, and the For the wild material, it is necessary to collect crossing of wild and cultivated forms, whicharound the great cities of Mesoamerica, particu- have been displaced by humans, has changedlarly in the valley of Mexico, since these areas the speciation patterns. Because of its activewere a centre of diversity of the P. coccineus process of evolution, this species complex is notcomplex which is very rich in forms. Many are- an easy task for the taxonomist but, by the sameas still remain to be explored, in view of materi- token, it offers great potential for the plant im-al collected compared with the abundant prover. herbarium material available. The complications In addition to a group of four wild forms withinvolved in handling these forms ex situ mean scarlet flowers, mention should be made of an-that they need to be conserved in situ. other four forms with purple flowers. P. polyan- thus is a related species at the boundary of theCultivation practices primary genetic stock of the scarletrunner bean, In most of its nuclear area, P. coccineus is sown Neglected crops: 1492 front a different perspective 51

TABLE 3 Selected cultivated species of Pha,y-cdus:altitude, daytime temperature, mean annual precipitation, duratinn of grovtrlh cycle from startto end of harvest, yield potential in tropical areas

Species Altitude Temperat Lire Precipitation Growth cycle Yield (in) (r) (mwnlyear) (dass) (kg/ha)

Phaseolus coccineus 1 400 - 2 800 12-22 400 - 2 600 90-365 400 -4 000 Phaseolus acutifolius 50 - 1 900 20-32 200-400 60-110 400 - 2 000 Phaseolus lunatus 50 - 2 800 16-26 0 -2 800 90 - 365 400 - 5 000 Phaseolus polyanthus 800 - 2 600 14-24 1 000 - 2 600 110-365 300 -3 500 Phaseolus vulgaris 50 -3 000 14-26 400 -1 600 70-330 400 -5 000

with maize and other varieties or species by .forms is not sufficiently high (especially of (P. vulgaris, P. polyanthus) following document- those with white seeds) and several of them ed practices, since precipitations allow their as-have a low yield. Not all colours and seed stocks sociation. In Durango and Zacatecas (Mexico),exist in these varieties, and this is particularly under heavy rain conditions itis sown alone,the case with shrubby forms. Floral abscission either in widely spaced rows or broadcast, de-can at times be considerableperhaps because pending on the type of ploughing. Manual har-of the lack of pollinators and causes yield vesting is still common; the pods are gatheredlosses. and left to dry in the sun before being beaten and Many cultivars root easily and can be main- the seeds are stored in sacks. tained over several years thanks to their fleshy Estimation of the yield in cultivated fields isroot. Their large attractive flowers make difficult, since farmers intercrop P. coccineuspollination easy (this crop may be assumed to with other beans or harvest it periodically. Ithave a positive effect on local entomofauna). A produces 400 to 1 000 kg per hectare in the shrub- hybrid scarlet runner bean could be developed; by forms while, for climbing varieties, the yieldhowever, unlike the kidney bean or the tepary can be much higher (Table 3). In the Unitedbean, it is not known whether there would be a Kingdom, for crops with young pods, more than strong heterosis effect. 23 tonnes per hectare have been recorded. The use of the scarlet .runner bean to comple- ment maize in silage deserves investigation since, Prospects for improvement as well as its fodder value, the plant can limit The scarlet runner bean has been used on many . It may also be useful interspersed occasions for improving the common bean but in young forest or fruit plantations (to give soil only in very few cases has its own improvement protection, t.ertilizing value or additional been addressed, although specialists agree on income). the hardiness of the species against several fun- Because of its type of , P. coc- gi, bacteria and viruses. cineusis a useful species for fighting the bean The delayed production of climbing forms may (Ophiotnyia phaseoli) in the highlands of be considered a limitation. The number of shrub- East Africa. 52 Beans

Phaseolus acutifolius sequent development. Following are some of the Botanical name: Phaseolus acu ifolius A. causes that several authors have reported as hav- Gray ing led to neglect of the tepary bean: Family: -the availability of cheap water in desert Common names. English: tepary bean; areas which enables the cultivation of Mayan: xmayum (IVIexico [Campeche]); fodder plants or garden produce ancl other Spanish: tépari, (name of Opatan origin) vegetables of greater value (kidney bean, (Mexico [Sonora]), escomite or escumite cowpea), as the tepary bean's yield remains (Mexico [Chiapas]), frijol pifiuelero (name the same or even diminishes with irrigation; of hybrid origin) (Costa Rica) the loss of eating traditions in indigenous communities; This species has been grown for a long time in the shortage of demand on the big markets. Mesoamerica, mainly as a vegetable in desert Its cultivation potential in desert areas is ex- zones or areas with a long dry period. Unlike thetensive and is still to be explored. case of other cultivated species of the genus. P. acutifoliu.y was first described in its wild form Botanical description while the relationship with the cultivated form P. acutifolins is a desert therophyte and is easily was recognized later. Archaeological findingsdistinguished from other species of beans by its have shown that this species was grown in an-epigeal germination, sessile primary , acute cient times in the southeastern United States rhomboid folioles, pseudoracemeswith two to (where it apparently penetrated from Mexico four fruit-bearing stems small pink flowers 1 200 years ago) and Puebla (where it existed(white in some cultivars) with very small trian- 5 000 years ago). Geographical distribution ofguiar bracteoles and pods that have sutures the cultivated form extends from Arizona andmarked with five to ten ovules. Autogamy ap- New Mexico to Guanacaste, Costa Rica, on thepears to be dominant. Two wild forms are recog- dry subtropical slope of the Pacific. The distri-nized: var. acunfolius with rhomboid folioles bution of P. acunfolius is sporadic, which isand var. tenuifolius with linear, sometimes reflected in its market. The main product is a dry sagittate, folioles. A third wild form appears seed which is eaten because of its rich proteinsporadically with narrowly falcate folioles which, (17 to 27 percent) and content. It is because they have different blastogenic charac- also used as a young tender string bean andas teristics from the var. tenuifolius and possess a fodder after harvesting, certain incompatibility for crossing, could be It is still not known precisely where thespe- considered a separate species (P. parvifolius). cies was domesticated. It should be noted that The cultivated form, like the wild forms, hasa electrophoretic analyses of the phaseolin and short cycle, flowering 27 to 40 clays after gen-ni- isoenzymes indicate that the domesticatedpopu- nation and ripening at 60 to 80 days. The plants lations were few. Either because of its historicwither completely (except P. parvifolius). In the extinction, because the initial genetic basewas wild forms, seeds are dispersed withina radius already reduced at the time of its domesticationof 3 m by explosive dehiscence of thepods. In or because of the autogarny of the species, thesome cultivars there is a brief postharvest laten- cultivated genetic potential doesnot seem tocy of one month. The seeds of the wild plants have been very extensive, to judge from itssub-gen-ninate through the imbibition caused by the Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 53

heavy desert rainfalls of the followingyear. How- have a definite habitat, a desert environment is ever, only in some is germination staggered overnecessary. Whereas the wild varieties are gener- three years. ally climbers with a few guide shoots (2to 4 m in length), there are two cultivatedgroups: the Ecology and phytogeography indeterminate shrubby varieties with short guide The cultivated form is found from 50171 tO leaves and the indeterminate creepers with long 1 920 m above sea level. It requires an annualguide leaves, which climb if they find support. precipitation of 250 to 300 mm, although it isThe author knows only one escape variety. The grown in Mexico in regions with a precipitationsecondary genetic stock is not well known: the of 150 mm (Sonora) to 750 mm (Campeche). kidney bean may be considered to be within the During the vegetative period, the daytime tem- tertiary stock. perature can reach 20 to 32°C. It grows on well- A good number of cultivars from which col- drained, sandy, muddy, sometimes organic soils lections have been made mainly in Mexico ap- with pH 6.7 to 7.1. pear to be no longer sown. It seems unlikely that There is an ecological specialization in themany more cultivated forms will be found but it wild forms of the tepary bean: var. acutifolitts ofwould be useful to re-examine the southern area Arizona, New Mexico, Lower California, Sono-of distribution. This examination is an example ra, Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa and Jalisco oc- of a germplasm collection programme that has cupies semi-sunny habitats with the mesquite onenabled a good part of the crop's variability to the banks of streams, while var. tenurfolius colo-be saved. The two wild forms represent the ma- nizes the sunny slopes with cacti and thornyjor source of variation for future improvement in Arizona, New Mexico, Lower Califor- of the species. As some plant species are threat- nia, Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Na-ened by , it would be advisable to yarit, Jalisco, Querétaro, Michoacán, Guerrero, collect germplasm from Nayarit to Jalapa. Oaxaca and Jalapa. The cultivated form is a heliophyte and has characteristics that allow it to Culiivadon practices tolerate excessive sun. In the southern area of its distribution, the rural communities have conserved P. aculiMius, par- Genetic diversity ticularly because of its early maturity and re- Compared with the kidney bean, there is less duced cultivation requirements. It is sown on the seed variability. Basically two forms occur: oneedge of maize fields, at the start of the rains to with a fairly small, rounded, white or black seed; obtain the green bean and at the end of the rains and another with a larger-sized angular, rhom-to obtain the seed, or on plots around houses in bohedric seed that may be white, greenish white, virtually any period. In the northern area of its grey, bay, dark yellow, mahogany, black ordistribution (southeastern United States, north- purple-mottled or coffee in colour. The average eastern Mexico), itis sown under heavy rain weight of 100 cultivated tepary bean seeds isconditions in small fields with a favourable to- between 10 and 20 g and, for the wild form, pography or on the edges of streams, generally between 2 and 5 g. Two cultivars have been alone or with some gourds and tolerated weeds. cited: one is white (Redfield) and another is dark After the first heavy downpour, the land is yellow. Both result from mass selection. Al-ploughed and then sown in rows or broadcast though the cultivated and wild materials do not following the second downpour. The plants are 54 Beans

pulled up when they reach maturity and are left Its potential for introduction into desert areas to dry in the sun. One week later they are trod- (the American tropics, the Sahel, the Near East, den on a clean surface while the seeds are col-India) is considerable but it has itot been exploit- lected and winnowed with a basket. The seedsed. For example, in July 1985, the author sent a used to be stored in baskets or clay vessels (now- small sample of tepary bean plants to Chincha in adays in tins or plastic bags), thus maintainingPeru for evaluation; in 1989 one of the tepary their germinating capacity for three years. Inbeans was already being sold under the name of Campeche, to store seed for sowing, packets arecuarenteno in Chiclayo. In many areas its use as made with the unopened pods and placed ina cover plant or as a crop merged with contact with the smoke of embers. (Pennisetum sp.), prickly pear (Opuntia sp.), Yields are estimated to be 200 to 900 kg permesquite (Prosopis sp.) and jojoba (Simmondsia hectare, with wide variations depending on sow-sp.), for human or animal consumption, has not ing density and rainfall. About 1 000 to 2 000 kg been exploited either. It should be possible to per hectare are obtained with , with har- use it as a postharvest crop when temperatures vests of up to 4 tonnes per hectare. are still favourable and residual humidity is low. One of the main reasons for promoting cultiva- Prospects for improvement tion of the tepary bean is to limit the use of water The tepary bean is considered to be a useful in subdesert areas. species for improving the kidney bean (it is not Research should be orientated towards increas- attacked by mildew or smut, Xanthomonas pha- ing the collection of geimplasm; distributing seed seoli), but no programmes have been carried outfrom gene banks to farmers; divulging informa- for improving the tepary bean itself. Unlike many tion through agricultural extension services on leguminous vegetables, it gives an acceptable the cultivation potential of the tepary bean in dry yield with less than 400 mm of annual precipita- zones; setting up seed improvement projects; tion. Its small seed size could be corrected by developing food technologies suited to legumi- improving the species; the variability in colours nous vegetables (for example, industrial process- and seed standards could also be increased. A ing of proteins), which would free the pronounced heterosis is noticed when lines are from market requirements; and promoting infor- crossed and there is a possibility of hybrid teparymation on the methods of consumption in order beans being produced (it would be necessary toto re-upgrade the use of this legume. determine whether the secondary stock would make it possible to increase the flower's attracta- bility to '). Some populationsare suscep- Phaseolus lunatus tible to rust, oidium, mildew, root rot, leafminers, Botanical name: Phaseolus 'Urbana L. bruchids and leafhoppers. Some lines have good Family: Fabaceae or excellent levels of resistance to these pests and Comnzon names. English: butter bean, Lima diseases. In cultivation, the gen-nplasm has proved bean, Burma bean, duffin bean, Rangoon susceptible to high temperatures, acidity, alu- bean minium toxicity and common mosaic diseases. There are two main genetic stocks domesticated

No cytoplasmatic androsterility or agentsre-establishing from two separate wild forms and with morpho- fertility have been recorded in P. acutifolius. types from a different seed. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 55

Common names of the small-seed cultivarsOn the Peruvian coast, dulce de pallar,a kind of (24 to 70 g per 100 seeds).Mayan:ib Lima bean conserve, is prepared from the dry (Mexico [Yucatan]); patashete (Mexicoseed. The aesthetic value of the seeds hasen- [Chiapas]); ixtapacal (Guatemalaabled them to be used in recreation activities in [Suchitepéquez]); Spanish: sieva, combapeasant communities. The small-seed cultivars (Colombia [Guerrero]), fui-una (Mexicowere domesticated from a wild form, possibly in [Jalapa I), chilipuca (El Salvador), kedebaMesoamerica and in more recent times. The seeds (Costa Rica), frijol caballero (), habaare eaten dry (the Mayans of today prefer them (, Panama), carauta (Colombiarefried) or green. In Asia the young plantsor [Atlantic]), frijol de año (Colombiayoung leaves are consumed; in Madagascar [Tolima, guaracaro (Venezuela); French: they are used to prepare hay. pois souche () Among the reasons for the present marginali- zation of P. lunatus, apart from abandonment of The Caribbean group is made up of small, roundthe traditional diet with the rural exodus and seed material distributed in that area. changes in peasant customs, we should mention Common names of the large-seed cultivarsthe presence of a cyanogenic glucoside which in (54 to 280 g per 100 seeds). Spanish: limasome cultivars, if detoxification is omitted, may (because of its origin from the coast of Peru), cause poisoning. Standardization in the consump- torta (Colombia [Narifio, Huila], Ecuadortion of leguminous vegetables (some varieties of [Imbabura, Azuay, Loja]), layo (Perucommon bean or cowpea) has been prejudicial [Cajamarca, pallar (Peru [Lambayeque, Lato the Lima bean because of the presence of this Libertad, Lima, Ica, parts of the range]), glucoside. The small-seed cultivars, particularly palato (Bolivia [Chuquisaca]), porotounder irrigation, stiffer from the competition of manteca (Argentina) soybean (and sometimes the cowpea because of its price). In the Peruvian Andes, Lima beans Archaeological findings in Ancash. Peru, indi- have heavy competition from the introduced lab- cate that, after Lagenaria siceraria, the large-lab [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet' which is re- seed species were among the first to be cultivated sistant to weevils, and the introduced pigeon pea (8 000 years ago), while the small-seed materi-[Cajanus cajan (L.) Mills], which is more toler- als in Mesoamerica date back only 1 200 years. ant of drought. The large-seed material appeared 5 000 years ago on the coast of Peru, where they were of otanical description great nutritional and cultural value, particularlyP. hmatus is a pluriannual species (except for a for the Mochican and Nazca peoples. Distri-few modern cultivars) with epigeal germination bution of the wild form on the northern range and fibrous roots. Its ancestral forms come from (electrophoresis test results show that itis the low- or medium-altitude tropical deciduous for- ancestor of the Andean stock) suggests that do-ests. It is easily distinguished by its half-moon mestication took place in this area and that it seeds (with the exception of a grOup of cultivars expanded towards the high parts of Ecuador andfro.m the Caribbean that has a spherical seed). It Colombia as well as towards the Peruvian coast is striated from the hilum and has: deltoid foli- and other high parts of Peru and Bolivia. oles; pseudoracemes with four to 12 fruit-bear- Nowadays, the green seed in particular is eaten.ing stems; small flowers, with a standard which 56 Beans

FIGURE 4

Beans: A) Phaseolus lunatus; Al) legume; A2) seed; B) P. polyanthus; B1) legume; B2) seed Neglected crops: 1492from a different perspective 57

is greenish (Mesoamerica)or purple (Andes); in Peru from 50 to 2 750 m and in the high very small, roundish bracteoles; and smooth, fal- valleys of Chuquisaca and Cochabamba in cate pods with three to six ovules. The two wildBolivia. Curiously, some also exist in the south forms display marked differences but donot of Brazil. justify differentiated taxonomic treatment be- P. fulmars is a generally hardy species which cause of the considerable introgression amongprefers dry climates and deep soils (pH 6 to 7.2) their genetic stocks. It is an autogamous specieswith good drainage. Although it is true thatsome with an introrse stigma, but cross-pollinationforms tolerate the climate of the lower tropics may exceed 32 percent. well, the species' exceptional altitude range The earliest genotypes flower 35 days aftershould be mentioned, particularly in Peru where sowing and complete their cycle in around 100some forms withstand low temperatures (Table days. Others may have two flowering cycles per3). P. hinatas, both cultivated and wild, is rather year depending on the distribution of rainfall. Inheliophytic. dry areas, the plants sprout from the lower part of the stem with the return of rainfall. In theGenetic diversity majority of the traditional varieties, the guideThe intraspecific variability of P. 'imams is par- leaves are long (3 to 6 m), indeterminate, creep-ticularly high in the groups of Siva and Gran ing (and therefore useful as ground cover) orLima varieties and less in the Caribbean group. climbing. There are several commercial cultivars, particu- The fibrous roots may attain several metres onlarly in California (for example, Henderson and filteringsoils with deephumidity Fordhook) and for domestic consumption (un- (Yucatán, coastal Peru), thus giving the plantsripe green seeds in salads) in the United States. great vegetative vigour (greater than maize) and Relatives of the Andean wild form are P. augus- a survival period of up to four years. In the wild ti Harms, P. bolivianas Piper and P. pachyrhio- populations, the seeds are dispersed through ex- zoides Harms. Of the cultivated species, the plosive dehiscence of the pods. latter has the widest secondary stock. There are numerous gene banks, mainly in Ecology and phytogeography Pullman in the United States (USDA), Chapingo Although not strict, there is a certain distribution in Mexico (INIFAP) and Palmira in Colombia pattern of the forms. The small-seed wild form (CIAT). Germplasm has been collected in order is found from Sinaloa in Mexico to Salta into save traditional material cultivated in several Argentina, generally below 1 600 in. The small-regions of the American tropics where varieties seed cultivars frequently grow at a lower alti- have rapidly disappeared. It could still be col- tude in the Pacific area of Mesoamerica, fromlected profitably in some parts of the Yucatán Arizona in the United States to Chocó on the peninsula, northern Colombia, San Martín in Peru western range of Colombia as well as the Ecua- and in Paraguay. doran coast, and from Yucatán and Colombia to In the case of wild material (particularly of the Venezuela and in the Antilles. It also exists in small-seed form) many regions fall short for northeastern Brazil and in Formosa, Argentina. collecting specimens: Tamaulipas, Sinaloa, Mi- The larger wild forni is distributed in Ecuadorchoacán, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Peten in Mexico, El and in the north of Peru between 320 andSalvador, Nicaragua, Panama, Venezuela and 2 030 ni. The large-seed cultivars are distributed eastern Bolivia. 58 Beans

Cultivation F)rm:;43es ferentiated into a very early form (for which In the neotropical zones of America, it is very there is genetic progress); it has a good rate of common to find from one to 'five P. lunatusallogamy and heterosis has been found; conse- plants in household vegetable gardens and onquently there are good prospects for improve- small plots, as it is customary for families to addment. P. lunatus' relatively late production, as a few green seeds to . In the Mayan Yu- well as that of the indeterminate creeping forms, catán, this bean is traditionally sown as part ofmay be compensated by exploiting the earlier the slash-and-burn clearing system with maize,shrubby forms. There is a wide variation in the buul (P. vulgaris) and gourds. On the coast ofglucoside content in the seed, and potential for Colombia, carauta is found on plots with maize, improvement with types of less than 5 ppm, cassava and guandul. On the coast of Peru, itwithout any correlation with the colour of the was frequently found broadcast on the banks oftegument. The evaluation of cultivars to deter- mountain strearns where it absorbed the flood-mine the glucoside content will make it possible waters. Similar practices may have existed into establish many materials in traditional areas the cintefio valley in Bolivia before the introduc- of cultivation and consumption. Its hardiness tion of the grapevine. Nowadays, in Chinca, Peru, and lengthy production may be advantages in it is sown as a commercial (white adverse conditions where other leguminous veg- seeds) on ridges with :irrigation. In many parts of etables do not prosper. The aesthetic value of the the Andean range (in the dry inter-Andean val-Gran Lima varieties may be considered in the leys at 2 000 rn of Narifio, Colombia; Imbabura development of handicrafts (which could be use- and Azuay in Ecuador; and Cajamarca in Peru) ful in remote parts of the Andes). The restora- P. lunatus is 'frequently seen growing on oldtion of traditional dishes and uses (for example walls separating plots and roads or on landslides in recreation) would also contribute to the crop's and slopes. The peasants thus use the spaces of promotion. The selection of varieties resistant to least value. In other parts of Peru (Cajamarca,grub (Acanthoscelides sp.) and weevil (Apion La Libertad), the Gran Lima types are sown sp.), particularly the Gran Lima, and of shrubby around the edge of small . In some places, forms with a greater diversity of seeds (colour, the plants behave spontaneously and cross with shape) as well as the study of production tech- the wild forms that exist in the surrounding area niques (the use of nettings, sowing on slopes, (for example in Succhubamba, Cajamarca). etc.) should be mentioned as research priorities. As itis sown almost individually in many family vegetable gardens, it is difficult to give figures f'-or yield per area. Furthermore, periodic Phaseolus polyanthus harvesting complicates the evaluation. In the Botanical name: Phaseolus polyanthus shrubby forms, seed yields of 2 000 kg per hec- Greenman tare have been recorded and, in climbing varie- Fabaceae ties, more than 3 000 kg per hectare. Common names. Spanish: botil (Mexico [Chiapas]), piloya (Guatemala [Chi- Prospects for improvement maltenango1), dzich (Guatemala [San Within the cultivated species, P. lunatuscom- Marcosp, piligiie (Guatemala [Alta petes with P. coccineus through the genetic stock Verapaz]), petaco (Colombia [Antioquía and which is wider (primary and secondary) and dif- western regionp, cacha (Colombia [Cauca, Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 59

Huila and southern regionj), matatropa distinguished from the other species by its epi- (Colombia lEfuilal), toda la vida (Ecuador, geal germination; fibrous, fasciculate .roots; in- northern region of Peru). florescences with six to 16 fruit-bearingsteins; primary and long, narrow bracteoles (giv- The taxon P. polyanthus was recently acknowl- ing the pseudoraceme the appearance ofa spike); edged as a result of identification of its ancestral white or lilac .flowers (purplish pink in the wild forms. There are no recordings of this legumeon form); and terminal stig,ma. Its seed (70 to 100g archaeological sites, in spite of the fact that theper 100 seeds for cultivated varieties and 16 to seeds found have been analysed thoroughly. The25 g .for wild forms) has a wide, elliptical hilum ecological conditions under which this speciesand the parahilum is frequently broken. grows may not .have been .favourable for its pres- ervation. Mention has been made of how old this Ecology and phytogeography crop must be in Mexico. In comparison with the P.polyanthus is distributed in intermediate alti- wild .forms and the other species. P. polyanthus tudes (800 to 2 600 m) in cool, damp climates is less evolved, which appears to be the result ofwith one dry period per year (Table 3); it has a its more recent domestication. long flowering period (two to five months) and It has -frequently been cultivated together with can have two flowering and fruit-bearing peri- maize, gourds and two species of bean (P. coc-ods per year if the rainy season is heavy (Colom- (-ineus and P. vulgaris) in Mesoamerican re-bia, Venezuela). It prefers deep, organic, damp gions with a humid climate and at an intermediateand well-drained soils with pH 6.2 to 6.5 and it altitude. .Like the scarlet runner bean, this crop tolerates a degree of shade. has been reduced with modification of the tradi- The cultivated form is found in Puebla, tional maize field system in many parts of Mes-Veracruz, Oaxaca and Chiapas (Mexico). In oamerica. If peasants have to cease cultivating aGuatemala, it can be seen in Huehuetenango, species of bean, they keep the kidney bean, which San Marcos, Quezaltenango, Totonicapán, Baja generally obtains the best price. Among the oth-and Alta Verapaz, Sololá, Chimaltenango and er causes of its marginalization is the extensionSacatepéquez. It is also distributed in the upper of coffee plantations and livestock rearing in itsparts of the Caribbean (Jamaica, Dominican Re- area of cultivation. As their incomes increased,public) and Costa Rica. It is cultivated in South peasants tended to abandon consumption of this America, where it is found in secondary vegeta- legume. Traditionally, the green seed is preferred tion, including wooded vegetation, from Mérida (either because it is easier to digest- or because of in Venezuela lo Apurimac in Peru and in the its softer tegument) when the pod reaches physi-western and central ranges of Colombia (the ological maturity and the dry seed is .favouredpetaqueras of Antioquía), Ecuador (Azuay, less; it is eaten in soups, stews or even as a sweet Pichincha, Tungurahua) and northern Peru (Amazon region). (Cajamarca, Amazon, Junín). To date, the wild -form has been found only in the central-western Botanical description part of Guatemala, where it is a liana that grows Only pluriannual forms of P. polyanthus are in the low, humid mountain forest; the possibili- known, which can live from two to four years. In ty of it also occurring in the mountainous zone drier parts (for example, western Cajamarca,of the Jalisco-Michoacán boundary in Mexico Peru) it tends to behave as an annual. It is easilyshould not be excluded. 60 Beans

Genetic diversity bia, mentioned that it was the first seed that he This species is considered to be the least evolved sowed in the slash-and-burn system of Los Páez. of the cultivated Phase°lus species, hence itThe species' hardiness in humid environments should have a greater potential for future devel-provides food when the maize harvest is insuffi- opment. There is little phenotypic variation (onlycient and explains its frequent presence in sec- the indeterminate climbing growth habit), in-ondary forests in Colombia, Ecuador and northern cluding in the seeds. Normally it has °rangyPeru. It is even more difficult to evaluate ero- yellow seeds, but other colours do appear: red- sion, as it is a predominantly allogamous species dish brown, hay, black and creamy white, for (although the local variation of this allogamy is example. Seeds of the latter colour were foundnot well known). However, it does seem useful by the author in the Amazon region of Colombiato document the evolution of the native material and in Loja, Ecuador. It may have potential as ain its areas of genetic cultivation in Mexico and commercial crop in northern Peru and may com-Guatemala and to collect germplasm in appro- pete as a plant with the caballeros (P. vulgarispriate cases. In the southern area of its distribu- with a large, round white seed), which do nottion, where there seems to be less variation and produce in humid areas. Greater variation is seenerosion, collection would not seem to be urgent. in the seed where natural hybrids exist withThe situation is different in the case of the wild P. coccineus (for example, in Putumayo, Co-ancestral form: its distribution area in central- lombia) and with P. vulgaris (for example in western Guatemala is threatened by urbaniza- Tolima, Colombia) where colours may be com- tion and agriculture (the primary forest where it bined with purple, coffee, etc. To date, there do grows is being cut down to set up coffee planta- not seem to be any properly recorded cultivars. tions). It is urgent to complete collection of germ- It is evident that P. coccineus, P. polyanthusplasm and to ensure that at least some plant and P. vulgaris are genetically close as a resultspecies are included in in situ conservation with- of natural introgression among the species. How- in the perimeter of natural parks. This method ever, each comes from a different and individu- should also be considered for the few sites where alized ancestral form. The reason for this there is natural introgression. relationship should be found in the origin of the There are collections of this species, mainly in ancestral forms. Other species of the P. (we-Chapingo in Mexico (INITAP); Chimaltenango cineus complex may also be considered to bein Guatemala (ICTA); La Molina in Peru close to the cacha; the genetic stock of P. poly- (INIAA); and Pullman in the United States anthus is therefore wide. (USDA). The widest collection is that of the An exact evaluation of genetic erosion in this CIAT in Palmira, Colombia. species is difficult: in some parts of Guatemala (San Marcos, Chimaltenango) and Costa Rica, Cultivation practices where the traditional maize field cultivationsys- The majority of the cultivation practicesmen- tem has been modified, certain genotypesare tioned for the tepary bean in the high humid disappearing; in others (Cauca, Tolima, Ama-zones of Central America also apply to the cacha zon region, in Colombia and Junfn in Peru) it bean. Although itis sown mixed with tepary appears to extend into ruderal vegetations be- beans, it frequently ripens a little earlier;sepa- cause peasants throw seed on roadsides and in rate harvesting (especially to eat it when green) smallholdings, etc. One farmer in Huila, Colom- is possible but is not always practised.In the Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 61

Andes it is .frequent to see it in enclosures or in could also be considered 1..'rom the point of view family vegetable gardens where it grows with-of fertilizing value and soil protection. out any special care. Conclusion Prospects for improvement The bean was domesticated at a time when the A limiting factor appears to be the lesser digest-current knowledge of molecular genetics and ibility of P. lunatus which has been verified innutritional science was obviously not available certain areas (Amazon region). The documenta- to ensure selection of the material with the best tion of current consumption practices in peasantevolutionary and nutritional potential. In addi- communities must be considered a priority be-tion to the kidney bean, 'four other species have fore embarking on an investigation of its nutri-been domesticated and have been maintained tional quality. It should be borne in mind that for thousands of years. It is not known whether until the very recent past these beans were eatenthe initial success of the kidney bean was due to several times a week. The lack of variation inits greater evolutionary potential compared with seed colour is a problem which could be correct- the other species or whether particular circum- ed partly with the distribution of germplasm from stances caused its domestication. Nor are all the collections and through additional gatherings, reasons known for its promotion throughout the particularly where there is introgression with 200 years after 1492. Consequently, the germ- P. coccinetts and P. vulgaris. Variation in col-plasm collected of those species during the last our, type of seed and growth habits could be60 years, and the information relating to them, obtained through cross-breeding programmes that are possibly scarce in relation to what must have explore the primary and secondary genetic stock existed before the conquest. However, what has of P. polyanthus. Evaluation is still very much been able to be recovered is surprising and of- in its initial stne and is a priority for agrarianfers promise. In spite of all the changes that have research. It would be very useful, since itis occurred with the kidney bean since the fifteenth known that this species offers characteristics ofcentury, it has been difficult to modify its ecolo- resistance to several pests and diseases such as gy drastically and the alterations that the latter Ascochyta sp. (in the cool, humid parts of themay have suffered have had negative effects on Andes) and Ophiontyia phaseoli (in East Afri-species yield. Ought we not now give the ne- ca), respectively. There are genotypes ready forglected beans ari opportunity? delivery to the farmer, particularly in conditions that are adverse to the kidney bean. The con-Bibliography sumption of P. lunatus as a green seed could beBaudoin, J. P. 1981. L'amélioration du haricot recommended and recipes developed to improve de Lima (Phaseolus imams L.) en vue de preservation of the green seed. Its cultivation l'intensification de sa culture en regions tro- could also be encouraged in family vegetable picales de basse altitude. Faculté des sciences gardens. Since the plant is attractive to live- agronomiques de l'Etat, Gembloux, Belgium. stock, it could be considered as a fodder crop in (thesis) association with maize. In agrosilviculturalDebouck, D.G. 1989. Early beans (Phaseolus contexts (for instance in young plantations or vulgari.s L. and P. lunatus L.) domesticated hedges 'against erosion), it is possibly the best for their aesthetic value? Ann. Rep. Bean Im- bean species to use. Its role in coffee plantations provement Coop., 32: 62-63. 62 Beans

Debouck, D.G. 1991. Systematics and morphol- interspécifiques avec Phaseolus lunatus ogy. In A. van Schoonhoven & 0.Voysest, L.Bull.Rech. Agron.(Gembloux), eds. Common beans: research for crop im- 25(2): 237-250. provement, p.55-118. Wallingford, UK, CABNabhan, G.P. & Felger, R. S. 1978. Teparies in International. southwestern North America. A biogeograph- Debouck, D.G., Maquet, A. & Posso, C.E. ical and ethnohistorical study of Phaseolus 1989. Biochemical evidence for two different acutifOlius. Econ. Bot., 2(1): 2-19. gene pools in lima beans, Phaseolus tumults Nabhan, G.P. & Teiwes, H. 1983. Tepary beans, L. AIM. Rep. Bean Improvement Coop., 32: O'odham farmers and desert fields. Desert 58-59. Plants, 5(1): 15-37. Debouck, D.G., Linán Jara, J.H., CamparaPratt, R.C. & Nabhan, G.P. 1988. Evolution Sierra, A. & De la Cruz Rojas, J.H. 1987. and diversity of Phaseolus acutifolitts genet- Observations on the domestication of Phase- ic resources. In P. Gepts, ed. Genetic resources Wits lumina L. FA011BPGR Plant Genet. of Phaseolus beans, p. 409-440. Dordrecht, Resour. Newsl., 70: 26-32. the Netherlands, Kluwer Academic. Delgado Salinas, A. 1985. Systematics of theSchmit, V. & Baudoin, J.P. 1987. Multiplica- genus Phase()his (Leguminosae) in North and tion et évaluation de Phaseolus coccineus L. Central America. University of Texas, Aus- et Phaseolus polyanthus Greenman, deux es- , USA. (thesis) peces intéressantes pour Famélioration de la Delgado Salinas, A. 1988. Variation, taxono- productivité des légumineuses vivrières. Bull. my, domestication and germplasm potentiali- Rech. Agron. (Gembloux), 22(3): 235-253. ties in Phase()lus coccineus. In P. Gepts, ed. Schmit, V. & Debouck, D.G. 1991. Observa- Genetic resources of Phaseolus beans, p. 441- tions on the origin of Phaseolus polyanthus 463. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Kluwer Greenman, EMIL Rot., 45(3): 354-364. Academic. Hernández, X.E., Miranda Colin, S. & Pry- wer, C. 1959. El origen de Phaseolus coc- cineus L. darwinianus Hdz. X. & Miranda C. subespecies 1101W. Rev. Soc. Mex. Hist. Nat., 20(1-4): 99-121. Hernández, X.E., Ramos, E.A & Martínez M.A. 1979. Etnobotdnica. In E.M. Engleman, ed. Contribuciones al conocimiento del frijol en México, p. 113-138. Chapingo, Mexico, Postgraduate College. !Kaplan, L. & Kaplan, L.N. 1988. Phaseolus in archaeology. In P. Gepts, ed. Geneticresour- ces of Phaseolus beans, p.125-142. Dor- drecht, the Netherlands, Kluwer Academic. Katanga, K. Baudoin, J.P. 1990. Analyses méiotiques des hybrides FI et étude des descendances F2 chez quatre combinaisons Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 63

Cucur (Cucurhitisp

One plant group with the most species usedas some doubts about the Mesoamerican origin of human food is the Cucurbitaceae family. Within C. ficifOlia and C. moschata, suggestedso often this family, the genus Cucurbita stands outas in many publications. one of the most important. Five of its species Cucurbita argyrosperma Huber, C. ficifolia Bouché, C. moschata (Duchesne ex Lam.) Cucurbita argyrosperrae Duchesne ex Poiret, C. maxima Duchesne ex Botanical name: Cucurhita argyrosperma Poiret, and C. pepo L.have been domesticated Huber in the New World and for thousands of years they Family: Cucurbitaceae have been cultivated or at least handled by Amer- Common names. English: cushaw (United ican societies. States); Spanish: calabaza, calabaza pinta, In spite of the current marginalization of some calabaza pipiana (Mexico), pipián (Mexico, of these species, from very remote times all have El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), saquil, contributed essential food products to the diet of pipitoria (Guatemala) rural and some urban communities on the Amer- ican continent and in many other parts of theOrigin, domestiction and expansion world. With the exception of C. maxima, whose Cueurbita argyrosperma is one of the cultivated centre of origin is in South America, it is assumed species of the genus which has undergone that the other four cultivated species were do- the most profound study in recent years. There mesticated in Mesoamerica, although this has are two subspecies: not been confirmed in all cases. argyrosperrna, comprising four varieties During the second half of the 1980s, a greatargyrosperma, callicarpa, stenosperma and quantity of information was collected on thepalmieri three of which include all the cultivat- origin and evolution of the four species. The ed types, while the fourth corresponds to sponta- taxonomic and genetic limits of Cucurbita argy- neous populations of northeastern Mexico that rosperma and C. pepo have been redefined and are generally known as Cucurbita palmieri L. their closest-related wild species have been clas- Bailey; sified into intraspecific categories within these sororia, which includes wild populations limits. The results of this research have raisedwith a wide distribution from Mexico to Nica- ragua, originally described under the name C. sororia L. Bailey. This subspecies has been des- The authors of this chapter are R. Lira Saade (National ignated as the wild ancestor of the group. Herbarium of Mexico, Mexico City) and S. Montes According to the age of the archaeological Hernández (CIFAP, SARH, Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico). remains discovered thus far, it has been suggest- 64 Cucierbits

ed that domestication of C. argyrosperma must The reasons for the sparse world distribution of have occurred in southern Mexico more than this species are not known; although the situation 7 000 years ago. is not surprising, given the low quality of the The characteristics that were most trans-fruit's flesh compared with that of C. moschata formed in the process of domestication of the ssp. or C. pepo and the size of the seeds of all the argyrosperma were, as in other crops, mainly cultivated varieties that may have been attractive those connected with handling and preferredto the first Europeans who learned of them. uses. For example, relatively uniform germina- tion; a reduction in size and abundance of tri- Uses and nutritional value chomes; an increase in the size of parts andThroughout its distribution area, the 'flowers, organs used, such as fruits and seeds; and ayoung stems, young fruit and ripe fruit of reduction in the bitter taste of the flesh.Itis C. argyrosperma are eaten as vegetables. The considered that var. argyrosperma is the leastripe fruit is occasionally used to prepare sweets specialized or most primitive of the group andalthough it is used most frequently as feed for that var. callicarpa, on the other hand, is the most livestock and poultry. The seeds are eaten whole, recent or specialized. roasted, toasted or ground and are the main in- The different degrees of variation in the nutri-gredient of sauces used to prepare various stews tionally important parts of the three cultivated (for example, pipicinmeat cooked in thick chili varieties of the complex argyrosperma suggest asauce, mole verdea stew prepared with chili strong association with human interests. The rel-and green tomatoes). The seeds are the most atively large seed size of the var. argyrosperma important product, chiefly because of their oil indicates that it was mainly selected to obtain (39 percent) and protein content (44 percent), seeds, while the great diversity of shapes, coloursand their consumption in urban areas of Mexico and sizeorthe fruits and seeds of var. stenosper- and other countries of Central America is fairly ma and callicarpa indicate that selection had a common. double aim: to obtain flesh as well as seeds. In some regions of Mexico, the seeds and also Unlike with the rest of the cultivated species ofthe unripe fruit of wild taxa are used as food. The Cucurbita, data on the distribution of cultivatedlatter are eaten after being washed and boiled Cucurbita argyrospermct varieties outside several times to rid them of the bitter taste deriv- America are very scarce and there is no certainty ing from the cucurbitins present in the flesh and that this species was cultivated at any time in the placentae, while the seeds are simply washed, Old World or even outside its generalarea ofseasoned with salt and roasted or toasted. On the domestication. Yucatán peninsula, peasants use the flesh of the In South America, itis grown in Peru and cultivated varieties' fruit to treat burns,sores and Argentina, although it appears to involvevery skin eruptions, while the seeds are prepared with recent introductions of certain cultivars which water and used as an anaesthetic and to stimulate can be classified within the var. cctllicatpa. In thewomen's milk production for breastfeeding. United States, some cultivars of var. callicmpa

are cultivated on a very low scale for nutritional Botanical description purposes, and one cultivar of var. argyrosperma, C. argyrosperma is a creepingor climbing mo- Silver Seed Gourd, is occasionallygrown as anoecious plant, ranging from villous to pubes- horticultural curiosity. cent and which may be hirsute, with short, rigid Neglected crops: 1492 from a clijj eren! pers mctive 65

FIGURE 5 Mesoamerican cucurbits: A) Cucurbita argyrosperma; Al) leaf; A2) fruit; A3) seed; B) C. pepo; B1) leaf; B2) fruit; B3) seed; C) C. moschata; Cl) leaf; C2) fruit; C3) seed; D) C. ficifolia; D1) leaf; D2) fruit; D3) seed

D2 66 Cucurbits

and rather enlarged and sharp trichomes. It hasthe slope of the gulf (Tamaulipas, San Luis Po- fibrous roots and slightly angular stems. Itstosí, Puebla, Veracruz, Tabasco, Chiapas and ovate-cordate leaves have petioles of up to 30 cm Yucatan). In Central America it has been record- and measure 10 to 30 x 15 to 40 cm. They have ed in Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, white spots, number three to five and are lobulate Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. The var. with triangular or elliptical lobules. The marginscallicarpa is found mainly on the Pacific are denticulate to serrate-denticulate. There areslope, from the southeastern United States to two to 'four raiinified tendrils and pentamerous, central Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, solitary, axillary flowers. The male flowers areZacatecas, Guanajuato, Nayarit and Jalisco). The on pedicels of 10 to 20 cm and have a campanu- var. stenosperma is endemic to Mexico and is late calyx of 5 to 20 x 8 to 25 mm. Their sepalsgrown in the central and southeastern states are linear-lanceolate or (rarely) foliaceous and(Guerrero, Morelos, Michoacán and Oaxaca) as are 10 to 35 mm long. They have a tubular-well as in some areas of the gulf slope (Veracruz campanulate corolla that is yellow to orange, 6 toand Yucatán). 12 cm long, with -five lobules for up to one-third of its total length and they have three .Genetic diversity The female flowers grow on sturdy peduncles ofLimits of genetic stock. Knowledge of the genet- 2 to 3.5 cm: have a globose, ovoid-elliptical,ic relations of C. argyrosperma Huber and the botuliform or piriform, multilocular , a consequent inclusion and definition of wild and small calyx and a corolla that is somewhat biggercultivated taxa within its taxonomic limits have than that of the male flowers. They have three considerably widened the species' genetic stock. stigmas. The fruit is short or long and piriform,This includes: the local races of the cultivated straight or curved in the thinnest part and 11 tovarieties in the southeastern United States, Mex- 50 cm long. It has a hard rind which is smooth toico and Central America; the two wild taxa of the slightly ribbed, and is white with longitudinalcomplex (var. palmieri and ssp. sororia); and, green reticulate stripes or completely white. The in the United States, Green Striped Cushaw, flesh is white, yellow or orange, the seeds ellipti- White Cushaw, Magdalena Striped, Papago, cal and slightly inflated, measuring 15 to 30 x 8 Silver Seed Gourd, Japanese Pie, Hopi, Taos, to 16 mm, with a white, smooth and even testa. Parral Cushaw and Veracruz Pepita. Hybridization experiments of the taxa belong- Ecology and phytogaography ing to C. argyrosperma with other wild and The three cultivated varieties of C.argyro,sper- cultivated taxa of the genus and some field obser- ma are found in a relatively wide range of alti-vations have revealed that, with the cultivated tudes (0 to1 800 m), generally in areas with a species, C. moschata has the highest degree of hot, fairly dry climate or a well-defined rainy compatibility. A second level of compatibility season. The species does not tolerate very lowconsists of the wild and cultivated taxa of temperatures, which limits its cultivation to the C. pepo, some cultivars of C. 177C1Xill1C1 and the altitudes mentioned. Each cultivated variety has wild perennial species of C. foetidissima H.B.K. a fairly defined distribution model, althoughA third group is formed by C. hmclelliana L. there are some areas where two varietiescan beBailey, and C. martinezii L. Bailey, with which found cultivated simultaneously. crossings only produced fruit without viable In Mexico, the var. argyrosperma isgrown onseeds. The fourth and last group includes the Neglected crops: 14921'1-mu a dijlia-ent perspective 67

perennial species C. pedatifolia L. Bailey,stenosperma is also grown in the dry season on C. digitata A. Gray, in the broad sense andso-called humid ground. This practice is also C. radicans Naudin, with which only a few fruits recorded in some parts of the state of Sonora in were able to be obtained but generally withoutnortheastern Mexico, where some cultivars of viable seeds. var. callicarpa can be grown in the dry season, The wild species that have shown some degreebut always with the help of irrigation to ensure of compatibility with the taxa of the complex production throughout the year. C. argyrosperma possess genes resistant to some The only form of propagation is the sowing of viral diseases that have a high incidence in the seed which is done along with some of the tradi- cultivated species. tional crops of this agricultural model (maize, However, because of two factors relating tobeans and other species of Cucurbita). In some interspecific crossings, some obstacles will haveregions of Yucatán, Quintana Roo and Oaxaca to be overcome before a successful plant im-the seeds of C. argyrosperma are often the first to provement programme including all the taxa isbe planted in the maize fields. Sowing begins carried out: shortly before the start of the rain and before the o hybrids with viable seeds were not alwaysother associated crops are sown. produced; In some localities of Yucatán, sowing is done o when some success was achieved, the plant very quickly the day after the traditional burning receiving the was always from theof the stubble of the previous crop and long complex C. argyrosperma and, in the case ofbefore the first rain and the sowing of other the species of the last two groups, it always associated crops. The aim is to prevent the devel- involved var. palmieri or ssp. sororia. opment of weeds which would affect production of the other species cultivated in the maize field, Germplasm collections. Germplasm collections utilizing the rapidity of growth and cover at- are not so scarce for the cultivated taxa but they tained by this species. Practices of this type show are in very short supply in the case of the wildthat the seeds of C. argyrosperma are completely ones. Most of the accessions come from Mexico suited to these regions and germinate even in and are deposited in the CIFAP's gene bankconditions of low humidity. in Mexico and in the USDA's in the United Unlike other cultivated species of the genus, it States. is less frequent for varieties of the argyrosperma complex to be found in vegetable gardens or Cultivation practices plots or in small agricultural holdings or to be The cultivated varieties of Cucurbita argyro- associated with other species. sperma are worked in the traditional heavy rain agricultural systems and are sown at the start of the rainy period (May-June). Development ofCuourbita pepo these varieties lasts five to seven months; the Botanical name: Cucurbita pepo L. young fruit for vegetables is harvested approxi- Family: Cucurbitaceae mately three months after being sown, while the Common names. English: pumpkin, ripe fruit for seed is harvested between October vegetable marrow, summer pumpkin, and 1December. autumn pumpkin; Spanish: calabaza In the Mixe region of the state of Oaxaca, var. (Mexico), hiiicoy (Guatemala) 68 Cucurbits

Origin, domestication and expansion golden fruit and a verrucose rind simila to According to archaeological recordings.C. pepo that of vartorticollia.. appears to be one of the first domesticated spe- Vegetable marrow (C. pepo L. var.Jastiga- cies. The oldest remains have been found ta Paris) has creeper characteristics as a in Mexico, in the Oaxaca valley (8750 BC tO semi-shrub and has short cylindrical fruit AD 700) and in the caves of Ocampo, Tamaulipas that is slightly broader at the apex, with a (7000 to 500 Bc). Its presence in the United States smooth rind which hardens and thickens on also dates back a long time, as the recordings ripening and which varies in colour from in Missouri (4000 Bc) and Mississippi (1400 Bc) cream to dark green. indicate. This species may have been domesti- Cocozzelle(C. pepoL. var.longaParis) has cated at least on two occasions and in two cylindrical, long fruit that is slender and different regions: in Mexico and in the eastern slightly bulbous at the apex; it is eaten in the United States, in each case havingC. fraterna unripe state and one of the most common andC. texana,respectively, as possible progeni- names is Cocozzelle. tors. Zucchini (C. pepo L.var.cylindricaParis) Eight groups of edible cultivars of C.pepoare is the most common group of cultivars at known: present. Like the previous group, the zucchi- Pumpkin (C.pepoL. var. pepo L. Bailey, ) ni group has a strong affinity with the vege- includes cultivars of creeping plants which table marrow and its origin is also recent produce spherical, oval or oblate 'fruit that is (nineteenth century). Its plants are generally rounded or lstat at the ends. The fruit of this semi-shrubby and its cylindrical fruit does group is grown to be eaten when ripe and not broaden or else broadens only slightly. It sometimes is used as fodder. is eaten as a vegetable in the unripe state. Scallop (C.pepoL. var.clypeataAlefield) With regard to traditional cultivars, it is com- has a semi-shrubby habit, the fruit rangesmon to see a fair representation of cultivars with from flat to almost discoidal, with undula-characteristics similar to those of each of the tions or equatorial margins, and itis eatencommercial groups in one single field cultivated before maturity. by Mesoamerican peasants. The question of the Acorn (C. pepo L. var. tarbinata Paris) isorigin of the cultivars native to the Mayan area in both a shrubby and creeping plant with fruit the middle and low areas of Chiapas and the which is obovoid or conical, pointed at the Yucatán peninsula still has to be resolved. These apex and longitudinally costate-grooved.cultivars, whose fruits are either without or with The rind is soft, hence the fruit can be eatenunpronounced ribs and have rather rounded and in the ripe state. oval seeds, are grown from a little above sea level Crookneck (C.pepoL. var.tordcolliaAle- to nearly 1 800 m. field) is a shrubby type, with yellow, golden The distribution of C. pepo outside America is or white fruit which is claviform and curved possibly the best documented of this genus: it is at the distal or apical end and generally has aknown that some cultivars reac:hed Europeap- verrucose rind. It is eaten unripe since theproximately half a century after 1492 and it is rind and the flesh harden when ripe. even said that others originated on that continent. Straightneck (C.pepoL. var.recticollis In contrast to C.pepo'slong-established pres- Paris) is a shrubby plant with yellowor ence in the Old World, it seems that its arrival in Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 69

South America was very recent. At present, the orange;it ranges from soft and not bitter to fruit of some cultivars (for example, Zucchinifibrous and bitter, has numerous seeds whichare and Cocozzelle) has a nutritional andcommer- narrowly or broadly elliptical or rarely orbicular, cial role in several regions of the world. slightly flattened and 3 to 20 x 4 to 12mm.

Uses and nutritional value Ecology and phytogeography Like the other cultivated species of the genus,Traditionally, C. pepo is cultivated .from North the mature or young fruit and the seeds ofAmerica to Central America and in some parts of C. pepo, as well as to a lesser extent the flowers South America, although it is generally said to be and young tips of the stems, are eaten in many a crop of high areas. Like C. moschata, this spe- parts of its native distribution area and in othercies covers a 'fairly wide range of altitudes. regions of the world. C. pepo's nutrient content is In Mexico, there are native varieties which grow similar to that described for the other cultivated from very close to sea level and in semi-dry species. climates, such as the variety called tsol in Yu- catdn, to others which are cultivated at altitudes Botanical description greater than 2 000 m, such as those called gilich- C. pepo has: creeping plants which are compactes in Oaxaca. In Guatemala, the native cultivars, or semi-shrubby, annual, monoecious and pu-commonly called gUicoy, are grown above bescent-scabrous; broadly ovate-cordate to trian- 1 000 m, while tsols are sown in the -low, hot gular-cordate leaves, 20 to 30 x 20 to 35 cm, with humid parts of the Petén below 500 m. or without white spots, often with three to five deep lobules, and with denticulate to serrate-Genetic diversity denticulate margins. Tendrils have two to sixLimits of genetic stock. The primary genetic branchlets, or are simple and little developed stock of C. pepo is formed by the groups of edible tendrils in the semi-shrubby types. It has pentam-cultivars (ssp. pepo) and ornamental cultivars erous, solitary, axillary flowers, the males of(ssp. ovifera) as well as wild taxa (C ..fraterna and which have pedicels 7 to 20 cm in length, a C. te.vana). campanulate calyx of 9 to 12 mm, linear of There are a great number of commercial culti- 12 to 25 x 1to 2 mm, a tubular/campanulatevars with particular characteristics which, to- corolla, 5 to 10 cm long, which is divided into gether with the local varieties referred to which five for up to one-third or more of its length; and are grown mainly in Mexico, constitute an ex- three stamens. The female flowers have sturdy, traordinary genetic stock. However, in contrast sulcated pedicels of 2 to 5 cm; the ovary is glo-to other species, this diversity does not represent bose, oblate, ovoid, cylindrical, rarely piriform, an important source of genes resistant to pests smooth, ribbed or verrucose and multilocular;and diseases, since C. pepo (including C. texana) and the calyx is very small. The fruit is very is probably the species with the greatest suscep- variable in size and shape: smooth to heavilytibility to the most important viral diseases that ribbed, often verrucose and rarely smooth, with a attack cultivated species of Cucurbita. rigid skin varying in colour from light to dark Species that might represent a secondary ge- green, plain to minutely speckled with cream ornetic stock are scarce, as most of the attempts at green contrasting with yellow, orange or two-hybridizing C. pepo with other wild or cultivated coloured. The flesh is cream to yellowish or pale species have required special techniques such as 70 CItcyti-bitA

embryo culture; however, good results with hy- and humid and situated in small valleys which bridization have been achieved in Mexico andare said to have once been occupied by lakes. In the United States. this form, it is sown at the start of the driest period of the year (February or March) and the ripe fruit Gennplam collections. Data obtained from the is harvested. between July and September. gene banks show that C pepo is the species of the In Yucatán, the tsol or "mensejo" variety is genus with the second highest number of acces- grown, generally in vegetable gardens or inten- sions (1135). However, this refers only tosive husbandry systems such as those called co- cultivated and edible forms, since those corre-micos (small farms) and pachpalcal, and very sponding to the two closest wild relatives arerarely in maize fields. It is a short-cycle variety; very scarce and, in fact, those of C.fraterna weresowing takes place approximately 15 to 20 days completed only very recently. The gene banksafter the start of the heavy rainstorms (from May with the greatest representation of C. pepo culti- to June); the unripe fruit .for use as vegetables vars are in the United States, Mexico and Costa is harvested from August onwards, while the Rica. ripe fruit is available between September and October. Cultivation practices In its native arca of distribution, C. pepo is grown Prospects for improvement both in maize fields and vegetable gardens asThe three species Cucurbita ar,c,,yrosperma, well as in other more intensive systems. In the C. moschata and C. pepo complement one anoth- former case, itis combined with maize, beanser in their natural arcas of production, which and/or with one to three of the other cultivated range from Oto 2 000 m in their region of origin. species of Cucurbita, while in the latter system In the latter, evaluation of the primitive cultivars it may be found growing on plots or in srnall needs to be stepped up and their germplasm used groups, generally combined with other vegeta- to develop new cultivars that are more produc- bles. Where it is grown commercially, it is gener- tive and of greater food value, or that are resistant ally found as the sole crop, occupying arcas ofto diseases, especially viruses. As has already varying size. been shown in the case of some species, there are In the region of Mixteca Alta, Mexico, andalso local varieties which differ in their produc- paqicularly in San Andrés Lagunas, some local tion period. The direct use of these, or of the variants have been found which are grown under genes that determine this characteristic, would two different sets of conditions and at two differ- allow their period of availability at markets to be ent times. One of these is known as heavy rain extended. gourd (calabaza de temporal);itis grown on The germplasm of the four species of Cucar- rocky ground, generally with abundant outcropsbita should be urgently collected in their arca of of limestone and commonly with little soilthatnatural distribution. Introducing varieties present is, on dry ground. Sowing takes place in April in other areas, such as C. moschata varieties and May, depending on the appearance of the which are found in Africa and have a highcaro- first rains, and the ripe fruit is harvested in Octo- tene content, and incorporating them in genetic ber and November. Another variant is knownas improvement programmes is alsoa matter of the bowl gourd (calabaza de cajete); it isgrownurgency. on ground called cajete (bowl), which is very flat Boosting consumption, whether local or in the Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 71

form of exports, requires the -fruit topossess (Guatemala to Costa Rica),auyama characteristics adapted to consignment and (Panama to Venezuela), zapallo (Ecuador, storage. There is a wide diversity of such charac- Peru), joko (Bolivia) teristics which can be used to produce superior varieties. Origin, domestication and distribution Cucurbita spp. offer possible newuses It was thought that C. moschata, like Cucurbita or more intensive uses, which can be widelylicifblia, was of Asiatic origin. However, itis promoted. One is the preparation of purées ornow evident that it was domesticated in Latin similar l'oods, .for which there would be avery America, although itis still unclear what the extensive genetic stock for determining organo-precise area of domestication of either species leptic or nutritional characteristics, resulting in awas. On numerous occasions, it has been report- product superior to the one existing on ed to be in Mesoamerica and on other occasions the markets and which is derived from otherin South America, more specifically with itscen- products. We ought also to explore the .possibility tre of origin in Colombia. The vestiges available of increasing the use of young stems, which are are undoubtedly difficult to interpret. The oldest the part of the plant with the greatest food value archaeological remains of this species were because of the and content. found in northwestern Mexico (the caves of Varieties which produce more foliage couldOcampo, Tamaulipas) and date from 4900 to even be bred for this purpose. 3500 BC. Remains are also known in northern The use of seeds as dried fruit is common in Belize, in Tikal, Guatemala (2000 Bc to AD 850), some areas of Mesoamerica and almost un-and in Huaca Prieta, Peru (3000 Bc). known in others. The seeds are a good source of Electrophoretic analysis of isoenzymes has not protein and oil, and their industrial preparation provided any substantial evidence. However, it and marketing should be investigated. has enabled us to reaffirm the strong relationship There is still much to be done in terms of thebetween this species and taxa of the C. arg,vro- collection, conservation, evaluation and use ofsperma group. Nor is the linguistic evidence very regional or local varieties. These tasks are feasi-clear: C. moschata is known by native names ble, as the range of these crops is still to be .found both in the Mesoamerican region (mainly in the rural communities of the New World. We in Mexico) and in South America; this, on the should not pass up the opportunity of utilizingother hand, supports the observation that both this material to produce superior varieties andregions correspond to two centres of the crop's conserve their germplasm for .future use. diversification. .Furthermore, the variation in C. moschata does not suggest any region in particular as the Cucurbita moschata centre of origin, since this species is extremely Botanical name: Cucurbita moschata variable in the morphology of its fruit and seeds. (Duchesne ex Lam.) Duchesne ex Poiret The geographical distribution of the known Family: Cucurbitaceac archaeological remains of C. moschata indicate Common names. English: pumpkin, winterthat it has been cultivated for more than 5 000 to squash, musky squash, cushaw; Nahuatl:6 000 years. Its spread to other countries, both tamalayota (Mexico, Colombia [Guerrero]);within Latin America ancl outside the continent, Spanish:calabaza(Mexico),ayotewas certainly very early. This is shown by the 72 Cucurbits

existence of the variety called Seminole Pump- conical, turbinate ovary. They have a very srnall kin, grown since pre-Columbian times by indi-calyx and sepals that are more often foliaceous genous groups of in the United States, than in the males, ineasure up to 7.5 cm in length and also by its appearance in seventeenth-and are of thickened style. They have three lobate century botanical .illustrations. Such an early stigmas. The 'fruit varies greatly in size and shape spread must have been very continuous and in-(generally following the form of the ovary): tense since, in the last decade of the nineteenthsmooth or with rounded ribs, rarely verrucose or century, the species was cultivated in India, Java, oTanulose, with a rind thn is both thickened and and japan. durable and soft and smooth, and of a very vari- able colourlight green to uniform dark green or Uses and nutritional value with cream spots, light to dark, or completely In the greater part of C.moschatdsnative area, white. The flesh islight or bright orange to its flowers, young stems and young and ripe greenish, ranges from light to very sweet, is soft fruits are eaten as a vegetable. The latter are also and generally not fibrous. II has numerous seeds commonly used to prepare sweets and as fodder. which are ovate/elliptical, measuring 8 to 21 x 5 The seeds are eaten whole, roasted or toasted and to 11 mm and which have a yellowish-white are ground into different stews. They have high surface. oil and protein contents (similar to those noted in C.cirgyrosperma)and their consumption inEcology and phytogeography urban areas is also ftiirly common. In botanical literature, C.moschatais reported as being grown mainly in areas of low altitude with Botanical description a hot climate with high humidity. However, C. moschatais a creeping and climbing plant. It while it is true that this species is preferentially is herbaceous, annual, monoecious, lightly andgrown within these limits, they do not appear to densely pubescent, with short and long uniseriate be strictly adhered to, as variants 1-iave recently trichomes and caulescent vegetative apices thatbeen found above 2 200 m in Oaxaca, Mexico. are fairly reflexed. It has slightly angular stems. fts leaves have petioles of 30 cm or more, areGenetic diversity broadly ovate-cordate to suborbicular, measureLimitsofgenetic stock.The wide range of alti- 20 to 25 x 25 to 30 cm, have white spots,are tudes at which C.moschatais cultivated within slightly lobate with three to five ovate or triangu- the American continent, the considerablemor- lar lobules, have an obtuse apex that is briefly phological diversity of its seeds and fruit (colour, apiculate, serrate-denticulate margins and three shape, thickness and durability of the fruit's to five ramified tendrils. C.moschatahas pen- skin), the existence of varieties with life cycles tamerous, solitary, axillary flowers. The maleof different duration as well as the existence flowers have 16 to 18 cm pedicels anda veryof numerous cultivars developed in otherparts short calyx, are broadly campanulate to pateri-of the world and of local varieties with excel- form, expanded or foliaceous towards theapex, lent agronomic characteristics, clearly indicate 5 to 13.5 cm long, with five divisions forup to that the genetic variation of this species isvery one-third of their length. The female flowers extensive. have thick pedicels of 3 to 8cm in length, and Some interesting regional varieties for Latin a globose, ovoid, oblate, cylindrical, piriform, America are those existing on the Yucatán penin- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 73

sula (and possibly in other regions ofLatin those from the United States and CostaRica. America), with two life cycles of different dura-Collectively, the accessionsare made up of tion, and those cultivated in Guanajuatoand Chi- American material, mainly from Central Ameri- apas, in which resistance to some viral diseasesca. For its part, the CIFAP collection in Mexico was recently Tfound. Among the former, the short- is possibly the most representative of C.1710S- cycle variety commonly grown in Mayanvege- chata's variation in that country. table gardens is of great interest, since itwas certainly from this that the most commercially Cultivation practices important variety in the regionwas derived. ItThe different variants of C. moschataare grown should be mentioned that those cultivated in under traditional, heavy rain agriculturalsys- Guanajuato and Chiapas are currently being usedtems. Itis possible to 'find varietiesgrown in genetic improvementprogrammes. in maize fields together with maize, beans and With regard to the sources of variation ofone or two other Cucurbits, or in vegetable gar- C. moschata cultivars developed outside itsarca dens and other more intensively managed - of origin, the best example is that ofa cultivar, land where they are grown alone or with other native to , which represents the only species. Sowing is carried out at the start of the source of resistance to certain viral diseases. The rainy season and the development time is approx- possibilities of hybridization that C. moschata imately five to seven months, although there are has shown with other cultivated species (for ex-varieties with a very short cycle (three to ample, C. maxima) enable us to affirm that there-four months) such as those mentioned from the are good prospects for the improvement of these Yucatán peninsula. In the long-cycle varieties, crops. the young fruit to be used as vegetables is har- Another part of the genetic stock ofvested approximately three months alter sowing, C. moschata is represented by the numerouswhile the ripe fruit for seed is harvested mainly commercial cultivars that have been developed,between the sixth and seventh month. mainly in the United States and to a lesser extent In the Mixe region and other regions of in Brazil. Prominent among these are Butternut the state of Oaxaca, C. moschata is also grown in Squash, Golden Cushaw, Large Cheese, Tennes- the cold, dry season of the year on moisture- see Sweet Potato, Kentucky Field, Menina Bra-retaining ground. Cultivation is even carried out sileira and others. Some of these commercialwith the help of irrigation in some parts of the cultivars also have different levels of resistancestate of Sonora and some short-cycle varieties and/or susceptibility to certain diseases, which ishave also been observed on the Yucatán peninsu- indicative of the wide genetic variation of this la where they are grown for commercial pu-poses species. in humid soils or using unusual substrates (henequen 'fibre waste) and irrigation. Germplasm colleclions. C. moschata is the best It is likely that varieties such as the ones de- represented of Cucurbita in the gene banks ofscribed, and possibly others, are grown more America, in which more than 2 000 accessionscommonly than is thought or known on the have been deposited. These come chieflyAmerican continent. There are some old refer- from Mexico and Central America and to a lesserences to a considerable variation in Colombia, degree from South America and other regions ofbut its current situation has to be properly docu- the world. The most important accessions are mented and evaluated. 74 Cucurbits

Cucurbita this species might have been a still undiscovered Botanical name: Cucurbita species whose habitat could be the eastern region Bouché of the Andes. This is why the possibility of using Cucurbitaceae wild (or cultivated) species in future programmes Common names. English:figleaffor the genetic improvement of this crop and their squash, Malabar gourd, cidra, sidra; use in the improvement of other cultivated spe- Nahuatl: chilacoyote (Mexico, Guatema-cies of the genus is still remote. The importance la); Spanish: lacoyote (Peru, Bolivia,of these programmes lies in the -fact that collec- Argentina), chiverri (Honduras, Costa tions have been identified which are resistant or Rica), victoria (Colombia) completely immune to the attack of different viruses that severely 'affect other cultivated Origin, domestication and distribution species. At the end of the last and the beginning of this The cultivation of C. ficifolia ranges from century, soine authors were suggesting an Asiat-northern Mexico to Argentina and Chile.Its ic origin for Cucurbita ficifolia. Since the middlespread to Europe (France and Portugal, for exam- of this century, the consensus has been that it is ofple) and Asia (India) apparently began in the American origin. However, its centre of origin sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when its fruit and domestication are still unknown. Some au-reached the Old World from South America and thors have suggested Central America or south- India. Since then, its cultivation has spread ern Mexico as places of origin, while othersto many other parts of the world (Germtmy, suggest South America, and more specifically France, japan and the ). the Andes. Biosystematic studies have been una- ble to support the Mexican origin suggested byUses and nutritional value the distribution of common names derived fromThe different parts of C.ficifolia plants are put to Nahuatl throughout America. various -food uses throughout its distribution area Archaeological vestiges point to a South in America. The unripe fruit is eaten boiled as a American origin, since the oldest remains are vegetable, while the flesh of the ripe 'fruit is used Peruvian, but biosystematics have not been ableto prepare sweets and soft or slightly alcoholic to confirm this hypothesis either. drinks. The seeds are also greatly valued and in Attempts at obtaining hybrids beyond the firstChiapas, Mexico, they are used with honey to generation with the other four cultivated speciesprepare desserts known as palanquetas. have failed and the few results obtained have In some regions of Mexico (and perhaps other required the use of special techniques suchas countries of the continent), the young stems (or embryo cultivation. These results have beencor- "runner tips") and also the flowers are eatenas a roborated by other studies which reveal that C. cooked vegetable, while the ripe fruit is usedas jicifolia shows considerable isoenzymatic andfodder for domestic animals. The :latter is the chromosomic differences compared with all the commonest use in the Old World where this taxa of the genus. species has been introduced. In addition to the foregoing observations, the The most important nutritional value is found recent discovery that Peponapis atratu does not in the seeds which providea considerable source appear to be a specific pollinator of C. ficheoliaof protein and oil. As indicated by its white has led to the suggestion that the wildancestor ofcolour, the flesh of the fruit is deficient in beta- Neglected(To)s: 1492frotii ci diflerent pervectire 75

, and has a moderate quantity of carbo-three lobate stigmas. The fruitis globose to hydrates and a low vitamin and content. ovoid-elliptical, with three colour patterns:i) Recent research in Chile has shown thatsome light or dark green, with or without longitudinal proteolytic enzymes from the flesh of C. ficifolia white lines or stripes towards theapex; fruit can be used to treat waste water from the ii) minutely spotted white andgreen; iii) white, industrial processing of .foods derived from fish. cream or flesh white. The flesh is sweet and the This discovery is of great- interest because of the seeds are ovate-elliptical, flattened, 15 to 25 x 7 reduction in costs that these industries couldto 12 mm, and a dark brown to black or creamy achieve by using enzymes which would replace white colour. those imported at present. In Japan and Germany, it has been usedas a Ecology and phytogeography support or rootstock for the winter production ofC.ficiMia is grown over a wide distributionarea cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) in greenhouses. from 1 000 to almost 3 000 m in practically all the mountain ranges of Latin America. The re- Botanical description striction of cultivation to areas of considerable C.ficifolia is a creeping or climbing plant, mon- altitude is a distinctive characteristic of C. ficifO- oecious, annualalthough persistent for a certain lia compared with other cultivated species of the period, giving the impression of being a short- genus, which can generally grow in a wider range lived perennialwithout swollen reserve roots. Itof ecological conditions (in the case of C. pepo is resistant to low temperatures but not to severe and C. moschata, from 8 to 2 300 m). frosts. It is villose to softly pubescent, with some short, sharp spines dispersed over the vegetativeGenetic diversity parts. It has 'five vigorous, slightly angular stems Limits of genetic stock. In view of the reproduc- and leaves with 5 to 25 cm petioles that are ovate- tive incompatibility of C. jicifolia with the other cordate to suborbicular-cordate, with or without species of the genus, it may be said that its genet- white spots on the surface, and have three toic stock is limited to itself. However, in other five rounded or obtuse, apiculate lobules, therespects this species is much less different than central one bigger than the lateral ones. Theyare other cultivated species of the genus, and have denticu late margins and three to four rami- there are no commercial cultivars. Among, fied tendrils. The flowers are pentamerous, soli- its most notable morphological variations are the tary, and axillary. The male flowers are long and coloration and size of its fruit and seeds. The pedicellate, have a campanulate calyx that is 5 to scant morphological variation of this species is 10 mm long and almost as wide,5to consistent with that observed in the patterns of

15 xI to 2 mm linear sepals and a tubular- isoenzymes studied so far. campanulate corolla that is rather broader to- From the agronomic point of view, it is possi- wards the base, 6 to 12 cm long and yellow to ble to acknowledge the existence of some genetic pale orange. They have three stamens. The fe-diversity for C. ficifolia for two reasons:

male flowers have sturdy peduncles, 3 to 5 cm a itis cultivated in a wide geographic range long, an ovoid to elliptical, multilocular ovary; where conditions are only relatively uniform sepals that are occasionally foliaceous and a co- as regards altitude, but different from the rolla that is somewhat larger than that of the male point of view of other local ecological .fac- flowers. They are of a thickened style and have tors; 76 Cucurbits

a itis grown both without distinction both season on more humid ground (valleys Or areas under agricultural systems with high compe- where the soil drainage is slightly deficient). In tition (for example, heavy rain maize fields) these cases, sowing is carried out in the and under others with less competition or early months of the year and the crop is harvested which allow a more intensive cultivation from the dry season (April) until that correspond- (for example, maize fields cultivated in the ing to summer (May to July). This has made it dry season on humid ground, vegetable gar- possible to ensure almost uninterrupted produc- dens and plots). tion throughout the year. However, none of these aspects has so far been The only form of propagation is the sowing of evaluated. seed, together with one of the traditional crops of Productivity, as regards the number of fruitsthis type of agriculture (maize, bean and other and the quantity of seeds per fruit, is anotherspecies of Cucurbita), or else cultivation in veg- aspect which possibly reflects the genetic diver-etable gardens along with other species or by sity of the species and which, again, is insuffi- itself. The ripe fruit is 'harvested and selected for ciently documented. Field observations haveseed. It can be stored for long periods (18 to revealed that some medium-sized fruits contain20 months) and it is frequently seen drying on the 500 or more seeds and that each plant can pro-roofs of farmers' houses. duce more than 50 fruits. BibliograOy Germplasm collections. Accessions of C fic ifo-Andrés, T.C. 1990. Biosystematics, theories on lia germplasm are the least abundant of all those the origin and breeding potential of Cucurbita existing for the cultivated species of Cucurbita. ficifolia. In D.M. Bates, R.W. Robinson & C. In addition, they are not very representative of its Jeffrey, eds. Biology and utilization of the geographical distribution. There are 338 acces- Cucurbitaceae, p.102-199. Ithaca, N.Y., sions to be found in America's gene banks; these, USA, Cornell University Press. added to another 82 deposited with institutions ofAzurdia, C.A. & González, M. 1986. Informe countries outside the continent, make a total of final del proyecto de recolección de algunos 420. However, many of the accessions are dupli- cultivos nativos de Guatemala. Guatemala, cates, which reduces their number by about half. University of San Carlos/ICTA/IBPGR. Bailey, L.H. The domesticated cucurbits. First Cultivca practices Paper. Genet. Herb., 2: 23-34. C ficifolia is a crop grown mainly in traditionalBates, D.M., Robinson, R.W. & Jeffrey, C., heavy rain agricultural systems, which shows eds. 1990. Biology and utilizationofthe Cu- that the start of the rainy season corresponds to curbitaceae. Ithaca, N.Y., USA, Cornell Uni- the sowing time, while 'harvesting takes place versity Press. from the end of September (young fruit andBukasov, S.M. 1981. Las plantas cultivadas flowers for vegetables) to Decemberor January en México, Guatemala y Colombia. Turri- (ripe fruit for seed and flesh). Insome regions alba, Costa Rica, GATIE-GTZ. (Spanish of Mexico, such as Mixteca Alta in Oaxaca,it translation by J. Leon) has been found that, in addition to being cultivat-Delgadillo, S.F., Garzon, T.J.A. & Vega, P.A. ed during the rainy seasonon heavily rain-fed 1989. Cucurbit viruses in Mexico:a survey. terrain, this species is also grown during the dry Fitopatología, 7(2): 136-139. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 77

Lira, R. 1990. Estudios taxonómico y eco geo- of a domesticated squash, Cucurbita argyro- gráfico de las Cucurbitáceas de Latino- sperma and its wild and weedy relatives. In américa.1st biannual report (jan.-Aug. D.M. Bates, R.W. Robinson & C. Jeffrey, eds. 1990). Rome, IBPGR. Biology and utilizationofthe Cucurbitaceae. Lira, R. 1991. Estudios taxonómico y ecogeo- Ithaca, N.Y., USA, Cornell University Press. grafico de las Cucurbitáceas de Latino- Paris, H.S. 1989. Historical records, origins and américa. 2nd biannual report (Aug. 1990-jan. development of the edible cultivar groups of 1991). Rome, IBPGR. Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae). Econ. Bot., Lira, R. 1991. Estudios taxonómico y ecogeo- 43: 423-443. gráfico de las Cucurbitáceas de Latino-Whitaker, T.W. & Davis, G.N. 1962. Cucar- américa. 3rd biannual ,report (jan.-Aug. bits, botany, cultivation and utilization. Lon- 1991). Rome, IBPGR. don, Leonard Hill. Met-rick, L.C. 1990. Systematics and evolution Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 79

1) yote

(--2,chll° ull )

Botanical name: Sechi um edule (Jacq.)Sw. records concur in the finding that the widest I; Cucurbitaceae variation of S. edule under cultivation is found Common names. English: chayote, Madeirabetween southern Mexico and Guatemala. The marrow, vegetable pear; Nahuatl: chayotegeographical distribution of the wild relatives of (Mexico, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama); S. Mule also testifies to the Mesoamerican origin Spanish: cidrayota (Colombia), gayotaof this crop. (Peru), huisquil, giiisquil or uisquil (Mexico The closest relatives to S. edule are: [Chiapas], Guatemala, El Salvador), papa the so-called wild forms of S. eclule, the del aire, cayota (Argentina); Portuguese: taxonomic positions of which are unre- chocho, chuchu, xuxu, machiche, machuchu solved since they are distributed in an ap- (Brazil); French: christophine, mirliton parently natural way in the Mexican states (Haiti, Guadeloupe, Bermuda, Trinidad and of Veracruz, Puebla, Hidalgo, Oaxaca and Tobago, United States [Louisiana], French Chiapas; Guyana) S. compositum, a species restricted to south- ern Mexico (Chiapas) and Guatemala; Origin and domestication S.hintonii, a species endemic to Mexico, Unlike other crops, there is no archaeological until recently considered to be extinct and evidence to indicate how long S. edule has been which grows in the states of México and cultivated. Its fleshy fruit, which has a single Guerrero and possibly in Jalisco; seed with a smooth testa, does not allow it to be a new species of the Sechium selection preserved and, as far as is known, no pollen which grows in the north of the state of grains or other structure of this species have been Oaxaca. identified on archaeological sites. From the foregoing it has been possible to Chroniclers from the time of the conquestcorroborate the fact that S. Mule is a species record that, in Mexico at least, the chayote has which was undoubtedly domesticated within the been cultivated since pre-Columbian times. As cultural area of Mesoamerica, and specifically in regards linguistic references, the common names the region lying between southern Mexico and of native origin are concentrated mainly in Guatemala. Mexico and Central America. E,xploration Chayote cultivation is widely distributed in Mesoamerica. It was introduced into the Antilles and South America between the eighteenth and The author of this chapter is R. Lira Saade (National nineteenth centuries. The first botanical descrip- Herbarium of Mexico, Mexico City), who wishes to tion mentioning the name Sechumi was in fact thank E. Valverde and E. Chinchilla (CINDE, Costa Rica). done in 1756 by P. Brown who referred to plants 80 Chayote

grown in Jamaica. During this same period, thetested in modern studies, while their greatffec- chayote was introduced into Europe whence ittiveness in curing kidney diseases has been was taken to Africa, Asia and Australia, while its known since colonial times on the Yucatan pe- introduction into the United States dates from theninsula, where these ailments are very common. late nineteenth century. Soianical description Uses and nutritional value S. edule is a perennial, monoecious climber, with The chayote is used mainly for human consump- thickened roots and slender, branching stems up tion. The fruit, stems and young leaves as well as to 10 m long. Its leaves are on silicate petioles of the tuberizal portions of the roots are eaten as a8 to 15 cm in length, they are ovate-cordate to vegetable, both alone and plain boiled, and as ansuborbicular, measure 8 to 18 x 9 to 22 cm, are ingredient of numerous stews. Because of its slightly lobate (with three to five angular lobes) softness, the fruit has been used for children'sand have minutely denticulate margins and three food, juices, sauces and pasta dishes. In Mexico,to five divided tendrils. an 'attempt has been made to increase the life of The flowers are unisexual, normally pentamer- the fruit by drying it. The results have been ous, coax illary and with ten nectaries in the form positive and have enabled jams and other sweetsof a pore at the base of the calyx. The staminate to be prepared while also producing dried fruitflowers grow in ax Wary racemose which can be used as a vegetable after a certainthat are 10 to 30 cm long, and the groups of time. Because of their flexibility and strength, the flowers are distributed at intervals along the ra- stems have been used in the craft manufacture chis. The calyx is patteliform and 5 mm wide, the of baskets and hats. In India, the fruit and roots sepals triangular and 3 to 6 mm long, the are not only used as human Tfood but also astriangular, greenish to greenish-white and meas- fodder. ure 4 to 8 x 2 to 3 mm. There are five stamens, and The edible parts of S. edule have a lower fibre, the filaments are fused almost along their total protein and vitamin content than other plants. length, forming a thickened column which sepa- However, the and carbohydrate content isrates at the apex into three or five short branches. high, chiefly in the case of the young stems, rootThe pistillate flowers are normally on the same and seed, while the micronutrients and macronu- axilla as the staminate flowers; they are usually trients supplied by the fruit are adequate. The solitary but are occasionally in pairs; the ovary is fruit and particularly the seeds are rich in aminoglobose, ovoid or piriform, glabrous, inerin and acids such as aspartic acid, glutamic acid, unilocular; the is as in the staminate alanine, arginine, cysteine, phenylalanine, gly-flowers but has slightly different dimensions; the cine, histidine, :isoleucine, leucine, methioninestyles are fused in a slender column and the (only in the fruit), proline, serine, tyrosine, thre- nectaries are generally less evident than in the onine and valine. staminate flowers. The fruit is solitaryor rarely The chayote also has medicinaluses; infusionsoccurs in pairs; it is viviparous, fleshy and some- of the leaves are used to dissolve kidneystones times longitudinally silicateor crestate; it is of and to assist in the treatment of arteriosclerosisvery different shapes and sizes, indumentum, and hypertension; infusions of the fruitare used number and type of spines; it is white and yellow- to alleviate urine retention. The cardiovascular ish, or pale green to dark green witha pale green properties of the infusions of leaves have been to whitish flesh that is bitter in the wild plants and Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 81

FIGURE 6

Chayote (Sechium edule) fruit shapes

003'94 .)022b1_, '.3t3 4aiil 4).4 82 Chayole

not bitter in the cultivated ones. The seed is ovoidGenetic diversity and compressed with a soft: and smooth testa. Few cultivated species display the great diversity of shapes, sizes, ornamentation, armature, indu- Ecology and phytogeography mentum and colours as those -found in the fruit of S. edule is grown traditionally in many regions ofthe S. edule. However, this diversity, which is the world, preferably between 800 and I 800 m present in the most varied combinations, has altitude. In many regions there are variants 'adapt- made it difficult to define cultivars. When refer- ed to cultivation at sea level (in Rio de Janeiroence is made to the different types of S. edtde, and Yucatán) in other regions it occurs abovetherefore, itis rather in connection with local 2 ()0() m (in Bolivia and in the states of Oaxacaraces or variants. In addition to morphological and Chihuahua in Mexico). The wild taxa closestdiversity, variants exist in the fruiting periods. to S. Mule show a similar distribution of alti- An example of this has been observed in Oaxaca tudes, since they grow between 50 and 2 100 m. and Chiapas where local variants can yield be- The chayote is cultivated in a more intensive way tween one and four harvests a year. This type of and for commercial purposes in Costa Rica, Gua-variation has also been cited in the case of other temala, the and Mexico. regions. The range cultivated is minimal and always in The considerable diversity 1.'armed by tradi- accordance with consumer requirements. tional growers contrasts with the relative The floral biology of S. edule has been studied homogeneity observed in fruit produced on com- in detail: there are various patterns in the struc- mercial plantations. In these cases, the fruit must ture and sexual expression of the staminate andcomply with the quality requirements demanded pistillate flowers, which seem to be determinedby the market: piriform, light green, smooth, by genetic, environmental and seasonal factorsabout 15 cm long and 450 g in weight; with no and by the age of the plants. physical damage or blemishes caused by patho- Pollination is entomogamous. Among thegens; and with a suitable texture and sweet and most efficient pollinators are species of FlatiVe pleasant flavour. bees of the genus Trigona chiefly in areas of The wild relatives closest to S. Mule are medium and low altitudes and which are freeS. c:oniposittun and S. hintonii, whose distribu- from pesticides, and the honeybee (Apis melli- tion area is in Mexico and Guatemala. Because of fera) on commercial plantations where the use ofa lack of agronomic evaluations, these species pesticides is very 'frequent. Secondary polli- have not been used in genetic improvement pro- nators include wasps of the genera Polybia, grammes which are so necessary in the search for Synoeca and Parachartegus. sources of disease resistance. The .fruit of S. edule is viviparous, viz, the seeds germinate inside the fruit even when it isGermplasm collections% The germination char- still on the plant. This characteristic does flotacteristics ()F S. edule seeds do not allow them to occur in any of the wild species, in which thebe preserved using simple, orthodox methods. seeds germinate asynchronically after .falling toThis means that the specimens have to be pre- the ground. A possible explanation for the vivi- served in field collections which require careful parism of the cultivate species is that theprocesshandling. of domestication may have resulted insuppres- This type of limitation is evidenced by the sion of the dormancy mechanisms. disappearance of some of the few collections of Neglected crops: 14921.rom a different perspective 83

the genus Sechium. Between 1988 and 1990, thein the soil that is big enough to allow the roots to biggest collection of cultivated S.Mulein theattain maximum development. Next to thesow- world (at CATIE in Turrialba, Costa Rica)as ing plots, a 'frame of wood or other materials is well as other smaller but equally important col-commonly erected so that the plant cangrow on lections (for example at CIFAP in Celaya, Mex-it quickly. For the same reasons, sowing is also ico) were lost. Fortunately, there are stillfrequently carried out close to a tree. During the institutions in the world that are endeavouring to first weeks of development, the amount ofcare preserve this important genetic stock, at leastgiven is relatively high (irrigation, fertilization insofar as the variation of the cultivated species is with animal or chicken , etc.), although concerned. Thus, in Mexico there is the collec-attention to the root (protection against physical tion in the hands of the UACH in Veracruz, with damage and application of organic fertilizers) is around 150 specimens of cultivated types fromconsidered of great importance throughout the Puebla, Veracruz, Oaxaca and Chiapas. This isplant's life cycle. the only collection which currently preserves Sowing can be done at any time of the year, plants of some of the most important wil.d rela-although it generally takes place at the beginning tives of the chayote, such as S.compositumand of the rainy season. The average length of the the wild types of S.edule.Two other institutions plants' productive cycle is three years or, in caring for collections of S.Muleare the Instituto exceptional cases, eight. Superior de Ciencias Agropecuarias of Nicara- On commercial plantations, sowing .is carried gua (Centro Experimental Campos Azules) andout using rooted cuttings or selected seed. The the Centro Nacional de Pesquisas de Hortalizas, plants are sown on permanent beds with trellises EMBRAPA, Brazil. and are laid out at distances that allow the easiest possible harvesting, transport to cold-storage Cultivation practices rooms and packaging. On the commercial type S. eduleis grown in the traditional way on family of plantations, chemical and foliar fertilizers plots and in backyards and vegetable gardens. are generally used as well as herbicides and The viviparous characteristic of its fruit is famil- nematicides. The leading commercial producer iar to peasant farmers, so that l'ruit selected forand exporter of chayote fruit is Costa Rica, 'fol- consumption is keptwithout being allowed to lowed by Guatemala, Mexico and the Dominican germinateby a small cut or puncture made in Republic. the embryos, while those selected for seed are simply allowed to ripen until it is decided to plant Prospects for improvement them. In spite of the fact that the whole of the S.edule The normal and most effective .form of propa- plant can be used and with numerous applica- gation is from seed. The most widespread sowing tions (parts of the plant are used for different practice consists of planting one or more wholepurposes), in several countries the majority of fruits. However, on some smallholdings the seedthese uses have not become widespread and ways is carefully removed and sown in pots or other have not been devised to make them accessible to media that enable it to be handled for subsequent-sectors of the population other than the peasant transplantation in the final sowing plot. community. In areas of traditional production, the sowing The most widespread uses at all levels is that of plot is prepared beforehand by making a hollow the -fruit as a table vegetable and in the prepara- 84 Ch a_ra re

tion of some industrialized foods. Commercial Eil[Dibgraphy demand requires a morphologically homogene-Cru:-León, A. 1985-86. ¿Chayote o cruzas ous production which rules out the possibility of intergenéricas? Hallazgo y características. the considerable range of 1'.ruit produced under Rev. Geogr. Agrie., 9-10: 100-106. traditional cultivation systems appearing on theCruz-León, A. & Querol-Lipcovich, D. 1985. market. However, as the standards required for Catálogo de recursos genéticos c/c chayote export are very different from those accepted for (Sechium edule Sir.) en el Centro Regional the product for local consumption, it is not very Universitario Oriente. Chapingo, Mexico, likely that the usual varieties will be abandoned UACH. and that a serious genetic erosion will occur in the Flores, E. 1989. El chayoteSechium edule species. A plan to intensify and diversify S. Mule Swartz (Cucurbitaceae). Rev. Biol. Trop., production would have to include the following 37(1): 1-54. projects: Jeffrey, C. 1978. Further notes on Cucurbita- The establishment of permanent gene banks ceae. IV. Some New World taxa. Kew Bu//., in several 'localities of Mesoamerica to 33: 347-380. maintain varietal diversity, wild populations Lira, R. 1988. Cucurbitaceae de la península de and related congeners. These collections can Yucatdn: taxonomía y emobotanica. Instituto be used to evaluate resistance to diseases, Nacional de Investigaciones sobre Recursos type of growth and organoleptic characteris- BiOticos, Jalapa, Veracruz. (thesis) tics of the fruit. They will allow growers to Lira, R. 1990. Estudios taxonómico y ecogeo- be supplied with new sowing material and grafico de las Cucurbitáceas de Latino- will be used as a basis for genetic improve- américa.1st biannual report (Jan.-Aug. ment. 1990). Rome, IBPGR. Programmes for selecting varieties with aLira, R. 1991. Estudios taxonómico yecogeo- high root yield or a high production of young grcifico de las Cucurbitáceas de Latino- stems. Both are popularly accepted consum- américa. 2nd biannual report (Aug. 1990-Jan. er items, with a high nutritional value and 1991). Rome, IBPGR. potential use as a basic material inagro- Maffioli, A. 1981. Recursos genéticos de chayo- industries. te, Sechi um edule (.1racq.) Swartz (Cueurbita- The development of vegetative propagat ion eecie). Turrialba, Costa Rica, CATIE-GTZ. methods that will provide growers with sow- Newstrom, L. 1989. Reproductive biology and ing material at reasonable prices. evolution of the cultivated chayote Sechiuni Basic studies on the most important diseases Mule: Cucurbitaceae. in G.H. Bock & Y.B. (Ascochyta phaseolorum, Myeovellosiella Linhart, eds. Evolutionary ecology qf plants, encurbiticola, Fusarium oxysporum and p. 491-509. Boulder, Colo., USA, Westview. complexes of these and other species),par- Newstrom, L. 1990. Origin and evolutionof ticularly those which attack the fruitand chayote, Sechium edule. In D.M. Bates,R.W. which cause 35 to 40 percent of the rejects in Robinson & C. Jeffrey, eds. Biology and utili- commercial production. zation of the Cucurbitaceae,p.141-149. Identification of problems in postharvest Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press. handling, packaging and storage duringthe marketing process. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 85

Cuart4rd ap[pes (Ardnompp.)

There are an estimated 2 200 species of The fruit of the must not be seen Annonaceae in the world. These include numer- solely as a luxury item for rich constuners, but ous fruit-trees, especially of the genera Annona also as part of the diet of indigenous populations. and Ro/finja; the majority of Amiona species andThis .fruit is not only special because of its good all the Ro/finja species originate from the New flavour; it is also highly nutritional. Its food value World. varies considerably, but most forms have an Many of these species were carefully cultivat- abundance of , proteins, calcium, ed by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica, the phosphorus, iron, thiamine, niacin and ribofla- inter-Andean valleys, the Amazon region and vin, while some are rich in magnesium, ascorbic other areas. Other Annonaceous fruits of the New acid and carotene. If they were plentiful and sold World include species of , Duguetia,at reasonable prices, they would considerably Fusaca and Porcelia. These fruit-trees have a improve the nutrition of many people. considerable diversity and degree of adaptation Annona cherimola Miller, the cherimoya, is to different environments and are valuable mate- thought to originate from cold but frost-free val- rial for hybridization, selection and vegetative leys of the Andes at an altitude of between 700 propagation studies. The high nutritional value and 2 400 m. of the fruit, its very distinct flavours and aromas Excellent cultivars are known, all produced by and its attractive shapes and colours justify these vegetative propagafion, which are planted on a efforts. commercial scale in Spain, Chile, Australia, Isra- There are three species, Annona cherimola,el, the United States (California, Florida) and A. muricata and A. squamosct, which are margin- the island of 'Madeira. The fruit is sold in the al in several regions of tropical America; in other supermarkets of many countries and is highly regions, the technology for producing and han- regarded. dling the product has been developed to such a The commercial cultivars include Bay Ott, degree that they cannot really be included in thisChaffey, Dr White, Libby, Nata, Orton and category. The known techniques and selected Spain. cultivars can be extended to regions where culti- In the regions where the cherimoya is still a vation isstill underdeveloped. Another three,marginal crop, new methods must be applied: A. diversiPlia, A. reticulata and A. set eroderma, artificial pollination, grafting of superior culti- however, have been marginalized in spite of their vars either on to stock of the same species or on to intrinsic value and potential as fruit-trees. stock of A. squamosa or A. glabra; the control of anthracnosis and seed-boring .insects; the control of green leafhoppers; and fruit handling and The author of this chapter is H. Mandeem (Boynton Beach, Florida, USA). packaging. 86 CHStard uppleS

A. nuiricata L. (English: soursop; Spanish: to the best cherimoyas, although it has a higher guanábana; Portuguese: graviola) is possiblysugar content. At present, crosses are being made

nativeLothe Antilles and to the northern part ofbetween cultivars of cherimoya and A. squaniosa South America. It grows between 0 and 1 000 m Red Sugar and M-2, with the aim of obtaining altitude. Its commercial production has been de-atemoyas with red- or pink-skinned fruit, which veloped in Brazil, Venezuela, Costa Rica andis more attractive than the green fruit of those other countries for local consumption and export. currently available. The most famous green cul- Cultivation practices have been established in the tivars are Gefner in Israel and the United States production areas mentioned; they include the and African Pride in Australia. control of insects and diseases and protection of the fruit in plastic bags. There is a great deal of variation in fruit size and sugar content. Trees ofAnnona diversifolia higher quality or resistance must be grafted on Botanical name: All11011C1 cliversifolia Saff. to stocks of the same species of A. purpurea Family: Annonaceae and A. montana or, with great difficulty, on Common names. English: ilama; Spanish: A. glabra. anona blanca; other: ilama, ilamatzapotl, A. squaniosa L. (English: sugar apple, sweet- izlama, papausa sop, custard apple; Spanish: sarumuyo, an6n; Portuguese: ata, pinha) seems to be native to This fruit-tree, which is very highly regarded in southeastern Mexico, in dry areas and betweenits area of origin, has not been developed as it 0 and 1 000 m, although it grows well in regions deserves, since it is virtually planted exclusively of medium humidity. It has spread throughout the by indigenous peoples. Although itis greatly tropics and displays great variability in India. It is esteemed and fetches a good price on the markets propagated by seed with satisfactory results;of Guatemala, its cultivation does not attract however, commercial cultivars are grafted. Ofother agricultural owners, nor do the latter obtain these, Red Sugar, with a red skin and white 'flesh, bank credit for this tree, whereas they do obtain it is recommended. The main problems are seed-for exotic fruit-trees. Other factors that add to its boring insects, the green leafhopper, the tenden- neglect are: the tree's low productivity; the diffi- cy towards mummification of the fruit andculty of seed germination (although methods to harvesting and packaging difficulties caused by encourage germination artificially are already the fruit's lack of firmness. known); and the short shelf-life of the fruit at the The name "atemoyas", derived from "ata" (inmarkets (two to three days at ambient tempera- Portuguese) and "cherimoya", is given to hybrids ture). If it is left to ripen on the tree, the fruit between these two species. Several cultivars are splits, but if it is picked in this state and stored at known which are sown commercially in the normal temperature, the splits scar over. In Gua- United States (Florida) and Australia. The best temala, it is customary to pick the fruit split in atemoyas combine adaptation to low altitudes this way and to ripen them subsequently in crates and hot climate and the high productivity andor other closed places. good flavour of A. squamosa with the firm skin, low flesh/seed ratio and the flavour andaroma of Botanical description A. cherimola so that, from the standpoint ofA. cliversifolia is distinguished .from otherspe- quality and packaging, the product is comparablecies of Annona in that it has two classes of leaf: Neglected crops: I492 from a different perspective 87

FIGURE 7 Custard apples: A) Annona scleroderma; B) A. diversifolia; C) A. reticulate; D) A. cherimola; E) A. muricata;

F) A. squamosa

4 c m C

E 88 Custard apples

the usual obovate, glabrous leaves with a ; have big fruit. (These cultivars have been and leaves in the form of round, deciduous bracts bred for Florida.) without a petiole, which grow on the base of the Imery (bred in El Salvador) has big fruit that small branches. The undersides of the leaves, has a thinner skin, low prominences, is pink- small branches and fruit have a powdery, whitish ish green (greyish brown when ripe) and has appearance, which is more noticeable in the pink flesh with bolder spots. white-fleshed varieties. Pajapita has a soft, pink surface (brown The flowers have three outer petals that are 2 to when ripe) and bright-pink flesh. 5 cm long, and three minute inner petals; the Nilito has a slightly irregular surface, which colour is a varietal characteristic and ranges from is bluish green, and red flesh. pink to purplish red. Roman has smaller fruit with a hard skin, The fruit, which is about 12 cm long, has which is bluish green with pink spots, and white, pink or reddish flesh, with a typical aroma purple flesh. and a sweet, exquisite flavour which, according Genova white has a smooth, thin, whitish to most people, is superior to that of the cher- green skin, and white flesh. imoya. The fruit is very resistant and sometimes Efrain has up to 200 fruits per tree. completely immune to attack from seed-boring Guatemalan markets sell an Hama that has insects. bluish green fruit, with swirling marks such as those in a Van Gogh painting, and delicious Ecology and phytogeography bright-red flesh which is easily separated from The ilama grows between 0 and 1 800 m on thethe seeds. The trees from which this fruit comes Pacific slope from central Mexico to El Salvador, have not yet been studied. but it is sown more intensively between 200 and The only region to be evaluated as regards 600 m in southwestern Guatemala. This regiongenetic erosionis southwestern Guatemala, has a pronounced dry season (December to where the problem does not seem to be serious. March), with an annual rainfall of between 1 000There are no gene banks, nor are any preservation and 1 400 mm and very fertile volcanic soils. techniques known other than live collections. The most promising areas for future exploration Genetic diversity are southwestern Guatemala and the state of A. diversifolia is grown alone in vegetable gar- Chiapas in Mexico. dens with few trees, and a wide variability is noted. This is particularly expressed in the char- Cultivation practices acteristics of its fruit: its colour (see list of culti- The ilama is only grown together with other fruit- vars); its texture, which can range from slightly trees, on the patios of houses or on smallholdings pasty lo juicy, soft or with concentrationsbelonging lo indigenous peoples. Itis always of harder grain; and its sweet taste, witha typi- propagated by seed with a long dormancy period cal aroma. Following is a list of A. diversifolia which is difficult to interrupt. The seeds should cultivars: not be sown without being pretreated to interrupt Fairchild, Rosendo Pérez, Guillermo anddormancy, such as soaking them in a solution of Gramajo have a thick-skinned, greyishgibberellic acid, exposing them to thesun, im- green fruit with prominent round areoles andmersing them in hot water or storing them fortwo pink flesh. Rosendo Pérez and Gramajo to three months. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different per.spective 89

Prospects fc.)r improvement lize of a wild variety, A. reticulata var. primige- In the case of A. diversifolia, urgent work is nia, and also of a very wide variability of culti- needed in the following areas: vars suggests that this zone is the sPecies' area vegetative propagation, by grafting, of the of origin. It has been introduced in other regions best varieties, using various stocks andof the American tropics and Southeast Asia, grafting methods; without achieving a level of importancecompa- effective interruption of seed dormancy; rable to that of A. cherimola or A.squamosa. picking and commercial handling of the Of the causes of A. reticulata's current margin- fruit; alization, two seem to be the most notable: repro- increasing the production period (july-duction by seed, which results in many trees August) by selecting early and late varieties; producing much smaller fruit; and the attack of the establishment of gene banks, at least in the seed weevil which lays its eggs in the young localities of the Pacific area of Central fruit. When the adult insect develops, it bores America and Mexico; tunnels through the flesh, causing mycotic infec- stepping up exploration of the species' pro- tions and a consequent deterioration of the fruit. duction areas in Mexico, Guatemala and The most attractive aspects of this species are: El Salvador; its pleasant-tasting fruit, which is generally hybridization with other species of Annonasweet and creamy; the relatively small volume for the production of more adaptabletaken up by the skin and seed; and the plant's varieties; modest soil requirements. research on stock of the related wild species A. rnacroprophyllata, from Guatemala andBotanical description El Salvador; A. reticulata is a low tree with an open, irregular research into the possibility that .the absence crown and slender, glabrous leaves which in of mycorrhizae or other soil factors are re- some varieties are long and narrow, 10 to 20 x 2 sponsible for the growth of this species in to 7 cm, straight and pointed at the apex; and in other regions of Mesoamerica with 'favoura-other varieties wrinkled and up to 10 cm wide. ble climate and soils, and into the possibleThe flowers are generally in groups of three or use of grafting in these cases. four, with three long outer petals and three very small inner ones. The fruit is heart-shaped or spherical and 8 to 15 cm in diameter; according Ariiiiona reticulate to the cultivar, the flesh varies from juicy and 2iotanical name: A1111011a reticulcaa L. very aromatic to hard with a repulsive taste. Annonaceae There is a wide variability in the presence of Common names. English: bullock's heart,groups of hard cells that are similar to grains of custard apple, sugar apple; Spanish: anona, sand. Both the outside and inside colour varies anona colorada, anona rosada, corazón; according to the cultivar. Portuguese: coracdo de boi; other: cahuex, pox, qualtzapoft, tzumuy Ecology and phytogeography A. reticulata grows between 0 and 1 500 m in the Although it is said that A. reticulata is a native ofareas of Central America that have alternating the Antilles, the presence in Guatemala and Be- seasons, and has spread to South America. How- 90 C'Itsiard apples

ever, it is in the former region that the varietiesrisks of genetic erosion. It is possible that more previously classified as species are to be found: intensive exploration in Belize, Guatemala and primigenia, already mentioned; and littescens,El Salvador might allow new cultivars to be the yellow custard apple which grows from Mex- found. ico to Costa Rica. Cultivation practices Genetic diversity A. reticulata is generally propagated by seed, the In Florida (United States) superior cultivars 1-tave germination rate of which ranges from low to been selected, especially from Belize and Guate- medium. Grafting is usually done on stock of the mala. They differ in the characteristics of their same species. The fruit is harvested after its -fruit and even in their compatibility with stocks. colour changes patterns although in some culti- Tikal is of excellent quality and mediumvars this does not occur and ripeness is deter- yield; its flesh is bright-red, except in the mined by feel. The skin is very thin and the fruit white areas surrounding the seeds. must therefore be handled carefully. Most 'fruit is Canul has a medium .fruit with a waxy, shiny produced for family consumption and it is not dark-red surface and purplish red flesh; it iscommonly found on the markets outside Guate- very aromatic and deliciously sweet with mala. The comtnercial future of this species de- -few concretions of hard cells. pends on two factors: the establishment of Sartenaya has a medium 'fruit with a waxy, grafted trees of high-yielding cultivars with fruit shiny red surface and pink flesh with aof a high quality and good appearance; and the magnificent taste and texture. Althoug,h the adoption of control practices such as using pro- fruit is not as attractive in appearance astective bags or eradicating seed-boring insects. that of the previous two cultivars, the tree is sturdier. San Pablo has a long, large fruit with an Annona scleroderma opaque, light-red surface. The flesh is dark- Botanical name: Annona sclerodernia Saff. pink with a good aroma and taste. It is a Fain uy: Annonaceae vigorous, productive cultivar. Common names. English: poshte; Spanish: Benque has a big conical fruit with a dark- chirimoya, anona del monte; other: cawesh, red surface and very tasty dark-pink flesh. calmex, poshté Caledonia has a small .fruit with a dark surface;itis very attractive to cochinealA. scleroderma is one of the least-known fruit- insects (Philophaedra sp.), which are nottrees of the genus; it is grown mainly in south- very common in other varieties. The flesh is western Guatemala and is notable for the pink and has an excellent taste. structure of its fruit which, unlike the other culti- Chonox has a medium -fruit with a red skinvated species, has a very tough skin, allowing it and juicy, very tasty pink flesh; itis very to be handled much more easily and making it productive and, for this reason, often has resistant to insect attack. The fruitmay be cut and low-quality :fruit.It produces abundantthe flesh removed with aspoon. Its potential flowers in groups of up to 16. value is in its high-quality flesh, hard skin and No selections have been made from yellow high yield. It could become an export item anda custard apple and there are apparentlyno great product for wide local consumption. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 91

However, the height of the tree (which does not others have an irregular, corrugated surface. The facilitate fruit harvesting), the fact that the fruit'fruit also seems to vary in the thickness of its is attacked by birds and the defoliation causedskin, which is on average 3 mm, but slightly by wind are an obstacle to exploitation of this thicker and tougher in the smooth-skinned varie- species. ties. The Pacific varieties are green or green with brown spots, while those from the Atlantic side Botanical description have a thicker, reddish green skin. A. scleroderma is a tall tree which reaches 15 to No cultivars are known to be established by 20 m and has tough, lanceolate leaves measuring vegetative propagation. Genetic erosion is evi- 10 to 25 x 5 to 8 cm. They are shiny on the upperdent, since it is a crop with a restricted area in a side, slightly pubescentonthe underside andhighly populated region where land is required have ftagile, 3 cm long petioles. The flowers are .for building or cultivating coffee. Trees which greenish yellow, the outer petals have a longitu- were sown on coffee plantations have been de- dinal prominence which arisesin the smallstroyed or deformed because they produce too branches or in groups in the old part of the thick much shade or because they were damaged by branches. The .fruit occurs in compact sphericalchildren picking their fruit. groups, is 5 to 10 cm in diameter and generally Genetic erosion is very pronounced in A. scle- .falls off when ripe, without a noticeable colourroderma; there are no gene banks and a few change. The cream-coloured flesh has a bitter- plants have been introduced into Australia and sweet flavour and a soft texture. the United States (Florida). For this reason, mate- rial urgently needs to be collected in southwest- Ecology and phytogeography ern Guatemala (from San Felipe, San Andrés This species apparently grows wild on the Atlan- Villa Seca, San Sebastián, Colomba, El Tum- tic slope from Campeche to Honduras but is only bador, etc.). grown in southwestern Guatemala between 300 and 1 000 m on the Pacific slope. In this area,Cultivation practices which is called the 'Bocacosta and has very fertile Fresh seeds take about a month to germinate, volcanic soils, there is a short dry season and an whether they are collected and dried on the same annual rainfall of around 4 000 mm. The plant day or stored in bags for a week or two. They do fruits between late December and April, with a not need to be soaked or treated in any other way. maximum yield around the beginning ofSeeds that have been stored for two to three February. months need about six months to germinate. In Australia, A. scleroderma grows well when Genetic diversity Grafted on to stocks of A. muricata and Rollinia The most visible characteristic of variability is inmucosa. When grafted material is planted,it the .fruit's surface. The areoles are generally must be borne in mind that the trees should be marked by raised edges which 'form a hexagon. In pruned so that a wide crown remains to facilitate some varieties, the edges are reduced to a criss-fruit harvesting. This also reduces exposure to cross of brown lines on a smooth, green surface; wind and bird damage. in other varieties, there is a central prominence The shade requirements of young plants on each areole; in some varieties there are well- shade seems to promote growthneed to be developed edges and prominences, while stillstudied. However, trees located in sunny posi- 92 Custard apples

tions would have a lower, more compact habit.Fairchild Tropical Garden. 1990. Annona is- Trees grown from seed begin to produce at around sue. Trop. Fruit World, 1(4): 93-131. four years when they reach a height of 4 to 6 m. Leal, F. 1990. Sugar apple. In S. Nagy, P.E. Shaw & W.F. Wardowsky, eds. Fruits q'trop- Prospects for improvement ical and subtropical origin. Lake Alfred, Fla., The advantages of A. sclerodern7a as a fruit for USA, FSS. local consumption and export are its high pro-Lizama, L.A. & Reginato, G. 1990. Cherimoya. ductivity and the .fact that the flavour and aroma In S. Nagy, P.E. Shaw & W.F. Wardowsky, of its flesh are not as strong as in other Annona eds. Fruits of tropical and subtropical origin. species, but are different and pleasant. The abun- Lake Alfred, Fla., USA, FSS. dant, cream-coloured or creamy grey flesh sepa- Morton, J. 1987. Fruits of warm climates. rates easily from the seeds and it does not have Greensboro, N.C., USA, Media. sandy grains or fibres that adhere to the seedPopenoe, W. 1920. Manualoftropical and sub- membrane. The thick, leathery skin does not split tropical fruits. New York, Macmillan. and is very resistant to insect attack and ordinarySafford, W.E. 1912. Annona diversifolia, a packaging and transport. custard-apple of the Aztecas. .1. Wash. Agric. Activities that merit close attention regarding Sci., 2: 118-125. A. scleroderma are: Safford, W.E. 1914. Classification of the genus the collection and evaluation of genetic Annona with descriptions of new and imper- material; fectly known species. Contr. US Natl. Herb., propagation through grafting on to stock of 18(1): 1-68. the same species or related species to obtain Sanewski, G.M. 1988. Growing custard apples. low trees with an open crown, which 'facili- Queensland Department of Primary Indus- tate fruit harvesting; tries and Energy, Australia. running small market gardens or interplant-Schwarzenberg, C. 1946. Polinización artificial ed crops; del chirimoyo. Agric. Tec. (Chile), 4: 156- marketing, since it is a "new" fruit even for 172. Guatemalan markets; packaging and transport technology to pro- long the good condition of the fruit and its acceptance on the market.

Bibliography Ahmed, M.S. 1936. Pollination and selection in Annona squamosa and Annona cherimola. Ministry of Agric. Egypt Bull., 157. Campbell, C.W. & Popenoe, J. 1968. Effect of gibberellic acid on seed dormancy of A1111011a diversifolia Saff. PrOC. Trop. Reg. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci., 11: 31-36. Caiiizares, J. 1966. Las frutas anonaceas. Ha- vana. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 93

Gralin amaranths (Am ranthuasp- )

Amaranthus cruen tus, Amaranthus vated over 6 000 years ago. They reached their hypochondriacus maximum use when grown by the Aztecs in the Botanical names: Amaranthus cruentus L., valley of Anáhuac; their cultivation began to fall Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. off in the colonial period, and Huautli was so Family: firmly established in the food, religion and agri- Common names. English: prince's feather; cultural practices of pre-Cortés Mexico that even Spanish: huautli, alegría (Mexico), bledosa bird which sought its seeds at harvest time was (Mexico, Guatemala), amaranto named uauhtotl, which comes from "huautli" and the word for bird, tototl. A drink () Within the great genetic diversity existing inwhich was prepared with water and huautli or Mesoamerica, which is the centre of origin andprince's feather was called uauhatolli and dispersion of numerous species, amaranths occu-the flour filled with its leaf was called py a leading position. They constituted one of thehuauquillamalmaliztli (a dish of bledos [prince's five essential plants in the basic diet of the pre- feather] ). Its cultivation practices also Hispanic Mesoamerican civilizations and werehad a special nomenclature: uauhteca was the an essential part of Aztec tributes. sowing of its seeds, uauhpuztequemi was the It is difficult to classify the amaranth into just name of its harvest and the unshelled seed was one of the three main groups of plant foods called uauhtlipolocayo. In the Aztec religion, normally recognized by nutrition specialists: months were designated in which a dough called cereals and tubers rich in carbohydrates;tzoalli was prepared with the flour of prince's legumes and other sources of plant protein; feather seeds and the honey of maguey. Depend- fruit and vegetables rich in iron and , ing on the monthly festivity involved, the dough especially A and C. In fact, amaranths belong towas used to mould different figures ranging from all three since, in addition to their leaves beingsmall pyramids to images of mountain deities. used as a vegetable, the chief interest in theirThese idols were handed around in pieces among cultivation and use lies in their seeds which, asthose present and were thus eaten. In the eyes of well as carbohydrates, contain between 12 and 16 the colonizers, ceremonies of this type seemed percent proteins, with a high content. similar to the Christian Eucharist, hence its culti- Archaeological findings in Tehuacán in Pue-vation was persecuted and its consumption pro- bla, Mexico, show that they were already culti- hibited. There were actually several factors which act- ed synergistically to reduce the cultivation of The authors of this chapter are G.A. ItOrbide (Instituto prince's feather; mainly its replacement by other Politecnico Nacional, Durango, Mexico) and M. Gispert (Science Faculty, UNAM, Mexico City). species of grain, introduced from the Old World, 94 Grain amaranths

a lack of appreciation or distaste on account of its ate them they offered them fire, before which flavour, and religious reasons. point they did not eat them...". Also at the end The first two reasons were easily substantiat-of the ceremony in worship of the god of war ed, but demonstration of the third was not soHuitzilopochtli, as an act of collective purifica- evident because of the tenuousness of its origin. tion, the people of the great Tenochtitlán (today However, sufficient evidence of this cause can be Mexico City) shared out and ate tiny portions of found in the work of chroniclers, especially thetzoalli dough which represented his body. This religious ones. There are constant references to cult was called tecuelo (god eaten). the diabolical nature of amaranth. The two direct As can be seen, some rites of the polytheist allusions to the prohibition of its cultivation werereligion of the ancient Mexicans had a great made by Fray Bernardino de Sahagán in 1570 similarity with the Christian Eucharist. and by Ruiz de Alarcón in 1626. In 1626, Ruiz de Alarcón mentions the rebel- Sahagán writes in the Historia general de las lion which was still going on at that time among cosas c/c la Nueva España, at the end of the Firstsome indigenous groups against the acceptance Book which deals with the gods worshipped by of Christianity, and the continuance of idolatrous the Aztecs:_if you know of anything amongceremonies, including the construction of gods these natives relating to this subject of idolatry, with tzoalli. Religious persecution of the con- immediately inform the temporal or spiritual au- sumption and, therefore, of the cultivation of this thorities so that it may be quickly remedied.... species also prevailed, as shown by the following Anyone who does not persecute this sin and its excerpt from Chapter III of the Tratado de las perpetrators by legitimate and meritorious means supersticiones y costumbres gentilicas que hoy shall not be considered a good Christian.... The vive entre los indios naturales (-testa Nueva Es- text of the Holy Scripture gives sufficient proofpaña,' by Alarcón: of the deeply malign nature of idolatry and idol- "It is idolatry when as a gesture of thanks that aters.... Another folly greater than the demons it has ripened, from the first [fruit] they pick, well [their gods] which they worshipped was that they ground and kneaded, they make idols of a human considered the "cloudy mountains" as gods, figure about a quarter of a yard2 in size; they have made images, called Tapictoton, from tzoalli. much of their wine prepared ready for the day They gave them a hurnan form, painted them when they make the idols and, having made and various colours, and, when the celebration wasbaked them, they place them in their oratories as over, they shared the images out among them-if they were placing an image, and also seta selves and ate them...". candle and incense there. Among their select A little further on, Sahagtin describes the feast groups some of the wine is offered for the dedica- of the god of fire, Xiuhtecutli, on whose imagetion... and, seated in a circle before these idols, they placed all the vestments of the chief lord with much applause begin honouring and prais- and, placing a throne on his altar and beheading ing them... and, as a token of sacrifice,pour the many quails in his presence, "poured their blood before him and also offered a cup [incense]up to him as if to a god and offered him small pastries, 'Treatise on the gentile superstitions and customs known as quimaltemalli and made from bledos which exist today among the Indian peoples of this (prince's feather) which were eaten in his hon- New Spain. (trans.) 2 Here, a Latin American yard (vara), measuring our. In all quarters and in every house before they 0.836 m, or 2.8 ft. (trans.) Neglected crops: 1492 fi-om a (1ifferent perspective 95

FIGURE 8 Grain amaranths: A) Amaranthus cruentus; Al) fruit and bracts; B) A. hypochondriacus; B1) fruit and bracts 96 Grain amaranths

wine..., some or all of it, before the srnall idols ofbeen sold at fairs, in sweetshops and in the streets prince's feather, an action they call Tlatotoya-of Mexico for about the last two centuries. The hua.... However, the owners of the small idols change that was introduced so as to discourage guard them carefully for the next day when those the use of tzoalli was the replacement of the who attended the feast and at the oratory divide huautli or prince's feather flour with burst seed, the idols into pieces as if for votive offerings andwhich also formed a paste with honey. The meth- consume them all together.... This fact is ampleod of preparing the delicacy is simple: the seed is proof of the very great yearnings and efforts ofburst by heating it and adding to it sugar-cane the devil in continuation of his first sin, whichsyrup; the mixture is put into moulds measuring was the origin of his arrogance in wanting to be 80 x 50 x 4 cm, pressed down and cut into blocks. similar to our Lord God... since, in what I haveCylindrical biscuits are also made. Sometimes just related, one sees coveted and imitated sothe sweet is packed into plastic bags which al- realistically the very singular mystery of thelows it to be stored hygienically and kept in good Most Holy Sacrament of the Altar, in which Ourcondition for several months. Lord, summing together the benefits of our re- Although preparation of the alegría sweetmeat demption, ordered that we should actually eat is the main use of amaranth, in some regions it is him, while the devil, who is the enemy of every- used to a lesser extent to make atole, or thing good, enjoins that these unfortunates toasted meal, tamales, chuales,' dessert and ice- should eat him or allow themselves to take pos-creams and sorbets. It is also added to a mixture session of him by eating him in those smallof flour to make pastries and pancakes, while the idols." young leaves are used in soups. There are certain At the famous ceremonial centre of Montefoods in which amaranth could be incorporated; Allxin in Oaxaca, when tomb seven was uncov- for instance atole, milk or which are nor- ered a single relic was found: a human skullmally served with school meals. This would be a covered with a mosaic of turquoises. Initially, itquick way of extending its use. It could also be was thought that the base used for its inlay was a incorporated in maize tortillas, which are widely resin, but later it was found that the amalgam was consumed in Mesoamerica, or mixed with other tzoalli which, in addition to its sculptural func- to enrich their protein content. The possi- tion, was used to perform another religious and bilities for agro-industrial development with this purifying function. crop are very promising, since amaranth is very As well as the Nahua culture,many othersversatile in its use, whether it be in the form of made prince's feather their ritual ood in offer- flour, noodles for or confectionery, for the ings or in confirmation of their gods, suchas the extraction of lysine and tryptophan oras a . Tepehuans, Mayas, Tarahumaras and Yaquis. To this end, agronomic research and machinery The Coras call it bé-he and the Huicholeswa-ve. are required to achieve industrial development The Huicholes and the Purepechas manufactured and utilization of huautli or prince's feather biscuits in the form of animals which the latterwhich are comparable to those of maize. called tuycen. The seeds of prince's featherare used for flour The method of preparing tzoallior tzoale, that is the mixture of prince's feather flourwith maguey honey, is the origin of the present-day 3From the Nahuatl tzohualli, the ritual pastemade by the Aztecs from amaranth seeds; it isa kind of manner of preparing alegríd, a delicacy that has eaten around Mexico City on religious feast days. Neglected crops: 149211'0177a different perspective 97

(to make tortillas, pinole or toasted meal, confec- in height and have elliptical to ovate-oblong and tionery, pastries, biscuits, , "agua fresca",lanceolate leaves with an acute to acuminate small savoury pancakes, desserts, bread, acalga- apex. In A. hypochondriacus, the inflorescences mos and breadcrumbs), toasted and burst (in theare very big and branching, uniform in colour, sweet alegría, cereals and preserves) and to ex- green or red, and have many flowers with acute tract squalene oil (to manufacture cosmetics). bracts, which are rough to the touch. In A. cruen- The leaves are eaten in soups, broths and as a tus, the plants are smaller, up to 180 cm, with vegetable, and are used in protein extracts, col- Green or red inflorescences which are sometimes ourings and laxatives. The inflorescences are spotted and smooth as the bracts are not pointed. used for decoration and the stems as animal feed The seeds vary greatly in colour. The inflorescenc- and fuel. es vary in colour and development, with more of At present, the main areas of cultivation in a tendency to be erect in A. hypochondriacus Mexico are in the states of Guerrero, México, and somewhat more pendulous in A. cruentas. Michoacán, Morelos, Tlaxcala, Puebla and Oa- Germination is epigeal: the seedlings emerge xaca. Itis predominantly A. hypochondriacusthree to four days after sowing and, at 2.5 which is sown under heavy rainfall conditions in months, the panicle begins to appear and later small areas, with mixed seed of different varie- flowering occurs. The seeds do not have dorman- ties, as is done with maize, in order to ensure a cy problems and maintain their viability at ambi- harvest. In Guatemala, A. cruentas is mainly ent temperature for more than five years, provid- sown, under similar cultivation conditions, in the ed their humidity is less than 5 percent. Departments of Guatemala, Chimaltenango and If there are dormancy mechanisms in the seed, Alta Verapaz. In recent years, great progress hasthey occur mainly in the wild species. Amaranth been made in Mexico in the industrialization ofhas defence mechanisms against diseases: its amaranth grain, which is packaged in variousspiny panicles and seeds, which have a thick, forms for human consumption. It is also used aspruinous testa, allow germination in later years. starch in the pharmaceutical industry. In Guate- mala, INCAP publishes the journal El Amaranto Ecology and phytc7.--'».,g7F2hy which deals with the agricultural and nutritionalThe species of Amaranthus cultivated in Meso- aspects of this plant. america are located mainly between 1 000 and As a result of the growing world interest in this 1 500 IT1. The amaranth develops best in soils crop, the First World Amaranth Congress was with a loamy or loamy-sandy texture and gener- held in Oaxtepec in the state of Morelos, Mexico, ally does not tolerate clayey soils, since they in September 1991. It was attended by specialists absorb too much humidity. In areas with a sub- from Argentina, Bolivia, China, Cuba, Ecuador,tropical climate, it is possible to obtain two har- Guatemala, India, Japan, , Mexico, Peru,vests per year, particularly in irrigated fields. the United States and Venezuela. At the con- In temperate zones with an average annual gress, the latest advances in cultivation and useprecipitation of 500 to 800 mm, the cultivated were explained and an international network ofareas are for the most part flooded when the amaranth specialists was created. rainstorms begin in May and June. Grain yields range from 800 to 1 200 kg per hectare, although Botanical description it is possible to boost them by increasing popula- Amaranths are annuals which grow up to 3.5 mtion densities and using fertilizers. In experi- 98 Grainciincironilis

ments in Durango, Mexico., averages of 1 500 togermplasm evaluation and genetic improvement 3 000 kg per hectare of grain have been obtained,trials of indigenous cultivars for the semi-arid using auxiliary irrigation when sowing begins. regions began; in the future, it is proposed that a gene bank should be set up. The search areaswill Genetic diversity have to cover the Mexican high plateau: Chihua- A. hypochondriacus varies widely, as indigenoushua, Sonora, Durango, Sinaloa, which are re- cultivars can be found which have red, green or gions still little explored, and the states of the pink ears; the seed may be cream, white, goldencentre and south which have not yet been com- or black. The leaf colouring matches that of thepletely explored. ears; however, there are dilTerent tones on the stem. Crossings between cultivars of A. hypo- Cultivation practices chondriacus are viable, although they are self-The amaranth is grown in two ways: in seed beds fertile: the same is the case with A. cruentas. Inin the chinampas area (central Mexico) and by this species, different ear colours are found: red, direct sowing. green, orange, pink and two-colour (red and green). The colouring of the leaves and petioles Seed bed. In the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, matches that of the ear and in some cases the stem huautli or prince's feather was grown in the has a similar colour; the seed rnay be white, valley of Mexico in chinampas, which are "float- translucent cream or golden. Interspecific cross-ing gardens" of earth piled on floating mats of ings have proved viable, which suggests thattwigs in canals and lagoons. The agricultural coincidence in flowering may produce hybrids. practices which were used in those times still Until now there have been only a few im-continue in some localities close to Lake Xo- proved varieties of amaranth in Mesoamerica. In chimilco (Tulyehualco, Tláhuac, Mixquic). They Mexico, INIFAP-CIFAP obtained the varietyconsist of preparing seed beds which are later Revancha, which is grown in the high valleys. planted out. The following steps are involved: The CIIDIR-IPN, Unidad de Durango, has ob- Building ridges. The ridges may measure from tained five selections of A. cuentus and three of 11 to 20 rn in length by 1.5 m wide, depending on A. hypochondriacus, with different characteris-the number of plants; the difference in level in tics and cultivation cycles. relation to the is 10 cm. The use of nevv cultivation areas and the intro- Furrow or seed bed. The ridge is covered with duction of more profitable crops, as well as areasmud taken from the bottom of the water sur- devoted to stockfarrning, are causing genetic ero- rounding the chinampa, until it reaches the level sion. Germplasm therefore needs to be collected of the soil, i.e. a thickness of 10 cm. This mud, in the main production areas, particularly from which is the agricultural element of the chinam- native cultivars which might no longer be culti-pa, is very rich in organic matter, since all the vated. The establishment of gene banks is a taskmicro- and macro-organic residues of the lake requiring swift action, and INIFAP and theand its surroundings are deposited there. UACH are applying themselves to this. More Once the mud has been removed and placed on institutions urgently need to act together with thisthe ridges, the excess water is allowed to evapo- end in view. rate ("drain out") through exposure to the sun. In 1984, under the programme of the CIIDIR-When a suitable consistency is reached, it is cut IPN, Unidad de Durango, a series of agronomiclengthways and breadthways, forming small Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 99

4 x 4 cm squares (chapines), or occasionallyThreshing starts with armfuls of the dried plant tepehuales, in other words larger 20 x 20 cm being strewn on to sackcloth stretchedover the squares which may include up to five chapines. ground so as to perform the traditional "dance", Sowing. Using a or a finger, a hole is which consists of trampling the ears over and made 1 cm deep in the chapines. In each hole sixover again until the seeds work loose. Those that to eight seeds are placed. The chapín Of seed bed are not separated undergo a further process: the is covered with dried horse manure which is ears are beaten more forcefully with a rope. preferred because it is the lightest. Seed cleaning. A sieve is made with a cord Uncovering the seed bed. On the third day ofsack which is tied by its comers to four tree seed germination, when the seedling reaches 3 totrunks. One person pours bowls of seed on to it 9 mm, the seed bed is uncovered so that the while another moves them around with one hand plantlet may grow without restraints. so that they 'fall through the openings of the sack. Creation of acomanas. When the seed bed hasAt the same time, the first person fans them with been uncovered, the plantlets are left there for aa hat so that the air finishes off cleaning them. month to grow approximately 5 to 10 cm. During .Nowadays, these ancestral practices are ac- this time, they begin to be separated from the soilcompanied by others, such as fertilizing and and from one another. Acomanas are formed sothreshing, which are no longer done manually. that the plants do not take root in the ridge and Storage. The oldest known way of keeping their growth is temporarily arrested, giving timeprince's feather is by storage in underground for the rainstorms to arrive (June-September). deposits. Large earthenware pots (cuexcomates) Packing. Depending on when the rains begin, were also used (2.5 x 2.5 m, with sides 10 to the chapines are placed in a wooden carrying 12 cm thick). Other means used were barns, gra- crate made from pieces of light wood to preventnaries or crates. These means of storage are still the plantlets being knocked about or broken dur-used nowadays but, more frequently, bags of ing transportation to the cultivation plot. around 50 kg are ensiled or concrete rooms with Transplanting. This a task requiring at leastmud floors which prevent humidity from passing four people. One ploughs the grounej so that thethrough are built. However, prince's feather damp soil is tumed face down while anotherseeds can be stored for more than ten years in dry, loosens the seedlings to leave two or three perwell-ventilated places. chapín. The chapines are laid out on a maguey leaf one end of which is tied at the belt and theDirect sowing. In Tlaxcala, Puebla, Oaxaca, other is held in one hand, or else a portable crate Morelos and Guerrero, it is more common to sow is hung from the shoulder, while a third person, an abundant quantity of seed directly into the dropping a plant every 60 or 80 cm, lowers a ridge of the furrow at the start of the rains. Later, chapín into the bottom of the furrow; a fourth the plants are thinned out, which is easier to do person arranges the chapín in such a way that thewhen they are 10 to 15 cm high. In general, plant stays erect pressing the soil down around it cultivation practices are similar to those used to by hand or foot, thus completing the transplant-grow maize: earthing up, fertilization in two ing operation. stages and weeding. Threshing. The plants are cut 10 or 20 cm from Harvesting in these cultivation areas is similar the soil surface, forming sheaves of ten to 15to that in the Mexico valley. During September plants which are left to dry for a couple of weeks. and October, the ears are cut and, when dried, all 100 Grain amaranths

the leaves of the stem are piled up so that they can which the two native species are grown, and be beaten to remove the seeds, which are then ofA. caudatus; sieved and cleaned. The yields obtained general- an information campaign drawing attention ly range between 800 and 1 500 kg per hectare. to the nutritional value of amaranth and new forms of use; Prospects for improvement e studies on handling the harvested product, In Mesoamerica, research needs to be done on its packaging, processing and marketing. both the basic aspects of this cultivation and the There will have to be an economic and social development of -farming technologies for the ar- element in applied research so that experimental eas currently in production as well as the areas ofresults can be evaluated. From the social point of future expansion (semi-arid zones of northernview, a contribution towards improving the peas- Mexico). Local consumption and exports willant diet must be sought in the intensive cultiva- also need to be promoted. Also essential is ation of the amaranth, as was attempted some complete programme of basic research, the de-years ago in Guatemala. velopment of techniques and improved materials as well as advertising campaigns recommending Bibliography the product and its value as a food. Peru, where a Alejandre Itfirbide, G. & Gómez, F. 1986. programme of this kind has enabled yields to be Cultivo de amaranto en México. Chapingo, increased from 1 800 to 3 000 kg per hectare, and Mexico, Dpto de zonas áridas, UACH. even 6 000 kg per hectare on trial plots, should Alejandre Itúrbide, G. 1990. Cruzas inter- serve as an example. Complementary extension específicas en amaranto.Memorias delCon- work has been devoted to the different ways in greso Nacional de Fitogenética.Cd. Juárez, which the product can be consumed and pack- Chih., Mexico. aged for export. Alejandre Ittirbide, G. 1990.Evaluación de Among the projects that could be developed gernioplasma de amaranto.Informe técnico. for improving amaranth production in Meso- CIIDIR-IPN, Unidad de Durango, Mexico. america, the following may be considered: Bressani, R. 1991. Aspectos nutricionales del the formation of gene banks in the present amaranto.Memorias del Primer Congreso areas of cultivation (central and northern Internacional del Amaranto.Oaxtepec, Mexico, the highlands of Guatemala) to Morelos, Mexico. characterize and evaluate native cultivars as Castille Chacén, F. 1980.El amaranto.Chapin- well as to make a preliminary selection; go, Mexico, Laboratorio de Farinologfa, studies on the adaptation of cultivars to new CIAMEC, INIA. conditions, especially to mechanized sow-Espitia, E. 1991. Recursos genéticos deamaran- ing and harvesting; to(Amaranthus spp). In R. Ortega Paczkaet the development of new cultivationprac- al., eds. Avances en el estudio c/c losrecursos tices: sowing distance, fertilization, weed fitogenéticos de México, p.197-216. Chapin- control, pest and disease management; go, Mexico, SOMEFI. the development of machinery for rainstorm Feine, L. 1980. An ethnobotanicalobservation and irrigation conditions; and collection of grain amaranths in Mexico. genetic improvement of native material and Proc. 2nd Amaranth Conli,p. 111-116. material introduced from otherareas inFeine, L. et al. 1979. Amaranth: gentle giant of Neglected crops: 1492 front a different perspective 101

the past and future. In G.A. Ritchie, ed. New Sanchez, M.A. 1980. Potencialidad agroinclus- agricultural crops. Boulder, Colo., USA, trial del amaranto. Mexico City, CEESTEM. AAAS Selected Symposium 38. Sauer, J. D. 1950. The grain amaranths: a survey Jai, S. & Kulakow, P. 1991. Genetic improve- of their history and classification. AIM. Miss. ment of amaranth. Memorias del Primer Con- Bot. Gard., 37: 561-632. greso Internacional cle Amaranto. Oaxtepec, Sauer, J. D. 1967. The grain amaranths and their Morelos, Mexico. relatives: a revised taxonomic and geographic National Research Council. 1984. Amaranth: survey. Ann. Miss. Bot. Gard., 54: 103-137. modern prospects for an ancient crop. Wash- Saunders, R. & Becker, R. 1984. Amaran- ington, DC, National Academy Press. thus: a potential food and feed resource. In Pal, M. Development and use of aramanths in Advances in cereal science and technology, Asia. Memorias del Primer Congreso Inter- Vol. VI, p. 357-396. nacional de Amaranto. Oaxtepec, Morelos, Mexico. Neglected crops: 1492,1.i-ow a different perspective 103

cs% ,1) pcn,e ria (7apot )

Botanical name: Pouteria sapola (Jacq.)have been used as a starch. In Guatemala H. Moore & Stearn and El Salvador, the oil from the seed is usedas a skin toni.c, to prevent baldness, to reduce mus- Common names. English: sapote, mammeecular pain and to treat rheumatic ailments. zapote, marmalade plum; Spanish: zapote, This tree produces latex, which is usedas a mamey zapoteo, mamey colorado, zapota caustic to remove from skin. Sapote wood, grande; French: grosse sapote which is strong and solid, can be used to make furniture and other objects that require stout The sapote (Pouteria sapo/a), which originates wood. from the .lower parts of Central America, is a From the ecological point of view, promoting 'fruit-tree with free pollination, which generallythe cultivation of this species is of enormous multiplies by seed. Its .fruit may be eaten raw orimportance since it can help maintain genetic green and the flesh is used to make jams, ice-diversity and prevent some genotypes of poten- creams and sauces; when cooked, it can be antial value .from disappearing. The establishment acceptable substitute .for apple purée and mayof this species as a crop in traditional production also be used in confectionery. systems will make it possible to maintain highly Chemical 'analysis shows that 100 g of sapotesustainable fruit-growing development. Agro- flesh contains 65.6 percent water, 1.7 g of pro- industrial development will benefit .from the tein, 0.4 g of ., 31.1 g of carbohydrates, 2 g ofproduction of .fruit of great nutritional value and fibre, 1.2 g of ash, 40 mg of calcium, 28 mg ofby-products of high value added. phosphorus, 1 mg of iron, 115 mg of , 0.01 mg of thiamine, 0.02 mg of riboflavin, 2 mg Botanical description of niacin and 22 mg of ascorbic acid. The sapote tree can attain a height of 20 to 25 m; Cultivation of this species still cannot meet its crown is generally symmetrical or irregular, the demand of the external market and may play with thick branches and dense foliage. The leaves an important role as a source of revenue and inare ovate or lanceolate and are concentrated on helping to make up an adequate diet, particular- the apex of the branches. The -flowers are small, ly for low-income urban and rural populations. almost sessile, and grow in profusion under new In some parts of Mesoamerica, ground sapote branches and along leafless branches. Each 'flow- seeds are used to give chocolate a bitter flavourer consists of five true and five false stamens; and characteristic aroma; in Costa Rica, they the pistil has only one stigma and the ovary has five carpels.

The author of this chapter is J.A. Morera (Genetic The fruit ranges in shape .from fusiform, elon- Resources Unit, CATIE/GTZ, Turrialba, Costa Rica). gated, ellipsoid to spherical, and may weigh up 104 Sapote

to 3 kg in some genotypes. The skin is hard, tures, even if of short duration. Depending on its rough and brittle, and is of a dull, reddish colour. locality, the sapote can be profitable if sown in The flesh varies in texture and is red, orange orareas where the temperature does not fall below greyish in colour; it is aromatic, sweet and soft 15°C. Extreme temperatures can temporarily af- when ripe; and usually has some fibres, depend- fect some of the functions of any of the tree's ing on the cultivar. In general, the fruit contains organs. In regions where the sapote grows best, one or more seeds. These are large with sharpthe average temperature ranges between 25 and ends and ellipsoid in shape, dark brown in col- 28°C. On some commercial plantations, such our, smooth and shiny on the dorsal segment andas in Leon in Nicaragua, good yields and -fruit cinnamon-coloured on the ventral part. The seeds quality are obtained at temperatures between take between 40 and 70 clays to germinate, a 30 and 33°C. process that can be speeded up by simply re- The amount of rainfall needed for growing the moving or scarifying the husk before sowing. sapote ranges between 800 and 2 500 mm; how much rainfall there is will depend on the type of Ecology and phytogeography growing area. Very little has been written on the climatic con- If the dry season is prolonged in a given area, ditions, pests, diseases and other factors limitingharvesting may be concentrated in short periods the production and productivity of the sapote. while, in places where there is no dry season, the However, the most important factors from ancrop can be harvested with maximum fruiting ecological point of view are height, soil, tem-throughout the year. perature and rainfall, since they can limit the cultivation area, and to a great extent, may beGenetic diversity considered the most critical factors for its devel- The word "sapote" (or "zapote") comes from the opment. In some places, wind may be the mostAztec "tzapotl", a collective name which applies important limiting factor. The ease with whichto several species of sweet, spherical fruits with some diseases and insects can spread depends large seeds. The Sapotaceae family includes other on relative humidity. close species of great value, such as the sapo- The sapote adapts well from sea level up todilla (Mannkara zapota), star apple or caimito 1 400 tn. It grows in the heavy clays of Puerto(Chrysophyllum cainito), canistel (Pouteria Rico, the sandy clays of Guatemala and even in campechiana), pan de vida (P. hypoglauca), [Lieu- the sandy soils of Florida in the United States. mo (P. obovata) and caimo (P. cairnito). The essential characteristics of the soil for In the most recent taxonomic classification, optimum cultivation are the quality of drainage, comprise three species: Pouteria sapota, depth, degree of acidity, fertility, adequateP. viridis and P. pssicola, although it isaccept- groundwater level and moderate permeability.ed that there are intermediate groups between In tropical areas, there are many soils with thesethe three (Pennington, 1990). Despite morpho- characteristics. However, soil factorsare insepa-logical differences and sometimes differences rably linked lo the sapote plant's photosyntheticin geographical distribution, ifcompared with potential, for which reason the low fertility ofother fruit-tree species, the value of these three some tropical soils limits the yield of thistaxa would be at variety level. species. In Florida, several cultivars of thesapote are The sapote does not tolerate lowtempera-currently grown, of which brief descriptions have Neglected crops: 1492 from a ereta perspective 105

Sapote (Pouteria sapota): details of a cross-section andshapes of the fruit

...... 106 Sapote

TABLE 4 Characteristics o -:31sapote cu tivars in Florida, 1991

Cultivar larvest WeiEdit Flesh colour Flavour Yield (g)

Abuela October-November 740 - 2 400 Red Excellent Regular

Area No. 3 July-September 400 - 740 Pink Good Regular

Chenox May-June 400 - 850 Pink Good Regular

Copan July-August 425 - 900 Red Excellent High

Flores November-December 740 - 2 400 Red Excellent High

Florida March-April 400- 1 130 Reddish Good High Francisco Fernandez August-September 560 - 700 Reddish Excellent Regular

Lara August-September 400 -1 130 Reddish Excellent High

Magaña April-May 740 - 2 400 Pink Good High

Mayapan July-August 510 - 1 135 Red Good High

Navidad December 400 - 740 Salmon Excellent High

Pace March-April 425 - 900 Salmon Excellent High

Patin July-August 400 -1 130 Reddish Excellent Regular

Piloto August-September 400 - 7 401 Reddish Excellent Regular

Tazumar' January-February 400 - 850 Pink Good High

Viejo December 400 - 500 Red Excellent High

This cultivar has a second harvest between July and August.

been made (Campbell and Lara, 1982). Table 4the Sapotaceae -family, is an international re- indicates the 16 best cultivars. sponsibility. The costs and benefits of this pro- Much of the genetic variability of the genustection should be shared out equitably. In general, Pouteria is -found in the tropical forest areas many of the countries with a great genetic diver- which are still unexplored. 'These regions are notsity are developing countries, hence they are very accessible and, in some cases, guerillaunable to defray the costs of in situ protection of groups in the mountains make it difficult to col- genetic resources on their own. An international lect genotypes which may be undergoing genet-mechanism is therefore needed to meet the costs ic erosion through abandonment. Furthermore,this responsibility entails. Such financial sup- urban development is accelerating the loss ofport should be used in particular for taking care genetic diversity of this and other species. It isof populations of endemic species in each eco- surprising to note how trees of great value arelogical region and in zones of exceptional diver- being felled daily to make way for buildings andsity, particularly the lowland -forests, tropical other constructions on the best soils with a highand subtropical rain forests as well as isolated agricultural potential. mountains and other places where wild species The Indians, on the other hand, leave sapote with a high genetic value still exist. trees when clearing the :forest and, in Guatema- The intensification of agriculture has caused a la, they are frequently found on land which has reduction in the genetic variability of this tropi- long since been given over to maize. cal species by replacing wild cultivars of sapote The protection of genetic resources, including with other exotic species. Neglected crop.Y: 1492from a d 'Tent perspective 107

Cultivation practices graft. This step is repeated after two weeks when .In general, Sapotaceae have been propagated by only the graft isleft. At approximately two seed. There are few commercial plantations. Fruit months, the part of the plant which has joined to for everyday consumption comes from solitary the stock begins to bud. At four months, the tape trees which grow close to people's homes or are is removed in order to let the new develop interspersed with other perennial crops such asfreely and, two months later, the plants can be cocoa and coffee. planted out in the field. Until a few years ago this species took seven to eight years to come into production, sincePresent cultivation situation. Central America sexual propagation by seed was used. This crea- is going through a difficult economic situation, ted a wide variation in populations, greatly re-and this is reflected in the agro-industrial sector. ducing the possibility of harvesting genotypesAn economic recovery is needed that involves that were uniform in size, weight and quality. investments in non-traditional products. The At present, the vegetative methods of propa-sapote rnay be quoted as an example of a non- gating sapote involve grafting, a system whichtraditional species which offers economic po- improves productivity characteristics and halves tential for agricultural diversification in the region the period between sowing and harvesting. Inand hence for achieving a better ecological bal- this way, incompatibility problems between stock ance. In Central America, South America and and graft are corrected and the d.esirable charac- the Antilles, interest in this crop is a recent de- teristics of grafting are combined with the spe- velopment. There are just a few small commer- cial qualities of the stock. cial plantations and isolated trees on uncultivated Before grafting, there must be a good selec-.land which may allow the crop to be promoted tion of stocks. Grafting must be done at a time both at a local level and for export. when the stock and scion are in the appropriate In these regions, there are no germplasm col- physiological state to allow a greater percentagelections and few skilled technicians for carrying of takes. The preferred grafting methods are side out the technological transfer of cultivation. Fur- grafting and cleft grafting,. The optimum statethermore, Central America has climatic, topo- for selecting vegetative material (scions) is whengraphical, soil and social characteristics which the tree is dormant, i.e. when the plant sheds allcould allow this genetic resource to be devel- its leaves; this ge.nerally occurs during the sum- oped and utilized more fully. In spite of its po- mer. To select scions during the winter, the shoots tential benefit for growers and industry, there is need to be ringed eight to ten days before graft- still little information and research being done ing. The stocks must be approximately 1 m high, on exploitation and use of the sapote. 1.2 cm thick and nine months old. It should be A better knowledge of the genetic diversity, borne in mind that the cuts in both the stock and seasonal variations in production, quality, sup- the scion have to be made in the most uniformply of and demand for this species would enable area of both barks so that the join is complete. its monoculture, or cultivation together with other Once the operation is completed, the graft is tied perennial crops, to be encouraged. with special tape and a little melted paraffin wax is applied for protection. Prospects for improvement A week later, the apical part of the stock isThe future of sapote cultivation is linked to the cut, leaving 30 cm between the shoot and theselection of the best genotypes for each country. 108 Sapote

Selection criteria will have to be based on the introduction and cultivation, priority should be vigour, height and build of the trees, the produc-given to sampling genetic diversity. This stage tion, shape and size of the fruit, the quantity ofcan take at least two years, depending on the flesh and fibre and the aroma and flavour. Theavailability of germplasm. For species that are requirements of internal and external marketswidely dispersed or located in geographically or will need to be studied and the selling prices ofpolitically inaccessible areas, collections may specific cultivars compared. continue indefinitely. Permanent collections need Establishing the sapote may be a slow processto be established while finance must be made and will require research, time and investment.available for the preservation of those tliat al- Experience with other crops shows that, withoutready exist. adequate marketing and sustained development From the social point of view, itis worth strategies, growers may stand to lose. Indeed,stepping up the propagation of this crop and they do not usually know the quality standards making its nutritional benefits available to low- which apply to production, nor the methods forincome rural populations. From the economic effective husbandry, and also have to cope with point of view, the export of the dried fruit or high harvesting costs, low prices paid for theflesh would bring enormous advantages to these product, small yields and a shrinking market. Itgroups, since it would constitute an inflow of should be stressed that research, commercial pro- foreign exchange. Ecologically, this species could duction and marketing are the key factors forbe combined with other perennial crops such as successfully establishing non-traditional crops. cocoa and coffee, thereby providing emergency When starting to develop a crop such as theincome for the grower should the market price sapote, an evaluation needs to be made to dem-of the main perennial species decrease or fluctu- onstrate its prospects for adoption by growers. ate constantly. Consideration will have to be given to the area Six stages may be envisaged in research and of adaptation, the availability of land, bank credit, development: production costs, market security and probable exploration for, and collection of, germ- net income for the grower; these factors will plasm; have to be compared with those of othercom- observation and selection of cultivars for petitive crops. Information will also have to be domestic consumption and export; collected on the availability of outstandinggeno- chemical studies and use; types, stock and graft nursery capabilities and evaluation and agronomic validation; cultivation practices, as applied to the seedling production and processing for localcon- and in the field. sumption and for export; Coordination between production andmar- marketing. keting is essential if a new product is to be Experiments on evaluation and agronomic val- presented successfully. If the market is createdidation must be carried out in various locations before production meets demand, buyersmay and environments and should include cultiva- show a lack of interest and the productmay losetion practices, harvesting methods, yieldand its acceptability. If production exceeds demand, quality. A high genetic diversitymust be main- growers may be disillusioned by the losses and,tained so as to select the genotypes suitable for in some cases, may even changecrops. each environment. With regard to the potential areas for a crop's To carry out this programme, credit needsto Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 109

be made available with acceptable rates of inter- Whitman, W.F. 1966. The green sapote, a new est and repayment terms, while there must also fruit for South Florida. Proc. Fla. State Hor- be the political will to ensure implementation tic. Soc., 78: 330-336. and technical support up to the marketing stage. Woot-Tsuen, W.L. & Flores, M. 1961. Tabla de composición de alimentos para uso en Bibliography América Latina. Guatemala, INCAP. Almeydan, N. & Martin, F.W. 1976. Cultiva- tion of neglected tropical fruits with promise. Part 2. The mamey zapote. ARS-S-156. Wash- ington, DC, USDA. Campbell, C.W. 1967. The mamey sapote in southern Florida. Proc. Fla. State Hortic. Soc., 80: 318-320. Campbell, C.W. & Lara, S.P. 1982. Mamey sapote cultivars in Florida. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc., 95: 114-115. Gutiérrez, G. 1984. Técnicas de injertación sapote (Calocarpum sapota Jacq.). Proyecto de Recursos Fitogenéticos. Turrialba, Costa Rica, CATIE/GTZ. Kulwal, L.V., Tayde, G.S. & Deshmukh, 1958. Studies on softwood grafting of sapota. PKV, Res. J. (India) 9(2): 33-36. Lazo, F.R. 1965. El injerto del mamey colora- do. Arroz (Colombia), 14(148). Malo, S.E. 1970. Propagation of the mamey sapote. Proc. Trop. Reg. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci., 18: 165-174. Morera, J.A. 1982. El zapote. Genetic Resour- ces Unit. Turrialba, Costa Rica, CATIE/GTZ, Ogden, M.A.H. & Campbell, C.W. 1981. Canistel as a rootstock for mamey sapote. Proc. Trop. Reg. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci., 93: 133-136. Pantin, D. 1991. Mamey feature. Pantin's ma- mey conservations with Donald Pantin, ma- mey grower. Trop. Fruit World, 2(1): 2-17. ennington. 1990. Sapotaceae. Flora neo- trópica. Quilantan Carrero, J. 1979. Propagación ve- getativa del mamey zapote. Proc. Trop. Reg. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci., 23: 180-182. Neglected crops: 1492 from a dlifereut perspective 111

Parash plium5,red rcmbr ondias purpurea)

Botanical name: Spondias purpurea L. sun, either on tables with a wire mesh or reeds for three days or on driers on mobile units for ten Common names. English: Spanish plum, red to 12 hours. By this process, the dried fruit is mombin; Nahuatl: ateyaxocotl; Spanish: reduced to one-quarter of its fresh volume. An- jocote (Mexico !Oaxaca], Central America),other way to prepare the fruit is to heat it in ciruelo (Mexico [jalisco, Yucatán]) unsalted water and dry it in the sun, while a third process, used in Mexico to obtain ciruelo negro, Sponclias purpurea was grown widely fromconsists of pricking the skin of the fruit, placing Mexico to the northern region of South America it in syrup (1 kg of sugar in a bottle of water) and when the Europeans arrived, as can be deduced letting it simmer until the sugar burns or becomes from the descriptions of the first chroniclersconcentrated. Ciruela cristillina is a fourth meth- (Oviedo, Sahagiln). It spread through the Antilles od of preparing the fruit, similar to the previous and the rest of South America and was possibly one, only the fruit is gathered while it is ripening taken from Mexico to the Philippines. The freshand is boiled for a shorter time. fruit has a very pleasant taste and its consumption Other uses of Spondias pulp include as an is increasing. It is a valuable but economical raw atole, mixed with maize flour and sugar, and in material for the preparation of soft drinks, pre-the preparation of wine, (maize liquor) serves and syrups and is also eaten as a dried and soft drinks. fruit. The current marginalization and scarcity of Analyses of the fresh fruit show that the per- commercial plantations are largely due to a lack centage of moisture in the flesh ranges from 76 to of attention on the part of producers, technical 86 percent; it is very low in protein and -fat and experts and agricultural extension workers, who contains appreciable quantities of calcium, phos- are concentrating their efforts on other fruit-trees phorus, iron and ascorbic acid. in greater demand on the foreign market. Its consumption is currently increasing The most widespread use of S. purpurea is as a throughout Mesoamerica. The bulk of produc- fresh fruit for local consumption and for supply- tion comes from isolated trees or hedges, while ing city markets. In Mexico and Guatemala, it is very little comes from well-ordered and main- used in other forms which are possibly of post- tained plantations, such as the ones seen around H ispanic origin. In one form, the fruit is boiled in the city of Oaxaca. However, it is a very promis- brine for five to ten minutes and then dried in the ing fruit-tree because it is accepted on the mar- ket; it is a hardy species with a high resistance to drought; it is easy to produce on poor soil; and its The author of this chapter is J. Axayacatl Cuevas propagation is exclusively vegetative, which en- (Department of Plant Science, Ethnobotanical Unit, UACH, Mexico). sures an early harvest. 112 Spanish plum, red mombin

Botanical description with alternating seasons from Sinaloa and Jalisco S.purpurea is a small tree, growing 4 to 8 m, with in Mexico to Colombia. It is known that S. purpu- a broad crown, irregular trunk and fragile branch-rea was taken from Nicaragua to Panama and es; its leaves are composed of five to 12 pairs of South America in the fon-n of cuttings with a elliptical-acute leaflets, 2 to 4 cm in length and viability of several weeks. It grows in regions of which fall before the flowering period. It has redlow humidity and remains leafless during the dry flowers in 3 to 5 cm panicles, situated along theseason. It has been introduced into similar tropi- small branches; the fruit is an irregular ovalcal regions in Southeast Asia and also in sub- , somewhat gibbous, smooth and shiny, 4 to tropical areas (Florida). 5.5 cm long and a violet to yellow colour, with a woody kernel which contains the seeds. The flesh Genetic diversity is sparse, creamy, yellowish and bitter-sweet inNumerous clonal varieties of S. purpurea are the cultivated plants and very acid in the wildknown, but there has been no formal characteri- plants. It contains malic acid, sugar, calcium zation of them. In Yucatán there are 20 varieties malate and starch. The growth cycle has only and, although some may be S. lutea, this is per- been studied in Mexico, in Sinaloa and Puebla. In haps the most notable varietal concentration in Sinaloa, the trees have foliage from June to Octo- Mesoamerica. Ak-abal, with small, poor-quality ber, leaves fall from October to December and fruit and smooth succulent roots, like those of the the trees are without foliage from January toBrazilian species S. tuberosa, is used for pickles. May. Flowering occurs in February and MarchThe cultivated varieties may be divided into two and fruiting in June. In Puebla, the trees have groups: leaves from March to October, leaf fall occurs Summer mombin. This fruits (in Central Amer- from October to December and the trees remainica) during the dry season from February to May, leafless from January to April. Flowering takes has ellipsoidal fruit that is 2.5 to 3 cm long with place from December to January and the fruitsmooth, purple-red skin and yellow, smooth, ripens in April and May. Of great interest is thesweet and slightly acid flesh. When green, these absence of seed formation in this species, anvarieties look like olives. The varieties Tronador, aspect that was first studied in the Philippines. InCriollo, Nica and Morado grow between 0 and the "nut", which occupies the central part of the 800 m. fruit, only remnants of aborted seeds are found. Winter mombin. This is of superior quality, This is due to both poor pollen formation and thewith fruit that is 3.5 to 4.5 cm long, red or yellow, oosphere. Natural distribution is thus completely smooth or with protuberances, and has firm, limited, but the ease with which stems andsweet, slightly acid flesh. It ripens at the end of branches sprout, together with their fragility, al- the rainy season (September to December). Most lows a very limited natural propagation. Recog-of these varieties grow between 800 and I 200in nition and conservation of thenumerous variants and those known include Petapa, Corona and which this species displays is possibly due to the Cabeza de loro. action of humans. It has been suggested that these twogroups should be considered as different species, but Ecology and phytogeography their distinctive characteristics are within the The natural populations of S.puipurea grownormal varietal range in the cultivated species. from sea level to an altitude of 1 200al in areas Wild populations, such as the iguana mombin in Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 113

FIGURE 10

Spanish plum, red nnombin (Spondias purpurea) 114 Spanish plum, red !hornbill

Costa Rica, have very attractive, red or purple co is that pruning increases the size and weight of fruit, with yellow flesh similar to certain grapes, the fruit. although it is acidic and astringent. There are In Oaxaca, there are commercial plantations other wild varieties in Central America, some on which the trees are pruned at a height of 2 m; with common names. Being a species in which the cuttings are planted in double, inclined rows, crossings must be very difficult, neither varietal with 3 m between the pairs of rows; when richness nor related species, such as the jobopruned, they look like European apple . (S. lotea), are of great use in genetic improve- There are no serious pests apart from the Med- ment. iterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) and Mex- On the other hand, the study and evaluation ofican :fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens) which cause clonal variation may offer new material. In this serious damage. connection, regions of particular interest are: the Harvesting on the pruned trees is an easy oper- Pacific area of Nicaragua which has been been ation, performed by shaking the branches with famous for its mombin or Spanish plum since the poles or sticks; the fi-uitis gathered from the days of colonial settlement; Yucatán, where nu- ground. Throughout the region where mombin is merous varieties exist; and southwestern Mexico produced, the green fruit is eaten a great deal, as and the neighbouring region of Guatemala.is the green fruit of the ambarela (S. cluicis). There are no collections of germplasm, but they should not be difficult to establish and maintain. Prospects for improvennent In addition to S. hum, there are two cultivatedS. purpurea can be grown on marginal land of species: ambarella, kw's plum or golden orlow agricultural value, on which the tree could be Otatheite apple (S. dulcis) from , which used for reforestation and produce extra profit for is grown sporadically in tropical America; andgrowers. Its production season is short, and late imbu mombin (S. tuberosa) from the dry regionor early varieties that extend this period must be of northwestern Brazil, whose :fruits are of excel- sought. Marketing, whether locally or in major lent quality. These three species are propagated towns, does not pose any major problems, as it is by seed. a widely accepted product. The main limitation is attack from fruit ., Cultivation practices since control is expensive and beyond the range Being a vegetatively propagated species, theof small producers. An evaluation of cultivars sowing material consists of straight cuttings,that have some degree of resistance would be more than 6 cm thick and at least 1.5 m long, with very advantageous, as would agronomic meas- horizontal cuts. They are cut at the start of leaf ures that tend to reduce infection by flies. Anoth- production which generally coincides with theer theme to be .investigated is the effect of beginning of the rains. The cuttings are kept in defoliants on the acceleration of fruit formation. the shade for a couple of weeks and are planted So -far, there has not been any industrialization 8 x 8 in apart at a depth of 30 cm. As a rule, theof the fruit. Improving the primitive processes only cultivation practice is pruning of the branch- described earlier and research into others, as has es to cause numerous shoots to form along thebeen done in Florida with the artificial drying of main branches. Pruning can be done every year, slices of the flesh, may open up new possibilities since the flowers bud on the current year's for consumption. branches. The experience of producers in Mexi- Varieties of S. ptupurea urgently need to be Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspecHre 115

collected in one or more gene banks, which allow mación de la asistencia técnica en el cultivo a quick evaluation of their genetic characteristics de la ciruela mexicana (Spondias pu/-pm-ca) (resistance to insects, production period, re- en el Municipio de San Jerónimo Xayacatlán, sponse to pruning), and sowing material must be Puebla. Chapingo, Mexico, UACH. (thesis) distributed among growers. In arcas with suffi-Nava-Kuri, G.G. & Uscanga, M. 1979. Estudio cient space, it is recommended that S. pu/-pu/-ea físico y químico de doce tipos de ciruela be planted as a hefte, since its fruit production (Spondias sp.) en el Estado de Veracruz. Proc. represents extra profit for the grower. Trop. Reg. Amer. Soc. Hort. SW., 23: 132-136. Finally, transport and packaging problemsSouza Novelo, N. 1949. Los ciruelos de Yu- must be studied to see how they can be improved, catán. Bol. Soc. Bot. México, 9: 5-12. since they are at a very primitive stage.

Bibliography Barrios, D.C. de la C. 1972. Observación de poda en ciruela tropical. Simposio sobre la investigación, el desarrollo experimental y la docencia de CON AFRUT. Carbajal, C.E. & Castro, M.M. 1981. Eva/- nacían del diametro y la altura de la estaca en la propagación del ciruelo mexicano (Spon- dias purpurea L.) en CONAFRUT de Rosario, Sinaloa. Mexico, SSIDED, CONAFRUT. Hernández, L.A. 1977. Estudio solve identili- cación y selección c/c criollos sobresalientes en ciruelo mexicano (Spondias purpurea L.) en el Estado de Veracruz. Mexico, SSIDED, CONAFRUT. León J. & Shaw, P.E. 1990. Spondias, the red mombin and related fruits. In S. Nagy, P.E. Shaw & W.F. Wardowsky, eds. Fruits uf trop- ical and subtropical origin, p. 116-126. Lake Alfred, Florida, FSS. Manjarrez, M., Tisnado, N. & Carbajal, G. 1980. Fertilización en ciruela mexicana (Spondias purpurea L.). Rosario, Sinaloa, Mexico, CONAFRUT-SARH. Martínez, B.A. 1988. Efecto de defoliantes en la producción temprana de ciruela mexicana (Spondias pu/-pu-ea L.) en San Bernardo, Acatlán, Puebla. Chapingo, Mexico, UACH. (thesis) Martínez, L.C. 1988. Problemática y progra- Neglected crops: 1492from a different perspective 117

T matri 1109husk-tomato (Phys lis philadcqphica)

Botanical name: Physalis philadelphicawas discontinued, as happened in Spain. It is Lam. relevant to note that only in central Mexico is Family: Solanaceae the fruit of Lycopersicon sp. known chiefly as Common names. English: tomatillo, husk- "jitotomate", since in other parts of the country tomato, jamberry, ground cherry; Spanish:and in Central and South America it is called tomate de cáscara, tomate de fresadilla,"tomate". tomate milpero, tomate verde, tomatillo P. philadelphica was domesticated in Mexico (Mexico), miltomate (Mexico, Guatemala) from where it was taken to Europe and other parts of the world; its introduction into Spain has been The tomatillo or husk-tomato (Physalis well documented. Indeed, it is believed that this phica) is a solanaceous plant cultivated in Mexi- species originated in central Mexico where, at co and Guatemala and originating from present, both wild and domesticated populations Mesoamerica. Various archaeological findingsmay be found. show that its use in the diet of the Mexican The name "tomato" derives from the Nahuatl population dates back to pre-Columbian times. "tomat1"; this word is a generic one for globose Indeed, vestiges of Physalis sp. used as food have fruits or berries which have many seeds, watery been found in excavations in the valley of Te-flesh and which are sometimes enclosed in a huacán (900 BC-AD 1540). In pre-Hispanicmembrane. times in Mexico, it was preferred far more than Of the great number of species of the genus the tomato (Lycopersicon sp.). However, thisPhysalis, very few are used for their fruit. preference has not been maintained, except in theP. peruviana L. has been grown in Peru since rural environment where, in addition to the per- pre-Columbian times. The fruit of P. che- sistence of old eating habits, the tomato's greaternopodifolia is picked in the state of Tlaxcala, resistance to rot is still valued. Possibly because Mexico. In Europe, P. alkekengi is grown as an of the fruit's colourful appearance and because ornamental plant because of the colourful calyx there are ways of eating it which are independentof its fruit, and its fruit also is used in central and of the chili (Capsicum sp.), the tomato achieved southern Europe. greater acceptance outside Mesoarnerica and The tomatillo has been a constant component Physalis sp. was marginalized, or its cultivationof the Mexican and Guatemalan diet up to the present day, chiefly in the form of sauces pre- pared with its -fruit and ground chilies to improve The authors of this chapter are S. Montes Hernández (Genetic Resources Programme, INIFAP, CIFAP, Gto. the flavour of meals and stimulate the appetite. Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico) and J.R. Aguirre Rivera The tomatillo is also used in sauces with green (Botanical, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, chili, mainly to lessen its hot flavour. The fruit of Mexico). 118 Tomatillo, husk-tomato

the tomatillo is used cooked, or even raw, to is 8 to 32 mm in diameter, yellow and sometimes prepare purees or minced meat dishes which arehas faint greenish blue or purple spots. The used as a base for chili sauces known genericallyanthers are blue or greenish blue. The calyx is assalsa verde(.green sauce); they can be used to accrescent, reaching 18 to 53 x 11 to 60 mm in accompany prepared dishes or else be used asthe fruit, and has ten ribs. The fruit is 12 to 60 x ingredients in various stews. An infusion of the 10 to 48 mm in size and sometimes tears the husks (calyces) is added to tamale dough to im- calyx. prove its spongy- consistency, as well as to that of fritters; it is also used to impart flavour to white Ecology and phytogeography rice and to tenderize red meats. The P.philadelphicaplant grows from southern About ten years ago the crop began to beBaja California to Guatemala, from 10 m in Tres industrialized in Mexico and agro-industries are Valles, Veracruz, to 2 600 m in the valley of currently estimated to process 600 tonnes per Mexico. year, 80 percent of which .is exported to the United States as whole tomatillos, without a ca-Genetic diversity lyx and canned, while the remainder is used in theThere are many local or indigenous varieties of preparation of packaged sauces for the domesticP.philadelphicawhich producers .recognize by market. fruit colour and size as well as by the plant's P.philadelphicais acquiring importance as an growth habit although, within these varieties, introduced crop in California as a result of thethere is wide variation, possibly because of their growing popularity of Mexican food in the Unit- self-incompatibility. The wild :forms are very ed States. Furthermore, numerous medicinal often found growing in cultivated -fields in tradi- properties are attributed to it. tional agricultural systems, mainly in combina- Official statistics show that, in 1984, 15 248 hation with maize, beans and gourd. In Mexico, were sown in Mexico, with a total production another type of tomato is found which is sold on value of 5 797 million pesos and an average perthe markets as wild from cultivated fields. In caput consumption of 2.32 kg. Both in Mexicoactual fact, it is a cultivated tomato with a small and Guatemala, wild tomato t'ruit from cultivatedfruit; the reason for this fraudulence lies in the fields has a predominant- place in the diet, hencefact that the price of wild tomatoes growing in in some regions it is an important product among cultivated fields is double that of the cultivated those gathered in rural areas for immediate con- tomatoes. sumption and for sale. The diameter of the 'fruit is bigger in the M.ex- ican tomato (1.08 to 4.9 cm) than in the Guate- Botanical description malan tomato (1..04 to 2.89 cm). However, these P. philadelphica isan annual of 15 to 60 cm; it is measurements correspond mainly to the cultivat- subglabrous, sometimes with sparse hairs on the ed tomatoes. In Guatemala, purplish green, yel- stem. The leaf lamina is 9 to 13 x 6 to 10 mm; its lowish green and purple tomatoes are preferred; apices are acute to slightly acuminate, with irreg- in Mexico, on the other hand, the variation in ularly dentate margins and two to six teethon colour is greater, as there are yellow, various each side of the main tooth, of 3 to 8mm. The shades of green and purple fruits. pedicels are 5 to 10 mm, the calyx has ovate and The characteristics showing the greatest varia- hirsute lobules measuring 7-13 mm. The corollation are fi-uit size, colour and average weight; the Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 119

FIGURE 11 Tomatillo, husk-tomato (Physalis philadelphica): details of the flower and fruit with an accrescent calyx, and a cross-section of the fruit 120 Tomatillo, husk-tomato

number and weight of fruit per plant; the consist- where frosts make it essential. Its advantages ency and colour of the flesh; the colour and include saving on seed, reduced weeding and the length of the calyx; flower size; the number and possibility of starting the cycle while there is still size of the nodes on the first bifurcation of theanother crop on the ground as well as shortening plant; stem colour; the size and number of teeththe growing cycle. Generally speaking, weeding per leaf; branching; earliness and pubescence. is done by hand or using mechanical implements. The tomatillo or husk-tomato is a vegetable Most growers use chemical fertilizers (nitrogen which is used widely and continuously through- and phosphorus): the doses range from 120 to out the year its current situation is as follows: 240 kg of nitrogen and from 60 to 150 kg of wild fruit found growing in cultivated fieldsphosphorus per hectare. Given the resources, is picked and sold; growers are confident they can control pests and small-fruited varieties, similar to those diseases affecting the crop. However, they would found growing wild in cultivated fields, are need to know more about the doses, appropriate- specifically grown for the market; ness, products and cost-effectiveness ratios of there are numerous local indigenous selec-these control practices. tions with a large fruit; The tomatillo or husk-tomato is grown mainly the Mexican varieties Rendidora and Rendi- on irrigated land. Because of this, sowing dates dora mejorada, produced by INIFAP's plant vary within each producing area, which explains improvers, are rarely used. why this tomato is found on the market through- In several regions of Mexico the speciesout the year. In some areas it is grown on dry P chenopoclifolia Lam. grows wild in cultivated land, both using residual humidity and during the fields: its use as a potential resource has beenheavy rainstorms. Sowing density ranges from recorded. 17 000 to 25 000 plants per hectare. The fruit is The species of Physalis in Mexico and Guate-harvested when it reaches its normal size, when it mala are not in any immediate danger of genetic has a firm consistency and generally when the erosion. However, extensive explorations mustapex of the calyx has begun to break. Small- be carried out to collect both cultivated material fruited varieties, selected for this purpose, under- and wild plants found in cultivated fields so as cultivation practices similar to those used for consolidate the gene banks and contribute mate- the large tomato. rial and information towards the genetic im- The greater percentage of dormancy occurs in provement programme for this crop. the seed recently extracted from the fruit. In less At present, INIFAP's gene bank in Mexico hasthan a year it reaches its maximum germination approximately 190 collections of Physalis spe- potential, losing it drastically as from the third cies, obtained from four of the country's statesyear under commercial storage conditions. while, in the gene bank at the University of San For marketing purposes, the small fruit must Carlos, there are 41 accessions From severalnot fill the calycinal envelope. On the other hand, regions of Guatemala. the large tomato must fillit completely and should preferably break it to reveal part of the Cultivation practices fruit (this is visually attractive to the purchaser). Cultivation practices are cotnmon to the majority The wild tomatillo found in cultivated fields of the solanaceous plants. Transplanting of theadapts to various environments but itappears tomato is widespread, principally in theareasmainly on cultivated ground and sometimescare Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 121

is taken to prevent its removal during weedingBibliography and earthing up. It appears most commonlyon Azurdia, P.C.A. & González, S.M. 1986. In- parts of land where vegetable waste is concen- forme .final del proyecto de recolección de trated and burned after clearance. This tendency algunos cultivos nativos de Guatemala. may be due to enrichment of the soil with the ash, Guatemala, University of San Carlos/ICTA/ the effect of which is to stimulate high tempera- IBPGR. tures in the seeds. Its apparent resistance to theAzurdia, P.C.A., Carrillo, F., Rodríguez, B., herbicide 2,4-D amine, which is widely used on Vázquez, F. & Martínez, V. 1990. Caracte- maize, may help its survival and even its spread rización y evaluación preliminar de algunos (through the reduction of competifion in the cultivos nativos de Guatemala. Guatemala, treated fields) in some agricultural regions. University of San Carlos/ICTA/IBPGR. The only two Mexican improved varieties,Bukasov, S.M. 1963. Las plantas cultivadas de Rendidora and Rendidora mejorada, have the México, Guatemala y Colombia. Lima, IICA, following characteristics: a smaller and more Misc. Publ. No. 20. uniform habit; few or no hollow fruits; and firmerCallen, E.O. 1966. Analysis of the Tehuacan fruit of a lime-green colour. coprolites. In D.S. Byers, ed. The prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley. I. Environment and Prospects for improvement subsistence, p. 261-289. Austin, USA, Uni- The variety Rendidora was formed from the best versity of Texas Press. collections selected in the state of Morelos,Cruces, C.R. 1987. Lo que México aportó where improvement work was carried out. Ren- mundo. Mexico City, Panorama. didora mejorada was derived from this variety. In Del Monte, D. de G.J.P. 1988. Presencia, dis- Guatemala, in spite of the wide genetic variation tribución y origen de Physalis philadelphica recognized, genetic improvement of this crop is Lam. en la zona centro de la Península Ibérica. still in its early stages. The characteristics most Candollea, 43(1): 93-100. affected by the environment are leaf size andDe Sahagfin, B. 1956. Historia general de las shape, growth habit and the growing cycle of the cosas de la Nueva Espafia, Mexico City, plant. Soil fertility stands out as an environmen- Porraa. tal factor in expression of the phenotype. Dressler, R.L. 1953. The pre-Columbian culti- Genetic improvement work in Mexico should vated plants of Mexico. Bot. Mus, Leqfl. Harv. aim at: plants with large and firm, deep green (not Univ., 16(6): 115-172. yellow) fruit; high yield, wide adaptation andFernández, B.L., Yani, M. & Zafiro, M. 1987. resistance to viral diseases and powdery mildew ...Y la comida se hizo. 4 para celebrar. Mex- (Oidium spp.). Improvement aims in Guatemala ico City, ISSSTE. should be the same, except regarding fruit colour,García, S.F. 1985. Physalis L. In Flora fane- since purplish green and yellowish green toma- rogqmica del valle de México. J. Rzedow ski toes are preferred in that country. & G.C. de Rzedowski, eds. Mexico City, Ins- P. chenopochfolia is in the initial stage of do- tituto de Ecología. mestication and shows a favourable response toHarlan, J.R. 1975. Crops and man. Madison, agricultural practices; accordingly, it must be Wis., USA, ASA. collected and evaluated so that the potential for Her ández, F. 1946. Historia de las plantas de better utilization in the future may be established. Nueva España. 1V1exico City, UNAM. 122 Tonuttillo, husk-tonutto

Hudson, W.D., Jr. 1983. The relationships of la domesticación sobre el tomate Physalis wild and domesticated tomato. Physalis phil- philadelphica Lam. Chapingo, Mexico, Cole- adelphica Lamarck (Solanaceae). Blooming- gio de Postgraduados. (thesis) ton, USA, Indiana University. (thesis) Pandey, K.K. 1957. Genetics of self-incompati- Hudson, W.D., Jr. 1986. Relationships of do- bility in Physalis ixocarpa Brot. A new mesticated and wild Phy,salis philadelphica. system. Arn..I . Bot., 44: 879-887. in W.G. D' Arcy, ed. Solanaceae: biology andQuirós, C.F. 1984. Overview of the genetics and systematics. New York, Columbia University breedinE,, of husk-tomato. Hort. Sci., 19(6): Press. 872-874. Martínez, M. 1954. Plantas (idles de la flora c/cSaray, M.C.R., Palacios, A.A. & Villanueva, México. Mexico, Botas. E.N. 1978.Rendidora' nueva variedad de Menzel, Y.M. 1951. The cytotaxonomy and ge- tomate de cascara. Foll. Div. No 73. Campo

netics of Physalis. Proc. Am. P hil.Soc., 95(2): Agrícola Experimental Zacatepec. Mexico, 132-183. CIAMECINIA-SARH. Mera, 0.L.1V1. 1987. Estudio comparativo del Waterfall, U.T. 1967. Physalis in Mexico, Cen- proceso de cultivo de la arvense Physalis tral America and the West Indies. Rhoclora, chenopodil'olia Lamarck y Phvsalis philadel- 69: 8 2-120, 203-239, 319-329. phica var. philadelphica cultivar cRendidora'. Williams, E.D. 1985. Tres arvenses solanaceas Chapingo, Mexico, Colegio de Postgradua- comestibles y su proceso de domesticación dos. (thesis) en el estado de Tlaxcala, México. Chapingo, Montes, H.S. 1989. Evaluación de los efectos de Mexico, Colegio de Postgraduados. (thesis) Andeen "k, Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 125

N601 ed cro s o e nciean :ion

Common to Andean civilizations of the past wasmember of the scientific expedition that discov- the existence of a well-organized agricultureered the ruins of Machu Picchu, mentions that, based on an appropriate use of the environmentin the sixteenth century, more domesticated spe- and the continuous improvement of food plantscies existed in the Andes than in Asia or Africa. and domesticated animals. These civilizations Since the formation of the pan-Andean em- were aware that agriculture is the source of foodpires of Tiahuanaco and Chavfn, and later among and that it guarantees society's stability. the Wari, Mochica, Chimu and Nazca cultures, Following this line of thought, the history ofspecial interest was taken in the domestication major civilizations should be approached fromof species. This is reflected in their representa- the point of view of the domestication of plants, tion on ceramic pieces at least 3 000 years ago. their variability, the improvement of the mainFrom the beginning of the fifteenth century, the crops and the advances achieved in agriculture. Andes region constituted the Tahuantinsuyo (Inca Numerous publications have dealt with do- State), and an active exchange of seeds and ge- mesticated plants in the Andean region and theirnetic material became widespread. Andean peas- importance for regional and world food sup-ants are maintaining this biological variability plies. However, the factors which caused thethrough their cultivation methods as a strategy marginalization of these crops have rarely beenfor coping with the climatic risks whic:h com- analysed. The potential for their recovery has monly occur in mountain agricultures and which not been highlighted, nor has the role that theyaffect production. could perform in improving the living condi- In the Andes one of the major centres of tions of peasants in other mountainous regions world domestication, according to Vavilovthe of the world. domestication of the potato (Solanum tubero- sum andigenum) stands out; it includes seven Andean biodiversity different species, of which more than 400 varie- It is acknowledged that one of the ways of achiev- ties are still grown today. ing is to maintain genetic Other plants were also domesticated, for ex- diversity and thereby achieve a better ecologicalample the oca, ulluco and mashwa, and these relationship. What is amazing is the fact that theallowed crop rotation in the high regions of the pre-Hispanic cultures which ranged over theAndes to be completed. In the valleys, maize Andean highlands had domesticated a greatwas grown together with other crops of high number of species. The botanist O.F. Cook, afood value, such as Andean grains (quinoa, ama- ranth), leguminous plants such as beans and lu- pins, and roots such as arracacha, yacen and The author of this chapter is M. Tapia (CR, Lima Peru). chagos. To populate higher areas, cold-tolerant 126 Neglected crops of the Andean region Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 127

species were adapted; for instance quinoa, which Minka, 1983, 1987; Pisa, 1989). The traditional can be grown up to 3 900 m; qaMwa, whichagricultural techniques are very varied and, thrives at 4 000 m; and a root, calledmaca, among others, include: which is grown up to 4 200 m (Table 5). the use of biological indicators for forecast- In using the products of various ecological ing climatic conditions; areas, the Andean populations included fruits the development of various agricultural tools from the yunga and zones in their diet. such as the simple but effective foot-plough Some had very special flavours, such as the or chakitaktla; sachatomate, capulin, Peruvian pepino, various managing and modifying the soil to make it species of Cactaceae, passionfruit and mountain suitable for production using ridges and fur- as well as condiment, aromatic and me- rows or raised plots (waru waru); terraces dicinal species. It may be concluded, therefore, which modify the land relief and which may that the Andean region is one of the greatest include irrigation or drainage; and qocha centres of food plant biodiversity in the world. or depressions in the ground to collect rain- The considerable plant genetic variability is ex- water; plained by the profuse ecological diversity that various products such as organic fertilizer, characterizes the Andes, as 18 agro-ecological for example guano from the islands; areas with different agricultural uses can be iden- crop rotation and mixed cropping systems, tified in the central Andean region of Peru alone. together with pest control and the use of It is important to remember that the presence insect-repellent plants; of numerous progenitor and wild species that are techniques for preserving agricultural prod- related to the domesticated species and carry the ucts, such as drying potatoes and other genes for adaptation to a wide diversity of high tubers and storing them for years when Andean climatic conditions constitutes a most production is low. valuable plant genetic resource, and its preser- Over the last 20 years, substantial work has vation urgently needs to be supported by thebeen carried out in the field for the systematic international community. conservation of Andean crops and their biodi- versity. It was also intended to prevent genetic Conservation of Andean plant genetic erosion in the face of the advance of a modern resources agriculture in which homogeneity and the devel- Until now, the survival of Andean crops has opment of high-yielding varieties reign supreme been due to the existence of numerous peasantbut which applies high levels of fertilizer and communities which still inhabit the area andmakes indiscriminate use of agrochemical prod- which, by preserving their traditions and their ucts. ancestral knowledge of handling as well as culti- Collecting expeditions (IBPGR, INIAP) in vating and using these species, have managed to Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia have obtained sam- prevent them from being lost. ples showing the variability of Andean crops They have also maintained numerous tradi-and have ensured the conservation of a high tional agricultural technologies which are being percentage of genetic material. Of equal impor- undermined by erosion processes but which are tance has been the compilation of descriptors fortunately the focus of various projects aimedof the main Andean species, done with the help at rescuing and improving them (Cepia, 1988;of FAO's Seed and Plant Genetic Resources 128 Neglected crops of the Andean region

TABLE 5 am food species originating in the Andes

Crop (common name) Latin name Altitude On) Agro-ecological zone'

Tubers Mashwa, aft Tropaeolum tuberosum 3 500 - 4 100 , puna

Oca Oxalis tuberosa 2 300 - 4 000 High quechua, suni

Bitter potato Solanum x curtilobum 3 900 - 4 200 Suni, puna Solanum xjuzepczukii 3 900 - 4 200 Suni, puna

Potato Solanumindigenum 1 000 - 3 900 Yunga, quechua, suni Ullucu, oca quina Ullucus tuberosus 2 800 - 4 000 High quechua, suni

Roots

Acira, Queensland arrowroot Cannaedulis 1 000 - 2 500 Yunga, low quechua Arracacha, apio, Peruvian parsnip Arracadaxanthorrhiza 1 000 - 2 800 Yunga, low quechua

Mauka, chago Mirabilis expansa 1 000 - 2 500 Yunga, humid quechua

Maca, pepper grass, pepper weed Lepidiummeyenii 3 900 - 4 200 Puna

Leafcup yacen Polymnia sonchifolia 1 000 - 3 000 Yunga, low quechua

Grains

Love-lies-bleeding, cat-tail, Inca wheat,

tumbleweed, kiwicha Amaranthus caudatus 2 000 - 3 000 Quechua Canihua, qaniwa, cañahua Chenopodiumpallidicaule 3 500 - 4 100 Suni, puna

Quinoa, quinua, suba Chenopodium quinoa 2 300 - 3 900 Quechua, suni

Legumes

Kidney bean, French bean, dwarf bean,

string bean... Phaseolus vulgaris 1 500 - 3 500 Yunga, quechua

Basul Erythrinaedulis 2 000 - 2 800 Quechua

Andean lupin, South American lupin Lupinus mutabilis 500 - 3 800 Yunga, quechua, suni

Fruit-trees

Cape gooseberry Physalis peruviana 500 - 2 800 Yunga, quechua Lucumo Pouteria obovata O - 2 700 Yunga, low quechua

Naranjilla, lulo Solanumquitoense 500 - 2 300 Yunga

Mountain papaw, papayuela Caricapubescens 500 - 2 700 Yunga, quechua

Pepino Solanum muricatum 500 - 2 300 Yunga Tree tomato, tamarillo Cyphomandrabetacea 500 - 2 700 Yunga, quechua Banana passionfruit, tacso, curuba, curuba

passionfruit Passiflora mollissima 2 000 - 3 200 Quechua

Altitudes and ecological regions to which a species is best suited; speciescan also be grown above or below such limits under modified conditions. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 129

Service. In recent years, emphasis has been on For this reason, it is of utmost importance to in situ conservation, i.e.in the farmers' ownadapt the management of traditional Andean fields and under their cultivation systems. Thesecrops to suitable technologies which enable their measures have been backed by the organizationproduction to be increased. By eliminating one of exhibitions such as "seed fairs" where, withof the factors of their marginalization they will the participation of local peasant communities,be able to compete under better conditions with the conservation of plant genetic diversity isother, more widespread crops. encouraged and prizes are awarded. Advances in research and a gradual market acceptance permit a selection to be made of Potential uses of Andean crops those Andean crops that have an immediate The marginalization of Andean crops occurredchance of being rescued for food use regionally because of the low social prestige attached toand worldwide. certain plants that constitute the staple foods of In the following chapters, currently neglected poor populations; the laborious processes re-native food species of the Andes are described, quired to prepare them; and their consequentdetails are given of their present situation and an low economic return in a marginal agriculturalanalysis is made of their production conditions system. and the potential they could have if the condi- A huge promotional effort is required to in-tions of their marginalization were modified. crease mass consumption of these species, par- ticularly those which stand out on account ofBibliography their nutritional value, an essential condition forArbizu, C. & Robles, E. 1986. Los recursos this being in many cases the improvement of the genéticos de la Universidad Nacional de San postharvest process. The bitter or toxic substances Cristóbal de Huamanga. In Los recursos which the ripe fruit of some species might con- filo genéticos andinos. Huamanga, Ayacucho, tain must not be a drawback, since technologies Peru, PICA-UNSCH. do exist for extracting them and because someCárdenas, M. 1948. Plantas alimenticias nati- compounds, such as lupin alkaloids and the sa- vas de los Andes de Bolivia. Folia Universi- ponins of quinoa, may have a pharmacological taria de Cochabamba, 2(2): 36-31. application and even be used as a biologicalCárdenas, M. 1969. Manual de plantas econó- alternative in pest and disease control. micas de Bolivia. Cochabamba, Bolivia, Interesting prospects are opening up, more- Imprenta Icthus. over, for the expansion of some Andean crops:Cepia. 1988. Tecnologías campesinas de los in the United States, Europe and New Zealand Andes. Proyecto de Tecnologías Campesinas. there is growing interest in the quinoa and ullu- Lima, Editorial Horizonte. co and, throughout the world, in exotic fruit- Cook, O.F. 1925. Peru as a center of domestica- trees such as Peruvian pepino. These crops can tion. .1. Hered., 16: 33-46; 95-110. be processed advantageously to obtain by-prod- FAO. 1990. Los cultivos andinos subexplotados ucts and itis possible to show that marginal y su aporte a la alimentación. Santiago, FAO. yields can be modified when a secure marketFranco, S. et al. 1989. Catálogo de colecciones exists, as in the case of Brazil, for example, de recursos fitogenéticos de la Sierra Norte where arracacha gives high yields when appro- del Perú. Cajamarca, Peru, INIAA. priate technology is used. Horkheimer, H.1973. Alimentación y 130 Neglected crops of the Andean region

obtención de alimentos en el Perú prehis- Rea, J. & Morales, D. 1980. Catálogo de tubér- pánico. Lima, Universidad Nacional Mayor culos andinos. Programa de cultivos andinos. San Marcos. La Paz, MACA-IBTA. IBPGR. 1982. Recursos fito genéticos de interésSalis, A. 1985. Cultivos andinos. ¿Alternativa agrícola en la región andina. Informe de la alimentaria popular? Centro de Estudios Ru- Primera Reunión Regional. Roma, IICA, rales Bartolomé de las Casas. Cuzco, Peru, JUNAC/1BPGR. CEDEP Ayllu. INIACUPGR. 1985. Recolección de variosSauer, C.O. 1950. Cultivated plants of South cultivos andinos Cilel Ecuador. Informe and Central America. In Handbook of South final. Quito, Ecuador. American Indians, Vol. 6. Washington, DC, León, J. 1964. Plantas alimenticias andinas. IICA Smithsonian Institute. Boletín Técnico, 6. Tapia, M. 1989. Potencial productivo agro- Minka. 1983. Cultivos andinos. Revista Minka, pecuario en la Sierra y sus componentes para 10. Huancayo, Peru, Grupo Talpuy. el desarrollo. Bases para una política tec- Minka. 1987. Tubérculos andinos. Revista Min- nológica. Lima, Publ. Comisión de Coordi- ka, 21. Huancayo, Peru, Grupo Talpuy. nación de Tecnología Andina. Núñez, L. 1974. La agricultura prehistórica en Tapia, M. et al. 1990. Conservación in situ de los Andes meridionales. Chile, Universidad los recursos fitogenéticos andinos para la pro- del Norte, ducción de semillas con agricultores campe- National Research Council. 1989. Lost crops sinos. In Reflexiones sobre políticas y ofthe Incas. Little known plants from theproducción de recursos genéticos. Lima, Pub!. Andes n'ith promise .for In'orldwide cultiva- Comisión de Coordinación de Tecnología tion. Washington, DC, National Academy Andina. Press. Vavilov, N.I. 1960. Estudio sobre el origen de Pisa. 1989. Informe técnico anual. , Peru, las plantas cultivadas. Buenos Aires, Edi- INIAA-C [ID. ciones ACME Agency S.R. Ltda. Neglected crops: 1492 from a dWiTent perspective 131

Andn gre'ins and Ilegumes

CANIHUA The traditional and most frequent method of (Chenopodium pallidicaule) consumption is in the form of lightly roasted, Botanical name: Chenopodiuni pallidi-ground grains which produce a pleasant flour Heller called cafiihuaco. This is consumed on its own, Family: Chenopodiaceae in cold or hot drinks, or in porridges. Over 15 Common names. English: canihua; different ways of preparing the whole grain and Spanish: qatliwa, caiiihua (Peru), caflahua cafiihuaco are known (as entrées, soups, stews, (Bol iv ja) desserts and drinks). In the bakery industry good results have been achieved by adding 20 percent The canihua, which originated in the Andes ofof caiiihuaco to wheat flour, which gives the southern Peru and Bolivia, was domesticated byproduct (bread, biscuits) a pleasant characteristic the settlers of Tiahuanaco, who establishedcolour and flavour. themselves on the tableland of Collao. No ar- Cafiihuaco also has medicinal uses: it counter- chaeological remains have been found connectedacts altitude sickness and fights dysentery while with this plant, and the dehiscence which thethe ashes of its stem can be used as a repellent seeds still display suggests that its domestication against insect and spider bites. is not complete. It is important on the high pla- teau of Peru and Bolivia because it produces Dcianical description grains for human consumption at between 3 800Chenopodium pallidicaule is an of and 4 300 ni, being very cold-resistant inits 25 to 70 cm, with variations in its branching. Two various phenological phases. At present, its culti-types are differentiated: Saigua, of erect growth vation and utilization are maintained at subsist-and with few secondary branches, and Lasta, ence levels in these regions. One of the causes of which is very branched. It has a taproot with its marginalization is the large number of peoplemultiple slender ramifications. When it reaches required to harvest it and its small grain size,maturity, its leaves and stem turn yellow, pin.k, which makes handling difficult. orange, red or purple. Its inflorescences are on terminal and axillary cimas, covered by the Use and nutritional value leaves; the flowers are small, without petals and This grain has a high protein content (15 to 19 are of three types: , pistillate and percent) and, like quinoa and love-lies-bleedingmale sterile; the androecium is formed by one to (kiwicha), a high proportion of sulphur-contain- three stamens, and the has a unilocu- ing amino acids. It has the advantage of notlar superior ovary. The seed is from 0.5 to containing saponins, which facilitates its use. 1.5 mm in diameter, is brown or black, piriform and slightly compressed. The leaves are petio- late, rhomboid, trilobulate and alternate. The author of this chapter is A. Mújica (INIAA, Arequipa, Peru). The seeds do not exhibit dormancy and can 132 Andean grains and legunies

germinate on the plant itself if there is sufficientof canihua, frequently grow in wild form and humidity. Because it ripens gradually, there is aamong crops of bitter potato. The wild forms can spontaneous loss and dispersal of seeds, which isattain considerable sizes under good fertility con- characteristic of the wild species. The seeds canditions. These plants are harvested and eaten remain for several years in the soil where during years of scarcity. C. pallidicaule has been grown. Genetic diversity Ecology and phytogeography The canihua displays wide genetic diversity, The crop extends from central Peru (Huaraz) towith several plant forms, from erect (Lasta) to Cochabamba in Bolivia, between 3 000 andcreeping (Saigua). Plant and seed colour, earli- 4 000 m, with a greater concentration in the high ness, protein content, adaptation to soils, precip- plateau region. It is sporadic on small plots in the itation and tolerance of pests and diseases vary. tableland of Bombón (Junín, Peru). FollowingNormally, cultivated species, escape species of are C. pallidicaule's basic requirements: the crop and wild species are found. The centre of diversity is limited to the Peruvian-Bolivian high Photoperiod. It is a day-neutral plant and showsplateau, i.e. the region between the knot of Vil- adaptability to several environments. Grain hascanota in Peru to the salt deposits of Uyuni in been produced experimentally in at lat.Bolivia. 40°N. Some of the cultivars known in Peru are: Cupi, Ramis, Akallapi, Huanaco, Rosada, Chillihua, Humidity. The plant needs 500 to 800 mm ofCondorsaya, K'ellu and Puca. In Bolivia, culti- rain, but it can also tolerate prolonged periods ofvars include Kanallapi, Chusllunca and Issualla. drought. It displays extreme susceptibility to There are germplasm collections at the INIAA excessive humidity in the first stages ofexperimental stations of Camacani and Illpa development. (Puno), the San Antonio Abad University in K'ayra (Cuzco), Peru, and at the University of Temperature. Once established, the plant is very Patacamaya (IBTA), Bolivia, where more than resistant to cold and can tolerate temperatures as380 accessions are stored in cold, dark environ- low as -10°C during branching, since it has anments, although they are inadequate for long- adaptation mechanism whereby the leaves cover term conservation. and protect the primordia and flower stems at Since, selected varieties have not yet been in- nightfall, thus preventing the vital parts of thetroduced on a large scale in the two countries plant from freezing. At the other extreme, it can where it is grown, there is no danger of genetic tolerate up to 28°C, ifit has the necessary erosion. humidity. A complementary systematic collection of ge- netic variability is needed in the Soil. It prefers loamy-clayey soils, as it has suffi- basin, on the Peruvian-Bolivian high plateau, in cient phosphorus and potassium. The appropriateranges and areas above 4 000 m, in high Andean pH varies between 4.8 and 8.5. It exhibits toler- valleys of the central range (Ancash, Huánuco, ance to salinity. Junín, Huancavelica, Ayacucho and Cuzco), in The so-called Mama Qailiwa, Machu Qaíiiwaarid zones bordering the salt deposits in Bolivia and K'ita Qafliwa, which are the closest relativesand lastly in the puna (high Andean plateau) and Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 133

FIGURE 13

Andean grains: A) canihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule); Al) hermaphrodite flower; A2) male flower;A3) fruit; A4) seed; B) quinoa (C. quinoa); B1) hermaphrodite flower; B2) female flower; B3) fruit; B4) seed 134 Andean grains and legumes

prepuna of northern Argentina. Collections mustwheat thresher (reducing the revolutions to a be taken from crops and, more especially, fromminimum, closing off the air intake and modify- wild populations which have not yet been col-ing the sieve dimensions). The grain, which is lected, thus completing their in situ conservation. covered with fine chaff, needs cleaning. Com- mercial yields using this technique can amount to Cultivation practices as much as 1 500 kg per hectare. Traditional cultivation takes place exclusively in dryland conditions, without fertilization, in rota- Prospects for improvement tion fields with bitter potato and other Andean Among Andean grains there are many limitations tubers and with very little soil preparation. Thebecause of the low distribution of their cultiva- seed is broadcast at the rate of approximately 5 totion. Genetic and agronomic research, evaluation 8 kg per hectare. It often seems to have beenof the germplasm and processing or industriali- sown in furrows, but these have been revealed to zation have been very partial in relation to the be no more than the ridges left over from potato potential of the species. The difficulty of harvest- growing after earthing up. Harvesting and ing as a consequence of non-uniform grain ripen- threshing is done in several stages. These consist ing is currently one of the main limitations. of pulling up the plants with their roots, shaking Furthermore, outside its production area, little them so that the ripe grains fall off, then leaving is known about the use of this species for food. them to dry for ten to 15 days and finally thresh-Nor is there any agro-industrial processing of the ing them with curved sticks(wajtana).Becausegrain. The size of the grain makes processing and of C.pallidicatde'sgradual ripening, somedomestic preparation ofcafiihuacodifficult. grains remain and threshing is generally repeated Moreover, this traditional method is falling into after a further ten to 15 days. Using this tech-disuse because of its laboriousness. nique, the farmer obtains from 400 to 800 kg of The main advantages of C.pallidicauleare its grain per hectare. The dry stems and chaff are a adaptation to the agroclimatic conditions of cold valued by-product for animal feeding. high zones above the altitude of 3 800 m, where However, a yield of 3 tonnes per hectare can be other crops do not thrive; its nutritional value, achieved by preparing the soil with good hoeing, with a 15 to 18 percent protein content and an sowing in furrows 40 cm apart, using seed select- excellent balance of essential amino acids; and ed according to its size (5 kg per hectare) andthe possibility of the entire plant's use as a fodder applying fertilizer (60-40-00 or 80-80-00). Ni- species. trogen is applied at two stages: sowing and branching. The soil is earthed up and hoed toPotential areas for introduction and cultiva- prevent competition. Pests are controlled in the tion. Cultivation could be steppedup in the flat event of product ion being threatened, particular-areas of the high tableland of Peru and Bolivia ly in the case of Epicauta sp.,Guorimoschema and in the zones above 3 800 m of the central sp. and Myzus sp. Harvesting takes place whencordillera of the Andes. the plants change colour. It consists of cutting Research, promotion and officialsupport and laying the grain for threshing after 20to 30 could result in a revival of thecrop on cold land days or when it is completely dry. Threshingmay in the Andes. The lines of research andpromo- be done by hand, using curved sticksand sieves, tion necessary to initiate a wider spread of the or it may be mechanized, using a stationary crop are as 'follows: Neglected crops: 1492 from a diffio-ent perspective 135

completing the collection, evaluation anddone by hand, take a great many clays and the characterization of the genetic material grain requires a process toremove its bitter ingre- available in the Andean region, the priority dients before consumption. The pricesreceived being to obtain varieties ripening uniformly, by farmers often do not justify their labour. with lesser dehiscence and large grains; producing improved seed and distributing it Uses and nutritional value to producers; The parts of Chenopodiuni quinoa usedas human building efficient prototype mechanicalfood include the grain, the young leavesup to threshers for the grain; where ear formation begins (the protein content implementing agro-industrial processingso of the ear is as much as 3.3 percent in the dry as to offer attractive products which can be matter) and, less frequently, the young ears. The marketed profitably; plants nutritional value is considerable: thecon- publicizing its nutritional value and ways oftent and quality of its proteins are outstanding preparing it. because of their essential amino acid composi- tion (lysine, arginine, histidine and ); its biological value is comparable to casein and it QUINOA is especially suitable for food mixtures with leg- (Chenopodium quinoa) umes and cereals. Botanical name: Chenopodium quinoa Of the Andean grains, C. quinoa is the most Willd. versatile from the point of view of culinary prep- Family: Chenopodiaceae aration: the whole grain, the uncooked or roasted Common names. English: quinoa, quinua; flour, small leaves, meal and instant powder can Quechua: quinua, kiuna (Ecuador, Peru,be prepared in a number of ways. There are Bolivia);Aymara :jiura(Bolivia);numerous recipes on about 100 preparations, Mapuche: quinhua (Chile); Chibcha: subaincluding tamales, huancafna sauce, leaf salad, (Colombia) pickled quinoa ears, soups and casseroles, stews, torrejas, pastries, sweets and desserts and soft The quinoa is a food plant which was extensively and fermented, hot and cold, beverages, as well cultivated in the Andean region by pre-Columbi- as , biscuits and pancakes, which contain an cultures some 5 000 years ago and was used in 15 to 20 percent of quinoa flour. the diet of the settlers both of the inter-Andean The whole plant is used as green fodder. Har- valleys, which are very cold high areas, and of the vest residues are also used to feed cattle, sheep, high plateaus. After maize, it has occupied thepigs, horses and poultry. most prominent place among Andean grains. The leaves, stems and grain have medicinal At present, it continues to be grown in Colom- uses and the properties attributed to it include bia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. cicatrization, anti-inflammation, analgesia Its marginalization began with the introductionagainst toothache and as a disinfectant of the of cereals such as barley and wheat, which even- urinary tract. It is also used in the case of fractures tually replaced it. The reduction in its cultivated and internal haemorrhaging and as an insect re- area in the Andean countries is also due to tech- pellent. nical, economic and social reasons. Harvesting Its production potential is good. Because of and threshing, which in the majority of cases afethis, its cultivation is spreading to other coun- 136 Andean grains and legumes

tries. With adequate soil preparation, fertilization adapts to different conditions of humidity, alti- and pest and disease control, yields of more than tude and topography. Its requirements are: 3 to 4 tonnes per hectare can be obtained. In recent years, it has been introduced on the inter-Precipitation. This depends on the agro-ecolog- national market, fetching prices in excess of ical zone and the genotype to which it belongs. It US$1.5 per kg. varies from 250 mm (the area of salt deposits in Bolivia) to 1 500 mm in the inter-Andean val- Botanical description leys. Although it shows strong resistance in peri- C.quinoa is an annual , measur-ods of drought, it requires sufficient humidity at ing 0.20 to 3 m in height, depending on environ- the commencement of cultivation. mental conditions and genotype. It has a racemose inflorescence (a panicle with groups of Temperature. It tolerates down to -5°C in the flowers in glomerules); small, incomplete, ses-branching phase, depending on the ecotype and sile flowers of the same colour as the sepals and the duration of the minimum temperature. Its they may be hermaphrodite, pistillate or maleontogenic resistance to cold and drought is very sterile. The stamens have short filaments bearing variable. Ecotypes exist which are resistant to basifixed anthers; the style has two or three feath- temperatures of down to -8°C and survive for ery stigmas. 20 days (mean monthly temperature). The fruit occurs in an indehiscent achene, pro-

tected by the perigonium. The seeds are 1 to Soil. It prefers easily worked, semi-deep soils, 2.6 mm and are white, yellow, red, purple, brown with good drainage and a supply of nutrients. It is or black. The leaves show pronounced polymor- suited to acid soils with a pH of 4.5 (in Cajamar- phism: rhomboid, deltoid or triangular. The tap- ca, Peru) and alkaline soils with a pH of up to 9.5 root is densely branched. (in Uyuni, Bolivia), depending on the ecotype. Acceptable production is also obtained both on Ecology and phytogeography sandy and clayey soils. The cycle varies from 120 to 240 days and is suited to various environmental conditions. TheGenetic diversity phenological phases are emergence; two, fourThe nearest wild species to C. quinoa are and six true leaves; branching; start of ear forma- C. hircinwn and C. berlandieri, which have the tion; full formation of ear; start of florescence; same number of chromosomes (2n = 4x = 36), florescence or anthesis; woody grain; soft grain; and C. pallidicaule with 2n = 2x = 18 chromo- and physiological maturity. somes. The quinoa has the ability to adapt to adverse Sympatric wild populations of domesticated environmental conditions such as cold and populations exist under cultivation, and morpho- drought. Its seeds do not exhibit dormancy andlogical and electrophoretic similaritiescan be they germinate when conditions are suitable,noted between one and the other in each locality, even on the plant itself although, in the wildwhich indicates that domesticated quinoasare forms, they may remain in the soil fortwo togenerally accompanied by wild populations in three years without germinating. their various distribution areas. C. quinoa's traditional cultivationarea ex- Cultivated quinoas exhibit great genetic diver- tends from lat. 8°N to lat. 30°S,as the plantsity, showing variability in the colouring of the Neglected crops: 1492.1'1-am a different perspective 137

plant, inflorescence and seeds, types of inflores- Throughout the Andean region there aresever- cence, protein content, saponin content, beta-al gene banks where over 2 000 accessionsare cyanine and calcium oxalate crystals in thepreserved in cold-storage rooms: in Peru, at the leaves, so that a wide adaptation to differentexperimental stations of Camacani and Illpa agro-ecological conditions may be seen (soils,(Puno), K 'ayra and Andenes (Cuzco), Cankin precipitation, temperature, altitude, resistance(Ayacucho), Mantaro y Santa Ana (Huancayo), to frost, drought, salinity or acidity). Baños del Inca (Cajamarca); in Ecuador, at the From the point of view of its variability, itmay Santa Catalina station of INIAP (it has a cold- be considered an oligocentric species, withan storage room); and in Bolivia, at the Patacamaya ample centre of origin of multiple diversifica- station of the IBTA. tion. The Andean region and, within it, the shores The areas of genetic diversity where there are of Lake Titicaca, are where the greatest diversity still no collections are the islands of Lake Titi- and genetic variation occur. The main varietiescaca; the areas above 3 900 m in Peru and Boliv- known in this region are: in Peru, Kancolla, ia;the semi-arid inter-Andean valleys; the Cheweca, Witulla, Tahuaco, Camacani, Yocará,salt-pans; the valleys of the eastern slope of the Wilacayuni, Blanca de Juli, Amarilla de Ma- Andes; and the cold zones of Argentina. ranganí, Pacus, Rosada y Blanca de Junín, Hual- huas, Huancayo, Mantaro, Huacariz, FIuacataz, Cultivation practices Acostambo, Blanca Ayacuchana and Nariño; in The traditional cultivation technique consists of Bolivia, Sajama, Real Blanca, Chucapaca, Ka-sowing under dry conditions in a crop rotation miri,Huaranga, Pasancalla, Pandela, Tupiza, with potato or on strips in maize crops, with little Jachapucu, Wila Coymini, Kellu, Uthusaya, soil preparation and using only the residual or- Chullpi, Kaslali and Chillpi; in Ecuador, Inbaya, ganic fertilizers fromt:he preceding crop. Sowing Chaucha, INIAP-Cochasqui, Tanlahua, Piartal, density varies between 15 and 20 kg of unselect- Porotoc, Amarga del Chimborazo, Amarga de ed seed per hectare. As traditional growers al- Imbabura and Morada; in Colombia, Dulce de ways look for safety in cultivation, they therefore Quitopampa; in Argentina, Blanca de Jujuy; and sow several ecotypes at different times and in in Chile, Baer, Lito, Faro and Picchaman. different locations. Cultivation work is limited to The risks of genetic erosion are due not only toone or two hoeings, with occasional earthing up, the loss of viability in gene banks (at present it particularly in the inter-Andean valleys. There is exceeds 15 percent annually) but also that occur- no pest and disease control. The plants are har- ring in the areas of diversification, particularly in vested when they reach physiological maturity places where cultivars and modern varieties are and are laid for 30 to 45 days, after which they are promoted for commercial purposes. The case ofthreshed on well-trodden ground, beaten with wild species is even more delicate, with small, curved sticks (wajtana) or trampled by animals. isolated populations which have not been collect-Yields range from 400 to 1 200 kg per hectare, ed in time and which are inexorably vanishing. depending on the region. There are also risks from environmental factors Experimental results show that yields can be and natural disasters. In situ conservation is anincreased by preparing the soil well, applying 80- alternative, although there are difficulties of a40-00, applying fractionated nitrogen during socio-economic nature and also regarding insti- sowing and earthing up. It is recommended that tutional support. the crop be sown in furrows spaced 40 to 80 cm 138 Andean grains and legumes

apart, using 10 kg per hectare of selected seed It may also be extended to the urban and periph- and hoeing during the first phenological phases, eral populations and be of interest in food securi- with earthing up particularly in the case ofty programmes. valley-growing quinoa and control of the main There are possibilities of its being introduced pests. The crop can be harvested using eitherinto the market economy and of its contributing combine harvesters or stationary harvesters. to the generation of adequate incomes. However, Yields of up to 5 000 kg per hectare of grain canthere are still an excessive number of intermedi- be achieved and a by-product of harvesting is 5 to aries in the marketing process and quality param- 10 tonnes per hectare of chaff for feeding live-eters still have to be determined in terms of the stock. These yields can be produced under suit- market and exports. able climatic conditions (rain and temperature), which do not always prevail in the different agro- Potential areas for introduction and cultiva- ecological areas of the Andes. tion. The rate of distribution and cultivated area attained with the quinoa before the sixteenth Prospects for improvement century could be recovered and its cultivation in One of the main current limitations of cultivation arid and semi-arid or marginal areas increased. In stems from the fact that almost all the traditional Venezuela, good results have been produced by varieties contain saponins in a greater or lesser trials carried out in the Mérida and Maracay areas quantity, which give the grain a bitter flavour. with a view to its future introduction in the De- However, varieties with a low saponin content do partments of Mérida, Trujillo and Lara. In Co- exist, for example Blanca de Junín, as do some lombia, these trials included the savannah of which are almost free of saponin, such as Sajama Bogotá and the Departments of Boyacá, Cundi- and Nariflo. namarca, Valle, Huila, Narifio, Santander and For centuries, the quinoa has been considered a Antioquía. food of low social prestige, although this preju- In Ecuador it has been introduced throughout dice is slowly changing. There needs to be athe Andean region, mainly in the provinces of greater awareness of its nutritional value. Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Chimb- Prospects for improving propagation and culti- orazo, Loja and Tunguragua. Its cultivation is vation techniques are fairly encouraging. Agro- being promoted by private firms in low, warmer industrial processing is a decisive factor for theagro-ecological areas for export. present and future development of the crop. It In Peru, it has been introduced throughout the enables quality and use to be optimized and Andean region from Piura to Tacna, althoughon aggregate value increased and it makes market- the coast its potential is good, particularlyas ing easier, thus encouraging growers not only to regards export. In Bolivia, it has also been intro- improve productivity but also to increase thearea duced into the Andean region. Its yieldcan be sown. increased in the area of the salt-pans and itcan be Experiments in projects such as that ofincorporated in the yungas. COPACA (1990) in publicizing knowledge It would be feasible to introduce thecrop into about the quinoa, among other crops,open up Honduras and Guatemala as wellas the central prospects of the crop spreading on a very largestates of Mexico (México, Puebla, Guerrero, scale, in view of its strategic importance in feed- Tlaxcala and Oaxaca). It has been researched in ing populations, especially the rural population.the United States and is now sown in Colorado, Neglected crops: 1492 froin a different perspective 139

Texas, New Mexico and Utah. In the Himalayas, ANDEANLumi it is grown with acceptable results. (Lupinus The main advantages of this cropare its ability Botanical ::ame: Lupinus truth/billsSweet to produce a grain of high biological quality and Fabaceae the existence of germplasm suited to various Common names. English:Andean lupin, ecological conditions. Furthermore, thecurrent South American lupin;Ottechua:tarwi knowledge and use of this species by thepeasants (Peru, Bolivia);Aymara:tattri(Bolivia); should be extended. other indigenous languages:chocho, chochito (Ecuador and northern Peru), Lines of research ccequela (Peru [Azangarop, chuchus (Bo- Completing the collection, evaluation, char- livia);Spanish:altramuz, lupino, chocho acterization, documentation and exchange of germplasm in the various countries of theThe Andean lupin is a leguminous plant that was Andean region; improving the installationsdomesticated and grown by the ancient settlers of and equipment of current gene banks. the central Andean region from pre-Incan times, Genetic and agronomic improy'ement: se-as indicated by seeds found in tombs of the Nazca lecting a wide range of early varieties which culture and the plant's representation on Tiahua- have a low saponin content, a large grain and naco pottery. As in earlier times, Andean popula- which are high-yielding and resistant totions still use the seeds as a food .today. They frost, drought and salinity; improving thewere very important as long ago as the pre- plant's uniformity of architecture and ofHispanic era, figuring foremost among foods ripening to facilitate mechanized harvest-because of their high protein content. ing; carrying out integrated pest and disease Lupinus mutabilisis still grown .from Ecuador control; establishing a basic genetic seed to Chile and northern:. Argentina under different production programme and commercial production systems. It was displaced by Europe- seed propagation programme for the various an crops and, because of this, has been one of the agronomic areas of the Andes. native species most affected by marginalization. Postharvest and processing: perfectingThe grain has a high alkaloid content which technology .for the removal of saponins .from imparts a very bitter taste and a process is there- the grain while avoiding loss of nutritional fore needed lo eliminate it, thus giving it a dis- value; encouraging industrial processing. advantage compared with other introduced Nutritional value and use:carrying out leLYumes. The result has been a reduction in culti- chemical and nutritional characterization ofvated area ofL. mutabilis,despite its agronomic the saponin and its use in the pharmacopoe- and nutritional benefits, such as the fixing of at- ia; publicizing nutritional characteristicsmospheric nitrogen (more than 100 kg per hec- and culinary versatility. tare), cold resistance and a 'high protein and oil Comtnercialization and marketing:evaluat- content. Its marginalization may have been infl ing domestic consumption, stimulating de-enced by the fact that it was eaten mainly by the mand and including it in food assistance indigenous population, as well as by its variable programmes; improving .information on yield: on peasant plots, 300 to 600 kg per hectare prices and quality parameters; specifying are obtained; under suitable conditions, 3 500 kg, health procedures .for export. and experimentally, 7 000 kg per hectare. 140 Andean grains and legumes

Uses and nutritional value vvith a thick main stem, reaching up to 3 ni. The The Andean lupin is not only an important source ramified secondary roots have symbiotic nodules of protein (42.2 percent in the dry grain, 20with bacteria of the genus. The stems percent in the cooked grain and 44.5 percent inare cylindrical and woody. The leaves are pal- the flour), but also of fat which in the dry grain ismate and digitate. It has racemose inflorescences 16 percent and in the flour 23 percent. It is used with several flower verticils, each with five flow- for human consumption after the bitter taste hasers, whose colours range from blue, purple, sky been removed, a process for which there areblue, pink to w,.hite. The androecium is formed by several methods. Preparation varies according to ten dorsifixed and five basifixed stamens. Be- the region and the occasion on which it is eaten: cause of flower absciss ion, 50 to 70 percent of the cebiche serrano, soups (cream of Andean lupin);flowers do not form fruit, especially on second- stews (pipicin, a kind of fricassee); desserts (ma- ary and tertiary branches. The fruit occurs in a zamorra custard with orange) and soft drinkspubescent, indehiscent pod in the cultivated spe- (papaya juice with Andean lupin flour). cies, with some dehiscence in the semi-cultivated Industrially, flour is obtained which is used inand wild species. It is elliptical or oblong, point- a proportion of up to 15 percent in breadmaking ed at both ends, with approximately 130 pods per it has the advantage of considerably improving plant. The seed is lenticular, 8 to 10 mm long and the protein and calorific value of the product. It 6 to 8 rnm wide. Its colour varies between black also allows the bread to be kept longer because ofand white, through bay, dark grey, light grey the retrogradation of the starch, a greater volume and greenish yellow. A hardened integument, being obtained owing to the emulgent properties containing alkaloids, accounts for 10 percent of the sweet lupin's lecithin. The alkaloidsof the seed. The weight of 100 seeds is between (sparteine, lupinine, lupanidine, etc.) are used to 20 and 28 g. control ectoparasites and intestinal parasites of The growing cycle varies between 150 and 360 animals. Occasionally, farmers use the Andeandays, depending on the genotype and whether lupin's cooking water as a laxative and to control ripening of the central stem alone is taken into pests and diseases. In the flowering state, theaccount or that of other branches. The various plant is incorporated into soil as green manurephenological phases are: emergence first true and effectively improves the quantity of organic leaf; forrnation of the on the central stem; matter and the structure and moisture retention offlowering; podding; pod ripening; and physio- the soil. Because of its alkaloid content, itis logical maturity. The seeds exhibit dormancy frequently sown as a hedge or to separate plots ofthrough immaturity, since they require a post- different crops, preventing damage which ani-ripening phase before germinating. In wildspe- mals might cause. Harvest: residues (dry stems) cies of Lupinus, dispersion is spontaneous are used as fuel because of their high cellulosethrough dehiscence and may extend as faras content which provides an appreciable calorific several metres. value. Ecology and phytogeography Botanical description L. mutabilis is grown in temperate coldareas L. mutabilis is an annual plant varying in height (Venezuela, Chile and northern Argentina), in from 0.4 to 2.5 rn, depending on thegenotype and inter-Andean valleys and on high plateaus, from environment in which it is grown. It has a taproot2 000 to 3 850 ni, although good yields have been Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 141

obtained in experiments at sea level. The require- Ochoa, Yunguyo, Altagracia, H6, SCG-9, SCG- ments of L. mutabilis are: 25, SLP-1, SLP-2, SLP-3, SLP-4 and SLP-5; in Bolivia, Toralapa and Carabuco; and in Chile, Photoperiod. It is apparently unaffected by this Inti. factor, although it is grown more under short-day Several working collections are kept in univer- conditions. sities, at research institutes and in technical coop- eration projects throughout the Andean region. Precipitation. Its requirements are between 350More thanI 600 accessions are kept in cold- and 800 mm and it is grown exclusively understorage rooms at several experimental stations. dry farming conditions. It is susceptible to exces- The main ones are in Peru (K'ayra in Cuzco, sive humidity and moderately susceptible toSanta Ana in Huancayo, Illpa and Camacani in drought during flowering and podding. Puno, Baños del Inca in Cajamarca and Candan in Ayacucho), Bolivia (Patacamaya, Toralapa Temperature. It does not tolerate frosts during and Pairumani) and Ecuador (Santa Catalina). the raceme formation and ripening phase, al- The high fat content of the seeds reduces ger- though some ecotypes grown on the shores ofmination times; losses may be as much as 20 to Lake Titicaca have a greater resistance to cold. 25 percent annually, hence continuous regenera- tion of the material is required. Soil. It prefers loamy-sandy soils, with an ade- No genetic erosion has yet been observed in quate balance of nutrients, good drainage and athe field, since the introduction of improved vari- pH between 5 and 7; on acid soils, Rhizobiumetiesis not significant. In situ conservation nitrogen-fixation is very low. would be a good alternative, particularly for the Cultivation continues in the traditional way inwild species. Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, although introduc- The areas of genetic diversity of cultivated or tions have now been made with good results inwild species which need to be collected are situ- Venezuela, Colombia, Chile, Argentina, Mexico ated above 3 800 m in semi-arid :regions, in deep and European countries. inter-Andean valleys, on the eastern slope of the Andes, on the low ridges of the Peruvian coast, at Genetic diversity the foot of the Venezuelan mountains, in the The Andean lupin displays a wide genetic diver- Colombian savannah, in northern Argentina, in sity, with great variability in its architecture,the yungas of Bolivia and in Chile, in Con- adaptation to soils, precipitation, temperature cepción and Chiloé in the south, and in the north- and altitude. This is also the case with earliness, ern areas. protein, oil and alkaloid content and disease tol- erance. The colour of the seed, plant and flowerCultivation practices varies. Its centre of origin would seem to beThe traditional cultivation practice consists of located in the Andean region of Ecuador, Perusowing after minimum tilling, particularly on and Bolivia, since the greatest genetic variability thin soils and in high areas because of the sparse is found there. In this region, 83 species of thegrowth of weeds and the need to conserve humid- Lupinus genus have been identified. ity. The crop is generally cultivated in rotation Known varieties and cultivars are numerous:with potato or cereals, without the use of fertiliz- in Peru, Andenes 80, Cuzco, K'ayra, Carlos ers or . Sowing density varies from 100 -149 Andean grains and legunie.s'

FIGURE 14 A) Andean lupin (Lupinus mutabilis); Al) flower; A2) legume; 43) seed; B) kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus); B1) flower; Neglected (Tops: 1492 front a different perspective 143

to 120 kg per hectare of unselected seed, which is main limitation is the alkaloidcontent of the seed broadcast. Cultivation work is limited to hoeing.and plant itself. Alkaloids give thema sharp, Harvesting takes place when the plants havebitter taste and have to be removed byway of reached full maturity. The seedsare separated various laborious processes. The traditional and from the pod by blows from a curved stickor they best-known method is cooking, followed by rins- are trampled by livestock. Threshing is complet-ing for several days. The harvest residuescannot ed by winnowing. Using this technique, yields be used as fodder until alkaloid-free varietiesare range between 500 and1 000 kg per hectare,available. Although, at present, there areeco- depending on the region and ecotypes used. types with a low alkaloid content and one variety The improved cultivation technique consists which is free of them, these still show adaptation of sowing on pre-prepared soil that has beendifficulties, low resistance to pests and diseases, 'fertilized with the formula 0-60-00 or 0-80-60, a long vegetative period and little growth vigour. depending on soil fertility. The requirement is 80Its nutritional value and forms of use are not to 90 kg of selected seed per hectare, disinfectedwidely known, which is why its consumption is against sp. Two or three seeds atnot more widespread among the population. a time are put into furrows spaced 60 to 80 cmMoreover, market supplies of Andean lupins apart. Weeding is done in the branching phase,which have had their bitter flavour removed are together with control of the seed weevil (Apiontemporary and limited to producer areas. sp.) and Epicauta sp. Harvesting takes place Processing methods are still unsophisticated when the central stem (high plateau of Peru andand not very efficient. With advanced agro- Bolivia), or primary and secondary branches (in- industrial techniques, the crop could be extended ter-Andean valleys) are mature. The usual meth- and promoted and its prices improved. It has od of harvesting is reaping, laying, threshing, production potential and prospects for use as an winnowing and storagelaborious and labour-oilseed plant, source of protein, nitrogen-fixer intensive activities. Stationary soybean and kid- and producer of alkaloids, with applications in ney bean threshers have been used with goodanimal and plant health. results, and prototype stationary threshers with a Cultivation could be extended to marginal 0.5 to I h.p. motor have even been designed. How- areas: to do this, more genetic research is needed ever, the efficiency of the latter equipment is still on resistance to drought, frosts, hail and soil not adequate (processing 500 to 600 kg per day). acidity. Through selection and crossing, there is Yields reach 3 500 and 5 000 kg per hectare. potential for the development of varieties that are Cultivation is being developed with greaterfree of alkaloids and have desirable agronomic interest in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador (the agro-and productive characteristics. nomic situation of Andean lupin utilization in Ecuador has been described). The alkaloid-free Potential areas for introduction and variety, Inti, bred in Chile by von Baer, is cur-cultivation rently available. Cultivation could be increased in the Andes of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, both in traditional Prospects for improvement areas where it was abandoned or displaced and in Cultivation of the Andean lupin, like other crops new areas, by introducing varieties with a low of Andean origin, is limited by the lack of contin- alkaloid content or free of alkaloids. As an ued support for research and promotion. The oilseed plant, it could contribute to alleviating the 144 Andean grains and legumes

oils and deficit in the Andean countries. Its Germplasm: completing the collection, use has even been considered as fodder in the evaluation, documentation and exchange of cold areas of Europe. Early varieties (150-day genetic material. growing period) can be sown in rotation with Genetic and agronomic improvement: ob- cereals in the mountain ranges or with other taining alkaloid-free varieties, incorporating industrial crops on the coast of Peru. earliness, resistance to Colletotrichum gloe- In Colombia, the experience of its introduction osporioides, resistance to drought, frost and into BoyacA, Cundinamarca, Narifio and Antio- soil acidity; breeding high-yielding varie- quía has been favourable, as it has also in Trujil- ties, uniformity in ripening of the main stem lo, Mérida and Lara in Venezuela. In northern and side branches, as well as architecture Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, it could be with basal branching; studies on integrated introduced into high cold areas. This needs fur- pest and disease control; formation of genet- ther research, particularly in Uruguay and Para- ic nuclei; and obtaining basic and certified guay. In Argentina, there are gene banks with a seed from the main varieties. limited amount of material, and research has Postharvest and industrialization: carrying been carried out at the Universities of Córdoba out studies on grading, cleaning and adapta- and Buenos Aires and at INTA. tion to agro-industry; introducing tech- In Chile, the species L. luteus, L. albus and niques to remove alkaloids, while avoiding L. angustifolius are grown; these are used for any loss of nutritional value; research on making flour for bread, in the oil industry and as obtaining processed products for human a supplementary food for schoolchildren and use; promoting consumption, methods of hospitals. Production areas are concentrated in preparation and biological value. Concepción, Valdivia and Gorbea. The early and Marketing and consumption: studying mar- sweet varieties could be grown in the country's keting channels and costs and the potential high areas. of domestic and foreign markets; providing In Central America, its introduction could re- information on prices and quality parame- sult in an encouraging spread of the crop because ters; suggesting ways of stimulating demand of the suitable agro-ecological conditions. In and establishing social programmes for Mexico, good results have been obtained exper- mass consumption. imentally, reaching the point where the tertiary branches are harvested. Its cultivation could spread to Oaxaca and Guerrero and part of other LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING states such as México (Toluca), Tlaxcala and(Amaranthus caudatus) Puebla, as well as to Honduras, Guatemala and Botanical naine: Amaranthus caudatus L. Nicaragua. The possibilities are more limited in Family: Amaranthaceae the United States and Canada because of the Common names. English.. love-lies- technological progress of other crops suchas bleeding, Inca wheat, cat-tail, tumbleweed; soybean and sunflower. indigenous languages.. kiwicha (Peru), achita (Peru [Ayacucho, Apurímac]), achis Lines of research (Peru [Ancash]), coyo (Peru [Cajamarca]), Lines of research and technological development coimi, millmi (Bolivia), sangoracha, ataqo to promote the crop are as follows: (Ecuador) Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 145

Love-lies-bleeding is a grain originating in South gestibility. The ground grain is used to control America, where it was also domesticated. Theamoebic dysentery. chronicler, Cobo, wrote in 1653 that, in the city of Guamanga (Ayacucho), delicious sweetswere Botanical description prepared from bledos (Amaranthus caudatus) A. caudatus is an annual plant of 0.4 to 3in. It has and sugar. A similar species, the huautlia taproot and numerous, very ramified side roots. (A. hypochondriacus), was extensively grown inThe leaves are petiolate, oval, opposite or alter- Mesoamerica and is frequently mentioned bynate and green or purple. The paniculate, mono- writers in connection with Aztec customs andecious inflorescence ranges from erect to ceremonies. decumbent, with attractive colours-- green, yel- Since the colonial era, the cultivated area oflow, orange, pink, red, purple and brown. The love-lies-bleeding has decreased considerably.flowers are small, unisexual, staminate or pistil- However, it is still grown in Ecuador, Peru, Bo-late; the males have three to five stamens and the livia and Argentina because of the persistence offemales have a monospermous superior ovary. Andean farmers, and continues to be importantThe fruit is in a pyxidium; the seeds are small because of its excellent nutritional quality. It is(from 1 to 1.5 mm in diameter), generally white, efficient at fixing carbon dioxide, does not have smooth, shining, slightly flattened, although photorespiration and requires less water to pro- sometimes yellowish, golden, pink, red and black; duce the same amount of biomass as cereals. and there are 1 000 to 3 000 seeds per gram. The grain's nutritional value is high and can be The percentage of allogamy ranges between as much as to 12 to 16 percent protein, while the 10 and 50 percent, even within indiv iduals of the balance of amino acids is very good, with a fair same population. Crossing depends on the wind, proportion of these containing sulphur: lysine,the number of pollinating insects, pollen produc- methionine and cysteine. It does not contain sa-tion, etc. Generally, the seeds do not exhibit ponins or alkaloids and the leaves are edible. In dormancy and, as they contain moisture, they the human diet it is preferably eaten split or after may even germinate on the plant. Dehiscence the split grain has been ground, giving a veryoccurs at intervals and is a common characteris- agreeable flour. tic among the wild species. Seeds are dispersed The grain is also cooked whole. Over 50 ways over great distances from the parent plant. of preparation are known: the leaves are eaten in salads and the grains are also used to make soups,Ecology and phytogeography custards, stews, desserts, drinks, bread andA. caudatus extends from Ecuador to northern cakes. Argentina, growing in temperate areas and inter- Agro-industry makes flour which is used up toAndean valleys from sea level to 3 000 m. Its 20 percent as a wheat substitute in breadmaking.main requirements are: It is also used to make an instant chocolate pow- der, syrups and sweets. A study has been made ofPhotoperiod. It prefers short days, although it the use of vegetable colouring matters, which are shows great adaptability to different environ- found up to 23 percent in the ear and are highly ments and can flower with 12- to 16-hour days. water-soluble and unstable in light. Harvest residues are used for livestock feeding Precipitation. Water requirements range from because of the protein content and suitable di- 400 to 800 mm. However, acceptable production 146 Andean grains and legumes

levels are obtained with 250 mm. Although iteties Noel Vietmayer and Oscar Blanco, while requires reasonable precipitation for germination INIAA in Cajamarca has selected the varieties and flowering, it can tolerate periods of drought Roja de Cajabamba and San Luis. after the plant has become established. Crops Over 600 accessions are stored in the gene have been observed in areas with1 000 mm ofbanks. In Peru, they are found at the experimental annual precipitation. stations of K'ayra (Cuzco), Camian (Ayacucho), Baños del Inca (Cajamarca), Santa Ana (Huan- Temperature. Itis sensitive to cold and cancayo) and Tingua (Huaraz); in Ecuador, at the tolerate only 4°C in the branching state, with 35 Santa Catalina Experimental Station; in Bolivia, to 40°C as the maximum temperature. at the Pairumani Experimental Station; and in Argentina, at the University of Córdoba. Soils. It prefers easily worked, sandy soils with a There are many areas of genetic diversity high nutrient content and good drainage, al- which need to be scoured for collecting, mainly though it can adapt to a broad range. The ideal pH the tropical tmd subtropical valleys of the eastern is 6 to 7, although crops have been found in acidrange of the Andes of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador soils and at a pH of 8.5. It shows tolerance toas well as the western valleys of the Andes and aluminium toxicity. In the wild form, and tolerat-semi-arid areas of Peru and Bolivia (Ayacucho ed within crops, there are many wild species ofand Cochabamba, respectively). Amaranthus as well as species tolerated among cultivated crops. In the Andes, the most impor- Cultivation practices tant are: A. hybridus, A. spinosus, A. dubius, A.A. cauclatus cultivation is maintained in the tradi- palmeri, A. viridis, A. Mum] and A. tricolor, tional_ way in the Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador which are found growing with maize and otherand Argentina. Different forms and systems of crops. They generally have dark seeds and, undercultivation are observed, including: direct sow- suitable conditions of fertility, can develop greating; transplanting, with irrigation or on dry land; vigour and size, to the point of being confusedgrowing together with maize; interplanted, to with the cultivated plant. The leaves are used forseparate fields from other crops; as a border; human consumption. sowing as a horticultural plant close to houses and plots on small farmsteads; and extensive Genetic diversity cultivation. A.candatus has a wide genetic variety and diver- It is traditionally sown under dry conditions, sity of plant forms, ranging from erect tocom- on pre-prepared ground, often together with pletely decumbent. It shows great variation inmaize and, in the case of single sowing, in fur- seed colour; earliness; protein content; types ofrows spaced 80 cm apart and fed with a constant ear; adaptation to soils, climates, precipitation stream of water. When the plant reaches 20 to 25 and temperatures; disease resistance; and colour-cm, the first weeding is done, and also thinning if ing content. The greatest genetic variation isthe seedlings are clustered togetheror need to be noted in the Andes (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia andmoved to spaces with a greater availability of Argentina). water. The plants are also sown in seed beds for The Kiwicha [love-lies-bleeding] Researchsubsequent transplanting to irrigated land. Har- Programme, carried out by the University ofvesting takes place before the plant is fullyma- Cuzco, Peru, has selectedamong others the vari- ture so as to forestall seed fall.It consists of Neglected crups: 1492 f.roin a different perspective 147

cutting the plants 20 cm from the soil with sicklesas the utilization of this plant's productive poten- and forming small sheaves which are left to drytial is concerned. The plant needs to be spread above the furrows. To remove the seeds, they are more widely among both producers and consum- beaten with sticks on sheets spread over theers: its nutritional value and the uses and ways in o-round or on well-trodden earth and then sifted which it is consumed are not very well publicized or winnowed to separate the grain from the chaff. in Andean countries. The advantages of love- Using this technique, farmers can obtain from lies-bleeding are the low cost of the unprocessed 500 to 1 500 kg per hectare. grain, the absence of any special treatments being Crop improvement consists of adequate prepa- required and the fact that it is willingly accepted ration of the soil, direct sowing, with a density ofby consumers. 4 to 6 kg of selected seed per hectare, in furrows set 80 cm apart, and the application of fertilizers Lines of research according to the quantity of nutrieras available inThe main aspects of research which need to be the soil (50-60-20 or 80-80-20 in Peru). Cultiva-completed are: tion work consists of one or two weedings, light Germplasm and improvement: completing earthing up to prevent collapse -from the weight the collection of germplasm in certain areas of the inflorescences and control of the main of the Andean region, as well as evaluation, pests and diseases. characterization and documentation; breed- Without waiting for the plant to mature com- ing varieties with less dehiscence, greater pletely, harvesting is done when its lower leaves uniformity of ripening, resistance to show signs of yellowing and there is some basal drought, .frosts and soil alkalinity, tolerance dehiscence and dry seeds. The plant is cut and left of the main pests and diseases and greater to dry in piles before being beaten with curved colouring contera; promoting the establish- sticks (in which case it takes 20 to 25 days' work ment of basic and certified seed beds of the per hectare), or using stationary wheat threshers main varieties. in which the size of the sieves, air blast and motor Postharvest and industrialization: develop- revolutions have been modified. Yields obtained Mg prototypes of machines which enable vary between 2 000 and 5 000 kg per 'hectare harvesting to be done effectively, as well as in Peru and 900 and 4 000 kg per hectare in cleaning and selection; developing industri- Ecuador. al processing technologies to obtain new products, particularly to boost the supply of Prospects for improvement foods for mothers and infants. An increase in production indices, followed by A publicity campaign also needs to be support for industrial processing in rural areas launched in urban areas. As far as marketing is which would increase producers' incomes,concemed, studies must be carried out on outlets would stimulate local consumption and, if thereand costs, on the potential of domestic and for- was a surplus, exports. The standards achieved ineign markets and on quality standards. research, evaluation and characterization of the germplasm available, together with the advances EiNiography in its genetic, agronomic, biochemical and indus- Cano, V.J. 1973. El cultivo de la caiiihua. Bo- trial improvement, constitute a sound basis, so letín Fac. Mg. Agrícola, 2. Puno, Peru, Uni- that technological progress is encouraging as far versidad Nacional Técnica del . '148 Andean grains and legumes

Cárdenas, M. 1989. Manual de plantas dozo, A. & Milijica, A. 1979. Ouinua y qa fii- económicas de Bolivia, 2nd ed. La Paz, Edito- wa, cultivos andinos. Bogotá, IICA. rial Los Amigos del Libro. Torres, F. 1976. Lupinus mutahilis Sweet. A Congreso Internacional sobre Cultivos Andi- potent food source from the Andean region. nos. I Ayacucho, 1977; II Riobamba, 1979; III Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 25: 833. La Paz, 1982; IV Pasto, 1984; V Puno, 1986; Vallenas, M. & Carpio, F. 1974. La caliihua y VI Quito, 1988; VII La Paz, 1991. su cultivo. Boletín No. 25. Puno, Peru, Minis- Convención de QuenopodiAceas Quinua- try of Agriculture, Agrarian Zone XII. Cariihua. I Puno, 1968; II Potosí, 1976. Wilson, H. 1990. Quinua and relatives (Chenop- FAO. 1982. El cultivo y la utilización del tarwi odium Sub. Sect. Cellulata). Econ. Bot., 44(3 Lupinus mutabilis Svveet. Plant Production Suppl.): 92-110. and Protection Paper No. 36. Rome. Zevallos, J. & Miijica, A. 1977. Tarwi (Lupinus FAO. 1990. Los cultivos andinos subexplotados mutabilis Sweet). Puno, Peru, Ministry of y su aporte a la alimentación. Santiago. Food, Zone XII. Gandarillas, H. 1967. Observaciones sobre la biología reproductiva de la quinua. Sajama, 5(2): 16-18. Hunzinker, A.T. 1952. Los pseudocereales de la agricultura indígena de América. Buenos Aires, ACME. León, J. 1964. Plantas alimenticias andinas. IICA Boletín Técnico, 6. Miijica, A. 1977. Cultivo de la quinua. Universi- dad Nacional del Altiplano. Puno, Peru. Mfijica, A. 1990. Investigación y producción del tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet) en el Pertí. Lima, INIAA, PICA. National Research Council. 1989. Lost crops of the Incas: Little known plants from the Andes with promi.se for worldwide cultivation. Washington, DC, National Academy Press. Nieto, C. 1989. El cultivo de amaranto (Amaran- thus spp.), una alternativa agronómica para Ecuador. Pub!. Misc, 52. E.E. Santa Catalina, Ecuador, INIAP. Sauer, J.D. 1967. The grain amaranths and their relatives: a revised taxonomic and geographic survey. AIM. Missouri Bot. Gard, 54: 103- ] 37. Sumar, L. 1983. Amaranthus caudatus, el pequeño gigante. Lima, UNICEF. Tapia, M., Gandarillas, H., Alandia, S., Car- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 149

Andean tubers

OCA mashwa and native potatoes on plots from 30 to (0:rails tuberosa) approximately 1 000 m2. It is therefore difficult Botanical name: Oxalis tuberosa Molina to tell what its cultivated area and production is. Family: Oxalidaceae However, it is estimated that 20 000 ha are sown Common names. English: oca, oxalis; annually in Peru, with an average production of Quechua: oqa, ok'a; Aymara: apilla; 3 to 12 tonnes per hectare, although some exper- Spanish: oca (Peru, Ecuador), oca, ibiaimental selections and treatments have produced (Colombia), ruba, timbo, quibaas much as 97 tonnes per hectare. (Venezuela), papa roja, papa colorada, papa extranjera (Mexico) Uses and nutritional value Oca is first sun-dried to make it sweeter and then Oxalis tuberosa is a crop native to the Andes.parboiled, roasted or prepared as pachamanca Together with the potato, the domestication of(meat roasted in a hole in the ground). this and other Andean tubers in the central region The dried, frozen tuber is called khaya. If it is of Peru (lat.10°S) and northern Bolivia (lat.washed after -freezing, a whiter product called 20°S), where the greatest diversity both of culti-okhaya is obtained which is considered to be of vated and wild forms is found, is thought to have superior quality. The flour of the latter is used to given rise to agricultural activity in the highermake porridges and desserts. Oca is first and agro-ecological areas of the Andes. The migra- foremost a good source of energy; its protein and tions of pre-Columbian communities extendedfat content is low. its cultivation to lat. 8°N in Venezuela and lat. 25°S in northern Argentina and Chile. Its cultiva- Botanical clescripdon tion was introduced into Mexico about 200 or O.tuberosa is an annual, herbaceous plant that is 300 years ago and, nowadays, it is grown rela-erect in the first stages of its development, and tively extensively in the region of the Transversedecumbent or prostrate towards maturity. The Neovolcanic Axis. Oca was introduced into Eu-tubers are claviform-ellipsoid and cylindrical, rope in the last century and, even though it was with buds on the whole surface, and variegated in produced as a new vegetable, it did not become colour: white, yellow, red and purple. established as a permanent crop. It is known to The leaves are trifoliate, with petioles of vary- have existed in New Zealand since 1860 and its ing length (2 to 9 cm). The inflorescences consist cultivation seems to have gained popularity inof four or five flowers. The calyx is formed by the last 20 years. five pointed, green sepals. The corolla has five The oca is sown together with the ullucu,purple-striped, yellow petals; ten stamens in two groups of five; and a pistil that is shorter or longer than the stamens. Propagation is almost exclu- The authors of this chapter are C. Arbizu and M. Tapia (CIP, Lima, Peru). sively by the tubers. The flower structure has 150 Andean tubers

an efficient mechanism which facilitates cross-been seen with ivory-yellow and violet-purple pollination. flesh in several hues. There are a great many shapes in the vascular ring pigmented with the Ecology and phytogerialphy same colouring as the skin, followed in colour Oca is grown from 3 000 to 4 000 ni, from Co-intensity by the medulla. lombia to Chile. However., the greatest concen- tration is found between 3 500 and 3 800 m, in Oca ;)onc:,.ctions in South America the suni agro-ecological zone (mountain slopes). Over the past ten years, expeditions have been Wild species of the genus Oxalis are found on made to Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia to collect the low ridges of the Peruvian coast, or growingcultivated oca. Field collections in Peru are being sympatrically with cultivated oca in the Andesmaintained and evaluated at the Universities of and on the edges of forests. Cuzco, 'Huancayo, Ayacucho, Cajamarca and Puno, and at INIAA, where there are over 1 000 Genetic diversity accessions with sufficient duplications. Most of The basic number of chromosomes has beenthis material is kept in vitro at the Biotechnolog- established as x = 11. There are reports of ocas ical Laboratory of the Universidad Nacional that are close to pentaploid (2n = 2x = 58) andMayor San Marcos in Lima. The collection of hexaploid (2n = 2x = 66) and also of hexaploidEcuadorian oca is kept as a field collection at the cultivated ocas. The 'frequency of diploids, trip-Santa Catalina station in Quito. loids, tetraploids, pentaploicls and hexaploids as well as those that are not exactly euploid shouldCultivation practices be clarified. The role of the 2n gametes in theThe three Andean tubers (oca, mashwa and ul- formation of the polyploid complex and the na- lucu) are grown in the same agro-ecological zone ture of the Fi and F material needs to be studied. and their soil requirements and cultivation prac- The pattern of variability in the oca seems to betices are very similar to those of the potato; for fairly complex. In fact, cultivated forms have this reason they are dealt with together. hitherto been grouped together into a single spe- In the northern area of the Peruvian sierra, the cies which includes several shapes and colours oftraditional form of cultivation is onmelgas:after tuber. cultivation of the potato, the land is divided into The self-incompatibility system present in thethree to five plots, each of which is sown with one oca and consequent cross-pollination, togetherof the Andean tubers. with the aesthetic selection made by Andean On the high plateau of Puno and in the agro- farmers, must have had an influence on the exist- ecological zone of the semi-humid puna, a mix- ence of the wide variety of tuber colours and ture of tubers is sown. By contrast, in the quechua shapes, as well as the number and depth of "eyes" agro-ecological zone, the oca and ullucu are or "buds". planted together with maize. These crops show a The wide variability found in the colour of the high response to agricultural work such as fertili- tubers suggests a continual variation, since col-zation, earthing up, hoeing and, above all, the ours range from white to black, with various hues control of pests and diseases; their production of yellow, pink and red in between. Flesh colour increases to levels of 40 to 50 tonnes per hectare, also seems to undergo continual variation, al-which are comparable to the highest potato though less than skin colour does. Ocas have yields. Neglected crops: 1492 front a (lifferent perspective 151

FIGURE 15 Andean tubers: A) oca (Oxalis tuberosa); Al) tuber; B) mashwa (Tropaeolum tuberosum); B1) tuber

Al

-

. K(/ -.P ...V LL nii,,,il

.,,lf, El 152 Andean tubers

Prospects for improvement MASHWA The prospects for this crop lie in the possibility of(Tropaeolum tuberosum) increasing its yield and in its use as an alternative Botanical name: Tropacolum tuberosum source of flour to wheat. Rufz & Pavón The following aspects shot d be taken into Tropeolaceae account: Common names. English: mashwa; The oca has to compete for ground (cultiva- Spanish: mashwa, mashua (Peru, Ecuador), tion areas) with potatoes; as a result, its afiu (Peru, Bolivia), maswallo, expansion could be limited; research carried mazuko, mascho (Peru)and cubio out in southern Peru seems to confirm (Colombia) this. Attacks by pests, such as weevils, may cause Tropaeolum tuberosum apparently originates the loss of an entire crop; studies on thefrom the central Andes (lat.10° to 20°S). Its integrated control of these pests, throughcultivation is thought to have been spread by pre- cultivation practices, biological control us-Columbian migrations to Colombia (lat. 8°N) ing the fungus Beauveriabrogniartii, post-and northern Argentina and Chile (lat. 25°S). In harvest management and the use of resistantspite of its :hardiness, there are no references to its varieties would need to be carried out; bitter introduction into other countries, possibly be- ocas show a degree of resistance to the vari- cause the tuber's flavour is not very pleasant ous weevils. when eaten for the first time. Presence of viral diseases Although just Grown together with ullucu, oca and native one virus has been identified in the oca, it potatoes on plots from approximately 30 to 1 000 seems that others exist which damage the rn2, it is difficult to ascertain its cultivated area crop; the purity of commercial varieties and and production. However, itis estimated that genetic materials must be established asaround 6 000 ha are sown annually in Peru, with standard practice, as virus-free varietiesan average yield of 4 to 12 tonnes per hectare. would give higher yields. Under experimental conditions, up to 70 tonnes The extensive growing period of seven to per hectare have been obtained. eight months exposes the crop for a longer From an agronomic point of view, mashwa is time to attack from biotic and abiotic factors, very hardy because it grows on poor soil, without and oca cultivation is consequently beingthe use of fertilizers and pesticides. Even under gradually replaced by early varieties of pota-these conditions, its yield can be double that of to (with a growing period of four to fivethe potato. Its cultivation together with ullucu, months); the short duration of the tuber also oca and native potatoes could be accounted for affects its propagation. by the nematicide and insecticide controlproper- The high yields in dry rnatter obtained from ties that the plant has. this crop and the possibilities of attainingup to 6 Since the time of the Incas, who included them or 7 tonnes of flour per hectare are factors that in their soldiers' rations, the tubers have had ought to be dealt with in an agro-industrialre- anaphrodisiac properties attributed to them. To- search programme. day, it is known that testosterone levelsare sig- nificantly reduced in male rats thatare fed mashwa. Neglected crops: 1492 fi.om a different perspective 153

Uses and nutritional value in Peru can be found on the low ridges of the Mashwa is important for meeting the foodre- Peruvian coast, on the edges of forestsor grow- quirements of resource-poor people in marginal ing sympatrically with cultivated mashwa in the rural areas of the high Andes. It is prepared in the Andes. form of a stew, as a roast or in the form of Ornamental Tropaeolum can be found in gar- thayacha. For the latter preparation, the tubersdens on the coast and in the Andes. Weed forms are exposed overnight to frost and are eaten theof mashwa, called kita afiu, are sporadic in the following day accompanied by sugar-canemaize or tuber fields of the sierra. T. edule, syrup. T. polyphyllum and T. patagonicum have also been described as producers of tubers in the Botanical description Andes of Chile and Argentina, but they apparent- T. tuberosum is an annual herbaceous plant ofly have no economic use. erect growth when it is young and it has prostrate As in the case ol' the oca, the crossability stems with compact foliage when mature. This groups are not known, in other words the situa- enables itto compete advantageously with tion of the mashwa's gene stock is unknown. weeds. At first sight, the tubers may be confused Chromosome calculations have established with oca tubers, but they can be distinguished by the basic number as x = 13. Cultivated forms are their conical shape, dark markings and a greaterclearly tetraploid (2n = 4x = 52). The frequency concentration of buds on the distal part, as well as of diploids, triploids and tetraploids is not known by their sour taste. and nor is the possible gene flow. The growing cycle of this species varies be- Cross-pollination and the tendency towards tween 220 and 245 days. Unlike oca and ullucu,self-fertilization, together with aesthetic selec- mashwa produces a great quantity of viabletion, must have influenced the appearance of seeds. various morphotypes. It can be said that the diversity of the mashwa is less than that of the Ecology and phytogeography oca, and slightly less than that of the ullucu. Mashwa is cultivated from Colombia to Bolivia, However, variation has been found in tuber col- from 3 000 to 4 000 m, with a greater concentra-our, shapes, bud characteristics and flesh colour. tion between 3 500 and 3 800 m. In spite of theThe tuber's skin colour varies from ivory to very poor-quality soils, extreme temperatures, radia- dark-purplish violet, with several hues of yellow, tion, variation in precipitation and the winds oforange and purplish violet in between. Pink or the Andes, the plant grows quickly, managing topurple speckles or stripes may occur on the skin repel insects and nematodes, suppress weeds andat the apex and under the buds. Tuberization in maximize photosynthesis. The proportion of dry the buds is more frequent in clones of shortened matter transferred to the tubers can be as high as conical tubers than elongated and ellipsoid coni- 75 percent. cal tubers. The greatest variation in tuber colours and shapes is found in the region between central Genetic diversity Peru and northern Bolivia. The genus Tropaeolum has a wide geographical distribution and seems to be very variable. There Mashwa collections in South America are an estimated 50 species in Mexico and Cen-Cultivated mashwa, just like ullucu and oca, has tral and South America. Wild species of mashwa been collected extensively in Peru, Ecuador and 154 Andean tubers

Bolivia during the last ten years. The field collec- BITTER POTATOES tions of Peru, stored and evaluated in the gene(Solanum x juzepcividi), (Solanum x banks of Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Huancayo, Cuz- curtilobum) co and Puno, exceed 300 accessions. Many of the Botanical names: Solanum x juzepczukii, accessions are kept in vitro in the biotechno- Solanum x curtilobum logical laboratory of the Universidad Nacional Solanaceae Mayor San Marcos in Lima. The field collection Common names. English: bitter potato; of Ecuadorian mashwa is stored and evaluated Aymara: luki; Quechua: ruku; Spanish: at the Santa Catalina experimental station in choquepito, ococuri Quito. it seems that the domestication of bitter potatoes Cultivation practices began some 8 000 years ago and that, as cultivat- Mashwa cultivation practices are the same ased domesticated species, they have been used those described for the oca [see p. 1501. extensively for at least 3 000 years. Acosta, one of the first Spanish chroniclers to Prospects for improvement describe the agricultural resources of the Andes, Because of its flavour, the mashwa could have amentions that bitter potatoes that had been ex- better chance of more extensive use in animalposed to the cold overnight and then pressed and feeding. In this connection., certain clones with adried were transformed into what was known as 'protein content of up to 11 percent show goodchufio and were used as bread is in Europe. A prospects. century later, the priest Bernabé Cobo reported An investigation into the 'factors limiting that, on the high plateau, there were wild potatoes mashwa production, carried out by the CIP in the and bitter potatoes which the Aymaras called Peruvian Department of Cuzco (1989), elicitedaphus and which could only be eaten when pro- the following answers from the peasants: scarcitycessed as clun-io; this food constituted the main of suitable land (28 percent); low crop 'yields (17 staple in the high plateau reg,ion between Peru percent); and scarcity of seed (17 percent). and Bolivia. The rise in population and consequent pressure In spite of their importance for the agro-eco- on the land would seem to be a limiting factor not logical zones of the puna, where 'frosts during, the only in Cuzco but also in other parts of the Andes. growth period limit food production, these crops Low crop yields would not be a serious limitingwere not studied during the time of the settle- factor, since the mashwa responds well to goodment, nor at the start of the Republic. During the soil management. Seed scarcity is a problem that 1920s. the Russian expedition organized by can be solved. Vav Hoy and undertaken with his students The main lines of research are as 'follows: Juzepczuki and Bukasov made a detailed de- the function of undesirable substances; scription of these species on the basis of collec- the long cultivation period; tions gathered on the high plateau around Lake tuber storage; Titicaca. the selection of varieties for the various Several studies have been carried outon bitter agro-ecological conditions; potatoes during the past 50 years, including their consumption patterns in rural and urbanorigin, description and an evaktation of their populations. nutritional capacity. Neglected crops: 1492 from a diffe?rent perspective 155

FIGURE 16 Andean tubers: A) bitter potatoes; Al) tubers; A2) flower; B) ullucu (Mucus tuberosus); B1) tubers 156 Andean tubers

The area cultivated at present varies greatly S. x curtilobumis distinguished by its more from one year to the next, depending on whether coriaceous leaves and its corolla, which is bigger an adequate amount of seed is available. Howev- and purple with very short lobules and a pointed er, there are an estimated 15 000 ha in Peru and end. around 10 000 ha on the high plateau of Bolivia, The tubers vary in size and shape, ranging on peasants' plots ranging from 300 to 500 m2 from rounded (Piriaza) to elliptical, oblong or and over more extensive areas on land under elongated-oblong (Luki), and in colour. Clones sectoral rotation. There are further potentialof Ococuri have purple and white tubers. areas for cultivation, the inclusion of which could The growing cycle varies greatly between five easily double the current production. and eight months. The clone Pifiaza is one of the earliest, taking 150 days; Ruki clones are the Uses and nutritional value latest, taking up to 195 days. If bitter potatoes are to be eaten, they must 'first undergo processing to remove the glycoalka-Ecology and phytogeography loids. Traditional processes in the upper Andean Bitter potatoes are cultivated at altitudes between area, described in various works, consist of ex- 3 000 and 4 300 m, in the agro-ecological zones posing the tubers to several night frosts and dry- of the humid puna and suni, which are character- ing them in strong sunlight at altitudes ofized by mean growth period temperatures of 4 000 m to obtain blackchuño.Larger bitterbetween 6 and 14°C, with precipitations which potatoes are preferably used to prepare whitevary according to the region and year between chuño,also called [unta (Aymara) or moraya400 and 1 400 mm, are spread over five to six (Quechua). Freezing is followed by the peeling,months and which coincide with the summer hydrating for up to 30 days and drying. period in the Southern Hemisphere (October- Blackchuño isproduced up to the edge of the May). forest where it keeps very well because of its Frosts may occur during the growth stage, with characteristics as a dehydrated product. Whitethe temperature dropping to -5°C in some years. chuñois preferably eaten on feast days. It fetches A greater incidence of low temperatures is ob- a high price at town markets where itis an served in the dry period and these affect produc- ingredient of various regional dishes. Both white tion heavily, with damage varying according to chuñoand blackchuñoare very rich in energy. the species. Recently, in an area of Peru with The potential of bitter potatoes lies precisely infrosts and temperatures of -5°C, the reduction in their ability to withstand low temperatures andthe harvest was 5 percent in the case of S.X yield a surplus, thus constituting an important juzepczukii,30 percent in the case of S.Xcurti- food reserve. It has been calculated that, between lobumand 40 percent in the case of the common August and March, black chuño can account for potato. 70 percent of the food of rural populations of the The cultivation of bitter potatoes requires soils Peruvian and Bolivian high plateau. which have sufficient organic matter (3to 5 percent) and which have had a period of fallowor Botanical description adequate rotation. The best yieldsare obtained on SolanumX juzepczukiimeasures 30 to 50 cm and soils which have lain fallow for threeto four has a semi-rosette growth habit, long,straight years and have had 2 to 3 tonnes of manure leaves, short petioles anda small, blue corolla. applied. Neglected crops: 1492_1'1-am a different perspective 157

FIGURE 17 Diagram of chuño processing

Raw material

1-2 days Grading

1 day Spreading out

2-4 days Freezing and thawing

Washing 20-30 days

10-20 days Drying Drying

BLACK CHUÑO WHITE CHUÑO

Bitter potatoes predominate on land where the Bitter potatoes belong to two species: S.Xjuzepc- main production is livestock and where there is zukii triploids and S. X curtilobuni pentaploids. natural pasture and thus little pressure on theBecause of their ploidy, which is caused by a land. Because of this, land can be put under ahigh degree of sterility, it is difficult to use the rotational system of crops with canihua (Chenop-characteristics of bitter potatoes in improvement odium pallidicaule) or fodder plants such as bar-programmes. The origin of bitter potatoes would ley or , including a prolonged period (up to seem to be due to various crossings derived from six years) of fallow during which the naturalwild species such as S. acaule. vegetation covers the soil again. In areas which There is greater variability in the species S. X have a very broken topography and where thejuzepczukii, the main cultivated varieties being puna zone is very close to the suni or quechuaRuki, Luki, Pifiaza, Parina, Locka, Parko, Keta (valley) zones, rotation includes other crops suit-and Kaisallu, with white or purple tubers. ed to these conditions, with tubers such as oca In the species S. x curtiloburn, we may distin- (Oxalis tuberosa) and ullucu (Ullucus tuberosus) guish those of the Choquepito group and the so- or mixtures of these species. called Ococuri, which are characterized by a lower glycoalkaloid content than S. X juzepc- Genetic diversity zukii. In the southern region of Peru and on the Bolivian There is an extensive collection of bitter pota- high plateau, there are a great number of varieties toes in Cuzco and Puno in southern Peru, while which have been bred by the peasants over centu- a collection from the Bolivian high plateau is ries and which are suited to various ecologicalmaintained at the experimental station of conditions in the highest region of the Andes.Patacamaya. Andecm tubers 158

FIGURE 18 The origin of bitter potatoes

Solanum acaule Solanum stenotomum

2n = 48 2n = 24

Solanum juzepczukii

2n = 36

Solanum tuberosum So/an= tuberosum 2n = 48 ssp. andigena 2n = 48

Synthetic pentaploid Synthetic hexaploid

similar to Solanum curtilobum 2n = 72

2n = 60

Synthetic Solanum curtilobum

2n = 60

Cultivation practices to nine weeks after emergence, and lasts for The soil is generally prepared with local imple-about four weeks, during which time the absence ments, such as the chakitaklla or foot-plough,of humidity and severe frosts is vitally important. with the entire peasant family taking part in theIn this respect there is a differentiation between operation, since it involves plots located in isolat- early, intermediate and late ecotypes, which may ed places. mature between four to six months, hence a wide The sowing period of bitter potatoes is veryrange is available for improvement programmes. much conditioned by the presence of rain, since Fertilization is limited to sheep manure. How- the cap is grown under rain-fed conditions. The ever, there have been positive responses to the period extends from September to November,addition of chemical fertilizers in intermediate depending on whether the rains begin early ordoses. The var. Pitlaza responds better to fertili- late, the tradition being to stagger sowing onzation than the var. Ruki, but the latter has a two or three dates as a means of reducing thehigher dry matter content. climatic risk. T'he crop needs to be earthed up The varieties of S. x juzepczukii are better once or twice when the plants reach a height ofsuited to shallow soils than S.Xcurtilohuni, 20 to 30 cm. The start of tuberization coincides which has deeper roots. with the start of flowering, approximately seven On account of their prostrate habit, bitter pota- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 159

toes are susceptible to nematodes (Naccobus ab- (Ecuador), olluco, ulluco, lisa, papalisa errans), to the Andean weevil (Premnotrypes (Peru), lisa, papalisa (Bolivia) and olloco, spp.) and also to wart fungus (Synchytrium ulluca, ulluma (Argentina) endobioticum). The ullucu is a plant native to the Andes. Ancient Prospects for improvement in origin, it is likely that its cultivation extended The tolerance of bitter potatoes to low tempera- from the Andes of Venezuela (lat. 10°N)to tures is considered to be their main advantage northwestern Argentina and northeastern Chile and there is considerable scope for making selec- (lat. 25°S) in pre-Hispanic times. However, the tions from current populations. The existence ofexact region of its domestication is not known. several varieties also enables cultivation to beCeremonial vessels of the Robles Moqo style of extended to the different soil conditions in the the Wari culture (the centre of which was Ayacu- highest area of the Andes. Bitter potato genescho between AD 400 and 700) are decorated with have been used more for the improvement of so- multicoloured representations of Andean plants, called sweet varieties than for their own im-including the ullucu. It also appears on gel.° provement. ceremonial vessels of the post-Incan era. The The main limitation is their glycoalkaloid con- oldest vestige is the presence of starch among tent which gives them a bitter taste. In addition to4 000-year-old plant remains from Ancón and solanine and chaconine, this includes tomatine, Chilca on the Peruvian coast. mysine and solamargine. However, since there is The ullucu's wide distribution in the Andes wide variability in this characteristic, varietiesand its age are also revealed in the profusion of with a low content of this chemical substance can regional names. be selected. Although the current process to re- move the bitter taste is fairly suited to local Uses and nutritional value conditions and utilizes the climatic characteris- Of the three Andean tubers, the ullucu is the most tics of the puna effectively, with its severe nightpopular and has become established on the tables frosts and intense daytime solar radiation, it isof both the rural and urban population in Ecua- very labour-intensive (working conditions aredor, Peru and Bolivia. Traditional preparations very hard): it takes between 14 and 28 days to include me/locos soup (Ecuador); olluquito con produce white chuño. charqui (ullucu with meatPeru); chape (potato, meat, egg and cheese stew) and ají de papalisas (ullucu pepper Bolivia and Peru). It is also ULLUCU suitable for use in contemporary dishes such as (Ullucus tuberosus) salads. Some varieties contain a greater quantity Botanical name: Ullucus tuberosus Loz. of mucilage and need to be preboiled before Family: Basellaceae preparation to remove it. The Andean tubers Common nanzes. English.. ullucu, ocaperish easily, which explains why ancient An- quina; Quechua: ulluku, ullus; Aymara:dean peoples attempted to store surpluses by ulluma, illako; Spanish: michurui, michuri,freezing and drying, processes used also for the miguri, micuche, ruba, rubia, timbo, tiquiflo ullucu. The product obtained is called lingli (Venezuela), chigua, chugua, rubas, hubas, in Peru; its average protein content is 1.7 percent camarones de tierra (Colombia), mellocoin the edible tuber, while the carbohydrate and 160 Andean tubers

energy content is slightly less than that of most Cultivated ullucus are diploid and triploid, tubers. with a basic number of 12. The presence of polyploids in the wild ullucu has also been dem- Botanical description onstrated. Nevertheless, the frequency of dip- The ullucu is an erect, compact plant whichloids, triploids and probably tetraploids needs to reaches a height of 20 to50cm. At the end of its be determined. In the wild, triploids are generally growth it is prostrate. Tuber shapes vary fromfon-ned by hybridization between diploids and spherical to cylindrical and colours range fromtetraploids, or by the fusion of a normal gamete white, yellow, light green, pink and orange toand another that has not been reduced between purple. On very rare occasions, it forms fruit; thediploid parents. Triploids are generally sterile and seed then has the form of an inverted pyramid,the only way of propagating them is vegetatively. with very prominent angles and a corrugatedTheir great vigour allows them to prosper and surface. occur in profusion over a wide distribution area. The study of meiosis in the cultivated diploid Ecology and phytogeography ulluco shows a regular meiotic pairing with the The origin and development of the ullucu in the formation of12bivalents. Meiosis of the trip- cold climates of the Andes suggest that it is one loids is within expectations, i.e. defective and of the crops most suited to the complex agro- with the presence of univalents and trivalents. ecology of areas between 3 000 and 4 000 m. Meiotic pairing of artificial diploid hybrids Although the precise role of hybridization, intro- would need to be researched, provided the com- gress on and mutation in the ullucu is not known, binations are possible. these must have actedalong with natural and human selection pressureto favour the plant's Ullucu collections in South America distribution and adaptation to the various types ofCultivated and wild ullucus did not arouse much Andean climate and soils. interest among plant explorers in the past. In spite of the fact that the collections of Bukasov and Genetic diversity Juzepczuki in South America between1925and The wild ullucu would seem to indicate a sym- 1928were followed by several expeditions to patric distribution with the cultivated ullucu, gather cultivated and wild plants, ulluco does not since up to now it has been found from the Andes seem to have been collected, even within the of La Libertad in Peru (lat.8°S)to northwesternsame South American countries. Three stages Argentina (lat.25°S).This would appear to indi-could be distinguished in the collection of ulluco cate a smaller geographical range of habitats thanand the formation of gene banks. The firstoc- that of the cultivated ullucu. However, collectingcurred in the1920swith the work of Bukasov and expeditions have been orientated towards culti-Juzepczuki; the second covers the work of León vated material, which is harvested in dry periodsthrough the establishment of the thengreater when there is no opportunity to collect wildcollection of ullucu germplasm at the IICA, with material. It is probable that in the geographicalmaterial from Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bo- distribution area of the wild ullucu whichlivia. Later, collections of wild ullucuswere seems to be wide ullucus may be found withmade in northeastern Argentina and Boliviaby interesting characteristics that will helpto extend Brucher. The third stage began in the 1970s with our knowledge of its domestication. small local collections at the Universities of Cuz- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 161

co, Huancayo and Ayacucho, and likewise in the Prospects for improvement 1980s. Thanks to very positive help from the Although the ullucu is a hardy plant that is suited IBPGR, FAO, CIID and IICA/OAS they wereto the difficult conditions of the Andes, viral continued more intensively with nationalpro- diseases seem to constitute one of its most seri- grammes such as those of the IBTA in Bolivia,ous problems. Viral infections in gene banks INIAP in Ecuador and INIAA and the Universi-affect up to 80 percent of samples. This is a ties of Puno, Cuzco and Ayacucho in Peru. Underparticularly serious problem, not only for gene these programmes, gene banks are produced an-banks, but also for the crop' s management. nually. These banks suffer from the following Viruses may form vira] complexes of up to shortages which limit the knowledge and promo-four different particles in a single plant, causing tion of the ullucu: loss of vigour, deformation and leaf mottling. Scant geographical representation:While Moreover, they are far more difficult to eliminate the Andes of Ecuador and Peru were ex-than bacterial or fungal pathogens. Eradication in plored, few or no collections were made incommercial varieties and selected genetic mate- the Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, the east- rialis an urgent requirement, although the ern arca of Peru, southern Bolivia and north- number of viruses which affect the ullucu is not western Argentina. known. Studies at the CIP have revealed at least Duplication of accessions:In clonal propa- four viruses, but the number may be higher. gation crops such as the ullucu, there is a Another limiting factor is the prolonged culti- high probability of repeatedly collecting one vation period. While modern commercial varie- and the same clone in different localities; ties of potato are harvested after four or five also, the exchange of germplasm betweenmonths in the Andes, the ullucu takes seven or national programmes without identifyingeight months to mature. In other words, ullucu data has meant that one and the same clone plants are exposed longer to drought, frost, pests, can be recorded under different numbers indiseases and other adverse factors which are various banks. frequent in the Andes. Productivity in terms of Incomplete documentation:No standard- time and space is consequently low. It seems to ized, intemationally accepted descriptorsbe one of the causes of marginalization, so that exist for the characterization of the ullucu; ullucu cultivation is gradually being replaced by there is a lack of specimens from herbaria varieties of early high-yielding potatoes. such information would be very useful in the The biggest advantage of the ullucu is that it is event of living collections being lost. firmly established among rural and urban people A lackofwild plant collections:There is an in areas where its supply is almost continuous almost total absence of wild material; such throughout the year. material would help to understand the varia- tion patterns of the cultivated forms andBibliography could provide valuable characteristics for Arbizu, C. & Robles, E. 1986. La colección de improvement. los cultivos de raíces y tubérculos andinos de la Universidad de Huamanga. InAnales del V Cultivation practices Congreso Internacional de Sistemas Agro- Ullucu cultivtion practices are the same as those pecuarios Andinos.Puno, Peru. described for the oca [see p. 150]. Bateman, J. 1961. Una prueba exploratoria de la 162 Andean tubers

alimentación usandoTropaeolum tuberosum. agrícola. 1980-84.Lima, Oficina Sectorial de Turna/ha., 11(3): 98-100. Estadística, Ministry of Agriculture. Bukasov, S.M.1931.The cultivated plants ofHermann, M., Arbizu, C. & Castillo, R.1991. Mexico, Guatemala and Colombia.Bull. Perspectivas de un banco de germoplasma Appl. Bot. Genet. Plant Breed., 47: 1-533. internacional de tuberosas y raíces andinas en Briicher, H.1967. Ullucus aborigineusspec. el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). In nov. Die Wildform einer andinen Kulturp- VII Congreso Internacional de Cultivos An- flanze. Ber. Dtsch. Bot. Ges., 80: 376-381. dinos.La Paz, ORSTOM/CIIO/IBTA. Cárdenas, M. & flawkes, J.G. Número de cro-Johns, T.et al.1982.Anti-reproductive and mosomas de algunas plantas cultivadas por other medical effects ofTropaeolumt'Ibero- los indios en los Andes.Revista de Agricultu- surn.J. Ethnopharmacol., 5: 149-161. ra, 5: 30-32. Jones, A.C. & Kenton, R.H.1985.A strain of Castillo, R.O.1990.Andean crops in Ecuador: arracacha virus B infecting oca(Oxalistube- collecting, conservation and characterization. rosa:Oxalidaceae) in the Peruvian Andes.

FA011BPGR Plant Genet. Resour.Newsl.,77. Phytopathol. Z., 100: 88-95. CIP.1989. Animal Report.Lima, CIP. King, S.R.1988.Economic botany of the An- Cortés, H.1977.Avances en la investigación de dean tuber crop complex:Lepidium nieyenii, la oca. InAnales del I Congreso Internacional Oxalis tuberosa, Tropaeolum tuberosumand de Cultivos Andinos.Ayacucho, Peru. Ullucustuberosus.New York, Fac. of Biolo- Cortés, H.1981.Alcances de la investigación gy, City University. (thesis) en tres tubérculos andinos, oca, olluco yKing, S.R. & Bastien, H.C.1988. Oxalistube- mashwa, isaiio o añil.In Curso sobre manejo rosaen México. InAnales del VI Congreso de la producción agraria en Laderas, Huaraz. Internacional de Cultivos Andinos.Quito. Serie Estudios Técnicos No.235,Lima, Min-León, J.1964.Plantas alimenticias andinas. istry of Agriculture/IICA. IICABoletín Técnico, 6. Del Río, A. & Hermann, M.1991. Polimorfis- Lescano, J.L.1985.Investigaciones en tubércu- mo isoenzimdtico en oca(Oxalis tuberosa los andinos en la Universidad Nacional del Molina). InAvances de los trabjos colabora- Altiplano, Puno.In M.Tapia, ed.Avances en tivos del CIP en raíces y tuberosas andinas. las investigaciones sobre tubérculos alimenti- Presentado al VII Congreso Internacional de ciosde los Andes.Lima, PISCA, INIPA/ Cultivos Andinos. La Paz. CIID/ACDI. FAO.1990. Los cultivos andinos subexplotados Martins-Farias, R.1976.New archaeologi- y suaporte a la alimentación.Santiago, FAO. cal techniques for the study of ancientroot Gibbs, P.E., Marshall, D. & Brunton, D.1978. crops in Peru. UK, University of Birmingham. Studies on the cytology ofOxalis tuberosa (thesis) andTropaeolum tuberosum. Notes R. Bot. McBride, J.F.1949. Floraof PC114. Vol. XIII, Gard. (Edinb.), 37: 215-220. Part III, No2.Field Museum of Natural Government of lolivia.1984. Tabla de com- History. posición de alimentos. La Paz, Lab. Bio-National Research Council.1989. Lost crops of. química Nutricional, Ministry of Public the Incas. Little known plants of the Andes Health and Social Security, with promise for worldwide cultivation. Government of Peru.1984. Anuario estadístico Washington, DC, National Academy Press. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 163

Rousi, A., Salo, J., Kalliola, R., Jokela, P., culture and chemotherapy. Ann. Appl. Biol., Pietila, L. & M. 1986. Variation 101: 79-83. pattern in ullucu (Ullucus tuberosus, Basel- Tapia, M. 1991. Los sistemas de rotación de los laceae), a supposedly asexual Andean tuber cultivos andinos subexplotados en los Andes crop. Act. Hort., 182: 145-152. del Perú. In VII Congreso Internacional de Stone, O.M. 1982. The elimination of four virus- Cultivos Andinos. La Paz, ORSTOM, CID, es from Ullucus tuberosus by rneristem-tip IBTA. Neglected crops: 1492 front a different perspective 165 A de n roots

MACA Uses and nutritional value (Lepidium meyenh) When the fresh hypocotyls have been harvested, Botanical name: Lepidium meyeniiWalp. the peasant usually roasts them in the field in the Family: (Cruciferae) form ofhuatias(cooked between clods of red-hot Common name. English:maca, pepperpeat) onpachamancas(cooked in contact with grass, pepper weed;Spanish:maca (Peru) hot stones taken from a wood fire and covered with earth). However, most of the harvest is left The maca is one of the Andean crops whichto dry and can then be kept for several years. occupy a very restricted area. It is found only on For eating purposes, the dried hypocotyls are the central sierra of Peru in the departments ofhydrated overnight and parboiled in water until Junín and Pasco, in the puna agro-ecological they are soft. They can be liquefied to prepare zone above 4 000 m where low temperatures andjuices, cocktails, porridges and jams. Nowadays strong winds limit other crops. the dry matter is being processed to prepare Domestication of this plant appears to haveproducts in tabloid form which are in demand started at least 2 000 years ago, around the area ofbecause of their nutritional value and because of San Blas in the department of Junín. During his the supposition that they stimulate sexual appe- visit to the Junín area in 1549, theencomendero tite and increase fertility. Juan Tello de Soto Mayor reportedly received The high calcium content (258 mg) and iron maca "fruits" as a tribute and used them to im-content (15.4 mg) per 100 g al-e the main ad- prove the fertility of the livestock of Castile. Itvantages of this Andean crop. It has a 14 percent was also stated, during a visit to the area ofprotein and 78 percent carbohydrate content and Hudnuco in 1572, that the Chinchaycochas had is also rich in starch, glucosides, alkaloids and used the maca for bartering since the time of the . The protein content may vary between Incas, as there was no other crop on their lands. 10 and 14 percent depending on the fertility The maca is grown on small plots with a few conditions of the soil and the variety. rows and up to about 500 m= in size, on peasant Rats fed on maca produced some 25 percent land in communities around Lake Junín (Yana-more offspring than control rats, probably be- cancha, Ingahuasi, Cerro de Pasco, Ninacaca and cause development of the Graafian follicles is Vicco). It is a biennial herbaceous plant, whosestimulated. subterranean part (hypocotyl) is edible and high- ly valued for its nutritional value, especially pro- Botanical description teins and minerals. The rural community is Lepidium ineyeniiis a herbaceous, perennial firmly convinced that eating maca enables cou-plant, growing 12 to 20 cm. Its has succulent ples who think they are infertile to have children. roots and short and decumbent stems. Its leaves are rosulate, pinnatipartite and are continuously The author of this chapter is J. Rea (La Paz, Bolivia). renewed from the centre of the rosette. The 166 Andean roots

are pauciflorous. The fruit is in siliculae, Cultivation practices measures 4 to 5 mm and is dehiscent with twoThe maca is sown at the beginning of the rainy carinated valves, each containing a seed. Theperiod (September-November) as the sole crop seeds are ovoid, 2 to 2.5 mm and reddish grey. or combined with strips of bitter potato. Accord- The hypocotyls, which are the edible part ofing to the peasants in the area, this combination the plant, vary between 2 and 5 cm in size andprotects the potato from insect attack, since the may be white or yellow, reddish and white, whitemaca contains repellent volatile substances. and yellow, white and purple, light-lead grey, It can be sown on freshly ploughed pasture purple and lead grey or yellow, red and grey. land that has lain fallow (purun), or on ground under an annual rotation with another crop (011- Ecology and phytogeography par) such as the bitter potato. Generally speak- Cultivation of the maca is limited to the punaing, soil preparation is deficient and broadcast agro-ecological zone of the central region of thesowing is carried out without any fertilization or, Peruvian Andes, at altitudes between 4 000 and at best, only a manure dressing. The seeds are 4 400 m. The puna is characterized by periods ofburied using branches or are left to be trod on by temperatures below 0°C, called frosts, even at the sheep. Tillage is not usually carried out, except to height of the crops' growing period. However,make sure that the small plants are not trampled the maca tolerates these temperatures fairly well,by animals. The maca is believed to deplete the just as the bitter potato does. When the maca was soil; this probably occurs when the nutrients sown in other latitudes, such as in Berlin, Germa- removed are not sufficiently replenished. ny, (lat. 52°N) in 1990, it did not manage to form Harvesting begins in May or June. The fresh hypocotyls. This result appears to support thehypocotyls are exposed to the sun's rays for idea that the maca is a short-day plant. about four to six days until they are dry. They are then stored in a cool, dark place until they are Genetic diversity eaten. The species L. meyenii was described by Gerhard The yield is very variable: in fields where little Walpers in 1843. It has been suggested that the care has been devoted to managing the crop, cultivated maca is not L. meyenii but a new spe-about 2 to 3 tonnes per hectare are obtained cies, L. peruvianum Chacón, based on variouswhile, with appropriate row cultivation practic- specimens collected since 1960 in the district ofes, fertilization and the prevention of pest at- San Juan de la Jarpa, in Huancayo province. This tacks, itis possible to produce up to 15 to 16 assertion is based on comparative studies of the tonnes per hectare. botanical characteristics, and in particular on the Plants which produce the hypocotyl in the first histochemical observations of the hypocotyl,year do not produce seed. The following prac- which is the main distinguishing feature of thistices are carried out to obtain seed: after selecting new species. the biggest, soundly formed and suitably ripened In the cultivation area, at least eighttypes ofhypocotyls, between 30 and 50 are placed ina maca are differentiated according to the colour- hole which is 50 to 60 cm deep and of thesame ing of the plant and the hypocotyl. Although radius and which is covered with damp earth. The there is no gene bank for this species, the Agri-plantlets take 25 to 30 days to grow. To transfer cultural University of La Molina and the Univer-them, a seed bed is prepared with soft earth and sity of Pasco have collected genetic material. fertilized with farmyardmanure. Care must be Neglected crops: 1492 froni a different perspective 167

FIGURE 19

Andean roots: A) maca (Lepidium meyenii); Al) racemose inflorescence; A2) fruit in a silicula; A3, dried root; B) arracacha (Arracada xanthorrhiza); B1) leaves; B2) umbel inflorescence; B3) fruit; B4) cross-section of the fruit

wminmato 1111((f II iflummosk,

111111111«11 kkk'

114

B4 168 Andean roots

taken to ensure that there is adequate humidityThis is possibly one of the oldest cultivated An- for the vigorous development of the plants,dean plants, its domestication having preceded which will produce seeds within six to seven that of the potato. There are no vestiges whereby months after transplanting. its area of origin can be identified, although it could have been the northern part of South Amer- Prospects for improvement ica, in view of the presence there of related wild This crop offers excellent possibilities for im-species. Outside the Andes, it is grown in the provement, in particular because there is a poten- Antilles, Central America, Africa, and tial market for the hypocotyls as a stimulantin large commercial areas in southern Brazil, (similar to ). where it is industrialized. With simple mass selection techniques, varie- The basic causes of its marginalization should ties can be bred which give a better yield and are be sought in the socio-economic context of its more uniform, thus facilitating their processing. growers. The current secondary causes are to be CuiTent local ecotypes have to be conserved so as found in a few limiting factors of an agronomic not to lose existing genetic variability. nature. We may mention its photoperiod require- Cultivation practices can also be improved: aments, susceptibility to extreme temperatures, system of cultivation combined with the bitterlong growth cycle, susceptibility to pests and potato is suggested, this being another speciesdiseases and the difficulty of storing its roots. suited to the ecological conditions of the puna. These are factors which can be modified if agro- The main limitation, which is being overcome, nomic improvement work is carried out. has been the scant attention that producers (basi- cally livestock farmers from the puna area) have Uses and nutritional value paid to this species. In order to encourage its In the Andean region, potatoes are scarce in town cultivation, a yearly maca fair has been held sincemarkets during years of drought or frosts in the the Association of Maca Producers was estab-high areas. They are replaced by the arracacha, lished in the department of Pasco some yearsago. cassava, sweet potato, tannia (Xanthosonia sagit- tifolium), cocoyam or dasheen (Colocasia escu- lenta) and yam beans (Pachyrhizus spp.). ARRACACHA The roots are harvested as from the fourth (Arracada xanthorrhiza) month, depending on the cultivar and region. Botanical name: Arracacia xanthorrhiza They are eaten boiled or as an ingredient in soups Bancroft and stews, and also as a purée, roasted and fried Family: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) in slices. The leaves are prepared in thesame way Common names. English: arracacha, white as in raw or cooked salads, hence the name carrot, Peruvian parsnip; Aymara: lakachu, "Creole celery" which is given to it in Venezuela. lekachu; Quechua: oqqe, huiasampilla, After two to three months of storage, thesugar laqachu, raqacha, virraca, rikacha; Spanish: content in the roots increases through partial arracacha, racacha, zanahoria blanca, apioconversion of the starches. criollo, sonarca; Portuguese: batata baroa, The stump or crown of the rootscontaining mandioquinha, batata salsa, batatacenoura; approximately 9 percent proteinis used to feed French.. arracacha, panème,pomme dedairy livestock. The plant's stem and leavesare terre-céleri likewise used as animal fodder while the dried Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 169

leaves can be used to prepare meal, which is also5 to 6. It does very well in fertile volcanic soils. used as animal feed. Short days are required for good rooting. The arracacha's pleasant flavour andeasy di- The phytogeographical characteristics of the gestibility, which are universally acknowledged,main cultivation regions are as follows: result from the complex of starches, oils and In eastern Venezuela, better-qualityarraca- mineral salts. The starch content ranges betweenchas, such as Amarilla, are produced at 1 200 to 10 and 25 percent. The seeds are fine and similar 1 400 m; in Barimitas, Santo Domingo, at 1 500 to those of cassava. The arracacha is a goodto 1 800 m. In Mérida, Venezuela, small crops of source of minerals and vitamins. arracacha are found on the valley floors and on east-facing slopes. During dry periods, they are Botanical description irrigated every two weeks. In Tdchira, Venezue- The plant consists of a short, cylindrical stem la, they are rotated with banana and plantains and which grows to a height of 10 cm and a diameter are combined with maize through of 10 cm, with numerous buds on the upper part. withmaizeandbeans.InColombia, Each of these has leaves with long petioles, di-A. xanthorrhiza occupies an important place in vided into three to seven very jagged folioles. the production structure of departments, such as The leaves are green or bronze-coloured depend- Ibaqué, that are above 1 800 m; in Antioquía, Río ing on the variety. Two kinds of roots emergeNegro and Narifio, between 1 200 and 2 800 m; from the stem: long and fine ones or tuberous and and in the basin of the Otengd River in Boyacd, fusiform ones. The latter are the usable part.up to 3 200 m. On the coast, it grows in Santa They are 5 to 25 cm long and up to 8 cm inMarta at 40 m. Under conditions of abundant diameter. The root is harvested before the end ofhumidity with irrigation, it is sown throughout the growing cycle; if it is left, floriferous budsthe year and harvested at eight to 12 months. sprout from the stem. The inflorescences are In Ecuador, crops are found between 1 500 and composite umbels, bearing many small, deep-3 000 m along the inter-Andean passage, al- purple flowers, a calyx and a corolla of fivethough there are fewer of them on the western minute parts. The fruit is bicarpellar with anand eastern sides of the range. At higher alti- inferior ovary. tudes, itis cultivated sporadically; production cycles exceed one year, with greater develop- Ecology and phytogeography ment of the stump or crown in relation to the Arraccicia xanthorrhiza's minimum humidity roots. The greatest concentration of cultivars is in requirement is 600 mm and the optimum 1 000 to Azuay and Loja. 1 200 mm. It grows at an altitude of between In Peru, it is cultivated almost throughout the 1 500 and 3 000 m, depending on the latitude, country from I 200 to 3 200 m, where there is and its optimum temperature is 14 to 21°C. Low- humidity. The two major centres of diversity are er temperatures delay ripening of the roots and found in the northern sierra (Cajamarca) and affect foliage growth. Higher temperatures, as insoutheastern sierra (Cuzco). Maracay in Venezuela and Santa Marta in Co- In Bolivia, the greatest concentration of crops lombia, and probably in the Amazon region,is in the yungas of La Paz and Cochabamba, seem to reduce root size. A. xanthorrhiza grows between 1 000 and 1 800 m. In the valleys of La in deep soils which have good organic matter,Paz, cultivation is very sporadic, and is carried are fertile, well-drained and sandy, with a pH ofout at 3 500 m, with irrigation during dry years. 170 Andean roots

In Brazil, it has spread from Sdo Paulo to SantaA. moschata. Other species have also been Catarina, where it is intensively cultivated from found, such as A. pennelli Constance in Bogotá, 700 to 2 000 m. A. tolucensis H.B.K. var. multiflora in Colombia and Mexico; A. wigginessi Constance in the Genetic diversity south of Cuenca, Equador; A. incisa Wolf in La Among more than 60 specimens collected in theOroya; and A. peruviana Wolf in Ayacucho, Andean countries, there are numerous cultivars Peru. which are differentiated by foliage colour and the external colour of the root: white or yellow, both Cultivation practices with purple pigmentations. The description of the traditional cultivation technique is based on experiments and visits Germplasm collections in South America made to peasants in Colombia and Peru. ICTA established a gene bank between 1965 and The arracacha is reproduced by colinos (in 1967, with 50 ;accessions from Colombia, Boliv- Colombia), suckers or pashincas (in Peru), ia, Ecuador and Peru. The collection was kept inwhich are short ramifications or shoots which San Mateo in Lima but at 3 050 m but, because of emerge from a madre in Colombia and a buque in the termination of the Andean Crops Pro-Peru. In Colombia, approximately 400 kg per gramme, this material was transferred in 1967 hectare of colinas are required which are planted and 1968 to various institutions in Andean coun- out and then earthed up. When rooting has devel- tries and Brazil. oped, three or four earthings can be done at the There are a great many varieties in Colombia: same time as weeding, although some farmers Paliverde is the most common (90 percent), Pal- say that if earthing up is done repeatedly the plant iamarilla occurs to a lesser extent and Palirrusiaproduces only foliage. The growing period is or Palirroja are uncommon. Paliverde can attain variable; in the highest and coldest areas it can be yields of 10 to 15 tonnes per hectare of roots and eight months while, in the savannah, it can be as 4 to 7 tonnes per hectare of stumps. long as a year. This species prefers cloudy areas Considerable variability has been oundwith a constant humidity. among an-acachas, particularly insofar as foliage In some areas, the arracacha is included in a and root characteristics are concemed. The mostrotation. It generally follows potatoes and vege- notable types are the bronze-foliaged ones origi- tables or is combined with maize (five furrows of nating from Colombia. In these, no con-elation is maize and one of arracacha) and also with coffee observed between the presence of in (in Manizales, Colombia). The sowing time coin- the leaves and roots, since the latter hada whitecides with the beginning of ripening of the maize epidermis and also a white phloem and xylem. and it is then left in the field for up to twoyears. The types with yellow roots, both on the surface and on the internal part, have a pale bronzeProspects for improvement foliage, with restricted to the lowerThe following may be mentionedas agronomic sectio-n of the leaves. Consequently, there isno limitations of A. xanthorrhiza: its long produc- clear correlation between foliage colour androot tion cycle compared with potatoes and other colouring. tubers; the lignification of its rootson maturity; The congeners closest to the cultivatedspeciesthe deterioration in the quality of storedroots; are: A. sequatorialis, A. andina, A. elata andpests and diseases, such as one unidentified mite Neglected crops: 1492 front a different perspective 171

which attacks the roots; rotting caused by Pseu- based on traditional technical standards and val- domonas sp., which begins at five or six months ues and suggests a change in the logic and ration- in the root and foliage; Alternaria sp., Erwiniaality of approaches. The theory seems to tie in spp. and Rhyzoctonia crocorum; and lesionswith practice, as was the case for the Aymaras from nematodes, such as Pratylenchus penetrans and other Andean peoples who constantly carried which cause root necrosis. out practices and trials each year and for each There is room for improvement in the presentcrop, on one and on many smallholdings, thereby production system of peasant agriculture. Anensuring the survival of the population. analysis of cultivation practices from sowing up to harvesting should be the basis for implement- Potential areas for introduction and ing future research depending on specific localcultivation situations. The result of the research will make it possible to In every country and in the regions with theextend the current restricted frontiers of arra- Greatest concentration of cultivations and Germ-cacha cultivation. For example, in Cajamarca in plasm, it would be of socio-economic, cultural Peru and Anaime in Colombia, which are regions and educational benefit to organize communal with an Andean ecology, it would be possible to centres of action, where specific projects are put step up cultivation with a view to industrializa- into operation as part of an integral concepttion, as is happening in southern Brazil. whose economic feasibility is tested with the farmers themselves and neighbouring communi-Lines of research ties. For example, the operation of a processingUnder INIAP's Andean Crops Programme (in unit would be linked with production, posthar-Ecuador), the following strategies of action have vest marketing and the industrial process. At the been drawn up: same time, school and community canteens completing the collection, evaluation and could be run on the basis of educational and conservation of germplasm;

nutritional criteria. Any surpluses achieved dur- aidentifying the plant health problems of the ing a project would reflect the satisfactory result crop and the traditional techniques used and would make extension to other regions among producers; easier. Shared research on a wide scale needs to evaluating protein variations in the culti- be planned with farmers on smallholdings. vars;

Covering a large area with multiple ecologies, a identifying consumer preferences and sug- projects would benefit from the contribution of gesting new forms of consumption; many people. The positive aspects of existing organizing small community undertakings farming practices would be reappraised and for production, processing and marketing; specific problems solved. carrying out work on the botanical, agro- This genuinely revolutionary methodology is nomic, phytosanitary and dietetic character- being tested in some Andean countries, where izationandevaluation(including peasant communities are responsible for its ad- aminograms) of germplasm and crops; ministration. The real promoters, i.e. expert peas- studying the plant's physiology, including ant farmers who share out the benefits, therefore the storage of roots, colinos, rootstalks and participate in its operation. sexual seeds; This proposal is a departure from the schemes promoting the production of sexual seed; 172 Andean roots

-studying photoperiods and thermoperiods, sugars. In both cases, it can be accompanied by resistance to cold and drought, the effect of coarse sugar honey. temperatures on growth and root yield. In Bolivia, the stems and swollen roots, which are yellow, are left to ripen in order to eliminate certain astringent constituents which might the MAUKA, CHAGO affect the tongue and lips. They are then cut and (Mirabilis expanse) cooked, preferably adding corn molasses, cane Botanical name: Mirabilisexpansa Ruiz & molasses or sugar to make them more agreeable. Pavón The cooking water is served as a soft drink. Nyctaginaceae The whole plant is used as animal feed and Common names. Spanish:mauka (Bolivia), pigs, cavies, sheep and cattle are very partial to it. chago, arricón, yuca, inca, cushipe, chaco For pig feeding, the raw underground parts are (Peru), miso, taso, pega pega (Ecuador) mixed with the foliage, wild vegetation or maize while cavies are fed the green foliage or hay. Its The cultivation of /I/íirabilis expansa was -first degree of conversion is higher than that of other described 25 years ago in La Paz, Bolivia. Some agricultural by-products. 15 years later it was found to the :north of Quito, Dietary analyses of Bolivian maukas showed a Ecuador, and later in Cajamarca, Peru, where 7 percent protein content, 2 760 mg of calcium there seems to be the biggest area of production. and 590 mg of phosphorus (in dry matter) in the It is an interesting case of a practically unknown underground parts and a 17 percent protein con- crop with a wide geographical distribution it is tent in the foliage. known from Venezuela to Chile. Analysis of three cultivars of chago (mat ka) The crop is maintained in small vegetable gar- from Cajamarca in Peru gives between 4 and 5 dens and in a marginal way. It is greatly valued in percent protein. The calcium content is very var- the communities of temperate valleys at around iable with a minimum of 157 mg and a maximum 2 800 m for hurnan consumption and animal of 461 mg. The phosphorus content is 117 mg feed. It occurs alone or combined with maize, per 100 g.It is low in sodium and iron. The curcurbits or other plants, and remains in the field protein, calcium and phosphorus content of the for several years as a result of the transplanting of chago is higher than other roots and tubers grown vegetative parts. in the same agro-ecological area. This is an im- portant advantage if we consider that the diet of Uses and nutritional value the high Andes is :frequently deficient in calcium The roots and leaves are used for human con- and phosphorus. Because of its low sodium con- sumption. It is prepared in the same way as sweet tent, the chago could be promising in low-sodium potato or cassava: shortly after harvesting, the diets. root is parboiled and peeled, and it can also be an ingredient of soups and stews; the leaves are used Botanical description in salads and chili sauces. In Ecuador, it is eaten A low, compact plant, M. expansa grows up to as a savoury or as a sweet. For the latter prepara- 1 m in height. The swelling of the edible part of tion, it is buried for approximately one week inthe collar would tally with a perennial plant. The pits dug in the soil, where layers of barley straw aerial part is formed by the branching of basal and mauka are alternated so as to concentrate the shoots from which dense groups of leaves arise. Neglected crops: 1492 ,ffoin a different perspective 173

FIGURE 20

Andean roots: A) mauka, chago (Mira bilis expensa); B) leafcup (Polymnia sonchifolia); B1)roots 174 Andean roots

The stems are cylindrical and are divided byCochabamba; and, in the case of M. postrata in nodes, from which pairs of opposite leavesLa Paz, Achumani, at 3 500 m (Cota Cota arise. The leaves are ovulate or cordate, 3 to 8 cm National Herbarium, La Paz). long, 2 cm wide and somewhat coriaceous. In Ecuador, Cayambe and Mojanda in Pichin- The nervures and edges have reddish areas. Thecha, with two morphotypes. In Ibambura, San inflorescences are on long, slender terminalPablo. In Cuvinche-La Esperanza, a native spe- branches, are 3 to 6 cm in length and are coveredcies with a yellow root and white flowers can be with hairs which frequently have small insects cooked quickly. Another introduced species with stuck to them. a white root and magenta flowers is collected The usable parts are the stems and tuberous from June to November. At 3 100 m in Cariar, roots. The stems are salmon-pink in colour when Ingapirca, M. postrata and Moradilla or Pega they are below ground. They are generally Pega occur, with white and purple flowers. smooth and fleshy, up to 50 cm long and 5 cm In Colombia, Beteitivd, the basin of the Otengá wide. The swelling process of the stems and theRiver towards the wild barren plain of Las accumulation of nutritive substances are typical Puentes in Boyacá, there are wild forms at of Nyctaginaceae; they are the result of cambium 3 100m. activity creating irregular peripheral tissues In Peru, Cajamarca is the centre of the widest around the external part of the stem. Towards the diversity thus far described, with specimens col- centre, several elliptical rows of isolated xylem lected from five provinces and 15 districtsthe vessels may be seen. The basic tissue is paren-provinces of Celendín, Chota and Cajamarca chymatous with an abundance of water, many being the most prominent; three provinces and 28 starch grains and some cream-coloured fibre. additional districts are indicated. The mauka also exists in other departments: La Libertad, Ancash, Ecology and phytogeography Amazonas and possibly to the south of Ayacucho The only information available on M. expansa's as far as Cuzco and Puno. Wild specimens have environmental requirements relates to Cajamar-been found in Huarochirí in Lima. ca in Peru, where the most evident ecological area for the crop would appear to be the semi-Genetic diversity humid quechua (2 300 to 3 500 m), with a mean No definite cultivars exist, but the plants are annual temperature of 13°C and with maxima ofdifferentiated by root colour, with White, Yellow 25°C and minima of 5°C; deep soils with abun- and Light Orange being distinguishable. dant organic matter and an annual precipitation At present, three collections of germplasm are of 680 mm. available in the case of the cultivated species in Explorations and collections carried out to Peru and Ecuador, where characterization has locate cultivated forms and wild relatives of taken place and material is stored in live banks. In the mauka reflect its geographical distribution. Cajamarca, there are 32 accessions at the Barios In Bolivia, the mesothermal valleys of La Paz del Inca experimental station (INIAA) and three up to the point where they join the yungas: the at the Faculty of of the Technical province of Camacho, the cantons of Italaque and University of Cajamarca. In Ecuador, there are Mocomoco, the Yokarguaya communities to- three accessions at the Santa Catalina experimen- wards Muñecas, Saavedra and Larecaja; theyun- tal station (INIAP). gas of the north and south; Inquisivi towards In the specimens evaluated in Cajamarca, root Ne, ected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 175

and foliage development is greater because of the From the start of tuberization to flowering: more abundant precipitation compared with the 100 to 110 days. Andean south. The astringency of the newly From flowering to harvesting: 90 to 100 harvested roots should be pointed out in the days. Bolivian specimens compared with those from Production cycle: 225 to 256 days. Ecuador, which are sweeter. A more detailed Appearance of the first roots: 22 days. characterization is needed within the various col- Cuttings that take root: 96 percent. lections. It may be added that, in rural areas, Number of roots per cutting: 23. women have valuable inforrnation on the charac- Number of roots per plant (on peasant plot): teristics of cultivars. two to five. Length of roots at 45 days: 3 to 12 cm. Cultivation practices Littleis known about the cultivation of Yield. M. expansa, which is reputed to be hardy and is Yields per plant (two seasons): 0.5 to 2 kg. grown under peasant farming systems. The de- Weight of plant (on peasant plot): 3 to 5 kg. tails given below come to a great extent from Yield per hectare: 12 and 52 tonnes. information obtained on germplasm collection Yield of green fodder per plant at 6.5 trips. months: 7 kg. Vegetative propagation is the technique nor- There are no official statistics on production, mally used: basal shoots, pieces of stem or suck-area under cultivation or yields. ers. It is also reproduced by seed. Plants which have developed from basal shoots are harvested Prospects for improvement at the end of one year. This period can be longerThe mauka is a crop which has been reduced to if suckers are used. They are planted in furrows family vegetable gardens and its conservation is in holes measuring 1 x I M. Because of themainly due to the interest of the peasants who frailness of the plants, earthing up must be donevalue its production and appreciate its taste. carefully. Its reproduction is cheap because of the ease The production cycle generally lasts aboutof propagation from cuttings. However, it com- seven to nine months. In Ecuador, it is plantedpetes with other roots, since soil availability is from July to August, intercropped with maize, limited in the agro-ecological area in which it is which allows a better soil structure for root de-cultivated. velopment by preventing the proliferation of With an adequate selection of varieties and the slugs and attacks by a certain dipteron whichdevelopment of a more appropriate cultivation bores into the plant's underground parts. technology, its production and marketing could be increased in some areas. Phettology of the crop. There is an interest among the peasant commu- From planting to emergence: four to sevennities which are providing genetic material so days. that M. expansa can continue to be produced and From emergence to the first pair of leaves: consumed. six to nine days. The National UniversityofCajamarca hasset From the first pair of leaves to the start ofup a tissue culture laboratory and is able to exper- tuberization: 25 to 30 days. iment with germplasm stored in vitro. 176 Andean roots

Lines of research namarca plateau in Colombia. It is a typically Expansion of M. expansa, both within and out-peasant crop. Its production increased during the side its habitat, must be founded on basic applied widespread drought which laid waste the Andean research. There is still much to be learned about region in 1982-1983, when potato production its botanical, biochemical, physiological, pheno-(which was seriously affected) was replaced by logical and agronomic aspects that will allow that of the leafcup with good res ults. more information to be obtained on cultivation Its marginalization is connected with the ab- practices, environmental photoperiod and ther- sence of an intensive production technique which moperiod requirements, humidity, soils, pestscan be traced to the fact that this species is not and diseases. customarily eaten in urban areas. As a preliminary measure, the existing genetic material must be completed andUses and nutritional value characterized and the most acceptable eco-The pleasant-tasting sweet roots are eaten raw types inust be selected with producers. after they have been exposed to the sun for sever- The genetic base needs to be broadened foral days until the peel shrivels. Because it is easy charactefizations and evaluations to be car-to digest, it is used in invalids' diets in the usual ried out and methods of storing collectionsareas of cultivation. Cattle and pigs also eat the need to be improved. roots together with the foliage. The existence of variability in the astringent In Ecuador, ten clones were evaluated during nature of the root means that varieties mightthe one-year productive cycle, with the following be bred with a lower oxalate content. yields: raw root, 41 tonnes per hectare and peeled Biochemical research on this root could also root, 34 tonnes per hectare. The dry matter con- enable the selection of materials with a bet- tent of the roots is 15 percent. ter nutritional balance as regards protein and The average sugar content increases as it be- trace elements. comes concentrated in the roots which are ex- posed to the sun for two weeks: fructose, 2 to 22 g per 100 g in fresh roots; alpha-glucose, from 2 to LEAFCUP 7 g; beta-glucose, from 2 to 6 g, and sucrose, (Polymnia sonchifolia) from 2 to 4 g. The sugars are similar to inulin. As Botanical name: Polymnia sonchifoliain the case of sugar cane, the sugars can be Poeppig & Endlicher concentrated to obtain sugar or molasses. There Family: Compositae is also agro-industrial potential for converting Common names. English: leafcup, yacén; these sugars into alcohol. Spanish: yacón, yacuma, jicama (Ecuador, From the foregoing, the great agronomic Bolivia), arboloco (Colombia), jfcamapotential of P. sonclufolia may be appreciated. (Peru) It is also used as a soil protector because of its ability to maintain itself as a perennial species, Originating in the Andes, Polyninia sonchifoliaespecially in dry agro-ecological areas. is grown from Venezuela to northeastern Argen- tina, on the slopes of the range with subtropicalBotanical description and tropical climates at around 2 000 m. The wild P.sonchifolia is a perennial plant which forms a forms were found by Bukasov on the Cundi-densely ramified root system from which cylin- Neglected crops: 1492 fi-om a different perspective 177

drical stems grow- to about 1.5 m in height. TheGeographical distribution leaves vary in shape, being pinnatifid at the baseIn Colombia, itis grown on the tableland of of the stems and triangular on the apical part. The Cundinamarca, Boyaca and Nariflo, from 2 600 flowers appear on terminal branches and have to 3 000 m on the high, bleak plateaus. five pointed, green, triangular bracts. The outer In Ecuador, it is grown from 2 400 to 3 000 m flowers have long ligules which are 10 to 15 mm sporadically between maize fields and in vegeta- long, yellow or orange in colour and denticulateble gardens in the inter-Andean corridor in the at the apex, while the central ones are tubular and following order of importance: in Loja, Azuay, about 8 mm in length. Cañar, the lakeside area of San Pablo in Imbabu- The roots are irregular or fusiform and develop ra and in Bolívar province. ramified masses at the base of the plant. They are In Peru, cultivated varieties are found. from purple on the outside, while the inner part is 1 300 to 3 500 m, with the greatest concentration fleshy and orange-coloured. Itis propagatedin the north and southeastern sierra, between from shoots taken from the collar of the plant. 2 000 and 3 000 m. In Bolivia, it is grown around 2 500 m, at a Ecology and phytogeography maximum altitude of 3 600 m at the head of the Little information exists regarding the environ-valley to the north of La Paz (the provinces of mental requirements of P. sonclufolia. However, Larecaja, Camacho, Muñecas, Bautista Saave- according to field observations, they are asdra); in Cochabamba de Pocona towards the follows: south, Chuquisaca and the mesothermal valleys of Santa Cruz. Photoperiod. The plant develops under both In Argentina, it grows to the northeast of Jujuy short-day and long-day conditions. and Salta.

Humidity. Because of its growth habits, it re-Genetic diversity quires humidity in the first stages, but afterwards The [ICA began leafcup collections in 1963. can tolerate periods of drought. Since then, 88 collections have been obtained in Peru, especially from Cajamarca. Altitude. P. solichifolia is grown at sea level in In Ecuador, 24 collections have been gathered Peru, New Zealand and the United States, al-and a wild form has been found (the best time for though there is no information on the productioncollecting is from June to August). A preliminary of usable roots, except in New Zealand where it is evaluation has been made of the sugar content in grown commercially. Its upper limit appears toten clones. be 2 000 m. The best-known cultivars in each country White, Purple and Yellowcoincide insofar as Temperature. It tolerates high temperatures andthe colour of the edible part of the roots is con- minimum temperatures of 4 to 5°C. cerned: Yellow is the most sought after.

Soil. It shows wide adaptation for foliage produc- Cultivation practices tion. However, to produce edible roots it requires Traditional cultivation begins with the prepara- deep, rich and well-drained soils. tion of ploughed maize or potato fields, where the shoots are planted in furrows. Sowing can be 178 Andean roots

done throughout the year provided there is mois- o testing meristem culture; Lure in the soil. Earthing up is done just once. The developing technologies for mechanized plants reach maturity at approximately seven cultivation. months in low areas and in one year in the highest areas such as the heads of valleys. Bibliography The roots break easily and must be harvestedCárdenas, M. 1989. Manual de plantas econé- with care and then separated from the central micas de Bolivia, 2nd ed. La Paz, Editorial stem which is then used for livestock feed. They Los Amigos del Libro. are stored in dark, dry places where they are kept Chacón de Popovici, G. 1990. La maca (Lepi- for months and become sweeter because of starch dium peruvimium Chacón sp.nov.) y su hábi- conversion. The sun's action accelerates this tat. Revista Peruana de Biología, 3(2). process. In intensive crops, yields of up to 40Franco, S. 1990. El chago (Mirabilis expansa), tonnes per hectare can be obtained. raíz andina en peligro de extinción. Programa de investigación en Cultivos Andinos. Prospects for improvement Estación Experimental Baños del Inca infor- The fresh root of P. sonchifolia has a high water me técnico 1. Cajamarca, Peru, INIAA. content, hence its food value is low. Higuita, F'. 1964. El cultivo de la arracacha en la In the Andean region, there is a potential de- sabana de Bogotá. Agricultura Tropical (Co- mand. In other subtropical and tropical regions of lombia), 24(3): 139-146. the world it could be developed as an industrial León, J. 1964. Plantas alimenticias andinas. crop for inulin production. The leafcup could IICA Boletín Técnico, 6. also acquire importance as a perennial fodder and León, J. 1964. La maca (Lepidium meyenii), a cover crop in arid conditions. In this connection, little known food plant of Peru. Econ. Bot., 18: it would appear as a component of multiple com- 122-127. plementary crops. National Research Council. 1989. Lost crops of the Incas. Little known plants of the Andes Lines of research with proniise for worldvvide cultivation. The leafcup needs to be "rediscovered" through Washington, DC, National Academy Press. the following measures if its cultivation is to be Nieto, C. eta/. 1989. Los cultivos andinos subex- extended: plotados en Ecuador. Programa de Cultivos completing explorations and systematic col- Andinos. Quito, INIAP. lections of cultivated and wild forms; Rea, J. 1982. El miso (Mirabilis e.vpansa). Una coordinating the characterization, agronom- contribución de la agricultura preinca de ic evaluation of the material and determina- Ecuador y Bolivia. Desde el Surco, 5: 23-26. tion of sugar content and quality carried outRea, J. 1984. Arracacia xanthorrhiza en los by the current gene banks; países andinos de Sudamérica. In Memorias determining the optimum conditions for del IV Congreso Internacional de Cultivos storing roots and leaves; Andinos, p. 387-396. Pasto, Colombia, ICA/ evaluating the use and quality of green and CID. hay fodder; Rea, J. & León, J. 1965. La mauka (Mirabilis studying diseases and obtaining tolerant expansa): un aporte de la agricultura pre- material or deteimining control methods; hispánica de Bolivia. In Anales Científicos Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 179

de la Universidad Agraria La Molina (Lima),Tello, J. et al. 1991. La maca (Lepidium rneyenii 3:38-41. Walpers): Cultivo alimenticio potencial para Sánchez, I. 1971. El cultivo de la arracacha en las zonas altoandinas. In VII Congreso Inter- Cajamarca. Revista de la Universidad de nacional de Cultivos Andinos. La Paz. Cajamarca, 1(1). Zardini, E. 1991. Ethnobotanical notes on yacon Seminario, J. 1988. El chago o mauka (Mirabi- (Pot ymnia sonchifolia, ). Econ. lis en Cajamarca. In Anales del VI Bot., 45: 72-95. Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos, p. 251-264. Quito, INIAP. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 181

And affruKs

PEPINO after drinking liquor, death may result. Names (Solanum muricatum) and beliefs have contributed towards S. muri- Botanical name: Solanum muricatumcatum being grown in small areas and its intro- Aiton, S. variegatum R. & P., S. pedun- duction is still at the incipient stage. The situation culatum Roem & Schult, S. guatemalense is not the same in the countries where it has been Hort. introduced, however. Commercial crops pro- Solanaceae duced with advanced technology are known in Common names. English: pepino, sweetChile, New Zealand and the United States (Cali- cucumber, pear melon; Quechua: cahum,fornia) as a result of this fruit's acceptance xachum; Aymara: kachuma; Spanish:on North American, European and Japanese pepino, pepino dulce (Colombia, Ecuador, markets. Peru, Bolivia), mataserrano (central and southern Peru), peramelon (Canaries) Uses and applications The fruit of S. muricatum is eaten ripe as a re- The pepinoSolanum muricatum, originatesfreshing, quenching fruit after physical effort. from the Andean region and has been domesti-Herdsmen of Moche and Vir6 take pepinos in cated since pre-Hispanic times. At present, it is knapsacks for eating during long treks through known only as a cultivated species. Its names in the desert. native languages and representations on various Its yellowish white colour, with speckles and ceramic objects of the Chimú and Paracas cul- longitudinal lines, and its purple colour in the tures are proof that it was a widespread andripe state make the fruit attractive. Its smell and important crop in those days. This was not sotaste are pleasant because of their typical mild during the settlement or the Republic. During thearoma and slightly sweet flavour. Itsnutritional settlement, the Viceroy Melchor de Navarra,value is low but it is recognized for its diuretic Count of la Patata, prohibited consumption ofproperties, probably because of its high water this fruit and gave it the pejorative name ofcontent (90 percent) and good iodine content, for "mataserrano" (highlander killer). The Spanishwhich it is recommended for treating goitre. It word pepino might have been intended to facili-also contains 7 percent of carbohydrates and 29 tate the introduction of Cucumis sativus L. (Cu- mg per 100 g of . curbitaceae), a species also known by this name, as the names have been confused sincethen. OnBotanical description the northern coast of Peru (in the Virti and Moche S. muricatum is a herbaceous plant of a very valleys), farmers believe that if pepinos are eatenbranching habit and with a woody base. It has abundant foliage, with simple or pinnate leaves (one to three pairs of folioles) and elliptical- The author of this chapter is I. Sánchez Vega (National University of Cajamarca, Peru). lanceolate, strigose or glabrous laminae and 182 Andean fruits

folioles. The inflorescence is subterminal with Ecology and phytogeography few flowers. The flowers are pentamerous, theS. muricatum is a tropical species of temperate, calyx persists on the fruit and the actinomor-mountain and coastal climates. In the Andean phous corolla is 2 cm in diameter and bluish inregion, cultivation takes place in the inter- colour with whitish margins. Andean valleys and on the western slopes, from The stamens are shorter than the corolla, the900 to approximately 2 800 m. These boundaries anthers are yellow, connivent and dehiscentare set within 24°C at the lower limit and 18°C at through apical pores. The style emerges slightlythe upper limit, with an annual precipitation in between the anthers. The fruit is ovoid, coni- of between 500 and 800 mm. The climatic char- cal to subspherical, and it may be with or withoutacteristics described correspond to the high part seeds. of the subtropical dry forest and the low dry mountain forest or to the high yungas and que- Phenology. Plants propagated vegetatively grow chua of Peru. Coastal cultivation takes place quickly and begin to flower four or five monthssouth of lat. 7°S. during the autumn and winter after sowing. when the temperature fluctuates between 21 and The biological cycle with this kind of propaga- 17°C and atmospheric humidity increases as a tion is as follows: result of mists and drizzle. Cuttings taking root: this is very quick (ten The original cultivation of S. muricatum ex- to 15 days) in damp soil. tended along the Andes, from southern Colombia Vegetative growth: thisis manifested by to Bolivia and the Peruvian coast. During the branches and leaves emerging in abundance settlement, it was introduced into Mexico and and lasts three to 3.5 months. Central America, where it was known as Flowering and fruiting: this is abundant be- S. guatemalense. cause of the number of branches and lasts 1.5 to 2.5 months. Genetic diversity Postharvest stage: this is a period of rest forThe species displays wide intraspecific variabil- the plant during which no branches or leaves ity, which has given rise to the aforementioned are put out; it is the right time for takingsynonymy. Morphological variation is evident in cuttings for propagation and at the same time the division of the leaf lamina (compound and for pruning the plant. simple), the pubescence of the stems and leaves Resprouting: with greater humidity, the(glabrous-strigose) and the shape, colour and plant begins a new phenological cycle. consistency of the fruit. A physiological varia- Plants propagated by seed take longer to devel- tion has been detected in the formation of the fruit op. In spite of the fact that the plant is perennial,and seeds, since there are certain biotypes that growers only avail themselves of two fruitingproduce fruit after pollination and contain fertile seasons, since fruit yield and quality subsequent-seeds and others which, owing to the sterile ly diminish. pollen, form parthenocarpic fruit without seeds. The seeds' viability after removal from the Correlations have not been established be- fruit is not known but, in the vegetable gardens tween the characteristics described, and they where they are grown, seedlings frequentlyap- warrant specific research. Varieties and forms pear. In the laboratory, seedlings have been ob- have been described. As regards varieties, Proto- tained even after 15 to 20 days of seed drying. genum is characterized by compound leaves and Neglected crops: 1492 ,from a different perspective 183

FIGURE 21 Andean fruits: A) pepino (Solanum muricatum); Al) flower; A2), A3) fruits; B) tree tomato, tamarillo (Cyphomandra betacea); B1) flower; B2) cross-section of the fruit; C) mountain papaw (Carica pubescens); Cl) leaf; C2) fruit; C3) cross-section of the fruit

Al

A2

)82 A3

Cl C2 184 Andean frtrits

Typica by simple leaves. Within the latter, theout the distribution area of S. muricatum in order form glaberrimum, which has glabrous leaves,to set up a gene bank. is distinctive. Cultiv-aiion practices Related wild species. This is a still undefinedPropagation is generally by cuttings. To prepare aspect. Research based on interspecific crossingsthe cuttings, healthy, mature branches are select- reports S. muricatum with S. caripense H. & B.ed and cut at a length of 30 to 35 cm. They are ex Dun., S. labanoense Correll and S. trachvceir- then left in the shade for two to three days to pum Bin & Sodiro. Of these, the first is regarded induce a slight dehydration and encourage rapid as having greater potential for such genetic affin- rooting. The soil, with sufficient humidity, is ity in that fertile hybrids have been obtained. prepared by ploughing in furrows. After four to There is less evidence in the case of the otherfive days, the furrow is "cleared'', which consists species but, in that ofS. tabanoense, the origin ofof breaking up the soil and deepening the furrows S. muricatuin could be southern Colombia andto achieve a good infiltration of water, without Ecuador, since this is the natural area of distribu- waterlogging the ridge. The cuttings are planted tion of the species to which it is related. 50 cm apart under damp conditions, on the lower third of the side of the ridge. The distance be- Known cultivars and centres of diversity. On the tween furrows is 80 cm.

sierra of Cajamarca in Peru, the typical form of Tilllage consists of irrigation, hoeing,and P. muricatum is found with regular frequency,earthing up. Irrigation is frequent during the first with subspherical fruit, a pressed apex, and in a few days after sowing and is then carried out at yellowish green colour with some purple speck-intervals as required. When the fruit is ripening, les. On the Peruvian coast, the form glaberrimum irrigation is suspended. Earthing up is carried out has been 'found in pure and commercial crops, of30 to 35 days after sowing and is used to bury the which two cultivars can be distinguished: fertilizer. Morado listado: This has dark green leaves, In PeruS. muricatumis not grown very much suberect branches and ovoid-conical fruit of var- commercially and the yield per unit of area is not iable size. It has a yellowish, very sweet meso-known, nor is the extent of its cultivation. carp. This isthe fruit most valued on the market. Pr--__ts for improvement Oreja de burro: This has light-green leavesThe limitations in the countries of origin are and long branches; it is semi-prostrate, has elon-determined by: gated conical, large or medium :fruit with little the "social marginalization" of the fruit, pigmentation (white pepino) and its mesocarp is which is the reason for its low consumption; sandy white and less sweet. the underuse of genetic variability; The variety Protogenum has been described in a lack of commercial techniques; the case of Colombia and Ecuador, where culti- inadequate transportation of the fruit. vars are unk.nown. On the northern coast of Peru, However, these limitations are not factors a purple pepino is known, which is subspherical which definitively prevent extensive cultivation in shape and very sweet. The growers consulted of S. muricatam. This is one of the native species say it has disappeared. with the greatest potential for overcoming its Living material needs to be collected through-current marginalization, as the availability of Neglected crops:1492l'roni a different perspective 185

-fruit can easily be diversified and the potentialThis is a native species of the Andes whose for consumption and export widened. domestication and cultivation took place before the discovery of America. In spite of its age, no Lines of research names are known in native languages. Sustained promotion of S. muricatum cultivation must be based on a multidisciplinary research Uses and nutritional value programme that includes: Cyphomandra betacea is cultivated for its fruit botanical explorations within its primarywhich is a food resource and a potential raw distribution area that make it possible to material for the preserves industry. The peasants recognize the extent of intraspecific varia-attribute to the fruit medicinal properties for alle- bility and to define the centres of geneticviating respiratory diseases and combating anae- diversity; mia. The tree tomato contains adequate levels of anatomical and morphological, floral bio- vitamins A, B. C and E and iron. logy and cytogenetic research to interpret The fruit is eaten raw or cooked. In all cases, ecophysiological behaviour and geneticthe skin is removed as it has a bitter flavour. variability; When ripe, the fruit is eaten raw as a fruit. More research into phenology and agronomic cul- frequently it is eaten as a dessert of :fruit in syrup. tivation techniques in various ecological The whole pedunculated :fruitis cooked for a areas in order to establish nutritional andshort time in water so that the skin can be re- health requirements and yield potential. moved. Honey is then prepared with cinnamon The lines of research must be orientated to-and cloves, the peeled :fruit is added and it is left wards characterizing cultivars and setting up a to boil until it reaches a suitable consistency. gene bank. In the pre-ripe state, when the :fruit takes on an The alternate use of vegetative and sexual orange colour, it is used in Peru to prepare a sauce propagation must be better exploited. Vegetative together with Capsicum pubescens R. & P., a propagation is used to stabilize varietal forms variety of large green pepper. To prepare this, the and shorten the biological cycle and sexual prop- fruit is lightly grilled., which :facilitates removal agation is used to promote genetic diversity. of the skin (epicarp). It is then ground with a .large green pepper and salt. This spicy sauce is eaten as an appetizer. In those areas of the sierra where TREE TOMATO tomato (Lycopersicon sp.)is not grown, tree (Cyphomandra betacea) tomato is used to prepare stews, thus replacing Botanical names: Cyphomandra betacea tomatoes. (Cav.) Send., C. crassifolia (Ortega) KuntzeSolanum crassifolium Ortega,Botanical description S. betacea Cav. Cyphomandra betacea is a small tree, growing Family: Solanaceae 2 to 3 ni in height, with a single trunk that is Common names. English: tree tomato,monopodial and branched at a height of 1 to tamarillo; Spanish: tomate de árbol, 1.5 m into two or three branches. The same pat- berenjena, sachatomate, yuncatomatetern of ramification is repeated on the branches. (Peru), limatomate, tomate de monte, tomateThe leaves are cordifonm 17 to 30 cm long, 12 to de La Paz (Bolivia, Argentina) 19 cm wide, subcarnose and lightly pubescent 186 Andean fruits

on the underside. There is a caulinar inflores-in association with trees (e.g. Erythrina cence opposite the leaf. l'he flowers are 1.4 cmJugtans neotropica), where a more humid micro- long, the calyx persists on the fruit, the corolla is climate has formed, with less soil dehydration pinkish white and rotate-campanulate with re-and where the light is diffused. Tree tomato flexed apices, connivent stamens that are shorterplants do not tolerate low temperatures (frost). than the corolla, yellow anthers and is dehiscentHigh temperatures also affect flowering and through two apical pores. The style emerges fruiting, as do prolonged droughts. between the anthers. The fruit is 5 to 7 cm long, C. betacea is cultivated sporadically from ovoid, glabrous, greenish yellow to orange inMexico and the Antilles to Argentina. No wild colur, with longitudinal markings, and the meso-populations are known and its domestication is carp is orange. presumed to be recent. Cultivation extends to subtropical areas such as New Zealand, where it Phenology. Apparently no research has beenis very advanced, southern Europe and tropical done on the growth phases of this plant. Conse- areas of other continents, India and Southeast quently, the following phenological description Asia. is an approxin-iation and the result of field obser- vations and information provided by peasants. Genetic diversity Propagation is most frequently by seed but can C.betacea is known only in the cultivated state. also be based on cuttings. Populations display variability in the pigmenta- The plant's life is approximately three to fourtion of the young foliage and in the colour, shape years and flowering begins eight to ten monthsand thickness of the fruit's mesocarp. Some of after sowing in the permanent location. The flow- them have groups of silicose cells on the meso- ering period begins at the same time as branching carp, which lowers the quality of the fruit. Ac- of the main stern. The first inflorescence is pro-cording to growers, the yellowish green leaf duced around the point of branching of the main colour is related to the production of yellowish stem and the following ones at the end of thefruit and the purple-green foliage with the pro- branches, around their respective branching.duction of orangey-red fruit. The shape of the Flowering is continuous and the number of in-fruit varies from subspherical to ovoid with a florescences is directly proportionate to theslightly pointed apex. Research on this aspect plant's branching. is necessary to elucidate the extent of variabi- The plant is evergreen and constantly puts out lity and the phytogenetic relationship with wild leaves. However, the lower leaves later fall, leav-species. ing the nriain stem and lower part of the branches leafless. Related species. There are around 50 species of Cyphomandal which are found from southern Ecology and phytogeography Mexico to Argentina. C. bolivariensis and C.betacea grows best in regions with tempera-C. hartwegii are considered to be species related tures between 18 and 22°C and annual precipita-to the tree tomato. C. hart-wegii produces edible tions of 600 to 800 mm. These climatic fruit, is grown sporadically and has been usedas characteristics occur in the Andes ataveragegrafting stock. Another species with edible fruit, altitudes (1 800 to 2 800 m). Observations inC. cajanumensis or casana, originating from family gardens show that the plantsgrow betterEcuador, is cultivated in New Zealand. Neglected crops: 1492,from a different perspective 187

Cultivation practices an absence of commercial cultivation tech- Commercial cultivation of C. betacea is incipi- niques and plant management (plantregen- ent, in spite of the fact that it is frequently grown eration and pruning techniques); in the gardens of rural and urban houses. In these cultivation limited to family gardens; gardens, very few plants (two to four) are grown the presence of mycotic diseases (0 idium for family consumption and only occasionally it sp.) and insect pests which attack the leaves. is sold on local inarkets. It has been found that the species is not very Cultivation techniques are based on propaga-stable in the characteristics obtained through tion from seed and there are therefore two stages selection, such as colour, size, sweetness of the in cultivation: fruit and yields. However, it should be recog- nized that those characteristics have been detect- Seed bed. Seeds from ripe fruit are left to dryed in cultivars developed outside the natural outside for ten to 15 days and are then put into adistribution area (New Zealand) where ecologi- seed bed. They are left there for 30 days tocal factors may have had an influence. Germinate and reach 15 to 20 cm in height (with The tree tomato's prospects are determined by three or four leaves), at which point they arethe quality and diversity of use of its fruit. The planted out in their final location. most important and potentially exploitable is in- dustrial processing of the fruit for preserves. This Sowing. Since the plants are grown in gardensagro-industry would promote cultivation over where there is no regular planting, no informa- larger areas and extend the market, while culti- tion is available on the depth of sowing, the vars would be developed with bigger yields and distance between plants, tillage practices orbetter-quality fruit. crop protection. Cultivation based on vegetative propagation is Lines of research very rare. In Colombia, it is reportedly grown Intensive cultivation of C betacea for industrial from cuttings which must be 20 to 30 cm inpurposes involves carrying out various research length and which take root 30 days after planting, studies aimed at achieving greater production. at which stage they are thus suitable for plantingWith this in mind, the following activities are out. In Cajamarca in Peru, one case of propaga- recommended: tion from cuttings is known to have been carried Experimenting with vegetative propagation out experimentally by a grower. using hormones which accelerate rooting and activate buds; the results could bring Prospects for improvement forward the flowering period. Cultivation of C. betacea shows promise and Looking for techniques for pruning and acti- should be the subject of research and experimen- vating dormant buds. Removal of apical tation in commercial crops which allow relevant dominance at an early age causes branching technologies to be developed. at lower altitude. After their second year, the The limitations of C. betaceu are determined plants have many don-nant buds on the lower by the traditional state of cultivation rather than part of the branches and on the main stem by the plant's characteristics. The present situa- which, when activated, would form new tion is characterized by: branches and increase production. a lack of identification of cultivars; Recognizing the genetic variability of the 188 Aiidcari sruits

species within its natural geographical dis-C. pubescens and other related species. The mar- tribution as well as that of related species inginalization of this species can also be attributed order to select cultivars and try to obtainto the indifference of the Andean populations and hybrids. to the lack of incentives for undertaking botani- Investigating floral biology and identifyingcal studies, as is culTently the case with species of the possible role of pollinating insects. other fam iies.

Uses and applications MOUNTAIN PAPAW C.pubescens is used mainly for its fruit, although (Carica pubescens) other parts of the plant have a medicinal impor- Botanical names: Carica pubescens Linnetance. The ripe fruit is used in households to & Koch, Vasconcellea pubescens A.DC., make preserves and drinks. The boiled or baked C. candaniarcensis Hook, C. cundina- green fruit can be eaten as a vegetable; when marcensis J. Linden areen it is also a source material for latex. Be- Family: Caricaceae cause of its papayan content, it is accepted on the Common names. English:mountain papaw; international market for use in the pharmacolog- Spanish: chilhuacdn, chiglacén, chamburu ical industry and as a meat tenderizer. In the area (Ecuador), chamburu, huanarpu hembra,of greatest cultivation (Colombia, Chile and papaya de monte, papaya arequipefia, northern Ecuador), the fruit is used to treat arteri- papaya de altura (Peru, Bolivia); papayuelaal sclerosis. (Colombia) In Peru, at 2 800 in in the gardens of Urubam- ba (Cuzco), much taller, more robust and branch- Carica L. is a genus originating from tropical and ing plants than the Cajamarca biotypes have been subtropical America of which 40 native species observed. These characteristics mean greater have been described from Mexico to northernproduction and larger fruit size, with up to 200 Argentina. Of these, C. papaya L. is the mostfruits being counted on one adult plant. The fruit widely grown species in the tropics worldwide. is used to tenderize tough beef. To do this, the In the Andes, at altitudes where C. papayalatex is removed and rubbed into the meat, which cannot be grown, several species of Carica grow is then set aside for four to six hours. According which might represent promising crops, includ- to popular knowledge, latex is used against skin ing C. pubescens, which is grown in family gar-mycosis and verruca plana. It is also used as an dens from Colombia to Bolivia. It is probable thatanthelmintic, in the treatment of enteritis in chil- this species was removed from the evergreendren during the teething period, and against dia- Andean forests and put into gardens to grow as a betes and liver diseases. Through its proteolytic decorative plant and for its fruit, which in the ripeeffect, it acts on the cells of the skin surface and state is eaten raw or cooked. Not much is knownits pathogens. about the history of this Andean fruit-tree, but its cultivation may be relatively recent, although it Da:EDical description was grown before the introduction of C. papaya. C.pubescens is a shrub of 1 to 2 m. Its main stem It can be assumed that the introduction ofhas little branching and is broad-based with C. papaya into South America could have held conspicuous leaf scars. It has the appearance ofa back development of the cultivation ofsmall palm. The leaves are petiolate and the Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 189

petioles are 17 to 34 cm long; the leaf blade isout, it is recommended that the plant be cultivat- dentalobulate, pentagonal, 20 to 26 cm long anded in association with other shrubs. This is de- 34 to 40 cm wide. The leaves have a medium duced from its good performance in gardens that lobule with three to five oblong-acuminate side have deep soil and abundant organic matter. The lobelets. The fruit is small (10 to 15 cm), five- plant does not tolerate prolonged drought on sided and yellow. Most plants are dioecious. acount of its overprofuse leaf fall. C. pubescens is widely distributed geographi- Phenology. Few phenological studies have been cally over the Andes. It covers the western and done, particularly regarding the aspects of theeastern slopes and inter-Andean valleys from plant's age at flowering and length of production. Colombia to Bolivia. It grows spontaneously on Empirical evaluations indicate that plants ob-the Bolivian mountain ridge along with other tained from seed reach their flowering age at ten wild species, and in Colombia as a roadside to 12 months and that the biological cycle ends at species up to the edges of the high bleak plateau. five years. Growth is slow and leaf emission is continuous, but the lower leaves fall off. VeryGenetic diversity few side branches are produced, except when the C.pubescens is a clearly defined and delimited main shoot is cut. When the flowering stage isspecies as regards its morphological characteris- reached, it is continuous and simultaneous with tics, although these show variations such as plant leaf emission. height and branching; the number of lobules and The ripe fruit is eaten by birds which pierce the pubescence of the leaves; fruit size and colour mesocarp causing the seeds to fall. These have a and the quantity of latex. However, the most high germination capacity, without having to go important differences are noted in the sexual through a period of dormancy. Seeds begin to forms of the plants. In this species, as in germinate at 30 days and a 60 percent germina-C. papaya, there are three sexual forms: pistillate tion rate has been noted. plants, staminate plants and andromonoecious plants. Pistillate and staminate specimens do not Ecology and phytogeography respond to seasonal climatic changes while the This fruit-tree grows in temperate to warm cli-andromonoecious specimens, which are sexually mates. In general, highland Caricaceae inhabitambivalent, form female, male and perfect (her- the low dry mountain forest area. In the Andes, maphrodite) flowers in different proportions, de- these areas are situated between 2 000 and 3 000 pending on the characteristics of the season. m, depending on the latitude, and correspond to There is no doubt that the sexual variation the jalca and quechua agro-ecological zones indescribed, together with the ability to form hy- Peru, with an annual precipitation between 500 brids with other species, offers the possibility of and1 000 mm. Mean temperatures range be-creating new combinations and increasing varia- tween 12 and 18°C (22°C in winter at midday) bility. The Ecuadorian species C. pentagona and the climate is subhumid. and C. chrysopetala have been changed to inter- The species is sensitive to low dawn tempera- specific hybrids. It has been shown that tures and intense midday sun during the winterC. pentagona resulted from hybridization be- (May-September). These temperature extremestween C. pubescens and C. stipulata and that affect the foliage and normal ripening of the fruit. C. chrysopetala is the result of hybridization Although further investigation should be carriedbetween C. pubescens and C. monoica. 190 Andean fruits

No cultivars are recognized in the geographi- of the sierra. The best prospects for turning this cal distribution area of C. pubescens, but it may species into a commercial crop, with cultivation be assumed that the greatest centre of diversity is still on a small scale, are to remove the latex in the in Ecuador and northern Peru. Nor is there any green, semi-ripe state and to prepare processed news of the organization of a gene bank for thisproducts such as juices and preserves. species, which would prevent the loss of cultivars The monoecy and/or dioecy in the Carica spe- or biotypes created through crop selection and bycies growing on high land (Andes) have given ecological factors. rise to some inaccuracies in species delimitation. If we add to this the affinities which exist be- Cultivation practices tween these species and the possibility of creat- Current agricultural knowledge concerninging interspecific hybrids, there is an evident need C. pubescens in the Andes is limited. Its cultiva-to carry out basic taxonomic studies. tion is traditional and it is grown in rural home gardens as a decorative plant and for fruit orLines of research household consumption. One to three plants areThe following lines of research are suggested: grown in each garden and these receive the same the collection of genetic material and forma- agricultural management as other species on the tion of a gene bank; plot, so there are no specific cultivation tech- a a complete taxonomic revision of the genus; niques to describe for this species. the completion of ethnobotanical studies; The peasants reproduce this fruit-tree from studies of floral biology, fruit and seed for- seed or occasionally from cuttings. The seeds are mation and the behaviour of the plant's sex- removed from the fruit and, after a short period of ual variability; drying in the open air, they are left to germinate the establishment of experimental crops to in baked clay vessels (flower pots) or in contain- define the phenological behaviour and ways ers which act as germinators. of managing the crop; The seedlings are planted out when they are 10 hybridization experiments with other spe- to 15 cm high (two to four leaves). Pure cultiva- cies and also the use of micropropagation tions have not been tried out and so the distance techniques. between plants is not known. However, accord- C. pubescens offers various options whereby ing to the diameter of the crown, it can be estimat- the current state of its cultivation could be im- ed to be 3X3 in. proved and extended but, to do this, furtherre- Yields per unit of area are not known, butsearch is required. The crop's inclusion within garden plant countings indicate that theycan the framework of commercial and extensive produce 50 to 60 fruits in a growth period which crops would be another factor of development for lasts approximately four months. the almost depleted rural areas of the Andes.

Prospects for improvement Bibliography The marketing of C. papaya fruitat the markets Bohs, L. 1989. Ethnobotany of thegenus Cypho- of the villages and towns of the sien-alimits the mandra. Econ. Bot., 43: 143-163. consumption of C. pubescens fruit. It couldbe Briicher, H. 1968. Lasreservas genéticas said that the main consumers are the rural popu- América del Sur para la selección deplantas lations. Occasionally it is offeredat the markets cultivadas. Theor. Appl. Genet., 38: 9-12. Neglected crops: 1492 from a difprent perspective 191

Burge, G.K. 1982. Pepinos: fruit set. NZ Com- Plaza San FranciscoJardín Botánico de la mercial Grower, 37: 33. Flora Nativa. Cuzco, Peru.

Cárdenas, M. 1969. Manual de las plantasSoukup, J. SD .1970. Vocabulario de los nom- económicas de Bolivia. Cochabamba, Boliv- bres vulgares de la flora peruana. Colegio ia, Imprenta Icthus. Salesiano, Lima. Correll, D.S. 1962. The potato and its wild rela- Storey, W.B. 1976. Papaya. Carica papaya tives. Section Tuberarium of Genus Solanum. (Caricaceae). In N.W. Simmonds, ed. Evo- Renner, Texas Resarch Foundation. lution of crop plants, p. 21-24. London, Heiser, C. 1964. Origin and variability of the Longman. pepino (Solanum muricatum): a preliminary Weberbauer, A. 1945. El mundo vegetal de report. Baileya, 12. los Andes peruanos. Lima, Ministry of Agri- Hermann, M. 1988. Beiträge zur Oekologie der culture. Frucht Ertragsbidung von Solanum murica- tum. Berlin, Technical University. Holdridge, L.R. 1947. Determination of world plant formations from simple climatic data. Science, 105(2727): 367-368. León, J. 1964. Plantas alimenticias andinas. IICA Boletín técnico, 6. León J. 1968. Fundamentos botánicos de los cultivos subtropicales. San José, Costa Rica, IICA, OEA. National Research Council. 1989. Lost crops of the Incas. Little known plants of the Andes with promise .for worldwide cultivation. Washington, DC, National Academy Press. McBride, J.F. 1962. Solanaceae. In Flora o. Peru, Vol. XIII, Part V-B No 1. Field Museum of Natural History. Parodi, J. 1959. Enciclopedia argentina de agri- cultura y jardinería, Vol I. Buenos Aires, ACME. Pulgar Vidal, J. 1987. Geografia del Peril: las ocho regiones naturales. Lima, PEISA. Purseglove, J.W. 1968-1969. Tropical crops: dicotyledons. London, Longman. Rodríguez, R. & Peña Segura, J.O. 1984. Flo- ra de los Andes. Departamento Nacional de Planificación. Colombia, Corporación Au- tónoma Regional de las Cuencas de los ríos Bogotá, Ulbaté y Suárez. Sociedad Protectora de la Naturaleza. 1988. zunian cid CrL.beenaggiculiture Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 195

-theAma -d Orinoco regions: their in9 declii:J and f tu.

Over the last 10 000 years, the landscapes of themagical plants and plants for other purposes Amazon and Orinoco regions have been domi-supports this hypothesis, as does the genetic nated by numerous types of forest, mainly raindiversity of cassava (Manihot esculenta), which forest, with fields along the southern and north-is ecological Amazonia's greatest contribution western edges. Such an immense area, whichto world agriculture. occupies almost half of South America, if the Today it is becoming increasingly clear that tropical forests of the are included,the Amerindians' adaptation to the ecosystems may be called ecological Amazonia. As well asof the Amazon and Orinoco regions was much being ecologically continuous, there are season-more complex than can be deduced from an ably navigable connections between the threeanalysis of their famiing techniques. According major drainage basins: Orinoco, Amazon andto Denevan, at the time of their contact with Paraguay. The Amazon and Orinoco regions areEuropeans there were at least five to six million joined physically and ecologically, so it is not people living in the Amazon region. There were difficult to assume that they might once alsoperhaps two million more in other parts of eco- have been joined culturally. logical Amazonia. The pressure exerted by this Recent archaeological findings in northwest- population was very limited in relation to the ern Brazil suggest that the Amerindians discov-region's demographic capacity. This situation ered South America 40 000 to 50 000 years ago. contrasts with the situation prevailing at present: Their migrations and cultural development can a population of 20 to 30 million inhabitants liv- be delimited with some degree of accuracy dur-ing in poverty, urban settlements which require ing the last 5 000 to 10 000 years through afood and materials to be imported and severe study of the languages, archaeology and agricul-environmental degradation. tural history (crops and other useful plants). Five hundred years after the first contact, it is Lathrap proposed the hypothesis that Amazo- now recognized that the original inhabitants of nia is an important centre of origin of agricul-Amazonia had an unrivalled agro-ecological ture. His interpretation of archaeological remains knowledge, especially compared with what ex- identified central Amazonia as the primary cen- ists in the region today. In many respects, An- tre. The phytogeography of the crops domesti- dean civilizations were also more advanced than cated by the Amerindians suggests that the areathe European adventurers who conquered them. of greatest genetic diversity is northwestern Nowadays it is difficult to practise moderately Amazonia. The domestication of medicinal andsustainable agriculture in Amazonia, arid self- sustainable agro-ecosystems are far from being developed in the humid tropics, owing to popu- The author of this chapter is C.R. Clement (National Research Institute of Amazonia, Manaus, Brazil). lation pressure and the economic model that has 196 Crops of the Amazon and Orinoco regions

been chosen. Whatever can be learned froin thevarious uses in more accessible places. If fruit last Amerindians will help to set up more sus- and nuts were one of the main foods during the tainable systems from an ecological, economicrainy season, such species were probably the and social point of view. first to have been tended, whereas root crops However, one needs to be aware that culturalmust have been domesticated later. These prac- conservation is as important in Amazonia as tices subsequently evolved into the complex sys- biotic conservation. With the removal of the tem of agroforestry and forest management which indigenous populations, a great deal of ecologi- is to be found today in Amazonia and neotropi- cal and agro-ecological knowledge has been lost. cal regions in general. The 300 000 to 700 000 people who inhabit the Agroforestry is a very efficient system for region nowadays are physically and culturally improving crops, as it allows rapid genetic impoverished. progress if there is sufficient variability. Over the millennia, the genetic basis necessary for ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE AND modifying and completely domesticating numer- GENETIC DIVERSITY ous annual and perennial species in the Amazon The very early dates of the discovery of Southregion has been developed. America by the Amerindians shifted the time- Taking as his basis the domesticated and semi- scale in which humans adapted to the raindomesticated perennial fruit crops, the author forest. proposed the establishment of a centre of genet- Penetration and further colonization of thisic diversity in northwestern Amazonia, despite area by hunters and gatherers depended on the recognition of a wide diversity outside this cen- distribution and availability of food resources.tre. Table 6 shows 21 perennial, fruit-tree and During the rainy season there was an abundance industrial species from the Amazon and Orinoco of fruits and nuts which could feed large popula- regions which support the hypothesis of this cen- tions, especially in the regions along the rivers, tre of diversity or of a very early domestication but du:ring the dry season plant resources were in ecological Amazonia outside this centre. scarce. However, the newly ai-rived Amerindian Cassava, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), tan- population was small. Fish in the Amazon re-nia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) and other less gion was also seasonally plentiful and was animportant roots became the of the important source of protein which was easily region and were taken to other parts of the neo- obtained using simple techniques. tropics and later to the rest of the world. Al- The combination of fruits, nuts, fish, reptiles though coca (Erythroxylum coca) is considered and mammals constituted a very attractive con- an Andean crop, there is also a domesticated centration of natural resources. It can be as-variety, Ipadn, in the lowlands. The domesti- sumed that colonization of the Amazon region cated or semi-domesticated plants of Amazonia began as soon as these resources were discov- which were important to Amerindian cultures ered. According to Lathrop, in an environmentfor ritual and medicinal uses also have a poten- such as a tropical forest, with scarce resources tial for exploitation in modem society. during certain seasons of the year, it is highly likely that the Amerindians tried to concentrate THE DECLINE OF THE AMAZON AND these resources by sowing food plants (fruit- ORINOCO REGIONS trees, nuts, leaves, roots) and other plants with The decline of the Amerindian societies of eco- Neglected crops: 1492 .from a different perspective 197 198 Crops of the Amazon and Orinoco regions

TABLE 6 Domesticated and semi-domesticated perennial fruit-trees and technological crops of the Amazon and Orinoco regions

Species Family Probable origin

Ananas comosus Bromeliaceae Southwestern Amazonia Annona muricata Annonaceae Northern South America Bactris gasipaes Palmae Southwestern Amazonia

Bixa orellana Bixaceae Northern South America

Borojoa sorbilis Rubiaceae Western Amazonia Carica papaya Caricaceae Northwestern South America

Crescentia cujete Bignoniaceae Western Amazonia Eugenia stipitata Myrtaceae Western Amazonia

Genipa americana Rubiaceae Neotropics

Lonchocarpus utilis Leguminosae Western Amazonia

Macoubea witotorum Apocynaceae Central Amazonia

Pass/flora edulis Passifloraceae Northern South America

Paullinia cupana Sapindaceae Central Amazonia Poraqueiba sericea Icacinaceae Western Amazonia

Pourouma cecropiae folia Cecropiaceae Northwestern Amazonia

Pouteria caimito Sapotaceae Northern South America Quararibea cordata Bombacaceae Northwestern Amazonia

Rollinia mucosa Annonaceae Northern South America

Solanum sessiliflorum Solanaceae Northwestern Amazonia

Theobroma bicolor Sterculiaceae Neotropics

Theobroma cacao Sterculiaceae Northwestern Amazonia

'Although cocoa has not been domesticated in Amazonia, it is included because of its genetic 'richness in this region.

logical Amazonia began before the first directvarieties of its crops) have also vanished. With a contact with the European adventurers. The ex- loss of between 90 and 95 percent of the original tent of this decline before 1542, when Francisco population, it is estimated that at least 80 percent de Orellana descended the Napo and Amazon of the ethnic groups have disappeared. Rivers, is unknown but it is believed that Euro- According to Lathrap, the nation in pean diseases reached the interior of the region western Amazonia was completely destroyed 100 before the Spanish and Portuguese, coming from to 200 years after the arrival of the Europeans. the Andes and especially from the Caribbean. The chronicler of Orellana's expedition, Carva- Although depopulation is the main indicatorjal, recorded that numerous types of cultivated of the loss of cultural knowledge, a better indexfruit-trees were grown in the villages which ob- is the number of tribes wiped out during thisviously indicates that they were importantcom- process, since the disappearance of an ethnicponents of the Amazonian diet. Fortunately, group means that all its acquired knowledge andnumerous cultivars of cassava, including those most of its agricultural artefacts (including thefrom tloodable areas that are harvested in six Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 199

months, and cultivars of numerous fruit species, Another threat is the immigration of non- remained in the region as disquieting remindersAmazonian groups. In Spanish-speaking Ama- of what the diet had been like before contact hadzonia, it is the Andean or coastal peasants who been made with the Amazonian peoples. are being settled with the support of their gov- Each tribal group had its own stock of knowl- ernments or simply because they have aban- edge on useful and cultivated plants, originallydoned the increasingly poor mountains for the obtained from the surrounding forest or import-supposedly richer lowlands. In Brazilian Ama- ed as cultivated or domesticated forms from oth-zonia, it is the peasants expelled from the fertile er areas. Each Amerindian nation may belands of the south who go in search of new land considered as a source of different knowledge.on which to live. None of these groups knows What remains of the few that still exist needs tothe Amazon ecosystem, nor do they want to be conserved, not only for obvious ethical rea- learn from the local experts.kmerindians or sons, but also for economic reasons connectedcabo clos. with the future of the Amazon region. However, The big cattle ranches and other development the decline of ecological Amazonia has not yetprojects (mining, hydroelectric systems) are a reached its maximum point and the erosion of itsfurther threat, since they deforest large areas in genetic diversity and biodiversity has accelerat- order to obtain short-terrn income. These projects ed in recent years. are active agents in the acculturation of the Am- erindians, rural depopulation and the immigra- CURRENT EROSION OF GENETIC AND tion of non-Amazonians. They are proinoted by CULTURAL RESOURCES all the governments of the region, often through Some governments of the Amazon countries aredirect subsidies. Recent calculations, published beginning to help the remaining Amerindians toby Feamside, indicate that between 6 and 8 per- resist the continuous process of acculturation, cent of Brazilian Amazonia has been deforested, especially in Colombia. Although acculturationwith most of it being given over to stock farming and population reduction are the main reasons as part of large-scale projects. In other instances, for the erosion of genetic resources, the integrityit is so degraded that it is not possible to sustain of these resources is also threatened by otherhuman populations adequately. factors. The biggest threat is the rural depopula- The conservation of genetic and cultural re- tion of the Amazon peasants, many of whom aresources, and of biodiversity in general, will be of Amerindian descent. The problem is especial-possible only as part of a regional development ly serious in Brazil, where they are called cabo-programme. A sustainable, permanent and var- clos. In the areas where the Amerindians wereied agriculture must be the basis of this pro- eliminated or which they abandoned, the cabo- gramme, which will only be feasible if new clos are the heirs of what is left of the Amerindi- species and technologies are developed. Many an heritage, including crops. When the caboclos of these species already exist and others can emigrate, the crops disappear because of theeasily be found being managed, cultivated and competition from secondary vegetation. The domesticated by indigenous communities in the cctboclo culture also needs to be conserved,Amazon region. Technologies must be devel- through support from governments, especiallyoped from indigenous and caboclo techniques through development programmes, so that theand cultures, with the necessary modifications people may maintain their lifestyle. made for dealing with the needs of the more 200 Crops of the ATIMIZ011 and Orinoco regions

numerous populations of today and the future,ern limits of the Amazon region, which produc- under a market economy. es millions of tonnes of fruit which is rich in oil and starch and has an excellent woody endocarp CROPS AND WILD SPECIES THAT for the preparation of carbon. Other palms pro- DESERVE ATTENTION vide fruit, fibre and building materials and have Ecological Amazonia has supplied a number ofenormous potential as ornamental plants. important crops for world agriculture and can There are numerous nuts and species with seeds still offer many more if scientific research andsimilar to nuts. The best known is the brazil nut, entrepreneurial action are directed towards thiswhich is sown and widely used by the Amerin- end. Cassava, which has already been mentioned,dians as well as other inhabitants of the region is considered to be the sixth most important cropand exported to international markets. A related in the world's diet. Tannia (Xanthosonia sagitti-species is the paradise nut, Lecythis piso/lis, Mium), the Brazil nut (Berth°Ueda excelsa), which has a better flavour but which is very peppers (Capsicum spp.), pineapple (Ananas co- difficult to gather, as the fruit does not fall from 'flours), cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and rubberthe tree when it is ripe. In the north, the souari (Hevea brasiliensis) originate from this region.nut, Caryocar nuciferum, was once important This section will deal only with certain groups and may become important again. In Peru, a of perennial species which have a potential forrelated species, Caryocar glabrum, is widely more widespread use. used and could be converted into an export crop Palms are a natural group including at least aif it were adequately researched. Caryodendron dozen species with a high potential. The peach-orinocensis is a promising species which is re- palm or pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes) is the onlyceiving a certain amount of attention in Colom- palm of the neotropics which has been domesti-bia. Couepia longipendula, found in Manaus, is cated and has several potential uses in both ad- distinguished by its delicate flavour, earliness vanced and subsistence farming. and growth in cultivation. The cashew, Anacar- TheessenialOenocamus complex containsdium occidentale, is native along the Brazilian several palms which were very important forcoast to the south of ecological Amazonia. There subsistence in the region. Jessenia bataua con-are at least two related native species from the tains oil in the mesocarp which is almost indis-rain forests that merit investigation. Otherspe- tinguishable from olive oil (O/ea europaea) and,cies of nut should be the subject of scientific and moreover, is an excellent-quality protein. Themarket studies because of their ease ofprepara- genus Astrocaryum is very popular because oftion, use and marketing. its fruit which is eaten fresh. Some species have Several fruits with mesocarps rich in oil and potential as oilseed crops. Mauritia flexuosa and starch were important native resources managed Eutope oleracea are dominant specieson the and cultivated by the Amerindians. Thisgroup flood plains of the big rivers, where the majority includes Poraqueiba se/ic-ea, a cultivated fruit of agricultural crops do notprosper, and they species whose origin is unknown. It is domesti- produce enormous quantities of fruit with little cated and widely grown throughout the region care and no fertilization. E oleracea is the spe-and forms the basis of an agroforestrysystem cies which produces the greatest quantity ofpalm aimed at the market in Peru.Caryocar hearts for the world market. Orbignya phalerata villosum is used mainly for its oily andstarchy is another dominant species, found inthe south- mesocarp and has an excellent-flavoured nut. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 201

The succulent, aromatic fruit is abundant andcollection is also destructive, although it has can offer new options both for the fresh and been shown that, like rubber, it could be harvest- processed fruit markets. The Smooth cayenne ed in a sustainable form. pineapple originated in the Orinoco region and There are more than 100 timber-yieldingspe- is the predominant cultivar throughout the world, cies, although only about two dozen are widely especially for processing. marketed. As the reserves of Asia and Africa dry Of the numerous domesticated or cultivated up, Amazonia is becoming the focus of exces- species studied by Cavalcante (1988), onlya sively destructive exploitation since, to date,none few may be mentioned here. The South Ameri-of the region's governments has vigorously reg- can sapote or sapodilla,Quararibea cordata,ulated forestry activity. Genetic resources are has a resilient skin which enables it to be trans-being eroded very quickly and this process can ported and stored easily. It has a sweet, succu-only be halted if forest management controls lent, delicious, orange flesh. The arazá,Eugenia exploitation. stipitata,has a delicious aroma and exquisite This chapter has dealt basically with the wild flavour, but is extremely sour. However, it doesand cultivated perennial species, since the forest have a great potential for processing in the agri- needs to be conserved not only because it is an food industry. The camucamu(Myrciaria du- important element in the planet's ecological bal- bia)is the wild species which contains a greaterance, but because it contains irreplaceable natu- quantity of vitamin C than any other fruit (±4 gral and artificial products and systems. The only per 100 g). The cupuaqu,(Theobroma grandi- way of conserving it is to find development mod- florum)is a species related to cocoa whose flesh els that consider forest ecosystems and their has a strong, bitter-sweet flavour and which isrelated activities to be more valuable than tim- very suitable for juices or ice-creams. ber or pasture land. The governments of the Species rich in various types of essential oilsAmazon countries need to draw up sustainable are common in ecological Amazonia, as are oth-development programmes which are fair for all ers which produce oil, resins, gums and latex. inhabitants of the region. Palo rosa,Aniba roseodora,which is now al- most extinct owing to destructive exploitation, NEW DIRECTIONS FOR NEOTROPICAL is used to obtain an essential oil which is in greatAGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT demand on the perfume market. The leaves haveRecognizing the value of forests is essentially a been found to contain even more oil than thepolitical question, since research has shown that trunk, and it could be harvested in a sustainable the products extracted and scientific forest man- rather than in a destructive way.Copaifera mul- agement prove to be of greater value in the long tijugaproduces a liquid oleoresin directly in itsterm than any of the alternatives currently prac- trunk which can be used as a substitute for die-tised in ecological Amazonia. This is especially sel. It also has a medicinal use and its applica-true when a well-planned collection or scientific tion is being studied in the cosmetics industry. forest management system is compared with con- The sowa or sorva, Couma utilis, exudes a non- ventional agriculture on poor Ultisols and Ox- elastic gum which is used in chewing gums.isols. Collecting from wild populations is Synthetic chicle is the component of most gums,frequently seen as an imperfect system which but sowa gum has not yet been synthesized andneeds to be improved by development. Howev- is collected from wild trees. Unfortunately, itser, the shortcomings in this form of exploitation 202 crops of the Amazon and Orinoco regions

seem to derive more from the approach to plan- growth and made it impossible to characterize ning at a government and international develop- and evaluate them. This type of problem could ment agency level. These bodies consider it tooccur in many indigenous species and it is the be basically a subsistence strategy that is closely main reason for following a triple-approach pro- connected with rural poverty. In actual fact, as g.,ramme. Altieri, Merrick and Anderson (1987) have "Agroforestry" is a new narne for a very old shown, collecting can be turned into an impor-practice which combines several crops in an tant economic factor and, in the rural frame-ecologically integrated unit. Indigenous agro- work, it is already an activity that prevents many forestrythe traditional agricultural practice of families from descending into absolute poverty. ecological Amazoniais one form of this type It will obviously be impossible to maintain of exploitation. Throughout the world, agrofor- the whole forest area of Amazonia because it is estry is practised by small farmers, since itis being felled very rapidly and it would proverelatively labour-intensive. It contrasts with the difficult to halt its destruction immediately. How- conventional agriculture of the First World, ever, what is more importa.nt is that there are no which is capital-intensive. Development may also proven alternatives to win the support of gov- be based on labour instead of capital, especially ernments and inhabitants. For this reason, the since labour in the neotropics is relatively plen- scientific institutions of the Amazon region and tiful, whereas capital is less so. their collaborators in other regions ought to de- Multipurpose forest management is a practice velop a programme with three simultaneous ap- whereby a section of the orest is managed for proaches in order to identify a good number ofthe benefit of the greatest number of people. new crops for the market. This programme should Conventional forest management, by contrast, include conventional agriculture (monoculture), has frequently excluded the region's original in- agroforestry and multipurpose forest manage- habitants and only benefited the big landowners ment, and its subject should be perennial instead and corporate entities. A multipurpose system of of annual crops. forest management should be aimed at enriching Conventional agriculture does not require anythe forest with species that produce fruit, nuts, comment, as all institutions of the region knowlatex and essential oils as well as timber-yield- it well. However, not all native species can be ing species. In this way, the forest can be har- used for this model of agriculture since, whenvested in different ways throughout the year to they are sown in greater densities than is normal the benefit of the communities which inhabit in the traditional ecosystems or agro-ecosystems, them, instead of benefiting just a few people. they may be susceptible to pests and diseasesBrazil's reservations may evolve towards this that have evolved with them. An example is type of system, although the research necessary Caryodendron orinocensis,from northwesternwould have to be greater than in the other two Amazonia which grows at low density in theapproaches mentioned. forest or in indigenous agroforestrysystems. Agroforestry and multipurpose forestmanage- When the Araracuara Corporation organizeda ment require multidisciplinary research which germplasm collection in San José de Guaviaremust begin with ethnobiology and which must and sowed it in a well-designed monoculture,study the agricultural practices andcustoms of C. orinocensiswas immediately attacked by athe Amerindians andcaboclos.Geneticists, hor- leaf caterpillar which almost paralysed the plants' ticulturists and forestry experts must improve Neglected crops: 1492 froni a different perspective 203

not only the genetic material used but also theFearnside, P.M. 1988. An ecological analysis indigenous exploitation systems which are per- of predominant land uses in the Brazilian haps not sufficiently market-orientated to be at- Amazon. The Environmentali,st, 8: 281-300. tractive to the majority of farmers, extensionistsLathrap, D.W. 1977. Our father the Cayman, and government planners. These activities must our mother the gourd: Spinden revisited, or a be carfied out in collaboration with business in unitary model for the emergence of agricul- such a way that priorities are established in terms ture in the New World. In C.A. Reed, ed. of the market. Origins of agriculture, p. 713-752. The Hague, The future development of ecological Amazo- Mouton. nia needs to be planned to benefit the region's inhabitants without degrading the natural envi- ronment. Conservation of cultural and genetic diversity and biodiversity must be the essential features of this programme. Forests need to be recognized as a valuable resource, and agricul- tural, agroforestry and management practices must be devised in such a way that this resource can be exploited rationally instead of being destroyed.

Bibliography Alfieri, M.A., Merrick, L.C. & Anderson, M.K. 1987. Peasant agriculture and the con- servation of crop and wild plant resources. Conserv. Biol., 1: 49-58. Cavalcante, P.B. 1988. Frutas comestiveis Amaz6nia, 4th ed. Souza Cruz, Belém, Bra- zil, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi. Clement, C.R. 1988. Domestication of the pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes): past arid present. Adv. Econ. Bor., 6: 163-180. Clement, C.R. 1989. A center of crop genetic diversity in western Amazonia. Bioscience, 39: 624-631. Clement, C.R. 1991. Amazonian fruits: neglect- ed, threatened and potentially rich resources require urgent attention. Diversity, 7: 56-59. Denevan, W.M. 1976. The aboriginal popula- tion of Amazonia. In W.M. Denevan, ed. The native population of the Americas in 1492, p. 205-234. Madison, USA, University of Wis- consin Press. Neglectedcrops: 1492 from a different perspective 205

C

er;) oI. Ci ndifloru

Botanical name: Theobroma grandiflorum anthers, five and a pentagonal superi- (Wild. ex Spring) Schumann or ovary with five locules containing numerous Family: Sterculiaceae seed primordia. Pollination is carried out mainly Common names. English: cupunu, by ants and aphids, with vespertin.e anthesis. The cupuassu; Portuguese: cupuaçu fruit occurs in the fonn of a drupe and is strong and pleasant smelling. It is smooth on the out- The cupuaçu is an arboreal fruit species consid- side, ellipsoidal, 25 cm long by 12 cm wide and ered to be a pre-Colombian crop plant which weighs up to 1.5 kg. The endocarp is white, soft is still found wild in the eastern subregion ofand sour-tasting, containing 25 to 50 superposed Brazilian Amazonia. Several authors rate it asseeds in five rows. l'he ripe fi-u it is harvested one of the most promising fruits among the rich when it falls to the ground. Amazonian flora, of which 271 fruit species have been described. An analysis of the potential ofEcology and phytogeography the fruit species native to Amazonia induced theIn its wild state, the cupuaçu grows in high author to propose four priority groups: 14 speciesprimary forests, on fertile, well-drained soils. It is considered to be domesticated, including the cu-commoner in the south of the state of Pará, on the puaçu; 19 semi-domesticated species; 12 species banks of the Tapajós, Tocantins, Xingu and Gua- that are not domesticated but whose domestica-ma Rivers, and is found up to the northeast of the tion potential is recognized; and 13 palm species. state of Maranhäo on the banks of the Turiaçu and Pindaré Rivers. It requires mean annual tem- Doianical description peratures of between 21 and 27°C, a mean annual Theohroma grandiflorum is an arboreal speciesrelative humidity of between 77 and 88 percent which reaches 15 to 20 m in height, but less and rainfall of between 1 900 and 3 000 mm. It is than 8 m when cultivated. It exhibits trichomic grown in small domestic gardens and nurseries in branching, its leaves are simple, alternateeastern Amazonia in Brazil. and coriaceous, 25 to 35 cm long and 6 to 10 cm wide, with a bright-green, pubescent up- Genetic diversity per surface and grey underside. It has a cymoseTwenty different species of Theobroma have inflorescence with three to five flowers, fivebeen described but usually only 12 are accepted. dark-purple subtrapezoidal petals, a calyx with Of these, nine are native to Amazonia, hence the five triangular sepals, five stamens with bilocularcentre of genetic distribution appears to be the western half of the region. The distribution limit The author of this chapter is D.C. Giacomettiof Theobroma species extends as far as the state (CENARGEN/EMBRAPA, Brasilia, Brazil). of Maranhäo in the east, to the foot of the Andes 206 Cupuap

in Peru in the west, as far as southern Mexico incomes under CEPLAC, set up a cocoa gene bank the north, as far as Bolivia in the south and, in in Belém in 1976, with 1 749 accessions of Brazil, as far as the south of the state of MatoT. cacao collected in Amazonia, seven species of Grosso. Theobroma including three genotypes of The genus Theobroma is typically neotropicalT. grandiflorum and three of Herrania. and is distribtned in the tropical rain forest in the The cupuagu is sustaining heavy genetic ero- Western Hemisphere between lat. 18°N andsion. Its centre of diversity is in a subregion of 15°S. The region with the most species is be-southern Para, where there has been intensive tween Costa Rica and northeastern Colombia.destruction of its habitat through as Five sections and 20 species are recognized.well as through the construction of the Tucuruf T. grandiflorum belongs to the section Glosso- dam which flooded 2 300 km2 of primary vege- petalum, made up of 11 species; T. cacao is thetation in the basin of the Tocantins River, where only species of the Theobroma section. the species is still abundant in its wild state. Four species of Theobroma have been de- scribedasproducersofedibleflesh:Cultivation practices T. grandiflorum,T. canumanense Pires & Froes,Conventional propagation techniques. The cu- T. subincanum Martius, (Cupuf in Brazil andpuagu is generally propagated from seed, but Cacau de monte in Colombia) and T. bicolorseedless varieties such as Mamau are propagated Humb. & Bonpl., which is a small tree distributedfrom cuttings or grafts. As in all species of Theo- from western Amazonia to southern Mexico. broma, the seeds are not resistant to desiccation Chocolate is also made from the seeds of these and are sown as soon as they have had the flesh species. The basins of the Napo, Putumayo andremoved and been washed. Caguetá Rivers in the upper Amazon appear to be Seed beds are prepared with fertile soil and the centre of genetic diversity of T. cacao, al-fertilized with manure, being kept in natural though T. grandiflorum is found in southern Parashade or under plastic mesh so as to achieve 75 in Brazil, and in Tocantins, Tapajós, Xingu and percent shade. From 800 to 1 000 seeds per m2 Guama. are sown in rows set 5 cm apart, with 2 cm be- In Para., three cultivars of cupuagu are known: tween seeds, and are covered with a 1 cm layer of Redondo, with its rounded end, which is the mostsoil. Germination takes about ten days. When the common; Mamorano, which has a pointed end seedlings measure 10 cm, they are transplanted and produces the biggest fruits; and Mamau, into 40 x 30 cm black bags, witha possibly a parthenocarpic mutant. Artificial hy-rich substrate of organic matter and fertilizer. brids between T. grandiflorutn and T. obovatumThe plants are kept in a nursery in partial shade produce uits with the characteristics ofcu- (50 percent) until they reach about 50cm, at punt],but which are smaller and less resistant to which point they are sown in the garden. witches' broom. For propagation by cutting,young terminal In Brazilian Amazonia, thereare three collec- branches with about five leavesare used, as in tions of cupuagu germplasm. The biggest isat cocoa. The leaves are cut down the middle and a INPA, near Manaus, with 27 accessions.The growth stimulant is applied to the base of the CPATU in Belém has a collection with 13acces- cuttings, which are placed in apropagator with sions and the Departamento Especial daAmazo-saturation humidity, under a roof which provides nia, which belongs to CEPEC which, in turn, 75 percent shade. After they have takenroot they Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 207

Cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum), flowers and cross-section of the fruit 208 Cupturoi

are transplanted into black polyethylene bags and put out a great number of shoots similar to a are kept in the nursery in the shade until they are broom, which then wither. The flower buds ready for planting out in the garden. affected put out "small brooms". The diseased Propagation by grafting requires stocks ob-tree does not die but gradually weakens, with a tained from seeds of cupuaçu itself or of otherconspicuous reduction in yield. To control the Theobroma species, such as T. obovatum whichdisease, systematic pruning of the diseased produces dwarf plants. branches is recommended at least twice a year.

Traditional cultivation techniques. A new cu-Current situation of the crop. Cupuaçu cultiva- puaçu plot requires dense shade in the first fewtion is concentrated in Parí where it continues to years. If primary arboreal vegetation isstill expand, although it is also grown in other states, growing on the land, simply thinning the smalleri.e. Acre, Amapá, Amazonas and Rond6nia, al- trees and the creepers will suffice. In the case ofways in small domestic and commercial gardens. deforested land, a temporary, fast-growing shade However, extractive production is still consider- tree, such as banana, plantain, papaya, or a per- able. It has also been introduced into the humid manent fruit-tree such as the Leguminosa Inga tropics of Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru edulis.. The greatest planting distances for theand Venezuela. seedlings are 7 x 7 m or 8 x 8 m, and 6 x 6 m for In Pant yearly production reaches about 500 the graft trees. Transplanting holes may be 40 cmtonnes. The municipalities of Vigia, S. Antonio in diameter and depth and will be filled with earth de Tauá, Torné-Assu, Cametá and Capita) do that is rich in organic matter and fertilized with Pogo are the major producers. 10 litres of manure and 50g of triple superphos- The period of greatest abundance is the first six phate. In gardens with both natural and artificialmonths, with a maximum between February and shade, the level of protection from the sun is April. gradually decreased after the second year until the fourth year when only some 50 percent ofProducts obtained. Studies of the cupuaqu's die- shade is left. Systematic control of weeds in thetetic characteristics, with the juices, and plot is an important task. preserves industry in mind, show that the fresh The cupua9u, like cocoa, is a plant which re-juice contains 10.8 percent brix, 21.91 percent quires nutrients and needs annual fertilization. amino acids, 23.12 percent vitamin C permg and During the growth stage, 50g of 12-12-12 NPK 3.0 percent reducing sugars, and that the pH is + Mg are applied each year; from the fourth year, 3.3. The flesh makes up 40 percent of the fruit 120 g; and, during production, 500 g of the for-and seeds 18 percent. The seeds contain 48per- mula 15-15-13 + Mg, divided into three yearlycent sweet-smelling, white butter, which can also dressings vvith 20 additional litres ofmanure. be used to make excellent-quality white choco- Plots with adult crops produce 7 to 10 tonnesperlate. hectare per year. The product obtained through manual depulp- The most serious disease of cupuaçu is witch- ing is generally preferred because it allowsthe es' broom, caused by the fungus Crinipellisper-pieces to be maintained, whereas themechani- niciosa which is endemic to Amazonia. It affects cally depulped product results .ina uniform pulp new branches, flower buds and growing fruitthat is more suited to the industrial production of most seriously. The branches attacked swell andjuice and sorbets. Neglected crops: /492 from a diffent mrspectire 209

Prospects for improvement Amazônia, 4th ed. Souza Cruz, Belem, Brazil, The cupuaçu occupies a prominent place in the Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi. group of the 58 priority species. Its potential is Cheesman, E.I. 1944. Notes on the nomencla- recognized, and a growing demand is opening up ture, classification and possible relationships possibilities of industrialization and access to the of cacao populations. Trop. Agric., 21: 144- great market of central and southern Brazil as 159. well as international markets. Cuatrecasas, J. 1964. Cacao and its allies. A Expansion of cultivation to Brazilian Amazo- taxonomic revision of the genus Theobroma. nia does not present any serious limitations. Proc. US Natl. Herb., 35: 380-613. Witches' broom disease is not a limiting factor, Diniz, T.D. de A.S. et al.1984. CondicCies the climate is suitable and the availability of land climáticas em áreas de ocorréncia natural e makes considerable expansion of the crop possi- cultivo de guarané, cupuacu, bacuri e ble. With extension into Colombia, Costa Rica, castanha-do-Brasil. Belem, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela and Mexico, it is likely EMBRAPA/CPATU. to become recognized as one of the best tropical Ducke, A. 1940. As espécies brasileiras de cacau fruit-trees. género Theobroma L., na botanica sistemática The crop is suited to small agricultural proper- e geografia. Rodriguesia, 13: 265-276. ties on account of its high profitability and secure Ducke, A. 1946. Plantas de cultura precolombi- demand. ana na Amazônia Brasileira. Notas sobre espécies emPrmas expontâneas que suposta- Bibliography mente lhes teriam dado origem. IAN Boletim Addison, G.D.N. & Tavares, A.M. 1961. Oh- Técnico. servacòes sobre as espécies do género Theo- Giacometti, D.C. 1984. Domesticaçao de es- brorna que ocorrem na Amaz6nia. Boletim pécies frutíferas da Amaz6nia. En Anais do Técnico, 3. Belem, Brazil, IAN. XXXV Congress° Nacional de Boténica, p. Almeida, C.M.V.C. 1987. Evolucéo do progra- 117-124. Manaus, Brazil, Sociedade Botânica ma de conserva cao dos recursos genéticos de do Brasil. cacau na Amazônia Brasileira. Boletim Téc-Moreno, P. et al. 1968. Manual para el cultivo nico, 5. Belem, Brazil, CEPLAC. del cacao. Medellín, Colombia, Compañía Barbosa, W.C. et al. 1978. Estado tecnolégi- Nacional de Chocolates S.A. co das frutas da Amazônia. ComunicadoRomero Castañeda, R.R. 1961. Frutas si/ves- Técnico No, 3. Belem, Brazil, CPATU/ tres de Colombia. Bogotá. EMB RAPA. Bernoulli, G. 1869. Übersicht der bis jetzt bekannten Arten von Theobronia. Neue Denkschriften der Allgemeinem Schweiz- erischen Gesellschaft fiir die Gesammten Naturwissenschafter, 243: 1-15. Zurich. Calzavara, B.B.G., Müller, C.H. & Kahwage, O.N.C. 1984. Fruticultura tropical. 0 cu- puacuzeiro. Belem, Brazil, CPATU. Cavalcante, P.1. 1988. Frutas comestiveis da Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 211

(c11 (Bactrise7psipPY)

Botanical nanze: Bactris gasipaes Kunth Rivers and their tributaries as well as certain Family: Palmae = other areas. This dependence is still seen nowa- Common nantes. English: peach-palmdays in some communities, such as the Sanema- (), peyibay(e), pejivalle; Yanoama of Venezuela, the Shuars or Jivaros of Spanish: pejibaye (Costa Rica, Nicaragua), Ecuador and the Yuracarés of Bolivia. During chantaduro (Colombia, Ecuador), pijuayothe years of the settlement and basically during (Peru), pijiguao (Venezuela), tembéthis century, the crop has decreased in impor- (Bolivia),pibá (Panama), cachipaytance for various reasons. (Colombia); Portuguese: pupunha (Brazil) Of these, we may mention the reduction in the indigenous population; the loss of traditions Bactris gasipaes was undoubtedly the most im- through European influence alien to these cul- portant palm of pre-Columbian America and con-tures and to this crop; the establishment of urban stituted the main crop of the Amerindians of ancentres outside the areas of the humid tropics, extensive ten-itory of the humid tropics and evenwhere it was not traditional to grow or eat the some areas of the dry tropics. peach-palm; the perishable nature of the fruit Because organic material easily decomposesand the palmetto of this palm which, in the ab- in the archaeological sites of the humid tropics,sence of processing industries, did not allow it to there are few references to findings of peach-be traded with the new urban centres; the intro- palm material which enable its past to be recon- duction of new short-cycle food crops; the ag- structed. The oldest come from seeds found ingressive expansion of stock farming which various localities on the two coasts of Costabrought with it the extensive use of fire for land Rica and date from 2300 to 1700 BC, when it isclearance and the establishment of pasture land; assumed that it was already cultivated. Whenand, finally, soil compaction as a result of tram- contact with Europeans took place, accounts in-pling by livestock. Fire, competition and soil dicate that it was the main crop and sustenancecompaction are not tolerated by this palm. of the indigenous population of the humid trop- ics of Costa Rica. The importance of the peach- Uses and nutritional value palm also extended to numerous tribes of lower The use of B. gasipaes pre-Columbian times was Central America and the humid tropics of Southcomplete. The fruit, its most important product, America, scattered across the basins of the Cau- was used in two ways: cooked (boiled in water) ca, Magdalena, San Juan, Orinoco and Amazonand as a slightly fermented cool drink. In both forms, it constituted the basic food during the harvesting period in the indigenous communi- The author of this chapter is J. Mora-Urpi (School of Biology, UCR, San José, Costa Rica). ties which grew it. For consumption out of 212 P each-pal n 7

season, it was preserved mainly in ensiled form of which are still being developed. Thus the and prepared in a very similar way to today, wood is used to manufacture building materials with storage in trench silos made in the ground. such as parquet, panels, luxury furniture and One month after being covered over, it was ready handicraft items, taking advantage of its beauty for consumption or could be stored until the next and great strength. The long fibres on the inside harvest. This fermented material was consumedof the trunk show promise for use in -fibre- mixed with water as a cool drink. It could also cement products. Exploitation of the palmetto is be carried wrapped in leaves during journeys a prosperous industry: having originated in Cos- and merely had to be diluted in water .for con-ta Rica in the 1970s, itis gradually gaining sumption. Another important 'form of preserva- importance among the countries of the Ameri- tion was drying the fruit, exposing it to heat andcan humid tropics as a profitable crop and on smoke and then placing it on mats suspended account of its sound characteristics for ecologi- above a fire. To be eaten, it just had to be boiled cal management, in accordance with new agro- in water. It was also eaten in the form of tortillas nomic trends. made from its dough, as with maize, or as farin- The fruit, which in the past was only impor- ha. The oil, which separates out when the -fruit istant in its areas of production because it is very boiled, was occasionally used for cooking otherperishable, is ilow seen as having great potential foods. Prolonged fermentationlasting one week through processing to form flours and other de- enabled the alcoholic drink, chicha, to be mad.e rived products such as oil, beta-carotene and for celebrating festive occasions. Thus, the fruitstarch. Tests are even being carried out to see if of each palm constituted a basic source of ener- the trypsin inhibitor contained in the fruit of gy, replacing the ftmctions and uses of grain insome cultivars can be used as an insecticide. other cultures. It was especially significant as a Flours made from peach-palm have an impor- substitute for maize, which it surpasses in nutri- tant -future in liuman nutrition, being consumed tional value. in confectionery, bread-making and other prepa- The wood of the trunk has great strength and rations. It also has a great future in animal feed- elasticity which enabled it to be used to make ing, as a substitute or supplement for grain, in weapons'bows, arrows and spearsas well asthe manufacture of concentrates and fermented in construction. The apical section of the trunk, as ensilage. Fermentation of the fruit is being together with its embryonic fronds, is soft and investigated with a view to its exploitation in the has a delicate flavour; frotri this the palmetto ormanufacture of various organic compounds. Its heart of the palm is extracted. The sap from this possible medicinal use, as practised by the Indi- part of the trunk, either unfermented or ferment- ans, has yet to be explored. ed in various degrees, was used to prepare nutri- tional and intoxicating drinks. Botanical description The young inflorescences were also eatenB. gasipaes is a caespitose palm with an exten- roasted "the herdsman's way", without openingsive but fairly superficial root system. The trunk the protective spathe. Infusions of the rootswere has internodes covered with spines, alternating used in medicine as a vermicide. with nodes without spines, formed by leafscars. Today, the Indians use the same basic prod-These measure between 10 and 25cm, with a ucts obtained from the peach-palm, whichnow lamina that is generally more than 2m in length produce a greater diversity of by-products,many and with over 200 folioles. The inflorescence is Neglected crops:1492from a different perspective 213

FIGURE 24 A) Peach-palm (Bactris gasipaes); Al) racemes with fruit in a drupe; A2) cross-sections and profile of the fruit; A3) spine-covered internodes on the stem

A A3 214 Peach-pairn

covered with two bracts, the outer short andbetween adjacent plants during the morning of thick, the inner surrounding the inflorescencethe second receptive day of the female flowers. until it matures; the rachis is branched with thou- In this case, the pollen deposited on the rachillae sands of male flowers intermixed with a few during male anthesis is scattered by the wind on hundred female flowers, which are slightly big- the following morningthe third day and if ger than the males. The fruit occurs in a drupe ofthere are inflorescences on nearby plants, they variable size400 to 300 gwith a slender, red may be pollinated in this way on the second day. or yellow exocarp; a farinaceous mesocarp which The controlled pollination technique consists is variably orange; and a dark and hard endo- of protecting the inflorescence from the sight of carp. The size of the seeds depends on the eco-curculionids, using well-fitting bags of kraft pa- type: in the cultivated plants they weigh aboutper and applying the pollen on the day following 4 g, are recalcitrant and take between 45 and 90the opening of the spathe. It is not necessary to days to genninate. Its chromosome number isemasculate the male flowers. 2n = 28. Ecology and phytogeography Pollination. The peach-palm is a monoeciousThe peach-palm grows wild in well-drained soils plant with male and female flowers mixed on with various physical and chemical conditions, the rachillae. It is also protogynous, since theincluding acid and poor soils, since it is assisted female flowers are fertile as from the opening ofby its association with . It is grown the spathe and continue to be receptive for 24in climates with precipitations between 2 000 mm hours. Anthesis of the male flowers occurs onand 5 000 mm and annual mean temperatures the second day of the cycle, i.e. 24 hours afterexceeding 22°C. The recommended altitude for the females. In both cases this occurs at the endcommercial cultivation ranges from 0 to 900 m. of the afternoon, between 5 and 6 p.m. Its natural distribution extends from Darién in The pollination cycle takes place over three Panama to the province of Santa Cruz in Boliv- days and consists of three complementary meth- ia, the state of Ronclônia and possibly the Mato ods. The first is entomophilous and is the mostGrosso in Brazil. Its presumed natural origin, important. It is effected by curculionids: in Cen- further to the north in Central America, has not tral America by Audranthobius palmarum; andbeen confirmed, although it has been cultivated in the Amazon basin by several species of Phyl-for several thousand years as far as northeastern lotrox. Occasionally, other insects also playa Honduras. Spontaneous dispersionoccurs part but the Amazonian Cyclocephala has beenthrough the seeds being carried over short dis- erroneously cited as a pollinator. tances by birds, rodents and other mammals, and The second pollination method is by gravity.over greater distances possibly by water. When the pollen is released during the second day, it completely covers the inflorescenceand, Origin and genetic diversity in doing so, covers its female flowers. Thismeth- Cultivated peach-palm may be considereda syn- od is not very effective, as there isa system ofthetic species, the result of the independent do- genetic self-incompatibility which interferes withmestication of several wild populations. fertilization and possibly produces fertileseeds The latter, which are very extensive in their only occasionally. geographical distribution, were known tosever- The third method is anemophilous,occurringal primitive societies which beganto grow them Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 215

TABLE 7 Species linked with ihe origin of the peach-palm

Species Geographical distribution

Eastern species

Bactris culata Peru: Ucayali, Huallaga, Madre de Dios Rivers

Bactris insignis Bolivia: Santa Cruz, Chapare, Alto Beni Bactris sp. Brazil: Acre, Rondönia'

Bactris sp. Colombia: Alto Putumayo, Caquetá Western species

Bactris macana Venezuela: Maracaibo; Colombia: Santa Marta

Bactris caribea Venezuela: Maracaibo; Colombia: Santa Marta Bactris chantaduro (?) Colombia: Cauca River valley

Bactris sp. Ecuador: Central and northern Pacific slope Bactris sp. Panama: Darién; Colombia: Chocó (possibly)

' It has not been determined whether or not the species here was B. cl/iota.

independently. The degree of domestication The subsequent spread of the different geno- reached at the time of contact with Europeanstypes through neighbouring regions contributed differed depending on the region. This is stillin some cases to the creation of greater local reflected in characteristics such as fruit size.diversity. Geological and climatic history also Thus, the cultivar developed in Bolivia fromcontributed to the geographical isolation of pop- Bactris insignis represents an incipient stage ofulations, which was necessary for the process domestication because of its small fruit size and which gave rise to this complex. The gene flow high fibre content, while the cultivar of the between distant regions over generations has been Vaupés River in Colombia reflects an advancedlimited in the peach-palm, since there are abso- domestication process through its large fruit sizelute barriers to the pollinating curculionids and and high starch content. The variety or speciesto natural seed migration. which gave rise to this cultivar has still not been The first division between cultivars and spe- determined. Between these two extremesnorthcies is based on the geographical distribution of and southof the Amazon/Orinoco basin, othertwo major groups: the eastern or Amazonian, cultivated varieties and at least two wild species situated to the east of the Andes; and the west- are found. One of them, Bactris ciliataern, situated on the opposite slope. The former (= B. microcarpa, B. dahlgreniana) possibly gave generally have a smoother trunk, with less wood, rise to more than one of the cultivars which area lower spine density, fewer tufts and less soil recognized today, for example Pampa Hermosaanchorage when young. The other characteristic and Pastaza, which show an intermediate degree is fruit size, with the varieties being classified of domestication between the first two mentioned. into microcarps, mesocarps and macrocarps. In some cases, the presence of the wild species The exchange of germplasm, especially in re- near the plantings had a negative effect on thecent decades, has resulted in a considerable improvement process as a result of spontaneousnumber of local varieties being contaminated backcrossing. with foreign germplasm, thereby obscuring the 216 Peach-palm

TABLE 8 Cultivated varieties of peach-palm

Microcarps (weight less than 20 g) Geographical distribution

Eastern varieties

Tembé Bolivia: eastern part

Para Brazil: state of Para

Jurua Brazil: Jurué River Western varieties

Tuira Panama: Darién

Rama Nicaragua: Rama, Bluefields

Chontilla Ecuador: western part

Macana Venezuela: Maracaibo

Mesocarps (weight 21 to 70 g) Geographical distribution

Eastern varieties

lnfrida Colombia: Infrida and Guaviare Rivers

Sollimbes Brazil: middle course of the Amazon

Pastaza Ecuador: foothills of the Andes Pampa Hermosa Peru: Hermosa pampa Western varieties

Utilis Costa Rica, Panama and perhaps the coasts of Colombia

Guatuso Costa Rica: San Carlos

Cauca Colombia: Cauca and Magdalena (?) valleys

Darién Panama: Darién

Macrocarps (weight exceeding 70 g)' Geographical distribution

Eastern varieties

Vaupés Colombia: Vaupés River Putumayo Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil: Putumayo, Caqueta, Napo,

Alto Solirn5es, Huallagas Rivers

'There are no western macrocarp populations.

characteristics that were specific to them. In gen- sion being sustained by its germplasm. To these eral, this phenomenon occurs with greatershould be added the expansion of some towns in -frequency in localities associated with urban wbose surroundings interesting peach-palms are centres, but occasionally it affects more exten- to be found, such as Yurimagua, with its spine- sive regions. less variety, and Iquitos in Peru; and also the deterioration in the social organization of small Genetic erosion and conservation. The reasonscommunities which is threatening their very ex- for the decline in importance of thiscrop areistence, as is the case of the Yuvineto settle- also responsible for the accelerated geneticero- ments of the Sequoya tribesituated on a small Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 217

TABLE 9 Peach-palm gene banks

Country Locality Institution responsible Approximate number of accessions

Brazil Manaus INPA-CENARGEN/EMBRAPA 450

Colombia Buenaventura Departamento de AgriculturayFomento del Valle 400

Araracuara Corporación de Araracuara 100

San José, Guav are Corporación de Araracuara 100 Leticia ICA

Florencia ICA

Costa Rica Guápiles UCR, CORBANA, MAG 950

Turrialba UCR 50

Turrialba CATIE 400

Ecuador Napo-Payamino INIAP 322

Nicaragua El Recreo MIDINRA 36

Panama Las Pavas IDIAP 54

Peru Iquitos INIPA 200

Yurimaguas IN IRA 144

tributary of the Putumayo river in Peruwho diate measures to be taken and significant ef- have bred a local variety which is exceptionalforts have been made in this connection, espe- for its vigour, total absence of spines, large fruitcially in Costa Rica, Brazil, Colombia, Peru and and racemes and excellent table quality; and ofEcuador through self-funding and funds provid- the Guatuso in Costa Rica, a community of theed by international agencies. Maleko tribe, which also developed a good- quality, spineless cultivar. These situations areCultivation p.ractices not exclusive to the examples mentioned, butSeveral products are obtained from the peach- are fairly widespread in all the countries con-palm, with the result that specific agronomic tained within B. gasipaes' distribution area. Intechnologies have emerged for their exploita- Costa Rica, for example, it is possible to predicttion. In fact, they are different crops. We shall the extinction of the peach-palm within a few deal here with the general aspects of two of decades unless there is a resurgence of interestthese crops exploited on a commercial scale: in its cultivation. palmetto and fruit. Populations of wild peach-palm are also threat- ened with extinction: B. insignis in Bolivia; B.Palmetto production. The seed beds are set up ciliate, in Peru; Bactris sp. (chontilla) in western using soil beds or closed polyethylene bags. In Ecuador; Bactris sp. in Darién, Panama; B. ma-the latter case, the seed's moisture content must cana in Venezuela; and B. chantaduro (?) (chi- be approximately 40 percent. A germination rate narnato) in Colombia. of 75 percent is achieved in soil beds and 90 to The collection and inclusion of germplasm in 100 percent in plastic bags. At ambient tempera- ex situ banks is one of the most important imme-ture (24 to 25°C) its germination begins in 218 Peach-palm

1.5 months and may be regarded as being over at don and pruning excess shoots. Regarding the three months. Two asexual methods of propaga-latter, there are cultivars that frequently do not tion are currently being developed: tissue cul-produce sufficient shoots or do not produce any ture and culture from shoots; with both of these, at all, and this is a serious drawback. Putumayo however, there are difficulties which have still is characterized by such behaviour. not been overcome. The newly germinated seed- No pests or diseases of any economic impor- lings are taken from the seed bed to the nurserytance have yet occurred in plantations of peach- and at three to six months are planted out in the palm palmetto. Those that do appear occasionally field. Transplanting can be done with soil or are due to poor handling conditions. However, with bare roots. Planting density is 2 x 1 m oras in any crop, these will appear as the cultiva- 1.5 x 1.5 m, and the number of shoots withtion area grows. Peach-palm palmetto is a which the rootstock is used is four to six. De-perennial crop which is constantly renewed pending on the size of the seedlings at trans-through the shoots. The oldest plantation is 18 planting and on soil fertility, the stems are ready years old and continues to produce efficiently. for harvesting when they measure approximate- ly 9 cm in diameter, which they attain 12 to 18 Fruit production. Seed germination and shoot months after transplanting. production is the same as described for palmetto The first harvest is one stem per rootstock butproduction. However, in this case itis more from then onwards, if the plot is well managed,important to plant shoots in polyethylene bags there may be an average of three or more stemsor another type of container that allows the young per rootstock per year. The annual industrialplant to grow for nine months so that it can then yield, which is guided by current quality stand- be taken to the field when it is larger.

ards for canned palmetto, is approximately 1 In cultivation for fruit production, the plants tonne per hectare. must attain their full development. The root sys- Because of the heterogeneity in the ages of the tem is therefore bigger and, because of this, shoots, the population is composed of stems atgreater drainage depth is required. The sowing all stages of development, which means harvest- densities chiefly adopted are 5 x 5 m and 4 x 4 x ing must be done by hand. This consists of cut-8 m, with one or two stems being left on the ting the apical sector of the stem, removing therootstock. foliage and some of the sheathes covering it, and An important aspect is the management of leaving two of them to protect it during trans- shoots with the aim of renewing old stocks. These portation to the industrial plant. Harvesting pro- must be handled in such a way that they are duces a great amount of organic residue and,as never absent, i.e. they must be cut before the it is done throughout the year, it contributesto bare stem appears because at that stage the axil- the maintenance of an organiccover on the soil. lary buds of the rhizome, which constitute the One hectare of palmetto produces 19.5 tonnes basic source of shoots, will have died. Shoot per year of dry matter, of which the extracted production is induced by eliminating apical crude palmetto represents only 1.76tonnes, i.e.dominance. 9 percent of the biomass produced. Harvesting the fruit is the most difficultoper- The most important routine operationsare theation of all crop management practicesbecause establishment of a drainage system beforesow- of the height reached by thestems. For this ing and, subsequently, weed control,fertiliza-reason, the stipes must be renewed when, they Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 219

reach heights which make the collection ofthat the cultivated peach-palm will gradually racemes too difficult, i.e. at ten to 12 years ofreplace the Euteipe palmetto. The following may age. To prepare for its renewal, a shoot is al-be mentioned as factors limiting the peach- lowed to grow for one year or 18 months before palm ' s development: the removal of the stem in question, which is The lack of commercial availability of highly done after harvesting. The shoot will begin to productive varieties suited to the various produce in the following harvesting period. ecological conditions and having the appro- Exploitation of the peach-palm for fruit pro- priate quality for various industrial uses. duction brings with it pests and diseases of greater The absence of an efficient asexual repro- economic importance than in the case of palmet- duction method that enables commercial to. The most serious disease is Monilia sp., which propagation of the selections obtained; in attacks the fruit and is at its worst during the recent years, intensive work has been car- more humid years, especially if drainage is defi- ried out to solve this problem at the UCR, at cient or planting very dense. The most destruc- INIPA, in Iquitos, Peru, and at the Universi- tive pests are parrots, which attack the fruit. ty of Säo Paulo, Brazil, but the solution These birds, which like the fruit when it is still does not seem to be within sight. green, appear in huge flocks and cause consider- Deficient or non-existent industrial tech- able damage. niques for processing peach-palm products. Production per hectare is variable, depending Limited economic resources to stimulate on the cultivar, ecological conditions and man- cultivation. agement. Under good management, plantings Unfamiliarity with peach-palm products on with cultivars of the varieties Utilis, Putumayo the market. and Sollimòes produce approximately 25 tonnes Scant economic resources assigned to re- per hectare in a year of normal climatic condi- search to solve the irst three aspects and tions. As soon as the selections obtained can be maintain a constant control over production reproduced by cloning, the yield per hectare will techniques and to overcome particular prob- increase considerably. lems that occur. Financial limitations aside, the prospects for Prospects for improvement improvement are very promising from the agro- Except in Brazil, where current domestic con- nomic, industrial and marketing points of view. sumption is much greater than in the rest of the In genetic improvement, for the production of world, the palmetto is an export product, al-high-yielding varieties, the gene banks contain though its international market is still small (ap-plants that have a very high fruit yield, and proximately 20 000 tonnes per year). In this areaothers that show great vigour and earliness for it has to compete with the Euterpe palmetto, palmetto production. extracted from the forests, and which, at present, Using normal plant improvement methods, this meets approximately 85 percent of international limitation can be overcome. Severa] gene banks demand (Brazil's domestic consumption of pal-have already evaluatedat least partiallythe metto from this other palm exceeds 100 000accessions and have selected highly productive tonnes per year). However, because of its great-and good-quality plants for certain uses. As far er productivity and because of world conflict as their evaluation under different ecological con- over related ecological issues, itis envisagedditions and their subsequent distribution to farm- 220 Peach-pcilm

ers is concerned, the difficulty is the absence of concluding exploration work in territories an asexual reproduction method enabling clonal spanned by the geographical distribution of populations to be obtained. the species; The same process and difficulty are involved establishing an inter-American network of in the second stage of the use of 1-iybridization to Gene banks; bring desired characteristics together and ex- evaluating accessions in a programme com- ploit the possible expression of heterosis. mon to all the banks; The scant research which has been carried out studying the of the complex in in the industrial sphere is also a limitation. In the greater depth; case of palmetto, work has only been done con- developing reproduction techniques using cerning canning problems, without concentrat- tissue culture and shoots; ing on other possible uses such as dried or liquid developing a method for the long-term stor- soups, packs for 'fresh palmetto, toasted palmet- age of seed; to (crisps), etc., which offer potential for broad- setting up comparative trials on varieties ening the market. Pahnetto is a suitable product and confirming the results on a commercial for modern diets, as it is 1-i.c1-1 in fibre, tasty and, scale; when dry, a nutritional product. Industrializa- studying integral methods of weed, disease tion of the fruit has demonstrated its nutritional and pest control; value (as a source of energy, beta-carotene, oil establishing the critical levels of the various and other nutrients) for human consumption and chemical elements required; as animal .feed. The range of products that can diversifying the industrial products of the be prepared with the fruit is similar to that pre- fruit and of the palmetto; pared with various grains. Industrialization has continuing studies on the use of the fruit for barely begun, but it does not seem to pose any human consumption and as animal feed; major technical problems. Its limited develop- carrying out market research for the various ment is the main difficulty that normally faces a products; new product on its introduction to the market, a studying and encouraging the organization process which requires costly promotion and gen- of peasant producers in associations; erally long-term investment. studying the social and ecological impact of The geographical regions suited to this crop the crop and its industry. are very extensive in all the countries of the American tropics and outside the continent. Even ',3iipliography in small countries such as those in Central Amer- Arias, O. & Huete, F. 1983. Propagación vege- ica, hundreds of thousands of hectares are suit- tativa in vitro de pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes able; for example, in Costa Rica these have been H.B.K.). Turrialba, 33: 103-108. estimated as totalling 700 000 ha. The cropping Arkcoll, D.B. & Aguiar, J.P.L. 1984. Peach- technology is adaptable to any scale. palm (Bactris gasipaes1-1.B.K.), a new source of from the wet tropics. J. Sci. Lines of research Food Agile., 35: 520-526. The most pressing research requirements to raise Camacho, E. & Soria, J. 1970. Palmito de peach-palm cultivation to a competitive levelon pejibaye. PrOC. Trop. Reg. Am. Soc. Hortic. international and local markets areas follows: Sci., 14: 122-132. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 221

Clement, C.R. & Mora-Urpi, J. 1988. Pheno- din, eds. Final report on peach-palm (Bactris typic variation of peach-palm observed in the gas ipaes H.B.K.): gene bank, p. 78-94. Man- Amazon. In Final report on peach-palm (Bac- aus, Brazil, AID/CENARGEN. tris gasipaes H.B.K.): gene bank, p. 78-94.Mora-Urpi, J. & Solis, E. 1980. Polinización Manaus, Brazil, AID/CENARGEN. en Bactris gasipaes H.B.K. Rev. .Biol. Trop., Mora-Urpi, J. 1983. El pejibaye (Bactris gasi- 29: 139-142. paes origen, biología floral y mane- Mora-Urpi, J. et al. 1984. The pejibaye palm. jo agronómico. In Palmeras poco conocidas FACYUCR. de América tropical, p. 118-160. Turrialba,Patifio, V.M. 1958. El cachipay o pijihay en la Costa Rica, CATIE/FAO. cultura de los indígenas de la América Inter- Mora-Urpi, J. & Clement, C.R. 1988. Races tropical. Edición española, No. 39. Mexico and populations of peach-palm found in the City, Instituto Indigenista Interamericano. Amazon basin. In C.R. Clemente & L. Cora- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 223

1.4 Snecies of ker.' ii th in

GUARANA which was granted the marketing monopoly of (Paullinia cupana) the product. As from 1966, with the winding up Botanical name: Pau cupana H.B.K. of the Emporio, which served more as a stagnat- Family: Sapindaceae ing than development factor, an industrial system Cotnmon name: guarana for the product began to be established. The aggressive internal and external publicizing pol- Guarana is undoubtedly among the stimulantsicy for guarana, adopted by the government and that are attracting most attention from the devel- begun at the end of the 1940s, led to the present oped countries nowadays. All kinds of qualitiessituation where demand is several times greater are being attributed to it, from that of being a than supply. simple stimulant to an aphrodisiac, and it is now Both official records and socio-economic a must in the herbalist's shop. It was already studies indicate that there were two main produc- cultivated at the time of the discovery and, from tion phases: the extraction or collecting phase, the seventeenth century, its seed occupied a which extended up to the 1970s, and the cultiva- prominent place among the products used fortion phase from that time on. local consumption and export in the region of Manaus in Amazonia. According to one mission- Uses ary, certain Indian tribes valued it in the sameGuarana is used mainly to produce a soft drink. way as "the whites valued their gold". The use ofFor a long time, it was used empirically in med- guarana in Europe was documented in 1775, but icine;it is attributed antipyretic, antineuralgic information on its production up to the beginning and antidiarrhoeal properties and is reputed to be of this century is very uncertain. The only infor- a powerful stimulant, an analgesic comparable to mation available for last century relates to theaspirin and an anti-influenza agent. The seeds export of 262 arrobas (1 arroba = 11.5 kg) tocontain 2.7 to 3.5 percent caffeine as well as Europe in 1852. theophylline and theobromine. The traditional In 1923, the harvest was 3 873 kg. After amethod of using guarana (the only one until the harvest of 124 000 kg in 1935, since no exports 1950s and one that is still widespread nowadays) took place and domestic consumption had goneis as follows: when the fruit has been harvested, down, there was a surplus of guarana which ledthe seeds are separated and stored until fermenta- the government of the state of Amazonas and the tion of the aril, which is then removed. They are producers to form the Emporio de Guarana, then roasted and their seed coat is removed; this is marketed as "guarana en rama", i.e. raw guar- ana. The remaining seeds are immersed in water The author of this chapter is E. Lleras (CENARGEN/ EMBRAPA, Brasilia, Brazil). to form a paste. From this are made sticks which, 224 Speciesof Paullinia With CC0110/TdC

after being dried over a slow fire and smoked forEcology and phytogeography one month, are marketed. The traditional way ofThe genus PauUinta is predominantly neotropi- preparing the drink consists of grating part of thecal, extending from Mexico and the southern stick in water to produce an infusion. The guara- United States to Argentina. A single species. P. na carbonated drinks industry began in 1907 and pinnata, is found in both America and Africa. the product became Brazil's national drink dur- The soils in which it is found in the native state ing the 1940s. In 1973, the Law on Juices laidare generally gley soils or dystrophic lateritic down regulations for the use of guarana, defining soils. The climate of the region of origin is Am in the maximum and minimum concentrations forKöppen's classification, with an annual precipi- carbonated drinks, syrups and other products. Intation of approximately 2 200 to 2 500 mm. The 1981, EMBRAPA' s Agricultural Research Cen-temperature is isothermal, with an annual mean tre of the Semi-Humid Tropics (CPATU) devel-of 28 to 29°C. oped soluble guarana. Nowadays, guarana is The var. cupana, on the basis of which the marketed as sticks and soluble or insoluble species was described from material collected by powder and is used industrially for the produc- Humboldt in San Fernando de Atabapo, Vene- tion of carbonated drinks, syrups and herbalists'zuela, is known only in the area between the products. south of the Atures and Maipures torrents of the Orinoco River and in the region of the upper Botanical Jescription Negro River and tributaries on the 'frontiers be- Guarana is a scandent shrub or woody liana. Itstween Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela, where it leaves are alternate with five folioles and, whenseems to be relatively common. It is used by the tendrils exist, they are axillary. The inflorescen-natives of the Mapiripán region on the Guaviare ces are on axillar racemes or originate on theRiver in Colombia. The var. sorbilis, or true tendrils. The flowers are male and female, zygo-guarana, seems to have been domesticated in the morphous and have five petals and sepals, eightsouthern strip of the between the stamens and a trilocular ovary with a glandulargorges of the Purtis and Madeira Rivers. ROM semi-disc at the base. The -fruit occurs in a septi- the middle of the last century, it was cultivated in cidal capsule, it is orangey-red and partially open what are now the municipalities of Borba, when ripe, revealing one to three black or green-Mattes, Parintins, Manaus and Itacoatiara, and ish seeds which are covered at the base with a these continue to be the most important centres white aril. The var. cupana differs from the var. for the cultivation and distribution of material for sorbilis in that it has no tendrils, its folioles areother localities. The geographical disjunction more strongly lobed and its flowers and fruit arebetween the two varieties has been attributed to bigger. anthropic factors; according to this hypothesis, Guarana is a monoecious, allogamous species. the species was domesticated in the Maués re- It is fertilized by bees of the genera Melipona and gion from a woody liana which reaches the forest Apis. It is probably dispersed naturally by birds,canopy. Both the plant and the way of eating it although the distances to which it can be dissem- were introduced to the upper Negro River area by inated are not known. Its seeds are recalcitrantthe Barrés (or Barés), who gradually migrated and lose their viability in 72 hours under normal north. Domestication of the species must have conditions. Germination can takemore thanbeen very old to enable the formation ofa new 100 days. variety. According to this hypothesis, thevar. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 225

FIGURE 25

A) Guarana (Paullinia cupana); Al) inflorescences on theraceme; A2) fruit in the capsule; A3) trilocular ovary

-

- e A3 ,ALttee.., A2

7

»ajt

Al 226 Species of Paullinia with economic potential

cupana is a subspontaneous form derived fromsection of the genus. There are nine species of it domesticated guarana. Regarding the existence in Brazilian Amazonia, all with certain morpho- of guarana in the native state, some informationlogical resemblances to P. cupana. The closest available suggests that, even today, the Mattestaxon is P. cuneata, which may belong to the Indians are introducing wild material into theirsame species (P. cupana). This, together with crops in spite of the fact that it has been statedP. yoco, merits special attention for possible im- that guarana is known only in cultivation. Itsprovement programmes. The areas of greatest presence outside the areas mentioned is poorly interest for prospecting are the basin of the Putu- documented. A specimen collected at the Curu- mayo River (P. yoco) and the frontier area be- quete River, on the border between the states oftween Brazil, Peru and Bolivia (the Madre de Amazonas and Acre (Brazil), seems to be Dios river basin), where P. cuneata and a species P. cupana, and there are also reports that it grows which may be a wild form of P. cupana are spontaneously around Santarém in Para. Thefound. Also of great importance is the upper same thing is happening in the case of guarana asNegro River, including considerable portions of has happened with other cultivated species: bot- the Amazonia and Orinoco regions of Colombia anists are ignoring them because they are notand Venezuela. Nowadays, the var. cupana is taxonomically new. considered to be of possible fundamental impor- Paultinia yoco, the other species used as a tance for the improvement of guarana. stimulant, is only known in the wild state and is distributed in a relatively small region along the Cultivation p actices Putumayo River on the frontier between Colom-Traditional cultivation of guarana is carried out bia and Peru. with full exposure to sun on soils with a low fertility (exchange capacity of 20 to 40 ppm), a Genetic diversity low acidity (pH between 3.5 and 4.5) and with There are two varieties of Paullinia cupana. high concentrations of aluminium. Fertilizers are There is no information on the genetic variability not used. Spacing of the plants is approximately of the var. cupana, which is little known and little 4 x 5 which gives 500 plants per hectare. After studied. the second year, pruning is carried out to remove P. cupana var. sorbilis shows a high degree of old and diseased branches and those which 1low- variability. It grows mainly in the planted fieldsered the previous year. Since 1980, a new type of of small producers in the municipalities ofmanagement has been adopted, using the same Maués, Parintins and Borba in the state of Ama-layout but with fertilizers and pruning to direct zonas. EMBRAPA has a valuable collection lo-the branches along supports. According to tech- cated in the experimental field of Maués and anical recommendations, guarana must be grown gene bank with more than 200 accessions inin areas with a climate similar to its region of Belém (CPATU). There is also a working collec- origin, with a mean annual temperature between tion at the C:PAA/EMBRAPA in Manaus, with 22 and 20°C. The minimum temperature toler- over 700 accessions. There appears to be no risk ated is 12°C. Annual precipitation must exceed of genetic erosion, since both the agricultural 1 400 mm, with rain well distributed during the research system and the producers are aware ofyear. Soils must be deep, medium or heavy in the value of the material in their possession. The texture, well drained and with a high organic closest wild species belong to the Pleurotoechusmatter content. Traditional planting is by sow- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 227

ing: the oldest plantations are very heterogene-ual ranges between 250 g (traditional cultiva- ous both from the genetic and the phenotypicaltion) and 520 g (improved management) of dry points of view. Prominent among the more mod- kernel and therefore still leaves much to be de- ern techniques is propagation from cuttings, forsired. In part, this problem is strictly agronomic which misting chambers, grafts and tissue cul-and will be resolved once plantings are carried ture propagation need to be used. out under more favourable conditions. The average production of the harvesting The selection of more productive early materi- phase (1938 to 1970) was 175 tonnes per year,al that is resistant to disease and stressa process with many fluctuations. In the last five years forbegun in Manaus as early as 1980 will be bound which cultivation data are available (1983 to to lead to an increase, in productivity, since indi- 1987), the average was a little over 1 200 tonnes viduals have been identified in experimental and per year, with about a sevenfold increase over thecommercial plantings with yields of between 4 former statistics. Although an extension of theand 6 kg of dry seed per hectare per year. The cultivated area influenced this increase, the riseproduction of hybrids, either through traditional in productivity per hectare also made a substan- methods or using tech- tial contribution, its average almost doublingniques, will also be of great importance, especial- between the first five years of the 1970s and the ly in conjunction with the production of clonal last five years recorded, with averages of 71.5material which allows more uniform treatment and 137.8 kg of seed per hectare, respectively.and management to be achieved. The genetic This increase in production can easily be attribut-basis for these improvement programmes al- ed to the new type of management, since in field ready exists, not only within the available genetic experiments production data were obtained for stock of guarana but also of cupana, and possibly the traditional system (79 kg per hectare) andin other species of Paullinia such as P. yoco and improved system (130 kg per hectare) whichP. cuneata. The potential market for 1983 was were very similar to the averages referred to. estimated to be around 16 000 tonnes and has As may be seen, Brazil's production is increas- increased since that year. The shortfall of guara- ing considerably. Until the mid-1970s, the state na is around 10 to 15 times the currentproduction of Amazonas was the only producer; in the last volume, which still allows a considerable expan- ten years, other states have begun to produce sion of cultivation. guarana, notably Bahia and Mato Grosso. In 1987, Bahia's production exceeded that of the ibliography state of Amazonas for the first time. Aguilera, F.J.P. 1983. Ensaio de polinizacao Outside Brazil, other countries are beginning entoméfila com abelhas sem ferro (Apidae to produce guarana. However, there is little infor- rneliponini) em plantios de guarand. In Anais mation available. In the great majority of cases, do I Simpásio Brasileiro do Guaraná. cultivation is beginning with a very limited ge- UEPAE/Manaus-EMBRAPA. netic base, since Brazil does not authorize theCarvalho, J.E.U., Kato, A.K. & Figueiredo, export of seeds or vegetative material. F.J.C. 1983. Efeito do estado de matura- qdo do fruto sobre a qualidade da semente Prospects for improvement do guaranazeiro. In Anais do 1 SimpOsio Undoubtedly the biggest limitation today is low Brasileiro do Guaraná. UEPAE/Manaus- productivity, since an average yield per individ- EMBRAPA. 228 Species r-Paullinia with economic potential

Correa, M.P.F., Fonseca, C.E.L. & Alvim, gacdo clonal do guaranazeiro. In Anais do I P.T. 1983. Sistemas de cultivo do guaranazei- Simpésio Brasileiro do Guaraná, p. 237-239. ro. In Anais do I Simp6sio Brasileiro do UEPAE/Manaus-EMBRAPA. Guarana, p. 317-324. UEPAE Manaus-Teixeira, S.M. 1983. Estudo do mercado do EMBRAPA. guarand. In Anais do I Simp6sio Brasileiro Correa, M.P.F., Kato, A.K., Escobar, J.E. & do Guaranci, p. 157-177. UEPAE/Manaus- Canto, A.C. 1984. 0 estado atual de conhe- EMBRAPA. cimentos sobre a cultura 'do guarand. In Ana- le,s i Simpésio del Trópico Humedo (Cultivos perennes), 4: 265-280. Belém, Brazil, EMBRAPA/CPATU. Costa, F.G. 1983. Palestra: a inddstria do gua- rand no Amazonas. In Anais do I Simp6sio Brasileiro do Guaraná, p. 93-103. UEPAE/ Manaus-EMBRAPA. Ducke, A. 1937. Diversidade do guarand. Rodri- guesia, 3: 155-156. Escobar, J.R., Correa, M.P.F. & Motta, A.S. 1984. Selecdo de clones de guarand (Paullinia cupana var. sorbilis (Mart.) Ducke) baseada em vigor e adaptacäo ao campo. In Anales I Simp6sio del Trópico Humecta (Cultivos pe- rennes),4:295-304. Belem, Brazil, EMBRAPA/CPATU. Lleras, E. 1983. Consideraçòes sobre a dis- tribuiedo geográfica e taxonomia do guarand (Paullinia cupana var. sorbilis) e taxa afinsna Amazônia. In Anais do I Simp6sio Brasileiro do Guaraná p. 281-292. UEPAE/Manaus- EMBRAPA. Machado, *. 1946. Contribuiedoao estudo das plantas medicinais do Brasil. O guarand. Ro- driguesia, 10(2): 89-110. Maravalhas, N. 1965. Estudos sobreo guarluld e outras plantas produtoras de cafeina. INPA. Pub/. Avul. Quimica, 10: 1-16. Patifio, V.M. 1967. Plantas cultivadasy ani- males domésticos en América equinoccial, Vol. 3. Fibras, Medicina, Miscelanea. Cali, Colombia, Imprenta Departamental. Santos, A.V.P. & Sacramento, C.K.1983. Aplicacao da cultura de tecidosna propa- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 229

,6,11Myra

JA OTICABA Botanical description (Myrciaria spp.) The jaboticaba is a tree of medium habit, not Botanical names:Myrciaria cauliflora exceeding 12 m in height, with a voluminous and Berg.,M. jaboticabaBerg.,M. trunciflora symmetrical crown, one or more trunks and Berg. many branches. The leaves are ovate or lanceo- Myrtaceae late, 5 x 2.5 cm, smooth and shiny. The flowers Common nanzes.English:jaboticaba; occur in short racemes which emerge from the Spanish:jaboticaba;Portuguese:jabotica- trunk, from the ground and on the main branches; tuba sabard, jaboticaba murta, jaboti-catuba, there are four white petals and numerous long jaboticatuba grande, jaboticaba olho-de-boi, stamens. jaboticaba-de-cabinho (Brazil) The fruit is a spherical berry, 2 cm in diameter in the Sabard variety and 3 cm in the Jaboticatu- Among the Myrtaceae, various species of theba. It is grouped in racemes of three to seven, is generaPsidium, Eugenia, Feijoa, Myrciaria,red initially and shiny black whcn ripe. Sabard is Campontanesiaand Paivaea stand out which are the best variety; it produces polyembryonic seeds native .plants of neotropical flora and produce and the majority of the embryos are apomictic, fruit of commercial value. Jaboticaba, which has while Jaboticatuba is monoembryonic with been cultivated in Brazil since pre-Columbian zygotic embryos. During flowering in spring, times and is much in demand in the centre and particularly in areas with dry winters, the tree south of the country, is a promising fruit of thisflowers abundantly with the first rainfall, giving family. It is grown in small commercial gardensthe impression that the trunk is covered with of 500 to 1 000 trees and in domestic gardens. snow.

Uses Ecology anc". k.1[»-:ogeography jaboticaba is eaten fresh and is known on account As a subtropical, deciduous species, jaboticaba is of its outstanding qualities, having an abundance frost-tolerant. In tropical conditions it does not of juice and a .particularly sweet flavour. It is used flower as abundantly as in the areas where the industrially for jellies and to prepare domestic winter is cold and dry. Flowering can be brought liqueurs and wines. It must be consumed imme- forward with irrigation, but the flower buds must diately after harvesting, since it does not keep already be developed. From ten to 20 days elapse well at ambient temperature and lasts no more between flowering and fruiting. Fruiting is very than three days. short and harvesting does not exceed two weeks. The species is distributed from lat. 21°S in the state of Minas Gerais to Rio Grande doSul, at lat. 30°S, always at altitudes higher than 500 m. It The authors of this chapter are D. Giacometti and E. Lleras (CENARGEN/EMBRAPA, Brasilia, Brazil). grows best in groups, on deep, ac;id andfertile 230 Subtropical Myrtaccae

soils. However, there are wild populations whichembryos, with the cultivar Sabará, which is of have withstood the felling of forests in Minasbetter quality but produces smaller fruit could be Gerais, Sdo Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. recommended. As 100 percent of hybrids would be obtained, it would eventually be possible to Genetic diversity obtain selections of jaboticaba bearing large fruit The most widespread species, Myrciaria of better quality. flora, produces apomictic embryos and, for this reason, shows very little genetic variability, while the zygotic species, Jaboticatuba, showsARAZA much variation but is a much rarer plant. Other(Eugenia stipitata) Nlyrciaria species are little known. Botanical name: Eugeniastipitata McVaugh Propagation and cultivation techniques Family: Myrtaceae The preferred method of propagating jaboticaba Common names. English: araza; Spanish: is from the seeds, which are recalcitrant and not arazá (Peru); Portuguese: araçá-boi (Brazil) resistant to desiccation. They are sown 10 cm apart in a fertile seed bed, with 30 cm betweenEugenia stipitata includes two subspecies: stipi- the rows, where they remain .for one year. When tata, from the state of Acre in Brazil, and sororia, they are 10 to 15 cm high, they are transplanted to which is more widely distributed from the basin the nursery with a rootball and spaced 1 ni apart of the Ucayali River in Peru. The latter seems to with 2 m between rows. They stay in the nursery have been semi-domesticated in western Amazo- from three to five years and, when they reachnia, although it may have originated in the south- 1.5 m in height, are planted out in the garden with eastern portion of Amazonia. The arazd must the rootball measuring 60 cm in diameter. The have undergone a long process of selection by the plant's growth is slow. It is planted out at 6 x 6M. Amerindian communities, as can be deduced or 6 x 4 in, and it does not matter if the crowns are from the large size of the fruit which, within the close together. cultivated material, can be as large as 12 cm in Various vegetative propagation techniques are diameter and 740 g in weight, compared with the used to obtain earlier plants, mainly through root wild populations which do not exceed 7 cm in cuttings, layering and grafts. However, the tree's diameter and 30 g in weight. development is always slow. In this species it is The species is still in the full process of domes- advantageous to have the greatest area of trunk-tication. The two institutions which have worked and branches from which the fruit emerges. Since most on this fruit are INIAP's experimental sta- early production delays the pla:nt's development,tion of San Roque in Iquitos, Peru, and INPA in the only advantage of vegetative reproductionManaus, Brazil. would be the possibility of planting at a greater Today, the araza is cultivated on small proper- density, such as 4 x 2 m. ties throughout the basin of the Solimbes (Alto Amazonas), not as a commercial crop but as part Prospects for improvement of the complex mosaic of crops characteristic of There is no advantage in the genetic improve-the traditional agriculture of the region. It is ment of jaboticaba. However, crossing Jabotica-relatively common on the town markets of Tefé, tuba, which produces large fruit and zygotic which is midway between Manaus and Iquitos. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 231

FIGURE 26

A) Jaboticaba (Myrciaria spp.); Al) cross-section of the fruit; B) arazá (Eugeniastipitata) 232 Subtropical Myrtaceac

Uses and nutritional value begins ancl as far as Iquitos (ssp. sororia). The Arazd is used to make juices, soft drinks, ice- camucamu and arazd have sclerophyllous leaves, cream, preserves and desserts. The fruit is rarely which makes them very efficient in absorbing eaten raw because of its acidity (pH 2.4 in the nutrients and utilizing water. case of the juice). Unlike camueamu (Myrciaria It is not surprising that the arazá can produce dubia), more than 20 percent of whose freshbetween 20 and 30 tonnes of -fruit per hectare weight is represented by 2 percent of ascorbicannually without any great selection or improve- acid, araza's potential is due to its intrinsic char-ment effort and that, under cultivation on Ama- acteristics as a 'fruit: pleasant flavour, colour,zonian terraces, it is more productive than the texture and smell. camucamu. The nutritional value of araza is very similar to Although there are no detailed studies on its that of oranges, with the exception of the vitamin reproductive system, on the basis of its floral C content which is more than double in araza. morphology, the species must be allogamous with optional autogamy, since rates of autogamy Botanical description of around 2 percent are recorded. This would The arazá is a shrub or small tree which grows upenable it both to maintain a high evolutionary to 2.5 M, With a fair degree of branching from the potential and have some degree of adaptation to base. The leaves are simple, opposite, elliptical to its environment. slightly oval and measure 6 to 18 x 3.5 to 9.5 cm. The species is harvested several times a year. If The apex is acuminate, the base rounded to sub- a comparison is made of the prod.uction curves of cordate and the primary and secondary nerva-flowers and fruit with precipitation during the tions are fairly evident. The inflorescences are in same period, it will be seen that they coincide axillary racemes, usually with two to .five flowers fairly well with an out-of-phase period of ap- which are 1 cm wide and pedicillate, have fourproximately one month, which suggests that the rounded sepals and five white, oval petals. Therewater conditions serve to promote the phenolog- are numerous stamens and an ovary with three orical processes. four locules. The fruit is a subspherical berry, reaching 12 cm in diameter and weighing 750g Genetic diversity when ripe; the flesh is yellow and thin; the skin is No data are available on the genetic variability of shiny, velvety and yellow, with few seeds whichthe araza. The fact that it shows optional alloga- are oblong and measure up to 2.5 cm. my suggests that it has a high degree of heterozy- The subspecies stipitata has fewer stamensgosity which corresponds to what is expected of and an arboreal habit, whereas the subspeciesthe majority of the species of the region. sororia has a shrub habit and has more stamens. Dispersal over a long distance is probably effected by birds and possibly fruit-bats, with Ecology and phytogeography very variable dispersal distances, thus allowing The araza is a species ofsemi-open or open areas. an exchange of genes between distant popula- Most of the wild populationsare found on old,tions. There is likely to be a bigger difference non-floodable terraces in tropical, white, highly within one and the same population than between leached podzolic soils, whichare distributed spe-populations. However, the fact that two su"bspe- cifically within the area between the Marañóncies exist in relatively restrictedareas suggests and Ucayali Rivers and where the Amazonthat dispersal over a long distance isnot very Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 233

effective and that there are barriers to its distribu- In Amazonia, it is recommended that chemical tion which are difficult to explain from the eco-.fertilizers not be used since their possible effect logical point of view. Genetic variability does not on the environment is unknown. In addition, the seem to be in danger. However, there are onlycost of these applications may make the crop two collections of germplasm: that of San Roque, economically unviable. In fertilization trials, with 50 accessions, and that of INPA, with fivechemical fertilizers liad no influence on fruit accessions. formation (between 20 and 40 percent, average 25 percent) or on the total yield, which justifies Cultivation practices not recommending its use in the region. Seed beds. The seeds are recalcitrant and, after 40 days in cold storage, they lose more than 70Prospects for improvement percent of their viability. Consequently, seed It is difficult to predict the upper limits of araza beds must be established in the first five daysproduction, as itis still in an early phase of after the seeds have been harvested. domestication. The genetic base is not known The seed beds are kept completely in the and knowledge about management practices is so shade; the seed.s are planted 2 cm apart and only limited that itis impossible to make realistic lightly covered, as greater coverings inhibit ger-projections. Undoubtedly, under suitable culti- mination. As a seed bed, partly decomposed soft- vation conditions, its productivity may be some- wood is recommended while the use of earth iswhat higher than at present while its cultivation not advised. Germination is not uniform and in other regions may amply justify chemical fer- may take up to 80 days; in the conditions de- tilization. scribed, the germination rate may reach around There do not appear to be any serious plant 100 percent. health problems. The species suffers heavy at- tack from the fruit fly, which reduces the normal Nurseries. The seedlings are kept in the seed beddensity of plantings if sophisticated biological until they reach a height of 7 to 10 cm. They arecontrol measures are not adopted. then transplanted into 6 to 8 kg polyethylene The success of arazd as a widespread crop will bags filled with a mixture of earth and 10 percentdepend above all on technological developments manure. The plants stay in the bags .for up to onethat facilitate its acceptance on markets outside year; six months in the shade and 6 months inthe region. Any improvement or selection pro- partial shade. gramme will have to involve parameters such as appearance, colour, smell, palatability and resist- Planting out. After one year, the plants are plant- ance of the fruit to transportation and storage. ed out on their final site. In San Roque, distances of 3 x :3 III have been adopted, with holes measur- ing 50 cm deep and 30 to 50 cm in diameter. The FE1JOA soil is mixed with 0.50 kg of manure. It is recom- (Feijoa sellowiana) mended that weeds be eliminated from the plant- Botanical names: Feijoa sellowiana ed arca each month and organic material added O. Berg, F. sello wiana var. rugosa Mattos to the soil. Experimental results on fertilization Family: Myrtaceae suggest that organic fertilizer with manure is Common names: feijoa (throughout the preferable to chemical fertilizers. world); English: feijoa (throughout the 234 Subtropical Myrtaceoe

world), pineapple guava (United States);1 coriaceous and oblong, with a shiny dark-green Spanish: guayabo grande, guayabo chicoupper surface and whitish lower surface. It has (Uruguay); Portuguese: goiaba serrana,axillary uniflorous peduncles. The flowers have goiaba verde, goiaba abacaxf (Brazil) four fleshy, oval petals which are white on the outside and purple on the inside, with four per- The feijoa is a subtropical fruit, known in south- sistent sepals. There are numerous erect purple ern Brazil, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay andstamens. The fruit is oblong or spheroid, 5 to eastern Paraguay since pre-Hispanic times. It has 8 cm long and 3 to 7 cm in diameter. There are been known on the French C6te d'Azur sincesmooth or rough varieties of fruit which are green 1890, when it was introduced through seeds fromand yellow in colour. The feijoa flowers in spring Argentina by Professor Edouard André of theand the fruit ripens in autumn from March to May Versailles School of . In 1990, it was in the Southern Hemisphere and from October to introduced into California, where its cultivation December in the Northern Hemisphere. The ear- has spread. In Uruguay, it has been grown com-ly varieties ripen in March, while the late varie- mercially for 50 years. It is grown and greatlyties do so from April onwards in the Southern val ued in New Zealand. In Brazil, studies and the Hemisphere. selection of varieties have been carried out but it has never attained any commercial importance. Ecology and phytogeography The species is widely distributed in the southern Uses part of South America, from lat. 26°S in southern The fresh fruit is widely consumed because of itsParaná in Brazil, to lat. 35°S in Uruguay, includ- characteristic flavour and aroma, which are sim-ing northeastem Argentina and southern-central ilar to pineapple. The fleshy petals of its beautiful Paraguay. In Brazil there are still wild popula- flowers are also appreciated. In addition, there is tions in forests (gallery) and deforested areas on a wide variety of industrialized products on thesites at altitudes over 500 m, for which reason it market in the form of paste, jam, crystallizedis known as goiaba serrana or "mountain guava". fruits, preserves in syrup and liqueur. The flesh It frequently occurs in the states of Santa Catari- can be used in the soft drinks and ice-cream na and Rio Grande do Sul, in the cima da serra, industries. upper northeastern coast and southwestern serra regions and in Santana do Livramento. At these Botanical description sites, the summer is hot and rainy and the winter The feijoa plant is a shrub or small tree, 3 to 5 nireaches temperatures of 0 to 8°C, sometimes in height and very branching. It has cylindrical dropping to -4°C. trunks which are a reddish ash-grey in colour, with small pieces peeling off from the bark. TheGenetic diversity leaves are opposite, short petiolate, with laminaIt is a cross-pollinated plant and self-sterility is that are 2 to 5 cm long by 1 to 3 cm wide,frequent. However, there are self-fertile selec- tions. When it has been propagated from seed, it displays great genetic variability, both in the wild 'The feijoa is frequently quoted in the literatureas and in gardens. Variability is shown in the form "araçá" but this fruit, also from neotropical flora, belongs to the genus Psidium, including many species,among and habit of the plant and in the characteristics of which the guava. the fruit. In Uruguay, 11 cultivarsare known, Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 235

FIGURE 27 Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana), shapes and cross-sections of the fruit 236 Subtropical Myrtaceae

prominent among these are: Botali, because of its 80 cm in height, they are transplanted into the size the fruit measures 6.5 x 3.8 cm its Garden gt a distance of 6 x 3 ni or 6 x 2 ni, which pronounced flavour and late ripening; and M-4, will give 550 to 850 saplings per hectare. With an which is round, a beautiful reddish yellow colour average production of 1 000 fruits per adult tree and extraordinarily sweet. In Brazil, Santa Elisaand fruits weighing 30 to 60 g, these densities and Campineira have been bred; the first is ofproduce yields ranging from 16 to 50 tonnes per average size, 4.5 x 3.5 cm, smooth, sweet andhectare. flavoursome while the second is ridged and also Feijoa fruit is attractive to fruit flies, mainly oblong. In California, Coolidge, Superb, Choi-Anastrepha sp., particularly in places with high seana, Triumph and Hehre are cultivated. Intemperatures in South America, and Ceratitis France, André and Besson are of excellent capilata in the Mediterranean and in high areas in quality. South America. The fruit is fairly resistant to transportation. Cultivation practices However, for the fresh fruit market it requires Feijoas are propagated from seed, layering, cut-special care from harvesting, packaging and cold ting and grafting. Propagation from seed produc-storage to transportation. In industry it does not es very heterogeneous plants. Consequently, this require such care, and even fruit that has fallen to method is used only in the production of root- the ground can be collected if it is unblemished. stock and in small domestic gardens. The seeds are recalcitrant and are therefore sown as soon as Prospects for improvement they are collected, either in seed beds, using the The green colour of the fruit of most of the known conventional technique, or directly into 30 x varieties is considered a drawback from the mar- 20 cm polyethylene bags. They are transplanted keting point of view because it is not very attrac- into the nursery at a distance of 1 x 0.40 ni until tive. For this reason, yellow and red cultivars are they reach a height of 60 to 80 cm, or are grafted sought. Partial or total self-sterility is another with selected varieties. Layering is a tediousproblem that affects production. There is a need method, used for the production of a small for self-feftile selections and studies on pollinat- number of plants. ing compatibility between varieties. Propagation ftorti semi-ligneous, leaf-bearing, Feijoa cultivation can be expanded through the terminal shoots is very much to be recommend-subtropical regions which do not have harsh win- ed. They must be 10 to 15 cm long, treated withters, but this species needs to be better known, rooting hormones and placed in glass or plastic particularly its characteristics and cultivation frames saturated with moisture. They putout conditions. The availability of germplasmmay roots in 15 to 20 days. The rooted cuttingsare contribute to the expansion of this valuable fruit transferred into 30 x 20 cm polyethylene bags inof neotropical flora. which they remain for one year until they reacha height of 60 to 80 cm, at which stage theyare Bibliography planted in gardens. Anderson, O. & Anderson, V.U. 1988. As Grafting is by a side graft on rootstock existing frutas silvestres brasileiras. Publicaçöes in the nursery or in polyethylene bags.The tech- Globo Rural. nique is known as "Veneer" grafting. When the Berg, 0.C, 1857-59. Myrtaceae. In Florabrasi- young plants from a grafted cutting reach 60to liensis. Martius. C.F.P. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 237

Cavalcante, P.IL. 1988. Frutas cornestíveis da InFlora ilustrada de Santa Catarina. Mirtá- Arnaz6nia. Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, ceas. Itajaí. Brazil, Reitz, R. 4th ed. Souza Cruz, Belem, Brazil. Legrand, C.D. & Klein, R.M. 1978. Mirtdceas. Chavez, W.B. & Clement, C.R. 1984. Conside- In Flora ilustrada catarinense, p. 733-777. raçòes sobre o araçá-boi (Eugenia stipitwa Itajaí, Brazil, Reitz, R. McVaugh, Myrtaceae) na Amazônia brasilei- Mattos, J.R. 1986. A goiabeira serrana. Institu- ra. Anais Congr. Bras. Fruticultura, 7: 167- to de Pesquisa de Recursos Naturais 177. Renováveis. Sec. Agricultura. R.G. Sul. Pu- Clement, C.R. 1991. Frutas de la Amazonia: blicaçöes IPRNR, 19: 84. descuidadas y amenazadas pero todavía re-Pinedo, M., Ramírez, F. & Blasco, M. 1981. cursos potencialmente ricos. Diversity, 7: Notas preliminares sobre el arazd (Eugenia 62-64. stipitata),frutal nativo de la Amazonia perua- Falco, M.A., Chavez, W.B., Ferreira, S.A.N., na. Publicación Miscelánea No. 229. Lima, Clement, C.R., Barros, M.J.B., Brito, IICA. J.M.C. & Santos, T.C.T. 1988. AspectosPopenoe, W. 1934. Manual of tropical and sub- fenológicos e ecológicos do araçá-boi (Eu- tropical fruits. New York, Macmillan. genia stipitatu McVaugh) na Amazônia cen- Roosmalen, M.G.M. 1984. Fruits of the tral. I. Plantas juvenis. Acta Amazónica, 18: Guiana'? flora. The Netherlands, Institute of 27-38. Systematic Botany, Utrecht University. oene, F.C. 1946. Frutas indígenas. Instituto de Tamar°, D. 1964. Tratado de fruticultura, 4th Bothica, Sc. Agrie. Ind. e Com. ed. Barcelona, Spain, Gustavo Gil. Legrand, C.D. & Klein, R.M. 1977. Mirtáceas. Neglected crops: l492 fi-oin a different perspective 239

GuLt arv(uwroot (Cni_ allouia)

Botanical ttame: Calathea allouia (Aubl.) Distributed throughout the world, Guinea Lindl. arrowroot has been well accepted, but has not Family: Marantaceae reached the point of being an important crop Common names.English:Guineaanywhere. arrowroot, root (Caribbean) In Brazilian Amazonia, its increasing aban- topeetampo, topi-tamboo, topinambour; donment seems to have been caused by two main Spanish: dale dale (Peru [Amazonia]), aguafactors: its very long vegetative cycle (ten to 12 bendita, cocurito (Venezuela), lerenes months) and its replacement in the diet of small (Puerto Rico), topitambo or tambu (Westrural producers by other types of food (sweet Indies), topinambur (Antilles); Portuguese: potato, card, yam or other industrialized products arid (Brazil [Amazonia]), ldirem (Brazil);such as wheat biscuits and bread). Even in its French: touple nambours (Santa Lucía);region of origin where its cultivation dates back alléluia, curcuma d'Amérique (France) 1 000 years, Guinea arrowroot is at present used only in subsistence farming by traditional grow- Guinea arrowroot or sweet corn root (Calatheaers and indigenous populations. alleuia) is an oleiferous species which has been The tuberous roots of Guinea arrowroot are known and cultivated for a long time by the eaten cooked and their texture remains crisp even indigenous peoples of tropical America. Itis after long cooking, a characteristic which makes sustaining a loss of genetic variability because its it very palatable. It is cooked in water for 15 to 20 cultivation is increasingly being abandoned. Inminutes and its flavour is similar to that of Brazilian Amazonia up to the end of the 1950s, cooked green maize. As well as being eaten on its Guinea arrowroot was a vegetable cultivated on a own, Guinea arrowroot can be an ingredient of small scale by traditional growers in their vegeta-salads, mayonnaise and fish dishes. ble gardens and the tuberous roots were eaten In South America, the leaf dye is used in cooked, accompanied by coffee. At present, intraditional medicine to treat cystitis and as a communities further away from towns in Ama-diuretic. The fresh leaves are used to make baby zonia it is rare to meet a grower who still keepsclothing, as they are strong and durable. Guinea arrowroot in his garden. For cultural Generally speaking, the prevailing climatic reasons, it is precisely the indigenous popula-conditions in the humid tropicsrelatively high tions who are continuing to grow the species. temperature and humidity throughout the year are unfavourable for the cultivation of vegetables from a temperate or subtropical climate and., at the same time, encourage the development of The authors of this chapter are H. Noda, C.R. Bueno and D.F. Silva Filho (INPA, Manaus, Brazil). pests and phytopathogenic micro-organisms. It is 240 Guinea arrowroot

in this context that the potential of little-known Ecology and phytogeography species should be evaluated. In the plantations ofShade may facilitate the growth of the plants, but INPA in Manaus, no pest attacks or presence ofthe best growth is achieved under cultivation diseases causing significant damage to Guineaconditions with full exposure to sunlight when arrowroot have been found during the last 15 the humidity, nutrients and soil drainage are not years. limiting factors. The cycle from planting to har- The study of agroforestry systems has intensi- vesting lasts nine to 14 months, depending on the fied in recent years. These systems benefit from climatic conditions. Some authors have reported the techniques and plant species used by tradi- that water shortages can reduce the plant's cycle, tional and indigenous growers. They are thought causing a reduction in the production of tubers. to constitute land management methods which VVith introductions from LAbrea and Tefé and are more ecologically suited to the humid tropics. with irrigated cultivation beginning in the rainy Guinea arrowroot is a vegetable which was season, tubers have been harvested after 253 days grown in vegetable gardens for centuries, and in Solimb-es, Brazil. historical evidence has shown the important part Guinea arrowroot requires soils of medium it played in agroforestry systems. texture because very clayey soils impair the de- velopment of the tuberous roots while in sandy Botanical description soils its growth is deficient. Calathea allouia is a perennial species which Guinea arrowroot is distributed geographical- forms clusters of 1 in in height. It has ovoid or ly through Puerto Rico, the Antilles and countries cylindrical, tuberous roots which ar 2 to 8 cmsituated in northern South America (the Guy- long and 2 to 4 cm in diameter. The leaves have anas, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and an enveloping base forming short pseudostems; Brazil)countries in which it is assumed to llave the petioles are long and striated, the leaf blades originated. There are records of Guinea arrow- ellipticalsimilar to those of palmand root's introduction into India, Sri Lanka, Malay- measure 20 to 60 x 5 to 20 cm. The flowers are sia, and the Philippines. white, approximately 2 to 5 cm long, with a and trilocular ovary. Tuberization be- Genetic diversity gins at the end of the fibrous roots. The genus Calathea has wide genetic diversity. The tuberous roots contain 13 to 15 percentOver 100 species have been described, chiefly in starch and 6.6 percent proteins (in the dry mat-tropical America. C. lutea, a species of the same ter). Of the amino acids (the tryptophan contentgenus, known as cauassti, casupo, white leaf or has not been measured), only cystine deficiencybijdo, is a tall shrub of the lower region of Ama- has been noted; this is of no great importance zonia, used to produce wax. Another two species because Guinea arrowroot is not a food in regular of economic interest from the Marantaceae fam- use. There are high levels of all the other aminoily are Ischnosiphon aroma, known as tiriti, the acids, chiefly the essential ones. branches of which are used to make baskets, and In the INPA collection, the plants flower onlyMaranta arundinacea, known as arrowroot or in some 2 percent of the specimens and donot araruta (in Brazil), whose rhizome yields a starch produce viable seeds. Guinea arrowroot isrepro-of high viscosity. duced vegetatively, through rhizomes,on each Although it is cultivated only on a small scale side of which about 20 shootsappear. by some traditional growers and indigenous pop- Neglected crops: 1492 from ci different perspective 241

Guinea arrowroot (Calathea allouia) 242 Guinea arrowroot

ulations, Guinea arrowroot can be found prac-carried out in association with cassava, plantain tically throughout the Amazon region. The tuber-or fruit-trees. In Puerto Rico, it is sown in the ous roots are usually sold at the open fairs andshade of coffee trees. Its association with woody markets of towns such as Manaus, Belem, Porto species is due to the fact that total or partial shade Velho, Santarém, Tefe and Benjamin Constant, is necessary for good vegetative development. in Brazil, and in Iquitos in . After planting, Guinea arrowroot needs little There are no bibliographic records on the use ofcare. In areas infested with phytoparasitic nema- cultivars genetically intended for commercialtodes, Guinea arrowroot shows no symptom of exploitation. In the last 15 years, INPA has car-pest attack. It is antagonistic to the gall nema- ried out research and distributed reproductivetode, Meloidogyne incognita, because of its root material to small farmers as part of its extensionsecretions which impair the larvae's hatching, activities. This material comes from collections penetration and reproduction. gathered within Amazonia. The physical and chemical qualities of the soil Observations made on the basis of researchaffect Guinea arrowroot's productivity. Produc- and collection maintenance programmes suggesttivity of the tuberous roots is quadrupled if they the presence of a certain genetic variabilityare grown on plots treated with organic fertilizers among the different introductions, particularly(fruit and vegetable waste). The right soil for when morphological characteristics and tubergrowing Guinea arrowroot seems to be clayey- size are examined. loam, which retains nutrients and allows good Owing to its status as a crop of limited eco-drainage, although organic matter also needs to nomic importance, Guinea arrowroot has under-be added. gone little research, and bibliographies relating The plants are generally planted with 0.6 m to the species are scant. Genetic resources arebetween rows and 0.45 to 0.80 m apart. In re- maintained practically in situ by traditionalsearch carried out by INPA in Manaus, distances growers and indigenous populations. Mentionof 1 m between rows and 0.50 m between plants should be made of a collection at the USDA'sare being adopted. Observations indicate that Mayaguez Institute of Tropical Agriculture indenser plantings are to be more recommended. Puerto Rico as well as of INPA's efforts aimed at Water supplements are a necessary condition widening the genetic variability of its collectionfor good yields. Low yields are mainly due to through new introductions. drought at the end of the rainy season. By irri- It may be assumed that, at present, genetic gating the plantation in critical periods, a product erosion is high. In the last 30 years, traditional yield of close to 15 tonnes per hectare and with growers have gradually abandoned cultivation ofmore uniform roots has been achieved in Guinea arrowroot. Manaus. The yield from the experimental plantations of Cultivation practices INPA in Manaus has been very variable. Produc- The species is propagated by rhizomes. When the tivity per plant is between 100 and 2 200g. tuberous roots have been harvested, theyare Planting in sandy soil with the addition oforgan- stored in a cool, dry place until theyare trans- ic matter has achieved yields of 936g per plant. planted. Product yields of 10 tonnes per hectare, andon Guinea arrowroot is normallygrown in small small plots of 2 to 12 tonnes per hectare, have areas where subsistence farming is frequently been reported. Neglected crops: 1492 front a different perspective 243

The underground part may be subject to spo-tuberization process which is caused by short radic insect attack. The larvae of coleoptera anddays, whereas rhizome formation is favoured by cause lesions in the rhizomes andlong days. Nocturnal temperatures of 10°Cre- tubers while mite damage has been seen on theduce the plants' general growth and inhibit tuber leaves and causes the plants to die. forrnation. In Puerto Rico, it has been noted that, Tuberous roots in clayey soils can be harvestedwhen the rhizomes are planted during the by simply pulling up the plants. However, theNovember-December period, no dormancy is most usual way is to hoe the soil carefully aroundexhibited, and tuberization is high with sowing in the plant so as to facilitate its removal withoutmid-November and in full sun. Irrigation is an damaging the tuberous roots. After harvesting,important factor in the productive process and these may remain for up to ten weeks in open and must be constant throughout the plant's cycle. ventilated environments. In spite of the markedGuinea arrowroot is a species very sensitive to weight loss 29 percent after ten weeksthe bestsmall water shortages and a greater availability method of storing the tubers is to put them in the of water has the effect of bringing forward and vegetable fibre baskets which farmers use tostimulating growth of the tuberous roots and store roots, tubers and meal, and which are linedencouraging the formation of new rhizomes. on the outside with dry leaves. Storage in special The evolution of Guinea arrowroot has the preservation units reduces weight loss, but seri- exceptional characteristic of being included ously damages the tuberous roots, impairing the within the limits of a traditional agriculture or an characteristics which are considered to be good indigenous agriculture. This aspect of the crop is for marketing. a challenge to the researcher who must carefully choose the most appropriate direction for the Prospects for improvement development of the species. What is its place to Knowledge concerning the genetic improvementbe in the agriculture of the future? It will un- of Guinea arrowroot is still incipient. Its com-doubtedly depend on the evolution of agriculture mercial exploitation is rare and its cultivationitself. It is improbable that its place is in mono- using modern techniques is little developed. Inculture with an intensive use of inputs and with fact, the gradual abandonment of its cultivationhigh yields, and it is probably only a matter of by traditional farmers may lead to an extremetime before it is completely abandoned in that reduction in genetic variability and even to ex- context. The solution for its survival can be found tinction of the species. only within the framework of traditional indige- Basic biological studies that can form the basisnous agriculture. The current renewal of farming for phytotechnical improvements need to be en- activities in fragile and complex environments couraged and new vegetative propagation tech-such as the humid tropics, and more especially niques researched. For example, immersion ofthose of the Amazon region, represents an effort the rhizome in hot water at 48°C for ten minutes of synthesis in which science interprets tradition- before planting increases sprouting by 24 percent al agricultural techniques, reconstructing them at compared with an untreated control. This exper-a higher level. However, this new method of iment shows, furthermore, that too prolonged anmanagement alters the models on which agrofor- immersion also has harmful effects. estry was conceived: self-sustainability, the inte- Other research shows that the photoperiod hasgration in space and time of its component a pronounced influence on the initiation of the elements, the optimization of the use of available 244 Guinea arrowroot

resources and the adaptation of production lathea allouia (Aubl.) Lindl.). Anais do VI agents to ecological processes. Congress° da Sociedade Botanica de sao Guinea arrowroot is a vegetable that is espe- Paulo, p. 75-83. cially recommended for use in agroforestry sys-Bueno, C.R. & Weigel, P. 1981. Brotaedo e tems where its agronomic limitations, considered desenvolvimento inicial de rizomas de arid from the point of view of conventional monocul- (Calathea allouia (Aubl.) Lindl.). Acta ture (for example its shade requirement and its Amazónica, 11(2): 407-410, method of propagation), could be changed into Bueno, C.R. & Weigel, P. 1981. Arid, Calathea advantages. allouia (ALIN.) Lindl. Urna oleffera alternati- va para a regido tropical. Proc.Trop.Reg. Am. Lines of research Soc.Hort. Sci., 25: 77-80. Current research projects will have to examineBueno, C.R. & Weigel, P. 1983. Annazenamen- two aspects: to de tubérculos frescos de arid (Calathea o Genetic resources: the collection of germ- allouia (Aubl.) Acta Amazónica, plasm in all distribution areas in America; 13(1): 7-15. the establishment of at least two gene banks, Kay, D.E. 1973. Root crops. TPI Crop and Prod- one in Central America and the other in ucts Digest 2. London, Tropical Products northern South America; and the carrying Institute. out of origin tests to identify agronomicallyLeón, J. 1968. Fundamentos botánicos c/c los superior genotypes. cultivos tropicales. San José, Costa Rica, The development of production plans and IICA, OEA. research on agroforestry systems. Martin, F.W. & Cabanillas, E. 1976. Leren Production plans must be devised for Guinea (Calathea allouia), a little known tuberous arrowroot in order to define the desired biotypes root crop of the Caribbean. Econ. Bot., 30: in the genetic improvement programmes. 249-256. National Academy of Science. 1975. Under- Bibliography evloited tropical plants with promisingeco- Bueno, C.R. 1981. Contribuigdo ao controle de nomic value. Washington, DC. Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White,Noda, H., Bueno, C.R. & Silva Filho, D.F. 1919) Chitwood, 1949 (Nematoda: Heterode- 1991. Genetic erosion threatens native Ama- ridae), raea fisiológica IV, com utilizaçdo de zonian vegetable crops. Diversity, 7: 62-63. arid (Calathea allouia (Aubl.) Lindl.). Ma-Noda, H., Paiva, W.O. & Bueno, C.R. 1984. naus, Brazil, CNPq/INPA/Universidade do Hortalips da Amazônia. Ciência LI*, 3(13): Amazonas. (thesis) 32-37. Bueno, C.R. 1989. Controle ambientale açdo de Pahlen, A., Kerr, W.E., Noda, H. & Bueno, reguladores de crescimento no desenvolvi- C.R. 1979. Melhoramento de hortalipsna mento de plantas de arid (Calathea allouia Amazônia. Ciência e Cultura, 31(1): 17-24. (Aubl.) Lindl.). Universidade Estadual de Campinas. (thesis) Bueno, C.R. & Pereira, M.F.A. 1986. Efeitos do fotoperiodo e reguladores de crescimento no desenvolvimento de plantas de arid (Ca- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 245

(lltx pa guariensis)

Botanical name: 1/ex paraguariensis A. St- may be said that this type of laborious and uneco- Hil. var. paraguariensis nomical forest management extended up to the Family: Aquifoliaceae first decades of the twentieth century, in spite of Common names. English: maté, Brazilianmaté planting having been renewed in Nueva tea, Paraguay tea; Guarani: ka'a; Kaingan- Germania, Paraguay and in Santa Ana, Argenti- gue: kong6ft Spanish: , té de los na, in 1897. jesuitas; Portuguese: congonha, erva maté Although very much reduced, maté production did not disappear with the Jesuit plantations. Maté, with a very restricted distribution outside During the remainder of the colonial period, the America, is a tree that produces a raw material foruse of this herb, which had spread extensively, industrialization and consumption as a stimulat- persisted even in the region of the Viceroyalty of ing infusion. So far, this has been the main use ofPeru, where there was another methyl xanthine this somewhat overlooked crop. stimulant of the same genus: 1/ex guayusa Loes. Although no archaeological remains haveemend. Shemluck, also marketed by the Jesuits been found that show that it was used in pre- from that region in Quito. Columbian times, it is assumed that it was the It has been established that trade in mate was Guarani Indians who taught the Spanish how to not interrupted and that it was commonly used in use it. However, what seems to be an indirect what is now Peru and Ecuador. However, follow- consequence of the discovery is the fact that theing the independence of the Spanish colonies and first people to have cultivated this species were the adoption of free trade, English tea began to be the Jesuit missionaries who, around 1670, al- introduced into those countries and so maté grad- ready had artificial maté plantations. In time, the ually lost the markets of those Andean countries. settlements of Guarani Indians converted to The decline and complete disappearance of the Christianity were to become economically de-maté plantations in the settlements of Christian- pendent on mate production. ized Indians (which ended around 1820 after a The expulsion of the Jesuits from the Spanish series of wars waged in the region between the dominions (1767) was a step backwards in the Spanish and Portuguese Crowns, followed by the history of maté. There was a return to the foreststruggles for independence) and the policy of exploitation method which utilized the naturalisolation and control of international trade main- maté plantations exclusively and inadequately. It tained by the first governor of independent Paraguay meant that, in the 1820s, Brazil began commercial exploitation of its natural maté The author of this chapter is G.C. Giberti (Centre of plantations. Pharmacological and Botanical Studies, Buenos Aires, Argentina). The most accessible plantations were situated 246 Maté

in the vicinity of Curitiba, Paraná, and as theymate, are usually modified with sugar (sweet were slowly exhausted they were gradually re-maté), milk or aromatic herbs. Other methods of placed by the others located towards the west. consumption are boiled mate, tereré (mate pre- The Brazilian product, which then began topared with cold water, common in Paraguay and spread on the markets as "Paranaguá maté", wasnortheastem Argentina), liqueurs prepared with considered to be of inferior quality to that frommate, ice-creams, desserts, etc. The industry also Paraguay. However, in the course of time it re-produces compound maté (which contains aro- placed the Paraguayan product, a developmentmatic and/or medicinal herbs), soluble maté and which became more marked after the war of the mate teabags. Triple Alliance (1870). The aqueous infusion of mate owes its stimu- At the end of the nineteenth century, the limi-lant properties to the caffeine content (between tations of the exhaustive exploitation of this for- 1 and 2 percent) so that, 60 minutes after con- estry resource stimulated efforts to produce largesuming mate, an average of 80 to 120 mg of plantations of I. paraguariensis once again. this pseudoalkaloid is consumed. Its nutritional Eventually, these efforts were successful, espe- qualities are due to its content of vitamins A, C cially in Argentina. and B complex and the existence of minerals (P, At the same time as the increase in Argentinian Ca and Fe). mate production, the extraordinary expansion of Argentina, the main producer and consumer, the agricultural frontiers in traditional mate-grows around 130 000 ha of mate in the northeast growing states of southern Brazil (Paraná, Santaof the country (Misiones and Corrientes), which Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, Mato Grosso doproduce about 140 000 tonnes per year. Brazil is Sul) took place. Regrettably, the disappearancethe world's second producer, followed by Para- of enormous areas of natural forests in thoseguay. For the Argentinan province of Misiones, states jeopardized the conservation of mate'smate cultivation represents an important part of genetic richness. the country's GDP. The complicated economic history of this crop (barely sketched out here) which is characterizedBotanical description by periods of scarcity alternating with periods ofThe mate is a dioecious evergreen tree which excessive demand, the sporadic but real exist- grows up to 18 in in height. The leaves are alter- ence of periods during which it was adulteratednate, coriaceous and obovate with a sen-ate mar- with other plants and the most common methodgin and obtuse apex. The inflorescences are in of preparation maté sucked through a smallcorymboid fascicles, the male ones in a dichasi- tubeconsidered by many to be unhygienic, hadum with three to 11 flowers, the female ones with a bearing on the limited spread of maté outsideone or three flowers. The flowers are small, and southern South America. simple, number four or five and have a whitish Its main use is in infusions prepared as tea withcorolla. The fruit is in a nucule; there are four or leaves and dried stems which have been industri- five single seed pyrenes (propagules). ally shredded. Generally speaking, it is drunk by Mate flowers in the spring (from October to filling small gourds (maté gourds or cuias) withNovember), has entomophilous pollination (dip- mate, to which boiling water is gradually added, tera, ) and fruits from March to the liquid being sucked up through a metal tube June; dissemination is endozoic (birds). There is (the bombilla). Infusions of cimarrón,or bittera rudimentary embryo in many externally ripe Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 247

FIGURE 29

A) Mate (1/ex paraguariensis); Al) inflorescence; A2) flower; A3) fruit;A4) gourd and tube for consunning the infusion

A4 248 Maté

FIGURE 30 Distribution area of Ilex paraguariensis var. paraguariensis and var. vestita

.11.11111E112111171. 60 55 50 45 40

/ 15 15

' s 1 i 1 A ; BOLIVIA R Z

20 20 " , PARAGUAY ,-!<1

2 25

ARGENTINA

30 - o 30 Area of Ilex para guariensis var. paraguariensis URUGUAY4// Area of Ilex paraguariensis St-Hil var. paraguariensis and 1/ex paraguariensis 35 St-Hil. var. vestita (Reisseck) Loes 35 60 55 50 5 40 35

seeds which causes a long period of germination22°C. The absolute minimum temperature that from the time of sowing. this species is able to tolerate is -6°C, even though winter snows are frequent on the plateaus Ecology and phytogeography and mountain regions to the south of Brazil and Prominent among the ecological requirements ofeast of Misiones. this subtropical species are climatic conditions, It requires lateritic, acid (pH between 5.8 and especially mean annual precipitation and an even6.8) soils that are of medium to fine texture. distribution of rainfall throughout the year. This Figure 30 shows the natural distribution of must not be less than 1 200 mm annually and,I. paraguariensis. The area of economic cultiva- during the driest quarterwhich in the region istion of mate coincides approximately with the winterthe minimum must be 250 mm. I. para- main dispersion area of the var. paraguariensis. guariensis' wild distribution area is always unaf- fected by water shortages. The mean annualGenetic diversity temperature of the area is approximately 21 toThere is still no exhaustive modem picture that Neglected crops: 1492 from u different perspective 249

explains in biological terms the infraspecific var- Outside the natural area of distribution and iability of this species, which is widely dispersed production of maté, in northwestern Argentina geographically in South America. Up to the and southeastern Bolivia, 1/ex argentina Lillo,a present, taking as a basis the morphological char- related species that is known not to accumulate acteristics alone, at least two varieties are recog- caffeine but theobromine, has been used to pre- nized: I. paraguariensis A. var. pare mate. It is a tree characteristic of the area of paraguctriensis (cultivated mate, almost com-transition between the forests of Myrtaceae and pletely glabrous) and I. para guariensis var.ves- alder (Alma spp.) of the phytogeographical tita (Reisseck) Loes. (not acceptable forprovince of the yungas. industrialization, of dense pubescence). Both varieties coexist in limited areas of Brazil. Known cultivars of I. paraguariensis. The in- The wild species closest to I. paraguariensisfraspecific classification of J. paraguariensis is belong to the subgenus euilex Loes., subsectionstill under study. Consequently, the correspond- repandae Loes. Only I. cognata Reisseck lives inence between the biological varieties and the the distribution area of maté. I. cognata is very horticultural varieties of genuine mate is not little known; its vernacular name is chá do matoclear. Following is a list of some of the varieties and it is used to adulterate mate. recognized as such by growers in the three coun- A number of wild species of 1/ex are sympatrictries: Erva de talo roxo, Erva de talo branco, Erva with genuine mate and have been, or are, used to piriquita (Brazil); Cad verá, Cad manduví, Cad manufacture the product although, up to the panambi, Cad cuatí, Cad ñú, Cad eté, Cad mi, Caa present and according to the legislation in force, chacra, Cad-je-he-ni (Paraguay); Yerba colo- they are to be considered adulterations. Of those rada, Yerba señorita, Cad minf (Argentina). most frequently referred to, the following de- INTA in Argentina recently began to distribute serve mention: 1/ex affinis Gardner (the ca' aseed.s of clones and selected clonal progeny chirí or congonha of Goyaz, a species abundantwhich, following comparative trials, demonstrat- in central Brazil and northeastern Paraguay); ed their superiority. I. duntosa Reisseck var. guaranina Loes. (yerba In wild South American Ilex species and in the señorita, aperea ka' a, cauna, cad chiri), native mate-growing region, the risks of genetic erosion to Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil, the producerare high because the natural forest is gradually of a bitter-tasting mate and supposedly cultivated giving way to agroforestry and livestock produc- in Misiones by the Jesuits to produce their fa- tion, a process accentuated by the relatively low mous "cad miní" mate; I. theezans, C. Martius ex germinating capacity of many species (especially Reisseck (cauna de folhas largas, ca'a na, con-that of mate). As no suitable method has yet been gonha), a good substitute for I. paraguariensis,discovered for maintaining the germinating ca- found in Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil. I. bre- pacity of I. paraguariensis for prolonged peri- vicuspis Reisseck, known as cauna or voadeira, ods, there are no seed banks of the species. like the previous species, is a faithful companion Nevertheless, at the Cerro Azul de Misiones of I. paraguariensis in plant communities char-experimental agricultural station in Argentina, a acteristic of the region where Araucaria ismate clonal garden began to be developed in also prominent but the product obtained 1976, complemented by the nursery started in from its experimental industrialization is of 1986 with I. paraguariensis of various origins low quality. and with other species of 1/ex. 250 Maté

Cultivation practices fairly widespread) to a density of 2 500 or 4 000 In the wide and varied economic production areaplants per hectare, production can increase from of maté, the practices for the cultivation or ex-around 1 000 to 1 800 kg to 2 100 to 3 300 kg ploitation of natural maté vary considerably in per hectare. their technical aspects, resulting in different The corte mesa system not only increases the yields per hectare. yield but is also better suited to mechanical har- Three methods of production can be distin- vesting. guished which are ananged here in increasing Yields are improved by: planting following order of importance reflecting the use of tech-contours; the use of natural or introduced cover niques and their yields: (rape, legumes, etc.); fertilization (NPK); weed Extractive exploitation of the natural forest.control (mechanical and/or using herbicides); Here the richness of natural maté plantations issuitable phytosanitary treatments; and rational utilized. Harvesting is not mechanized and theharvesting. The relevant experiments have been pruning system is generally incorrect. This formgoing on for some years but, regrettably, their of production is diffused mainly in Brazil. results have not become generalized. The intro- Mixed system or system for the enrichment ofduction into cultivation of improved cultivars is the natural.forest. This consists of increasing themuch less widespread. number of natural plantations and reconstituting those that have been lost. In Brazil, where thisConventional propagation techniques. Sexual method is most commonly practised, it is calledpropagation ("seeds" = pyrenes). This is the densifying the maté plantation. Since, generallymost common reproduction technique. In the speaking, this technique is accompanied by oth-case of maté, the advantage of sexual propaga- ers that increase the yield, such as cultivation tion lies in the fact that the variability in descend- care and improved pruning methods, the higherants may give rise to individuals better suited to production cost is compensated for. different environments (which on other occa- Cultivated maté plantations. This is undoubt- sions may not be desired). edly the best system, and came into general use in The seeds are harvested in the region (from Argentina around 1915. In spite of higher costs,February to April). They must be stratified or the yield per hectare greatly increases. Comple- sown immediately, otherwise they quickly lose mented by measures such as improvement in thetheir viability. layout of plantations (which have evolved from Stored at 5°C, they maintain a very reduced trees planted in quincunxes, with spaced outgerminating capacity (1.7 to 6.6 percent) for a plants used by Jesuits, to cultivation followingfurther 11 months. The relatively short period of contour lines, with a high density per hectare and viability together with the low germination rate use of the corte mesa pruning and plant manage-(immature embryos, phytosanitary problems) ment system), with well-timed pnming, cultiva- have undoubtedly been the cause of the difficul- tion work and harvesting, this system enabledties in its cultivation spreading to other conti- Argentinian production to exceed that of Brazil, nents in the past. in spite of the former being carriedout in a very Agamic reproduction. Grafting, propagation reduced area and even outside the environmentsby cuttings and layering are notvery widespread. most suited for mate. For example, rising froma It is relatively difficult to obtain rooted cuttings density of 1 000 to 1 500 plantsper hectare (still and this is generally achieved by usingyoung Neglected crops:1492from a different perspective 251

branches from the stools, irrespective of whetherlata, a North American species, could bea source plant hormone treatment is used. Additionalex- of biodegradable detergents because of its high periments are necessary if the intention isto saponin content. Since research regarding simi- increase the rooting percentage. lar subjects is being continuedon I. para guarien- In vitro cultivation of /. para guariensis is be-sis and, furthermore, since other related species ing tried out in Brazil and Argentina by various are studied even less than mate from the chemical research groups, with varying results which still point of view, it would be advantageous togo do not clearly indicate which are the economical- into these aspects more deeply. ly viable techniques for the clonal reproduction 1/ex argentina is also a possible caffeine-free of selected individuals. maté and is, moreover, remarkable for its rich- According to the Under-Secretariat for Agri-ness in liver-protecting phenolics similar to those culture and Livestock, in Argentina in 1988, the in artichokes (Cynara scolymus). average yield of semi-processed mate was There are also reports of a range of non-tradi- 1 220 kg per hectare. tional uses for I. para guariensis, for instance as a source of edible oils, furfural and cosmetics. Prospects for improvement Finally, the importance of the wild 1/ex species The limitations of cultivation are due to the fact in genetic improvement of the crop should be that there is no demand for the product on amentioned. macroeconomic scale. The recurrent cycles of surplus supply, low prices, disinvestment in Lines of research plantations, scarcity of raw materials, high prices Botanical: Infraspecific variability of I. par- very often linked with international trading aguariensis and how it is related to other terms between producer countries, which result species of the genus; an updated chorology; in a greater distortionhave historically acted crossing systems of I. para guariensis and against a stable supply of the product in terms of other species of 1/ex; inheritance of sex. quality and quantity. Even worse, they have dis- Physiology of the seed and micropropaga- couraged the continuation of basic and/or applied tion methods. research, which cultivation and processing re- Plant chemistry: Cycle of the xanthines in quire. The partial or total absence of knowledge the species and its relatives; toxic and unde- concerning mate biology, plant chemistry, die- sirable compounds of allied species; analyt- tetics, agronomics and industrialization have ical determination of the infusion's flavour made it difficult to adopt international standards components. which would lay down norms for the quality of Updating, from the food point of view and the product and improve and guarantee it over with relation to allied species. time, depending on its distribution to the major Architecture of the individual of I. para- international markets for the production of me- guariensis and of allied species; phenology thyl xanthine infusions. and adaptation of these trees to mechanical Potential areas for the introduction of this crop harvesting. are subtropical regions with acid soils and a Industrialization: Improvements in the water supply similar to those of the species' drying and accelerated seasoning systems natural area of dispersal. without organoleptic losses; alternative in- It has recently been suggested that 1/ex verticil- dustries with cultivation by-products. 252 Maté

New ways of consuming and presenting the do Uruguai,I.Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Ministry product. of Education and Health. Prat Kricun, S.D. et al. 1986.Yerba mate: in- Bibliography forme de investigaciones realizadas.Período Abbott, T.P. et al. 1990. Major extractable com- 84-85. Misiones, Convenio INTA-CRYM y ponents inAsclepias linaria(Asclepiadaceae) CRYM-Asoc. Coop. EEA. and 1/exverticillata(Aquifoliaceae), two po-Schultes, R.E. 1979. Discovery of an ancient tential hydrocarbon crops. EC011.Bot.,44(2): guayusa plantation in Colombia. Harvard 278-284. University,Botanical Museum Leaflets, Filip, R. et al.1989. Estudio de compuestos 27(5-6): 143-153. presentes en //exargentina Lino(Aquifo- liaceae).Anal. Asoc. Quint. Argent.,77(4): 293-297. Fontana, H.P. et al. 1990.Estudios sobre germinación y conservación de semillas de yerba mate(Ilex paraguariensisSt. Hil .).In- for. Técn., 52: 14. Estación Exper. Agrop. Cerro Azul, INTA. Giberti, G.C. 1989. Los parientes silvestres de la yerba mate y el problema de su adulteración. Dominguezia, 7(1):3-21. Gómez Vara, M.E. et al. 1980.Investigaciones sobre la tecnología de la yerba mate. Informe, 4: 226. APRYMA. Grondona, E.M. 1953. Historia de la yerba mate.Rev. Argent. Agron.,20(2): 68-95. Grundona, E.M. 1954. Historia de la yerba mate, II. Sinonimia, cariología y distribución geográfica.Rev. Argent. Agron.,21(1): 9-24. Linhares, T. 1969.Hist6ria econ6mica do mate. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Editôra Livraria José Olympio. Loesener, T. 1901. Monographia Aquifo-

liacearum, I.Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop.- Carol. German. Nat. Cur.,78: VIII + 600. Luesener, T. 1942/60. Aquifoliaceae.In FI. Harrns & Mattfeld, eds.Nat. pflanzen 2nd ed., p. 36-86. Berlin. Martínez-Crovetto, R. 1980. Yerbamate: usos no tradicionales y posibilidades.Participar, 2(12): 58-61. Porto, A. 1943.Hist6ria das Miss6es orientais Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 253

Taronria5,fiILit[iE if obriiRSUiif(itìIÎLIfl)

Botanical name: Xanthosoma sagittifolium of consumption of the young leaves, similar to (L.) Schott spinach, and thisis more common with Family: Araceae X. sagittifoliuni than in the case of the . Common names. English: tannia, tania; Cultivation of tannia or yautia must be very old yautia, new cocoyam tanier; Spanish: in the New World. It may have originated in the yautfa, malanga (Antilles), macal (Mexiconorthern part of South America and spread [Yucatán]), quiscamote (Honduras), through the Antilles and Mesoamerica. When the tiquisque (Costa Rica), ot6 (Panama),Europeans arrived it was known from southern okumo (Venezuela), uncucha (Peru), Mexico to Bolivia, but was possibly more inten- gualuza (Bolivia), malangay (Colombia); sive in the Antilles. Domestication may have Portuguese: taioba, mangareto, mangarito, occurred in various places and with different mangarás (Brazil); French: chou Caribe materials, and was based on processes such as (Antilles); other languages: queiquexqueroasting and cooking the tubers, thereby elimi- (Mexico), tannia, taniera (Antilles) nating the irritant substances, calcium oxalate crystals and saponins. Two Araceae are attaining world importance as From America, the tannia or yautia reached energy foods: the cocoyam, taro or dasheen , which is now the major producer. (Colocasia esculenta), originating from Oceania There, it has been displacing the cocoyam or taro and Southeast Asia, and the tannia, yautia or new because of its better yield and because it can cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) from the replace yams for preparing , a very popular American tropics. The usable parts in both spe- food in tropical Africa. cies are the subterranean tuberous stems which, The tannia has traditionally been a subsistence in the case of the latter, contain between 15 and crop and any produce which is not consumed by 39 percent of carbohydrates, 2 to 3 percent of producers' families goes to the market. This ex- protein and 70 to 77 percent of water; both have plains its marginalization because, even though it a nutritional value comparable to the potato andis a staple for millions of people in the tropics, are probably easier to digest. A secondary use islittle inforination is available on its cultivation and requirements. This situation is changing with the opening of new areas of consumption, especially on the The authors of this chapter are D.C.Giacometti (CENARGEN/EMBRAPA, Brasilia, Brazil) and J. León Atlantic coast of the United States, where mil- (San José, Costa Rica). The authors thank R. Valverde lions of Latin Americans consume tannia and (CIGRAS, University of Costa Rica) for his reports on other tropical crops, a fact which has promoted recent developments in the vegetative propagation of Xanthosoma sp. commercial production in the Antilles and Cen- 254 Tannia,yautia

tral America. This market, which requires high-than the spathe, with female flowers on the lower quality and well-presented products, determines portion, male flowers on the upper portion and the rules on production and marketing. sterile flowers in the middle portion. The spadi- As in the case of other neglected crops, thereces are rarely fertile and produce few viable have been very few efforts to industrialize andseeds. The growth cycle lasts from nine to diversify the product. In Puerto Rico, tests have 11 months: during the first six months the corms begun with very satisfactory results for makingand leaves develop; in the last four months, the crisps using instant dehydration and tannia flour. foliage remains stable and, when it begins to Considering that a very varied industrial produc- dry, the plants are ready for the cormels to be tion has been built up using tannia, it may be harvested. predicted that, with the application of technolo- gy, tannia can be used to make a series of indus- Ecology and phytogeography trial products similar to those obtained from theThe Xanthosoma species are plants of the tropi- cocoyam or taro. cal rain forest and, although in their natural hab- Production in the family or commercial under-itat they grow under the forest canopy, under taking must be considered in the context of the cultivation they are usually sown with full expo- production of other energy foods in the same sure to sunlight. They require well-drained soils region: cassava, potato, sweet potato and yam.and do not tolerate the permanent presence of On most of the Latin American markets, thewater. The mean temperature for their optimum tannia is valued as a superior species because ofgrowth must exceed 20°C. its flavour and texture. Surveys carried out in Puerto Rico show thatGenetic diversity the rural population prefers the tannia to theThe taxonomic position of the Xanthosoma spe- sweet potato, yam and green plantain because ofcies cultivated for their underground sterns is its flavour and that, in the Philippines, it is pre- unclear. The cultivated varieties have been allo- ferred to the cocoyam or taro. Production doescated to four species: X. atrovirens, X. caracu, not meet demand: in Venezuela in 1970, 56 305 X. nigrum (X. violaceum) and X. .sagittifolium, tonnes were marketed, a figure which is belowbut some cultivars are not assignable to any of potential consumption levels. these. Furthermore, the characteristics distin- guishing species and cultivarsleaf shape, ner- Botanical description vation, petiole colourare not clearly defined. In A herbaceous perennial, Xanthosoma sagittifo- one related species, the cocoyam, with a possibly lium has a corm or main underground stem in thewider variation, all the clones are consideredas a form of a rhizome from which swollen secondarysingle species. In Xanthosoma spp. and the co- shoots, or cormels, sprout. Several large leavescoyam, the great diversity known (more than 100 also sprout from the main stem, whichare clones in the case of the cocoyam) may be due to sagittate and erect with long, ribbed petioles;certain segregations (in the cocoyam and Xan- inflorescences sprout between the leaves ina thosoma spp. seed -formation is very rare)or spadix, with a white 12 to 15 cm spathe which mutations of the leaf bud. In both cases,growers closes at its base in the form ofa sphericalwho detect a new variant maintain its cultivation chamber and opens at the top intoa concaveand reproduce it by vegetative propagation. In lamina; the spadix is cylindrical, slightly longerrecent years, the tendency has been to give the Neglected crops: 1492 froni a different perspective 255

FIGURE 31 Tannia, yautia or new cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) 256 Tannia, yainia

name of X. sagittifolium, which applies predom- compensates for the cost of sowing. Elimination inantly to all cultivated clones of Xanthosoma, of the malanga (tannia) virus is so far the most until a modern revision of the genus clarifies the remunerative control operation in tannia cultiva- taxonomic situation of the species mentioned. tion. Xanthosonia cultivars have been described on The system consists of producing plantlets in the basis of collections established in Puerto Ricopublic or private laboratories, which supply them and Trinidad and Tobago, with indigenous or to growers or cooperatives capable of developing introduced materials, and do not exceed 50 inthem under the special conditions required. number. They display a wide diversity of habit,These plants provide traditional "seed", i.e. por- leaf shape and colour and cormels. As experi-tions of stems or whole cormels which are sold to mental crops show, there are wide variations in growers as virus-free planting material. yields and the same may be said of the carbohy- drate and amino acid content. Planting. The ground for planting is ploughed There is an urgent need to establish live and in and raked and mounds or ridges are formed for vitro collections at world level that enable genet- planting the seed. Planting is done in ridges when ic potential to be evaluated as regards cun-entharvesting is semi-mechanized. The portions of needs and problems. This means collecting the the con m are placed at a depth of 6 to 7 cm since, known cultivars, both in the New World and in if planted closer to the surface, they produce Africa, and exploring the northern part of South numerous side shoots which reduce yield. The America in search of possible wild forms andplanting distance in commercial cultivation is primitive cultivars as well as related species1.3 m between rows and 40 to 50 cm between (such as X. jacquinii). In vitro cultivation now plants. In small plantations, they are planted in enables healthy and easily transportable propa-mounds spaced at 1 x 1 or 1.3 x 1.3 m. In Nigeria, gation material to be obtained. Cytological stud- the best results were obtained with distances of ies of a world collection may lead, as in the case 1.6 x 1.6 in on plots where cormels were planted. of the cocoyam, to the establishment of natural groups of cultivars and may also serve as a basisCultivation. The first six months is a critical for genetic improvement. The IBPGR recentlyperiod for weed control. Backed up by the appli- published a list of descriptors of Xanthosoma. cation of pre-emergence herbicides, preparation of the ground for planting (ploughing and raking) Cultivation practices helps considerably in controlling weeds. As the Propagation. The planting material most com-plants need to be earthed up several times, this monly used are portions of the central corm, from contributes to keeping the soil clean. 100 to 150 g, with three or four buds. They give The use of chemical and organic fertilizers is greater yields than the cormels which are also widespread both in small and commercial planta- sometimes used. tions. In the latter, several dressings of fertilizer In Costa Rica, a system has been developed forare applied; for example, the recommendations supplying growers with "seed" originating fromin Costa Rica are 150 kg per hectare of 10-30-10 virus-free cultivations of stem tips grown in vit- at the time of sowing, 200 kg of Nutrán after two ro. With this material, not only is the yield quad- months and 200 kg per hectare of 15-3-30 after rupled but the exportable portion of the harvest four months. increases from 40 to 80 percent, which amply The most serious problem at present is "dry Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 257

disease", a complex produced by fungi (Rhizoc-come earned by the grower is very substantial. tonia, Phytium) and bacteria (Erwinia, Pseu- The wide genetic diversity must be exploited domona,$)which attack the young plants, causingboth directly by the evaluation of cultivarsre- leaf wilt and tuber rot and resulting in thecom- garding their resistance to disease, yield and plete loss of the harvest. Disease control is diffi- nutritional value, and by genetic improvement cult and a complete investigation of the problem (which has barely begun). The aim should be to is therefore needed. For the time being, draining achieve a production of 30 tonnes per hectare the soil, planting in ridges and crop rotation arewith a 10 percent protein content. recommended. The industrial utilization of tannia has only just begun and it may be expected to be as varied as Harvestittg. In commercial plantations, harvest- that of the cocoyam or taro, being used in foods ing is carried out ten to 12 months after planting, prepared for children, flour, crisps, etc. when the leaves have turned yellow and are The main limitations to the development of beginning to dry. The crop is harvested by handtannia as a crop are diseases, particularly "dry or by a semi-mechanized method. In the latterdisease". This problem, which is complex, must case, the tractor has an iron plate as wide as itselfreceive immediate attention, attacking it from the attached to it, with a central point which digs into phytosanitary and agronomic angles. the row of plants, turns them over, and leaves the The tannia, like 'few neglected crops, is a spe- central stem and cormels free; these are subse-cial case (there is no exchange of information or quently collected by hand. germplasm between the producing areas) be- The commercial product is washed, dried andcause of the range of its cultivation, which al- disinfected carefully before being placed in box-ready extends over all tropical regions. When it es in cold-storage rooms. becomes intensified in a region, the progress In small plantations, harvesting of the cormelsrecorded does not spread far for geographical or begins four to six months after planting and is linguistic reasons. done without uprooting the plant. This situation must be corrected by the estab- lishment of a centralized information system Prospects for improvement such as the cooperatives for tomato, gourd and Tannia production could be considerably im- cultivation, to which all interested proved, both as a subsistence food and as a countries and agronomists have access. This may product for commercial export and industrial lead to the exchange of germplasm in vitro, visits use. As in the case of most neglected crops, no from scientists and farmers who may pass on as research has yet been carried out on the most yet unpublished experiences and the use of other elementary aspects, because no new technolo- means of communication which serve to notify gies have been disseminated and because of the progress achieved locally. shortage of marketing systems nationally and The future of the tannia, a food of exceptional internationally. value because of its organoleptic characteristics The role of the tannia in sustainable farmingand nutritional properties, lies in a widening of systems must be carefully studied, particularly in export markets, the application of technology to mixed plantations. Although under these condi- diversify its use and the promotion of more inten- tions it is interspersed with taller crops whichsive consumption in people's diets in tropical shade it and reduce its yield, the additional in-regions. 258 Tannia, yautia

Bibliography Jordan, F.L. 1979. Preliminary work with tanier Abruiia, R.F., Boneta, G.E.G., Vicente- (Xanthosoma spp.) in Puerto Rico. J. Agric. Chandler, J. & Silva, S. 1967. Experiments Univ. Puerto Rico, 63: 469-473. on tanier production with conservation inMonge, M., Arias, O. & Ramírez, P. 1987. Puerto Rico's mountain region. J. Agrie. Obtención de plantas de tiquisque blanco Univ. Puerto Rico, 51: 167-175. (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), de tiquisque mo- Acosta, M.A. 1969. Identificación y descripción rado (Xanthosoma violaceum) y de fiampi de las variedades de yautía (Xanthosoma) en (Colocasia esculenta) libre de virus por me- la colección de la subestacién en Gurabo. dio del cultivo in vitro de ápices. Agron. Cos- Universidad de Puerto Rico. Est. Exp. Río tar., 11:71-79. Piedras Publ. Misc. 67. Morton, J.F. 1972. Cocoyams (Xanthosoma Barrent, O.W. 1925. The food plants of Puerto caracu, X. atroviren.s and X. nigrum), ancient Rico. J. Dep. Agrie. Puerto Rico, 9: 61-208. root and leaf vegetables gaining in economic Conita. 1991. Raíces y tubérculos. Serie ITTA importance. PrOC. Fla State Horde. Soc., 85: No. 14. San José, Costa Rica, ITTA. 85-94. Gooding, H.J. & Campbell, J.S. 1961. Prelim-Rodríguez-Sosa, E.J. & Gonsalez, M. 1977. inary trials of West Indies Xanthosoma culti- Preparation of instant tanier (Xanthosoma vars. Trop. Agric. Trill., 38: 146-152. sagittifolium) flakes. j. Agrie. Univ. Puerto Haudricourt, A. 1941. Les colocasides alimen- Rico, 61: 26-31. taires ( et yautias). Rev. Int. Bot. Appl. Wilson, J.E. 1980. Cocoyam breeding by ,flow- Agric. Trop., 21: 40-65. ering induction pollination and seed germina- IBPGR. 1989. Descriptors for Xanthosoma. tion. Ibadan, Nigeria, IITA. Rome, IBPGR. c - e rkil Span Neglected crops:1492from a different perspective 261

Proce8sesno causes arhlalL t' trodu1ton of AmeRican ifora in arm

A retrospective view of Spanish agriculture andcenturies. It was primarily by way of Andalusia the range of species cultivated during the last 500 that exchanges of samples and seeds with Amer- years would clearly show the considerableica were to be promoted and carried out during change that has taken place regarding the naturethe sixteenth and seventeenth centuries through of crops. These changes are evident not only the centralization of trade, operated by the Casa through the gradual incorporation of Americande Indias in Seville. flora into the Iberian and island agricultural land- Furthermore, it was the land of western Anda- scape (potato, maize, sunflower, beans, tomato, lusia which the Spanish Crown initially had American cotton plants, avocados, custard apple, available for producing the wheat which was to tobacco, etc.), but also through the loss of quite afeed the colonies of the New West Indies and few cultivated species during the centuries prior make up for the cereal shortages recorded from to Columbus's voyage. In fact, many species that the earliest times on American soil. have been forgotten in agriculture are now being The conquest of western Andalusia by the discovered thanks to documentation from theChristian kings lasted from 150 to 200 years, Hispano-Roman period, which can be studied, beginning in the thirteenth century. Consequent- for example, through Columela (first century);ly, agriculture was to a large extent transformed the Hispano-Visigothic period, to which Isidoreon the basis of the Castilian model (cereal and of Seville refers (seventh century); or better stilllivestock). However, in eastern Andalusia the from the very abundant information passed down Hispano-Muslims of the Nazari Kingdom had by the Andalusian agronomists of the Hispano-just been vanquished and not only their agricul- period Arib Ibn Said (tenth century), Ibntural landscape and customs but also their own Abi Yawad (tenth and eleventh centuries), 1bnpopulation had remained in the region for some Hayyay (eleventh century), Ibn Bassal (eleventhtime. Hieronymus Mtinzer, a traveller from Nu- century), Al Tignari (?), Ibn al-Awamm (twelfthremberg who visited the Iberian peninsula be- century) and Ibn Luyun (fourteenth century), tween 1494 and 1495, described the Kingdom of among others. Granada recently conquered by Christian armies We shall take as a reference southern Spanishand referred in admiring and respectful terms to agriculture of the fifteenth century. This is aNazari agriculture, wich was organized into gar- subject for which valuable information is availa-dens and irrigated, drawing attention to the excel- ble thanks to the Hispano-Arabic authors of past lence of their cultivation techniques, the development of irrigation methods and the wide biodiversity of cultivated species and varieties, The authors of this chapter are JE. Hernández Bermejo established on a notably tree-covered landscape. and A. Lora González (Botanical Garden of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain). The diversity of agricultural species was simi- 262 Processes and causes of marginalization: the introduction of American flora in Spain

lar to what might have been imagined in theSpain under the Catholic kings with the official whole Iberian south from the tenth century on- agriculture in Castilian Spain at the time of Alon- wards, until the Castilian feudalism inherited so de Herrera (sixteenth century) as well as with from the Visigoths gradually put an end to thethat of the Austrians (Gregorio de los Ríos), that more privatized, kitchen-garden agriculture ofof the Enlightenment and Decline of the Empire the Andalusian period. Through the Kitab (Lagasca, Rojas Clemente, Claudio and Esteban Filaha, the agriculture treatise by Ibn al-Awamm Boutelou, Arias and Costa) and that of the first certainly the most important and encyclopaedichalf of the twentieth century (Dantin Cereceda), of the medieval writings of the European west we can see there has been an obvious loss of a the main features of this landscape can be discov- number of crops. We should therefore ask the ered. Arboreal crops dominated by olives, , following questions: Which were the marginal- almond trees, carob trees, fig trees, peach trees,ized species? Which were the American species trees, apple trees, pear trees, medlar trees, introduced into Spain? How and which way did trees, trees, walnut trees, pista- they arrive? What caused the rnarginalization of chio trees, hawthorn trees, date palms, lemonIberian crops? Was this marginalization a conse- trees, citron trees, sour orange trees, jujube trees,quence of the spread of the American species? nettle trees, mulberry trees and hazelnut trees, as What were the mechanisms of substitution or well as holm-oak, strawberry-tree and myrtle.marginalization? Kitchen gardens with lettuces, , , We shall now endeavour to answer each of cabbages, cauliflowers, melons, cucumbers, these questions. spinach, leeks, onions, aubergines, kidney beans, cardoons, artichokes, purslane and numerous ar- NEGLECTED SPECIES omatic plants (basil, cress, caraway, saffron, cu-Widely different species have lost much of their min, capers, mustard, marjoram, fennel, melissa, importance, been marginalized or even com- verbena, thyme...). pletely forgotten. Some remain in the wild state, Fields of cereals and pulses sown with wheat, growing in ditches and on the boundaries of barley, rice, millet, maize and among thecultivation, as a testimony to their past agricul- former; and broad beans, kidney beans, peas,tural use, and they even behave as weeds of other , lentils, vetch, lupins and fenugreek crops. Others have disappeared completely from among the latter. Sugar-cane crops on the coastSpanish agricultural flora. Here they are grouped of Almitiriécar and Vélez-Málaga; fibre plants under different headings according to their utili- such as -flax, cotton (Asian) and hemp; dye plants zation. such as safflower, madder, henna, woad plant and saffron; and tanning plants such as sumac. Horticultural species Wild species such as esparto, osier and oil-palmThis is perhaps the group with the largest number were used; conchillas and silkworms were of marginalized species, especially horticultural reared by cultivating their host plants; numerousspecies which may be called bitter. The species ornamental species were planted in gardens andinvolved are mainly consumed as greens (boiled, an enormous number of medicinal herbscooked in butter or oil or fresh in the form of were used. This was the agricultural landscapesalads). Some current gastronomies in Europe before 1492. (and also in America because of the export of the If we compare the agriculture of southern crop and traditional consumption patterns) even Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 263

use them preferentially as a garnish for meat.yrus sativus (grass pea, kasari, chickling vetch), There are others which are very flavoursome and Lathyrus cicera (vetchling, flat pod pea), Trigo- which are difficult to separate from their catego-nella foenum-graecum (fenugreek), Vicia ervilia rization as spices or aromatic plants. These in- (bitter vetch, lentil vetch), Viciamonanthos (one- clude Amaranthaceae: Amaranthus lividusflowered tare, one-leaved vetch), Vida narbon- (blite); Apiaceae: Foeniculunt vulgare (fennel),ensis (Narbonne vetch), Vigna sinensis (cowpea, Pastinaca sativa (parsnip), Smyrnium olusatrutn blackeye bean, black-eyed pea). (alexanders or alisander); Asteraceae: Taraxa- For example, the tatter were cultivated on the cum (icinale (dandelion), Silybum marianumpeninsula before Atnerican beans were known (holy, milk thistle or lady's thistle), Cichorium (Phaseolus spp., chiefly P. vulgaris). These intybus (chicory, succory or witloop), Scolymuswould be mainly the species Vigna sinensis or maculatus (spotted golden thistle), Scolymus his- perhaps also Dolichos lablab, both Phaseolaceae panicus (Spanish salsify, golden thistle or Span- of the Old World known for many centuries in the ish oyster plant), Tragopogon porrifolius (salsify Mediterranean west, although cultivated espe- or vegetable oyster), Scorzonera hispanicacially in the Hispano-Arabic period. To appreci- (scorzonera or black salsify); Boraginaceae: Bo- ate the neglect or marginalization which these rago officinalis (borage), Simphytum officinalelegumes have suffered as a consequence of the (comfrey); Brassicaceae: Eruca vesicaria (rock- introduction of American beans (kidney beans, et, garden or salad rocket), Nasturtium officinale field beans and also green beans),itwill be (summer or green watercress), Lepidium sativum remembered that, according to the text of Ibn al- (cress), Armoracia rusticana (horse-); Awamm, at least 12 "species" (cultivars) of them : Rumex acetosa (sorrel) and other were grown in Al-Andalus as a minimum, which species of the genus; Portulacaceae: Portulaca bore names such as Marfilada, adivina, jacintina, oleracea (purslane); and Chenopodiaceae: Atri-dura or bermeja, de picaza, alfaharefla, romana, plex hortensis (orache), Chenopodium albumetiépica, blanca, etc. This genetic biodiversity (goosefoot or fat-hen). was accompanied by a wide diversity in the Many other species may also have been culti- forms of consumption: as a vegetable (the pods, vated or perhaps only utilized in their wild form, prepared with oil and vinegar), in soups together such as Si/ene inflata, Campanula rapunculus, with salted fish, as a flour made from the seeds Salsola spp., Chenopodium bonus-henricus, Bu- boiled in water, and as a purée prepared from this nias erucago, Barbarea verna,Cochlearia offic- flour used to accompany other dishes, also sea- inalis, Cardamine vulgaris, C. pratensis, soned with spices. Lepidium campestre, Rapistrum rugosum, This group should also include a substantial Capsella spp., Crambe spp., Carduus benedic- proportion of the germplasm of other grain leg- tus, Carthamus coerulescens, C. arborescens,umes, which are extensively used for hurnan Arctium lappa, Reichardia picrioides, Ca/etidu- consumption and which today are grown abun- la Hyoseris radicara, Chrvtmum mar- dantly, but whose infraspecific variability, at lo- itimum, Eryngium maritinunn, etc. cal variety or cultivar level, has been considerably reduced during the last -few centu- Legumes ries; for example, Cicer arietinum (chickpea), Included here are various grain legumes used as Pisum sativum (garden pea), Vida faba (broad human food, animal feed or both, such as: Lath- bean) and Lens esculenta (lentil). 264 Processes and causes of marginalization: the introduction of American flora in Spain

Cereals and other grains example, with garden cress and some mustards. We may mention the marginalization ofPanicum Today, certain European and Mediterranean aro- n7illaceumSetaria italica, Pennisetum glaucummatic plants are perhaps cultivated much more or (Pearl millet, African or bulrush millet), spelt used much more in Latin American cooking than (Triticum spelta, T. dicoccon) and to a lesserin Spanish cooking (coriander and rosemary, for extent sorghum (Sorghum spp.) among cereals,example). Of the dyestuff plants, the cultivation or the total neglect of other non-gramineousof plants such as the woad plant (Isatis tinctoria), grain species once used as a source of carbohy-henna (Lawsonia inermis), dyer's mignonette drates. This is the case with bugloss (Anchusa (Reseda laica) has been lost and a similar thing officinalis) or plantain (Plantago spp.). Hemp,has occurred with tanning plants such as sumac flax and sesame also figured among the grain (Rhus coriaria). species that were known to the agronomists of past centuries. ARRIVAL OF AMERICAN SPECIES Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Fruit-trees American species began arriving in Europe with Except for some local and very recent recovery, Columbus, thus ushering in an irregular but con- some species that were once frequently cultivat-tinuous process in the transfer of germplasm and ed have now almost completely disappeared ethnobotanical information relating to the use of from cultivation on the peninsula. These are: new American crops; this is still going on and is Citrus medica (citron tree), Pistacia vera (pista-currently even being stepped up. The causes, chio tree), Ziziphus lotus (lotus tree), Sorbus arrangements and places of arrival as well as the domestica (service tree or sorb tree), Crataegusnature of the species brought from America to azarolus (azarole), australis (hackberry orSpain during the first two centuries of trade are nettle tree) and Myrtus communis (myrtle). known through the accounts of the same voyages Other species, which were perhaps of moremade by Columbus and, later, from the accounts importance, are gradually being reduced, put toby the chroniclers of the Indies (Fray Bartolomé other uses or grown in a more marginal way, suchde las Casas, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, as Ficus carica (part of whose biodiversity has Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Bernardino de Sahagún, been lost in cultivation), Cydonia oblonga,Cer- Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, José de Acosta, atonia siliqua, some citrus fruits such as zamboathe mean Garcilaso de la Vega and Bernabé or bergamot as well as local varieties of apple, Cobo), together with the narrations of others who pear, peach, etc. did not cross the Atlantic, such as Francisco Lopez de Gomara, Pedro Mártir de Anglería and Aromatic,perfume, dyestuff, colouring Andrés Bernáldez. The work of the doctor and and tanning plants naturalist from Seville, Nicolás Monardes, along Although some spices and aromatic plants suchwith the plant catalogues in various herbaria and as saffron have withstood the passing of thebotanical gardens of the time such as those of centuries, others have lost their importance andCastore Durante, jacques Daleachampe, John have been partially or completely replaced by theGerard, Charles I 'Ecluse (Clusius) and James introduced American species (Capsicumspp., inDonn are also basic reference documents. Final- particular) or as a result of intensification of thely, the enormous mass of information contained international spices market. This is thecase, forin the Archivo general de Indias is a monumental Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 265

source of direct, official information on the trans- metals; Columbus himself was a victim of it port of all kinds of goodsincluding plant germ- during his first voyage. plasmbetween the New World and Spain. We At the outset, what was the overall attitude of have consulted a small part of the texts, althoughthe Europeans towards the vast ethnobotanical the 14 million documents still contain numerous culture of the Amerindian peoples and the ances- unpublished data on the subject. tral agricultural tradition of many of their ethnic In the first decade which followed the arrivalgroups? Surprise and curiosity, naturally, but of Columbus on the American coast, specialalso traces of reticence and distrust which were arrangements applied to some extent as regardseven reflected in contempt for, and the persecu- the Spanish Crown's economic/commercialtion of, some native cultures (the Huautli). From treatment of its new colonies. In the edict issuedSpain, the main foods and herbs which constitut- to govern Columbus's second crossing, there ised the diet and official medicine were sent on a clear evidence of the attempt to control rigorous-massive scale. For example, when in Mexico in ly the number of people, animals, plants, miner- 1524, Cortés asked Spain "that each ship should als and objects crossing the sea in eithercarry a certain number of plants and should not direction. Although this was the initial spirit insail without them, because this will be very im- 1493, two years later, responding to the expecta- portant for the population and its perpetuation". tion which arose as a result of events, the Crown During the first decades of the sixteenth centu- allowed allits subjects to travel to the Westry, the sowing of wheat was persistently attempt- Indies to settle, explore or engage in trade, al-ed in the new lands. Juan Garrido and Alonso though always under very stringent and certainly Martín de Xerez were the first to sow it success- onerous conditions. Around 1501, the policy offully in New Spain, and Beatriz de Salcedo in the Catholic kings changed again, with severerPeru. As early as 1531, there were people spe- restrictions being imposed on free trade: no onecializing in this crop on American territories, in could settle, discover or explore in the new terri-spite of the many difficulties that cereal farming tories without royal approval. To put an end toencountered among the Indians. In view of the these waverings, the Casa de Contratación de las inability of the colonies to become self-sufficient Indias was established in 1503, with its head- in wheat, it was decided that western Andalusia quarters in Seville; over the next two centuries it should become the granary of the New World was to exercise iron control over the traffic ofand that colonists interested in the pursuit of people and goods with America. metal should be fed with Andalusian flour. How- In spite of the initial theoretical motives ofever, Andalusia was not even able to provide for Columbus's voyage, his descriptions and his ad- its own needs. Famine raged ancl periods of high miration for the natural beauty of the islands mortality were recorded in Andalusia. Wheat discovered, and in spite of the fact that some was finally imported. from Sicily and Naples into contemporary historians cling to the interpreta- Seville, whence it was taken to America. tion that the plant world was also a part of the During this first half of the sixteenth century, interests and motivations of the Spanish adven-the seeds of many vegetables were also sent. The turers of the sixteenth century, we are more in- species most quoted in the documents kept in the clined to accept the view that the conveyance ofArchivo de Indias include: cabbage, , rad- plants became a very secondary objective com-ish, borage, bottle gourd, Savoy cabbage, carrot, pared with the feverish desire for gold and otherspinach, aubergine, lettuce, cucumber, cardoon, 266 Processes and causes of margin( ization: the introduction of American flora in Spain

onions, spring onions, cucumbers, garden cress,tobacco (Nicotiana tabacuni and N. rustica), melon, purslane and celery. There were alsogroundnut (Arachis hypogaea), maguey (Agave many spices and aromatic plants such as mustard, americana), piril or American mastic (Schinus basil, rosemary, lavender, fennel, rue, coriander, malle), pineapple (Ananas comosus), Peruvian cumin, hempseed, , oregano and aniseed. mastic (Bursera simaruba), jalap (Ipomaea pur- These attempts at introducing species whichga), black sapote (Diospyros digyna), sweet gum would finally end up neglected in the mother (Liquidambar styraciflua), peachwood (Haema- country (borage, garden cress, purslane...) seemstoxylon brasiletto), balsam (Myroxylan bal- nothing less than shocking. In 1520, Cortés in-samum), sea grape (Coccoloba uvifera), Bumelia formed Charles V that, at the market of Tenochti-persitnilis, star apple (Chrysophyllum cainita), tlán, onions, leeks, garlic, garden cress, borage, Indian cress, nasturtium (Tropaeolum mujus), sorrel, cardoons and golden thistle were alreadycocoa (Theobroma cacao), marigold (Tagetes to be seen. Some of these greens, such as spinach, spp.), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), guaia- beet and garden cress, were subsequently to losecum (Guaiacum sanctum), prickly pear (Opuntia their importance but others, such as the cardoon,spp. and Nopalea cachenillifera) and dorstenia cabbage, lettuce, radish, broad bean, turnip and (Dorstenia cantrajerva), etc. carrot, were the vegetables most eaten in Mexico Details of the arrival of many of these plants City in 1526. will probably never be known because of the With this attitude and policy of imposing Euro-excessive zeal of the Crown in checking ships' pean agriculture, crops and methods of consump-cargoes. For this reason, the ports of Vigo, Co- tion on America, the process of incorporatingrunna, Santander, Lisbon, Gibraltar, Málaga, local agricultural cultivation, transporting plant Sanhicar de Barrameda and Cadiz were frequent- species to Spain and assimilating the ethnobotan- ly used as an alternative to the port of Seville ical knowledge of the indigenous races took where unloading was rigorously checked by offi- place in a climate of indifference, randomnesscials from the Casa de la Contratación. In this and disorganization. Spain was to prove muchway, many goods were not recorded, including more an instrument for extending Europe's influ- many of these plant species which in principle ence in the New World than a channel for Amer- did not seem to have a real commercial value. ican plant germplasm to reach the Old Continent. Hence they were almost always planted and dis- Up to the mid-sixteenth century, plant species tributed in the fields before being identified reached Europe generally as a result of private by scholars, so that their first botanical or ethno- initiatives. It was an activity which began withbotanical descriptions on European soil were the first voyage of Columbus, transporting pota-very much later than their date of arrival on the toes or sweet potatoes (Ipainaea batatas) to en- continent. sure provisions for his crew during the return The situation changed considerably after the journey. From then on, a long succession ofpublication in 1574 of Historia medicinal de las plants crossed the Atlantic and were unloaded incosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occiden- Spanish ports, chiefly in Andalusia. Therewas a tales by Nicolás Monardes, a doctor from Se- gradual flow of maize (Zeu mays), beans (Phase- ville, who drew attention to the potential of the alas vulgaris), gourds (Cucurbita spp.), chilinew medicinal herbs and their cultivation in (Capsicum annuum), upland cotton-trees (Gos- Spain. His work was distributed widely andwas sypium hirsutum), cassava (Manihat esculenta),of decisive importance for other, more rigorous Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 267

and later works such as those of Dodoens, l'Obel gardens of Castile are mentioned and 16 of them and l'Ecluse at the dawn of the seventeenthcen-are of American origin. These include Phaseolus tury. This is how species such as the followingvulgaris, Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutes- came to be described: flor de manita (Chiranth- cens, Helianthus annuus, Lycopersicon esculen- odendron pentadactylon), potato (Solanumtu- tum and others which, at the time, appeared to be berosum), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), white only of interest as ornamental plants. cedar or American arbor vitae (Thuja occidenta- lis), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), thorn apple, Eighteenth century: the Enlightenment Jimson or Jamestown weed (Datura stramo-The first encounter between the interests of the nium), physic nut, purging nut or pulza (JatrophaCrown and those of the enlightened scholars curcas), sarsaparilla (Smilax spp.), avocadocame when the Bourbon dynasty acceded to the (Pet-sea americana), quinoa (Chenopodium qui-throne. These new dynamics, which were absent noa), Indian cane (Canna indica), copal (Pro-under the Austriansexcept for the feeble sup- tium copal or But-set-a spp.), annato, arnatto orport given by Philip II to the Protomedicato of roucou (Bixa orellana), guava (Psidium gua-Francisco Hernández encompassed natural his- ja va), soapberry tree ( saponaria),tory, and consequently botany, within the eight- soursop (Annona muricata) and papaw (Carica eenth century conception. This concept papaya) etc. recognized the need to obtain more and better During the seventeenth century this situationinformation on the planet's biological and geo- persisted while, at the same time, the European logical riches as a means of utilizing them more upper class developed a certain taste for theprofitably. There were also reasons of state for exotic, which was to the advantage of the cultiva-reappraising the role of agriculture (which had tion of many of the species arriving from Amer-ranked very low on the social scale since the ica as ornamental plants. After these plants hadCatholic kings) and these led to a heightened crossed the Atlantic, the reasons for their useinterest in the introduction of new crops and were forgotten in their area of origin, and theproducts into the empire's commercial channels. ethnobotanical information relating to their This profound change in thinking and political properties and applications was completely lost conception began during the reigns of Philip V except for a certain percentage of medicinaland Ferdinand VI and reached its height with the plantsand, although important species for hu-reign of Charles III. Under this monarch, not only man consumption were involved, the primarywas academic interest in the plant world encour- and indeed exclusive use for quite some time inaged, beginning with the creation of botanical the majority of cases was ornamental. This phe- gardens for example, but scientific expeditions to nomenon was so widespread that, out of 146America were even organized under orders to American species known in Europe at the end ofcatalogue the biodiversity of the overseas colo- the seventeenth century, 44 were used in Spain as nies in order to increase both resources and na- ornamental plants, while only one was used as tional prestige. Special attention was to be given such on the New Continent (Tigridia pavonia, to medicinal plants and those capable of certain the Aztec oceloxochitl or tiger flower). Muchparticular uses, as in the case of dyestuff plants. earlier, in Agricultura de jardines written byThis is how hundreds of different species arrived Gregorio de los Ríos between 1590 and 1591 andin Spain in the form of seed, live plants, herbari- published in 1604, some 200 species used in the um specimens, identifiable fragments, etc. 268 Processes rind causes o irginalization: the introduction of American flora in Spain

The only objection to this policy which can beon the Spanish mainland and the Balearic and pointed out relates to drawbacks inherent in theCanary Islands. They were basically food, indus- centralism imposed by the monarchical absolut- trial and forestry (timber) species. The edible ism of the time. The material was inexorably"roots" mentioned included potatoes (from Ciu- conveyed first to Madrid, where the Royal Bo- dad Real, Corunna and Toledo), sweet potatoes tanical Garden played a prominent role, whence (from Málaga, Murcia and Valencia) and Jerusa- the plants were then distributed centrifugally.lem artichokes (from Madrid). Cereals included The Royal Gardens of Aranjuez were also to play maize (from Corunna, Oviedo, Santander, Bar- a particularly important role; here, Americancelona, Valencia and Murcia). The section on species such as Magnolia grandiflora, Lirioden-other flour grains included quinoa (from Valen- dron tulipifera, Acer saccharum, Acer negundo,cia and Zaragoza). Among vegetables were , etc. are known to have gourds (from Murcia and Valencia), peppers and prospered in the second half of the eighteenth pimentos (from Murcia, Logroño and Madrid), century. The long period of transportation, to-tomatoes (frorn Murcia), Chile strawberries gether with the harsh winter climate of the(from Madrid), tropical pineapples (from Barce- Castilian plateau, meant that most specimenslona) and Indian cres (from Madrid). Legumes ultimately perished. The creation of acclimatiza-included beans (specifically quoted as Phaseoltts tion botanical gardens on the coastal periphery ofvulgaris, from Barcelona, Valencia, Murcia, Iberia and the islands (Orotava, Valencia, Sanhi- Oviedo, Avila, Segovia and Madrid) and ground- car de Barrameda, etc.) only partly remediednuts (from Valencia). Fruit-trees included the these difficulties. cherimoya (from Cadiz, Málaga and Valencia), pecan and hickory (from Barcelona, Cadiz, Ma- Nineteenth century drid and Valencia), sea grape (Coccoloba uvif - During this century, the unifying trends of theera) (from Málaga) and avoeado (from social, political and scientific attitudes of theValencia). Among industrial plants, indigo from Enlightenment were slower. The traditional dif-the Canary Islands was mentioned. The presence ficulties affecting the free and rapid propagationof some species now lost and the absence of other of thinking surfaced once again. Almost all natu-American species that are now better known in ral history research projects were suspended. Spanish agriculture, such as sunflower, upland or Spain's relations with America were limited to ahairy cotton (), papaya, ba- continuous process of decolonization of the oldbaco, jojoba, etc., may be noted. territories of the West Indies. To assess the extent of transfer of AmericanCurrent trends species to Spain, the data provided by the Memo- During and especially towards the end of the ria sobre los productos de la agricultura españo- twentieth century, we can observe a massive la, compiled for the General Exhibition held in cosmopolitization of genetic resources, resulting Madrid in 1857, on the "mountain" of Príncipe not only from the more rapid flow of genes and Pío may be used. The catalogue of products that information (the elimination of natural frontiers, the organizers considered as having potentiallythe technological revolution and the intensifica- constituted the exhibition lists a total of 640 planttion of communications) but also from the ag- species of economic interest, of which 130 ofgressive economic policies applied in the American origin, which were typical of any place agricultural sector. Species and varieties are be- Neglected crops:1492 from a different perspective 269

ing introduced and replaced at a rapid rate,caus- ant to phylloxera. The degree of "Americaniza- ing enormous variations in the agricultural land- tion" of Spanish agriculture is clear: the whole of scape, products and forms of consumption. Atraditional Spanish gastronomy is governed by fi-antic search for greater productivity has ledto American plants: the Asturian fabada, potatoes the so-called , a model of agri- in picón sauce from the Canaries, Riojapeppers, culture which, to a great extent, has made itAndalusian gazpacho or the Catalan escalibada, necessary to backtrack as regards agriculturalto mention just a few dishes, require the plant policies. The risks of an extreme oversimplifica- Genes of the New World. tion of the genotypes in production have jeopard- ized the conservation of the planet's agricultural MODELS AND CAUSES OF biodiversity and caused an irreversible loss of MARGINALIZATION genes, traditions of use and consumption, result- Before drawing up an overall assessment or con- ing in excessive homogenization of the forms ofclusive opinion on the role of American flora as life and survival of humanity. At the end of theprotagonist in the partial or total displacement of century, an effort is now being made to correct certain crops, we need to recall the origin of the these extremes; unfortunately, however, a race toagricultural biodiversity of the pre-Columbian appropriate a new element of power and control Iberian teiTitories and the historical events for the planet's plant genetic resources is also which they provided the setting; during the first beginning. decades of Spanish colonization in America. In recent times, important substitutions have While Spanish settlers imposed a specific occurred in Spanish agriculture through the inva-model of agriculture in the New World, attempt- sion of American species and varieties. An exam- ed to introduce European crops and scorned ple of this is the pine strawberry (Fragaria xmany of the species used by the Amerindian ananassa) replacing the European or wild straw-ethnic groups or caused their marginalization, a berry (Fragariayesca), which used to grow wildpersecution and marginalization of the Andalu- in the deciduous forests of Spain. Cultivation ofsian farming culture also occurred on the Iberian sunflowers has considerably reduced the olive-Peninsula. The final capture of the Kingdom of growing area. Some models of Mediterranean Granada by the Castilian armies of the Catholic agriculture have been replaced by distinctly kings, the expulsion of the Jews and Moors later, American patterns. For example, on the coast ofthe persecution of the Hispano-Arabic culture Granada and Málaga, the agricultural landscape including the burning of libraries caused a of carobs, figs, vines (for raisins) and olives hassudden change in the agricultural structure of given way to avocados, cherimoyas and, moremany of the Iberian territories, especially in the recently, trials have been carried out with papaw south. Clear evidence of this retrogression may and babaco. Horticulture under plastic in thatbe seen by comparing the richnessthe species same region, which has almost completely elim- mentioned, authors referred to and even concepts inated sugar cane, produces essentially Ameri- of the work of Ibn al-Awamm (Abu Zacarfa) can species: tomatoes, pimientos, gourds, beans with that of Alonso de Herrera, the priest who, and groundnuts. Extra early potatoes and sweet more than 350 years after the Sevillian Arab potatoes appear outside at the end of autumn.(twelfth century), was commissioned by Cardi- Even the traditional varieties of vine have had tonal Cisneros to write a treatise on agriculture in be grafted on to American rootstock that is resist-the first decade of the sixteenth century, in view 270 Processes and causes of marginalization: the introduction of American flora in Spain

of the "absence of treatises on this subject". Only equivalent as regards the yield obtained, even one-third of the species quoted by Ibn al-though it involved similar crops. This occun-ed, Awamm are mentioned by Alonso de Herrera. Itfor example, with root or tuber species grown in should be noted in some cases that rather thanEurope before 1492, such as salsify, parsnip, "neglect" we may talk of "persecution", as in thealexanders or horse-radish, which virtually dis- case of certain bitter or aromatic vegetables in appeared in the face of the sweet potato, Jerusa- which the puritan citizens of imperial Spainlem artichoke and especially the potatowhich found aphrodisiac, or simply stimulating, effects. were incomparably richer and more productive This occurred, for example, with rocket (Eruca as far as carbohydrates were concemed and sativa) and even insinuations concerning garliceven though other plants of the same group of can be read in the work of Alonso de Herrera. Andean origin did not manage to become estab- The repercussions of the introduction oflished (maca, oca, ullucu, mashwa, etc.). In this American flora became apparent gradually, atbattle, there was one Mediterranean species first with a considerable inertia lasting at leastwhich fared well: the carrot. one or two centuries, and became evident only in We may also talk of substitution and marginal- very recent times. Patterns of competition, sub- ization among ornamental species: American stitution or marginalization assumed variouscypresses vis-à-vis Cupressus sempervirens; forms. Bougainvillea spp. vis-a-vis jasmine, ivy and Substitution is more or less total between crops honeysuckle; hybrids between American and of identical or equivalent use, that is to say be- Mediterranean species of the genera Populus and tween species which could be termed ethnovicar- Platanus vis-à-vis the European poplars; and ori- ious: for example, Vigna sinensis replaced by ental planes, marigolds and gerbera cin- Phaseolus vulgaris (kidney bean); Lagenariaeraria and chrysanthemums, etc. The examples in siceraria (calabash or bottle gourd) replaced bythis connection are countless. Cucurbita spp. (particularly by Cucurbita pepo); There are other cases of more indirect action: Fragaria vesca (European or wild strawberry)chilies partly displaced a series of condiments replaced by FragariaXananassa (pine strawber-consisting of cultivated aromatic herbs (garden ry); Gossypium herbaceum (levant cotton) re-cress, rocket, horse-radish, rue, coriander and placed by Gossypium hirsutum (upland cotton). dill) and partly caused a reduction in the con- The substitution which took place in a similarsumption of other imported species, such as way but which resulted in only partial elimina-clove and pepper. tion, eventually made the two crops sympatric: Almost complete substitutions occurred in the this happened with Olea europaea (the olive),agrosystem. This is the case with the dryland whose cultivation area was reduced by that ofarboreal crops on the Mediten-anean coast (al- Helianthus annuus (sunflower); Panicum mil-mond, olive, carob, vine, fig and pistachio) re- iaceum, Setaria italica, Pennisetum glaucumplaced by the American subtropicalcrops under (pearl, African or bulrush millet) and to a lesserlimited irrigation (avocado and cherimoya)or by extent Sorghum spp., which were replaced by cultivation of early crops under plastic with basi- Zea mays (maize); and Juglans regia (Englishcally American species (tomato, pepper, gourd walnut) replaced by (black walnut) and bean) alternating with the sweet potatoor and Caiya illinoensis (pecan). early potato. In other cases, replacementwas not exactly Another form of marginalization,or rather of Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 271

even more indirect competition, was that caused Selección, estudio preliminar y notas. Barce- by the intentional or spontaneous introduction, lona, Spain, Ediciones Océano-Exito, S.A. and subsequent transition to the wild state, ofColumela, L.J.M. 1988. De los trabajos decam- species such as the century plant or agave (Agave po (siglo I). Edición a cargo de H.olgado americana) or the prickly pear. Their use as Redondo, A. Madrid, Siglo XXI de España quickset hedges displaced other local species of Editores, S.A. and Ministry of Agriculture, trees, bushes and border shrubs, some of which Fisheries and Food. were used as aromatic plants, medicinal plantsCortés, H. 1986. Cartas de relación. Barcelona, and as a source of raw material for craftsmanship. Spain, Ediciones Océano-Exito, S.A. Competition even extended to spontaneous flora,Dantin Cereceda, J. 1943. Catálogo metódico endangering the survival of local endemic spe- de las plantas cultivadas en España. Madrid, cies (cf. Opuntia sp. on the Canary coast). Nico- Ministry of Agriculture. tiana glauca also had similar effects in someFernández Pérez, J. & González Tascem, L, areas of the Mediterranean coast. We can see eds. 1991. A propósito de la agricultura de los that, in other regions of the world, American jardines de Gregorio de los Ríos. Madrid, flora has reached the point where it has almost CSIC/Ayuntamiento de Madrid. completely replaced local flora, as in the case ofGerbi, A. 1978. La naturaleza de las Indias Psidium cattleianum and Syzygium jambos on Nuevas. Mexico City, Fondo de Cultura the Mascarene archipelago. Económica. To complete this survey of the mechanisms ofHaring, C.H. 1939. Comercio y navegación en- competition of American flora with Spanish tre España y las Indias. Mexico City, Fondo crops, we cannot overlook the competition from de Cultura Económica. herbs introduced into European agricultural sys-Ibn al-Awwam. 1988. Libro de agricultura (si- tems. Many of these species arrived accidentally glo XII). Translated and annotated by J.A. and early attempts were made to cultivate a few Banqueri; Madrid, Ministry of Agriculture, of them, but they subsequently reverted to the Fisheries and Food. wild state. The most harmful species of Ameri-Ibn al- 11 aytar. 1991. Traité des simples (siglo can origin in Spanish agriculture are Amaranthus Translation by L. Leclerc. Paris, Institut retroflexus, A. albus, A. blitoides, Conyza ca- du Monde Arabe. nadensis and C. bonariensis. Other locally im-Ibn Bassal. 1955. Libro de Agricultura (siglo portant species may be Euphorbia nutans, XI). Edited, translated and annotated by J.M. Eclipta prostrata, Phytolacca americana, Xan- Millas Vallicrosa, & M. Aziman, Tetouan, thium spinosum, Amaranthus cruentus, A. hypo- Morocco, Muley El-Hassan Institute. chondriacus, A. muricatus, Oxalis latifolia andIbn Luyun. 1988. Tratado de agricultura (siglo Paspalum paspaloides. Translated and annotated by J. Eguaras Ibáñez. Granada, Spain, Patronato de la Bibliography Alhambra y Generalife. Alonso de Herrera, G. 1991. Agricultura gene- Isidoro de Sevilla. 1982. Etimologís (siglo VI). ral (1513). Edición crítica de Terrón, E. Ma- Latin text, Spanish translation and notes by J. drid, Servicio de Publicaciones del Ministerio Oroz Reta & M. Marcos Casquero, Madrid, de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación. B AC. Arciniegas, G. 1985. Historiadores de Indias.Long-Solis, J. 1986. Capsicum y cultura. La 272 Processes and causes of marginalization: 1/le introduction of American flora in Spain

historia del chilli. Mexico City, Fondo de brada. Botánica, sanidad y política cienti Cultura Económica. de la España Ilustrada. Barcelona, Spain, Lora González, A. & Hernándezermejo, Ediciones Serbal, S.A. J.E. 1990. La trasferencia de especies y cultu- Río Moreno, J.L. 1991. Los inicios de la agri- ra etnobokinica entre América y Europa (si- cultura europea en el Nuevo Mundo (1492- glos XVI-XV ). V Congreso Latinoamericano 1542). Asaja. de Botánica, Havana. Rojas Rabiela, T. & William, T. S., eds. 1989. Martínez Alfaro, M.A. 1988. Contribuciones La historia de la agricultura. Epoca prehis- iberoamericanas al mundo. Botánica, medi- pánica (siglo XVI). Colección Biblioteca del agricultura. Biblioteca Iberoamericana INAH. Mexico City, Instituto Nacional de No. 27. Madrid, Editorial Anaya. Antropología. Monardes, N. 1574. Primera, segunda y terceraVarela, C. 1989. Cri.stobal Colón. Textos y do- partes de la historia medicinal de las cosas cumentos completos. Madrid, Alianza Edito- que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales rial, S.A. que sirven en medicina. Seville, Spain. Xirau, R. 1973. Idea y querella de la Nueva Miinzer, J. 1991. Viaje por España y Portugal España. Las Casas, Sahagfin, Zumárraga y (1494-1495). Madrid, Editorial Polifemo. otros. Madrid, Alianza Editorial, S.A. Puerto Sarmiento, F.J. 1988. La ilusión que- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 273

II unin es for !read

Among the grain legumes from the Old World, This species, along with the garden pea (Pis- we may single out two species of the genus ¿1/2/SatiV11171 L.), broad bean (Vicia faba L.) and Lathyrus (L. sativus L. and L. cicera L.), onechickpea (Cicer arietinum) were the 'first culti- species of the genus Trigonella (T. foenum-grae-vated legumes, according to archaeological find- cum L.) and three species of the genus Vicia (V. ings of the neolithic period, Bronze Age and (L). Willd., V. monanthos (L). Desf. and Iron Age in Europe, the Near East and the Nile V. narbonensis L.) on account of their current Valley. state of marginalization. In Spanish, L. sativas is Their location has demonstrated the spread of called by the popular names almorta, gija, muelathese species from their centre of domestication. and tito and in Latin America by the namesBecause of their larger size, the seeds that have alverja and chícharo (in Portuguese it is known been found are considered to be cultivated rather as chicharo, in English as chickling vetch and inthan wild forms. India as khesari). L. cicera is known as titarro, Columela, in De re rustica (first century), men- almorta de monte, chícharo, galgana and cicér- tions Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek), cula. T. .foenum-graecum is known as alhlovaVicia ervilia (bitter vetch) and Lathyrus cicera and also heno griego or fenogreco (in English, (vetchling or flat pod pea), referring to their use, fenugreek). V. ervilia corresponds to the yeros, soil requirements, tillage and sowing dates. He also known as alcarceña, alverja, alcarraceria,refers specifically to L. cicera as it is cultivated ervilla, lenteja bastarda, etc. (in Portuguese, er-in what is today Andalusia or feeding oxen as a vilha de pombo andgero, and in English bitterreplacement for V. erviliain the form of milled vetch). V. monanthos is the name of algarroba,grains, moistened with water and mixed with garroba and lenteja de Aragón (in English, one- straw also stating that it is not an unpleasant flowered or one-leaved vetch, and in Portuguese food for humans. Libro de agricultura by Abu ervilhaca parda). Finally, V. narbonensis isZacaría (twelfth century) also mentions T. fOe- known as alverjón and haba loca (in Portuguesenum-graecum and V. ervilia, referring to their ervilhaca de Narbona, and in English Narbonne soil requirements, methods and dates of sowing, vetch). fertilization and types of use in animal feeding as well as describing their use as a humanmedi- cine and other uses. In Agricultura general, by The author of this chapter isL. Lopez Bellido Alonso de Herrera (1513), V. ervilia and L. sati- (Department of Agricultural Sciences and Resources, cultiva- University of Córdoba, Spain). vus are also mentioned, with different The author thanks H. Lopez Córcoles for the tion techniques and methods of use for feeding information provided onVicia narbonensisand F. Varela livestock and treating ailments recommended. for the data on the collections of the Madrid Centre for Plant Genetic Resource Conservation. L. sativus is used in the human diet in a similar 274 Grain legumes for animal feed

way to chickpeas and is mixed with other grains amino acid called ODAP to make bread. aminopropionic acid) which causes neurolathy- Table 10 sets out the origin and distribution ofrism in humans and animals. This disease causes the wild or cultivated form of the various spe- paralysis of the lower joints through neurologi- cies. Because of their marginal character, therecal lesions brought about by degeneration of the are no data on a worldwide basis relating to thespinal cord, particularly in equine stock, if the cultivated area of this group of legumes. Chick-seed is eaten continually for months as the main ling vetch (L. sativus) is widely grown in India,component of the diet. In extreme cases it even with an area of 1.6 million ha referred to bycauses death. Occasional consumption is not Duke (1981). Vetchling (L. cicera) is currentlyharmful and does not appear to affect sheep, so grown only in Spain, although it was formerlystockfarmers use these legumes for gestating fe- grown throughout southwestern Europe. Fenu- males, fattening lambs and serving males. Mac- greek (T. foenum-graecum) is cultivated in the erating or soaking the seed in water, followed by Mediterranean region, the Near East, Ethiopia, cooking and treatment at high temperatures, India and southern California. In North Africa, it seems to inactivate the lathyrogenic component, has been grown for fodder around the Saharanpreventing its toxicity. Chickling vetch (L. sati- oases from very early times. Bitter vetchvus), which has a white flower and seeds, has a (V. ervilia) is grown in Asiatic Turkey, centrallower ODAP content. In some localities of north- and northern Spain and other countries of theern Spain, selected white chickling vetch is tra- Mediterranean region and western United States;ditionally eaten because of its lower content of the seed is exported to the United Kingdom andlathyrogenic substances. There is a negative cor- other countries for feed, especially for sheep. relation between the total protein content of the There are barely any references to one-leavedLathyrus and its ODAP content, which is of vetch (V. monanthos) or Narbonne vetchinterest for improving varieties. The ODAP con- (V. narhonensis), in spite of the -fact that bothtent of chickling vetch grown in Spain is lower species, particularly the former, were widely cul-than that of Asiatic chickling vetch. It has also tivated in the MediteiTanean in past times. Fig- been shown that the ODAP content of L. cicera ure 34 shows the regressive pattern of cultivationis lower than that of L. sativus (0.146 and 0.205 of these legumes in Spain; some of them arepercent, respectively). practically on the verge of extinction. Fenugreek (T. foenutn-graecum) has a high content of gums and mucilages (around 28 per- COMPOSITION AND USE cent) which makes its direct use in the diet of Table 11 sets out the seed composition of themonogastric species difficult. It contains other species studied. Protein content ranges betweensubstances which give the plant an unpleasant 20 and 30 percent and the fat content isgener- smell, which permeates all its surroundings and ally very low except in the case of fenugreekis conveyed to the meat and milk of animals that (T. foenum-graecum). As in the other legumes, eat it. lysine is the most favourable amino acid and The antinutritional factors of the species of methionine is the most limiting. Several anti- the genus Vicia, in addition to affecting thenu- nutritional properties are also present in the grain tritional value of the grain, cancause pathologi- (Table 12). Chickling vetch and vetchlingcal changes of varying extent in animals that (L. sativus and L. cicera) containa neurotoxic consume them, especially birds. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 275

FIGURE 32

Grain legumes: A) one-leaved vetch (Vicia monanthos); Al) calyx; A2) flower; A3) legume; B) bitter vetch (V. ervilia); B1) flower; B2) legume; C) Narbonne vetch (V. narbonensis); Cl) flower; C2) legume

cl 276 Grainlegumes ji.n-aninull feed

The seed is the part mainly used in this group its grain was bigger than that of the vetches and of legumes, although they are also grown astares, the two names used nowadays without green fodder or hay and play an important role distinction. There is therefore an ancestral knowl- as a green manure, which is dug in at the end ofedge of the use of conadia and its lathyrogenic the winter to improve soil fertility. The straw ofside-effects. The use of L. cicera for sheep does these legumes is of high nutritional value fornot pose any lathyrism problems if doses do not livestock. exceed 50 percent of the ration in concentrates. Among the entire group, it is chickling vetch Fenugreek (T. foenum-graecum) is primarily (L. sativas) which is most used for human con-grown for the production of its seed. Its strong sumption, in the form of green vegetables; thesmell somewhat discourages livestock from eat- dry seed especially is soaked in water and boileding it.It must be used in low doses, since it or else husked and inade into flour for mixing imparts an unpleasant flavour to meat and milk with cereals and making bread or porridges. Theand also causes animals to put on weight, which latter method of preparation is usual in India (for is not suitable for draught animals. Livestock dhal), and it was a popular recipe during timesdealers sometimes use it to tone animals up and of scarcity and famine in the Spanish regions ofgive them a transient good appearance. It is also Castilla-La Mancha and Extremadura, wheregrown as a condiment, an essential oil being inany serious cases of neurolathyrism occurredextracted for flavouring different foods and as a result of it being consumed in the wrong drinks, such as cheeses, sweetmeats, pickles and way in the 1940s. The current Spanish Foodliqueurs. It is also used in the pharmaceutical Code prohibits human consinnption of chickling and cosmetics industry because of the vast range vetch seed and the products obtained from itsof chemical products that it contains. The plant preparation. Mixtures with oilseed cake are usedalso has insecticidal properties and is used in for sheep although, in Spain, its use in animal stored grains as a repellent. Popular medicine nutrition is not very widespread because of theattributes tonic and vermifugal properties to its fear of lathyrism. seeds, the mucilaginous components being used Vetchling (L. cicera) is used as both a fodderto treat stomach ailments. In Hindu medicine, plant and grain producer. The name COMUlia isthe seed extract is used because of its cardioton- given to the mixture of cereal grains, legumeic, diuretic, antiphlogistic, hypoglucemic and an- grains or both (as well as to their combined tihypertensive properties. It has active ingredients cultivation) which provides a complete food for which act on the metabolism of fats and cause livestock. Its etymological origin is fromweight loss in women. In India, consumption of "comfin" in its meaning of mixture, referring tothe seed is believed to stimulate lactation. the mix of seeds obtained when cleaning the The species of the genus Vicia are traditional- grain and which contaminate the main grain, ly used for feeding ruminants, particularly sheep, generally wheat. The combination, which was but they are practically unused for monogastric of very variable content, was first formed from species in view of the seed's toxicity and its spontaneous plants which the farmer improved negative effect on growth. Bitter vetch (V. ervil- by introducing other species with a higher yield ia) must not exceed 25 percent of the ration in or quality. In the Spanish region of Tierra desheep and cattle feed. One-leaved vetch Campos, vetchling began to dominate in C017711fia (V. monanthos) is more readily eaten by sheep, as a consequence of mechanical selection, sincebut refused by other types of livestock because Neglected crops: 1492from adifferent perspective 277

FIGURE 33

Grain legumes: A) chickling vetch (Lathyrus sativus); Al) flower; A2) legume; B) vetchling (Lathyruscicera); B1) legume; C) fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum); Cl) flower; C2) legume 278 Grain legumes for animal feed

of its slightly bitter taste. Birds, with the excep-featuring bigger seeds, a lighter colour and a tion of pigeons, do not take to it. The seed ofmore flattened shape. In India, 56 types have V. narhonensis can be used as feed for cattlebeen identified. As in almost all this species which accept it more readily than pigs and sheep,group, the types sown are heterogeneous popu- provided it is fed to them in ground foim. Likelations of botanical varieties. The centres of di- common vetch (V. sativa), it has a slightly bitterversity are central Asia and the Mediterranean. taste which animals grow accustomed to, but L. cicera is considered to be a semi-domesti- which can be passed on into milk. cated plant, with local varieties and spontaneous plants existing in Spanish cultivation regions, BOTANY AND ECOLOGY especially in the centre and north. There are Table 13 describes the main botanical character- local, primitive indigenous varieties in Castilla- istics of the various leguminous species studied.León made up of very heterogeneous and widely Because of their origin, distribution and cultiva-varying material suited to adverse conditions. tion, they are suited to Mediterranean ecologicalThis material has traditionally been cultivated in conditions. 'Their cycle takes place in the au-combination with other plants (comufia) and its tumn to spring period and they are resistant todomestication has been rare, in spite of the fact cold and frosts as well as drought, especially inthat the plant has been grown for thousands of the final phase of cultivation. They are suitedyears. The main changes introduced in these to poor soils and frequently to marginal onesvarieties are: a more erect and compact habit of (Table 10). the plant, lesser dehiscence of pods and greater seed size. The wild populations of L. cicera, GENETIC DIVERSITY which are abundant in Spain, have characteris- There is very little information on the genetictics very close to those of the cultivated plants. diversity, infraspecific variability and relationsDomestication of L. cicera occurred in southern of these species with other related wild species. France and Spain when cultivation of chickling Few cultivars are known or well defined. Onlyvetch(L.sativus) spread to those countries from limited areas of cultivation remain in some areas its area of ofigin ancl domestication, which it of the world and, in many of them, the individu-subsequently replaced. Descriptors have been als are threatened. The material available in geneproposed forL.cicera and three botanical varie- banks is scarce. Consequently, there is the risk ties are recognized: pedunculatus, foliolatus and that important plant material obtained over thou-palentinus. sands of years of cultivation might disappear, Improvement programmes have been designed while only a few isolated works on classification for fenugreek (T. foenum-graecum) to increase and selection are to be found. the yield of diosgenin, a steroid which is present In the species Lathyrus sativus, there are ain the seed and which is used in medicine, as great number of varieties and types which differ well as to study the behaviour of a spontaneous in flower colour, form of growth and colour andmutant with earlier flowering and bigger sized shape of the seeds. Two varieties can be distin- seed. Twenty-nine different ecotypes have been guished: lesser white chickling vetch and great-recognized. The centre of diversity of fenugreek er white chickling vetch. The first is possibly the is situated in the western Mediterranean and the original form of the species. Greater white chick- Near East. ling vetch is perhaps a selection of the former, The cultivated types and varieties of bitter Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 279

FIGURE 34

Changes in the cultivated area of legume species for animal feedin Spain '000 ha 250

200

150

100

50

o ts, 1940 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 88 Year

Chickling vetch O Fenugreek

--)1( One-leaved vetch O Bitter vetch

vetch (V. ervilia) are very heterogeneous popu-which selections, lines and ecotypes adaptable lations which frequently appear mixed with oth-to different environments could be obtained. In er cultivated or spontaneous species of Vicia. In Spain, two types of one-leaved vetch can be Spain, the variety most used is common reddistinguished: the white seed type and the black bitter vetch but, in recent years, four selected seed type, depending on the different shades of varieties have been recorded. Comparative teststhe background colours of the seed, the black between these varieties and local controls, car-type being grown in a greater proponion and the ried out in central Spain, have demonstrated thewhite type more rarely. The western Mediterra- higher yield of the selected material. The centre nean, the Near East and the Euro-Siberian re- of diversity of the bitter vetches is situated in the gions are quoted as centres of diversity. western Mediten-anean and in the Near East. Vicia narbonensis is considered to be a spe- Also in the case of one-leaved vetchcies very close to Vicia faba. It was once even (V. tnonanthos), the cultivated varieties are bo-thought that this was the original form of broad tanically very heterogeneous populations from bean, although cytogenetic studies showed that Grain legumes for animal 'eeci 280

FIGURE 35 Changes in the grain yield of legume species for animal feed grown inSpain

kg/ha 3 000

2 500

2 000

1 500

1 000 r-

500 , , ^...,

,

,

o i I 1940 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 88 Year

Chickling vetch Fenugreek One-leaved vetch Bitter vetch Barley

this theory was without foundation. It is thoughtit shows good agronomic potential. It also seems that the var. serratifolia is the origin of the cur-to have greater resistance to broomrape rent forms of V. narbonensis. Since ancient times, (Orobanche spp.), which is why farmers have attempts have been made to cross V. .faba and grown it in the past. V. narbonen,sis to obtain an interspecific hybrid Table 14 sets out the existing collections of that combines the valuable characteristics of bothgennplasm of the legume species studied, ac- species. In recent years, these crossings have cording to the country and institution which keeps been possible through genetic manipulation andthem. Probably the most complete collection is through the embryo recovery technique, ena-to be found in Spain. According to the most bling valuable material to be obtained when us- recent data, there are 49 lines of L. sativus from ing the appropriate genotypes as parents.Spain and Portugal; 92 lines of L. cicera from Compared with V. faba, V. narbonensis has aSpain; 177 lines of V. ervilia from Spain and high level of resistance to aphids (Aphis fabae),Portugal; 76 lines of V. tnonanthos from Spain; with intraspecific variations for resistance, henceand ten lines of V. narbonensis. TABLESpecies 10 Origin, distribuiicm.o oultivatiun and ecology of grain legumes Origin Distribution Climate Soils ,C) (2n=14)Lathyrus sativus L. centralMediterranean, Asia easternCentral,Iran, South Europe,southern America India, and temperature:AnnualSuited toprecipitation: dry 13°Cclimates, 320-1 although 360 mm.tolerates Annual an meanexcess of rain. soilsSuitedheavy, to poorclayey soils, soils. it toleratesSensitive to acid (2n=14)Lathyrus cicera L. westernMediterranean, Asia SouthernNorthEurope, Africa and Near eastern East, Toleratesautumn cold sowing; and resistantfrosts in theto drought Mediterranean in the spring reg on, with soilssaturated.Suited with to pooralkaline Prefers soils, pH heavy, not too well-limed damp or graecumTrigonella(2n=16) L. foenum- NearMediterranean, East Africa,Ethiopia,Southern Near UnitedEurope,East, India, States North 380-1Suitedsownseason.Development 530 to in regions mm.winterIn a MediterraneanAnnual favourable andwith ripensmoderate mean during in temperature: climate,spring. or the light cool,Annual with precipitation. 16°Cmildtemperate precipitation: winters, growth it is dampnessdamagedsoilsGrowsIll-suited and well onby onto gravelexcessive clayey,drained, and acid deep,soilsandy soils. loamy soils. It is (2n=14)Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. NearMediterranean, East UnitedMediterranean, States Turkey, resistantitsVery evensparse resistant during to habit drought, toexcessively and cold branchingeven during in dry spring.the years.and growing slow A Inharvest favourable growth.period is becauseobtainedVery conditions, of theyToleratesSuited are to not neutrallimy too types clayey or lightly of soil, acid provided soils. Very1high 160 yieldsresistant mm. Annualare to obtained. low mean temperatures Annualtemperature: precipitation: during 14°C vegetative 360- Suited to a wide range of soils Desf.Vicia (2n=14) monanthos (L.) Mediterranean Mediterranean thetemperature:Annualregionsdevelopment flowering precipitation:with period, late, 11°Cand dry towhich prolonged 350-autumns. reduces 1 230 drought.Sensitive mm. the yieldAnnual Suitable to drastically. drought mean crop during for requiresThisthatprovidedPrefers areis one deep thethey soils of least andarethe that legumesnotsoilcontain are toofertility not damp. little whichvery lime. clayey, (2n=14)Vicia narbonensis L. Mediterranean Mediterranean,CentralEast, EuropeEthiopia, Near central this(ViciaTemperature species faba) andadvantageously requirement lesser humidity greater in warm requirements. than dry the areas. broad Replaces It bean does not content.sandy,The most deep Tolerates suitable and with soilsclayey a aregood soils loose lime that and Sources: Duke, 1981: Mateo Box, 1960; Pascual, 1978: Villax, 1963. Asia, India tolerate cold, and is damaged by frost are not too damp 282 Grain legumes for animal feed

TABLE 11 Compos t on of grain legume seeds

Amino acids Fibre Ash Species Proteins Fat Total Lysine Methionine carbohydrates

(Percentage of weight)

Lathyrus sativus L. 25- 28 1.84- 2.47 0.1-0.15 0.6-1.9 55-61 4-15 3

Lathyrus cicera L. 25- 27 1-1.3 56 6 3

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 23- 30 1.48- 2.3 0.35 6-8 55 8- 10 3.6 -4.3

Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. 17-21 1.53- 2.02 0.37 1.3-2 61-64 4-6 2.4 - 3

Vicia monanthos (L.) Desf. 22 1.29 0.25 1.6 60 4.8 3.3

Vicia narbonensis L. 23-25 1.44- 1.76 0.11-0.18 1-1.5 53 7.5- 10 2.7 -2.9

Sources: 1)uke, 1981; Franco Jubete, 1989; Gómez Cabrera, 1983;ateo Box, 1960; Villax. 1963.

CULTIVATION PRACTICES ripen, or else using a modified cereal harvester. The cultivation techniques of these legumes areFor bitter vetch (V. ervilia) which, among these very rudimentary, given their marginal charac- species, has the biggest cultivated area in Spain ter, the small yields obtained ancl the little bene- and of which selected varieties exist, the use of fit which they bring the grower. Soil preparationherbicides (alachlore + linuron, metholachlore + is reduced and no type of fertilization is applied, promethrin, cynazine or metazole) is recommend- as sowing is canied out in autumn or at theed, as is harvesting with a cereal harvester dur- beginning of winter. Nor is any type of herbicide ing the first hours of the morning and harvesting applied. Harvesting is sometimes done manual- only in one direction to avoid the problem of ly and threshing is carried out on the threshing grain loss. floor, although it is frequently done with a mo- Table 16 shows the grain yields of each spe- torized reaper, followed by threshing and clean- cies in different regions and countries, both in ing and, less often, with a combine harvester. normal cultivation conditions and in trials. Table 15 sets out the traditional cultivation techniques for each species. Some tests on new PROSPECTS FOR IMPROVEMENT cultivation techniques have been carried out inSince the appearance of modern agriculture, Spain recently. For L. cicera in addition to abiological, technical and economic limitations better selection of seed, it has been proposed have caused the present marginalization of these that 125 kg of seed per hectare be used and cultivated legumes, the situation of which varies herbicides applied (propyzamide + diuron or tri- according to the geographical area. Of the coun- fluralin + linuron), while harvesting should betries of the Mediterranean basin, particular ref- done by reaping and leaving; the crop in rows to erence will be made here to Spain. Neglected crops: 1492 from a difkrent perspective 283

TABLE 12 Antinutritional factors of grain lagurnes

Species Antinutritional factors Remarks

Lathyrus sativus L. B-N-oxalyl-L--13-diaminopropionic acid Neurolathyr sm (ODAP), trypsin inhibitors, hydrocyanic acid, maltose, saponins, quercitin, flavins

Lathyrus cicera L. ODAP Neurolathyrism (content less than L. sativus)

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Complex (gums and Contains numerous chemical mucilages), trypsin inhibitors, components of interest to the sapogenins pharmaceutical, food, perfume and cosmetics industries (diosgenin, mucilages, coumarin, lecithin, etc.)

Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. Cyanogenic glucos de, canavanine, trypsin inhibitors

Vicia monanthos (L.) Desf. Cyanogenic glucoside, canavanine

Vicia narbonensis L. Cyanogenic glucoside

Sources: Arora,1983;Harborne, Boulter and Turner, 1971; Gómez Cabrera, 1983; Mateo Box, 1960; Villax, 1963.

The biological limitations lie in the absence ofling vetch(L.sativus) to rust and viruses, and genetic improvement in a plant material that is V. narbonensi.s to Aphis fabae. Among the pests extremely diverse and has been cultivated for and diseases of economic importance are Aphis thousands of years, which is evident from thecraccivora and Myzus persicae for fenugreek stability of yields during the last 50 years (Fig- and Ascochyta pisi and A. orobi for the chickling ure 35), depending on the ecological conditions vetches in India. In Spain, the major pests are (the differences in the trend of barley yield dur-aphids (not specified) in fenugreek and one- ing the same period can be seen). leaved vetch; &whirs spp. in V. ervilia, L. sati- The presence of toxic elements or antinutri-vos and L. cicera; and Apion spp. inL.sativus tional factors, the elimination or reduction ofand L. cicera. The major diseases are rusts (Uro- which would have to be tackled in breedingmyces pisi or U. fabae) in one-leaved vetch, and programmes, is a restriction on its use in human nematodes (unspecified) in V. ervilia. consumption and particularly in animal feed. From the agronomic point of view, the precar- Although the list of pests and diseases that at-iousness of the techniques used has prevented tack this group of legumes is very extensive,yields from increasing. The use of such tech- there are important gaps owing to the low extentniques is unavoidable because of the lack of of its cultivation and the paucity of studies car-response of cultivation to new practices and the ried out. However, generally speaking, attack by low profitability of their application. The diffi- pathogens is not found to be a serious limitation culty of mechanizing harvesting, given the aeri- on cultivation. al structure of the plant and its propensity to Fenugreek (T. foenuni-graecurn) has been shedding its grain on ripening, is undoubtedly found to be tolerant to insects and diseases, chick- the factor of greatest importance. Also, competi- SpeciesTABLE 13 Botanical characteristics of grain legumes Structure of the plant Flowers Pods Seeds Lathyrus sativus L. numerousSecondaryMainclimbing.Branched. root: Height: 50-70 Stemsroots cm.very40-90 suberect cm. and pinkpeduncle.Solitary, or white axillar Colour with bluish-purple, a long flattened.2.5-5 cm long,Contain wide 1-5 and seeds onspeckledgreyishWedge-shaped. the wider brown, and edge with sometimes Cream a small or hilumdark Lathyrus cicera L. roots30-50Smaller120 cm. cm) than Deep and L. sativus.fewer taproot secondary Height:(80- Solitary, reddish colour Typically grooved with 3-5 seeds GreyishlessSimilar17 angular 000-18 to colour those and000 with of moregrains/kg L. dark sativus, rounded. spots. but Trigonella foenum-graecum L. characteristicplantis80Stems a cm. high and erect.Branched planting seeds Height: strong have density.only upodour aif thereto The 40- corollastainedsessile.Solitary violetColouror in pairs, at yellowish the axillar base white,ofand the Containveinssometimes7.5-15 with cm 10-20 along, curved. long seeds erect point Longitudinal and (2-4 cm). ApproximatelyorsometimesOblong, light-chestnut quadrangular, compressed. 50 colour. 000 grains/kg Yellow Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. systemhabit.littleLow Highly branching.height developed (20-70 Very cm) trailingroot and colouraxispendulousInflorescence by sometimes a small flowers . with withjoined 1-3 aWhitish violet at the closely.the2-3 valvescm. 2-4Seeds adhere seeds are toperprominent them pod as grains/kgreddishLightTetrahedral, colour, brown. sometimesfrom 25 cream000-35 angular.to 000 Vicia monanthos (L.) Desf. Trailing stems, polygonal in Unifloroustinge inflorescence, with Flattened, from 3-4 cm long. Similar to the lentil but smaller roots80cross-section. cm. Deep, veryHeight: branched up to Whitishpedicellate, colour pendulous flowers. perLight-brown pod colour. 2-5 seeds grains/kgblackyellowvariable,and less dots. to flattened.fromdark 10 light,chestnut,000-20 Colour pinkish 000 with Vicia narbonensis Height:quadrangularStems erect up to and 70-80cross-section. branched, cm. Deep, of contoursreddishInflorescence in flowers the various with and large differentparts violet of or inshort,5-7 colour. cm curved long, 6-7 wide,seedspoint. ending Almost in black a 5Spherical 000 grains/kg with dents, 4 000- Sources: Duke, 1981; Mateo Box, 1960; Villax, 1963. well-developed roots the corolla Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 285

TABLE 14 Collections of grain legume germplasm

Country Species Institution

Afghanistan Vicia ervilia Plant Research and Soil Science Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Kabul

Australia Lathyrus sativus Department of Agriculture, Adelaide, South Australia Bulgaria Vicia ervilia Institute of Plant Introduction and Genetic Resources, Sadovo CIS Lathyrus spp. N.I. Vavilov All-Union Institute of Plant Industry, St Petersburg

Cyprus Vicia ervilia Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Nicosia.

Czechoslovakia Lathyrus spp. Plant Breeding Research Institute of Technical Crops and Legumes, Tumenice

Germany Vicia ervilia Institut WI. Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenzüchtung, Braunschweig; Vicia narbonensis Zentralinstitut für Genetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung, Lathyrus spp. Gatersleben

Ethiopia Trigonella foenum-graecum Plant Genetic Resources Center, Agriculture Research Institute, Addis Ababa

France Vicia narbonensis Station d'amélioration des plantes, INRA, Dijon

Iran Trigonella foenum-graecum Seed and Plant Improvement Institute; Plant Genetic Resources Division, Karaj

Pakistan Lathyrus spp. Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad

Portugal Vicia ervilia Estag5o Agronómica Nacional, INIA, Oeiras

Spain Lathyrus cicera Centro de Conservación de Recursos Fitogenéticos, Ministry Lathyrus sativus of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Madrid Vicia ervilia Estación Experimental del Aula Dei, CSIC, Zaragoza Vicia monanthos Vicia narbonensis Vicia ervilia

Turkey Lathyrus spp. Aegean Agricultural Research Institute, Menmen, Izmir

Source: Esquinas, 1983.

tion from wheat has been a limiting factor on the protection of these legumes (,vhereas there yields when suitable herbicides have not been has been for cereals), nor any marketing chan- used. For these reasons, there has been an in- nels; there have been shortages in regulation of crease in cereal monoculture and in the area of the supply and the producer sector has been fallow, while new crops have been introduced separated from the feedstuffs industry. The lat- on fallow land, for example sunflower, which ter has been developed under the protection of has been extensively promoted by the extrac- measures that have favoured soya meal: low- tive industry through the spread of techniques, price imports and all types of facilities and aid to machinery loans, the granting of advances to producers. As an example, in its common organ- farmers and guaranteed purchases. Moreover, ization of the market, the EEC has recently only changes in irrigation have given rise to the in- provided for aid in the case of fenugreek pro- troduction of much more profitable crops such duction, completely disregarding the rest of this as beetroot and maize. legume group. Traditionally, there has not been a policy for Within the framework of a sustainable agri- SpeciesTABLE 15 Traditional cultivation techniques of gralvi Tillage Fertilization guriesi Sowing Herbicides Harvesting L.Lathyrus cicera L.sativus L. and withFirst cultivator tillage (sometimesor harrow) kg/haNonP of(sometimes 18% 100-200 rains:In autumn, 150-200 after kg/ha the first of PapaverNone (Avena sp. and sp., (lossesWith cereal 20-30% harvester because superphosphate) rowsdrill,isseed used15-20 15-40 (sometimes as kg/ha). acm support between With barley at cereal crucifers) pick-updried)motorlowof dehiscence habit). andscythe harvesterAlso (in and cut rows, plant'swith with a graecumTngonella L. foenum- Harrowing and rolling kg Noneof 18% (sometimes superphosphate) 100-150 rowsdrill,ha Inof 15-18 October:seed. cm With 110-130between cereal kg/ PapaverNoneVeronica (Avena sp. sp.)and sp., and(difficultiesWith grain cereal drop) from harvester flattening Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. cultivatorHarrowing and and/or rolling haNone of 18%(exceptionally superphosphate) 100 kg/ WithIn October-December:100-130 cereal kg/hadrill, 15-20 of seed. cm sp.,None VeronicaPapaver (Avena sp.,sp., CirsiumLolium Withandmotor cereal cleaning. scythe, harvester Sometimesthreshing and broadcastbetween rows, sometimes seriouscerealstocrucifers).Poligonum hormonal damagewhich Verysp. herbicides causeand sensitive of floormanual, with threshing on Vicia monanthos (L.) Desf. rollingTilling, harrowing and None With95-100In cerealOctober-December: kg/ha drill, of15-20 seed. cm MatricariaLoliumNone (Avena sp., sp. Papaver sp.,and sp., pulledandMotor cleaning. up scythe, by hand, Sometimes threshing with Note: There are no data on Vicia narboneasis, as its cultivation is practically non-existent in Spain. between rows Cirsium sp.) threshing on floor Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 287

TABLE 16 Grain yield of various legumes

Species Recgiori Remarks Authors

Lathyrus sativus L.

500 -2 600 Spain Cultivation Guerrero&López Bellido, 1983 1 000-1 500 Cultivation Duke, 1981

312 India Cultivation Duke, 1981

2 126 -6 242 Northern Spain Trials Franco Jubete, 1989 Lathyrus cicera L.

1 500 -2 500 Southern Europe Cultivation Villax, 1963

1 580 -3 037 Northern Spain Trials Franco Jubete, 1989 Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 750 -3 800 Spain Cultivation Guerrero&López Bellido, 1983 500 -3 320 Trials Duke, 1981

3 700 Great Brita n Trials Duke, 1981

1 000 Morocco Trials Duke, 1981

800-1 500 Western Mediterranean basin Cultivation Villax, 1963

338-1 490 Northern Spain Trials Franco Jubete, 1989 Vicia ervilla L.

400 -2 200 Spain Cultivation Guerrero&López Bellido, 1983

1 000 -2 500 Western Mediterranean basin Cultivation Villax, 1963

1 299 -2 830 Northern Spain Trials Various

2 600 -3 000 Central Spain Trials Various 1 580 -2 358 Northern Spain Trials Franco Jubete, 1989 Vicia monanthos L.

400 -1 800 Spain Cultivation Guerrero&López Bellido, 1983 106- 249 Northern Spain Trials Franco Jubete, 1989 Vicia narbonensis L.

1 070 -3 307 Northern Spain Trials Franco Jubete, 1989

culture and the Common Agricultural Policy thatpharmaceuticals and cosmetics in the case of seeks to encourage alternative crops, the severalfenugreek. million hectares of fallow land in Spain could In addition, thorough research needs to be benefit from promotion of the cultivation of these carried out in the short and medium term to legumes, which are sources of protein and which provide a knowledge and evaluation of the plant improve soil fertility. The role of the legumes inmaterial and its genetic improvement, as well as soil conservation and environmental improve-to develop more suitable cultivation techniques ment should not be forgotten, nor should theirfor increasing production. Such techniques would non-food uses, such as the production ofthen be passed on to farmers, encouraging the 288 Grain legumes for animal feed

cultivation of the different species according to pienso. Aspectos técnicos y económicos. In I the different cultivation systems and regions. Jornadas Técnicas sobre Leguminosas-Pien- The animal feedstuffs industry must take part in so, p. 51-83. Madrid, Ministry of Agricul- this process, gradually integrating the utilization ture, Fisheries and Food. of these raw materials into their processes. Harborne, J.B., Boulter, D. & Turner, B.L. 1971. Chemotaxonomy of the Leguminosae. Bibliography London., Academic. Arora, S.K. 1983. Chemi.ytry and biochemistryIBPGR. 1989. Directory of germplasm collec-

. of legumes. London, Edward Arnold. tions. 1.1. Food legumes. Rome. Duke, J.A. 1981. Handbook of legumes of worldJiménez Diaz, R.M. 1983. Información preli- economic importance. New York, Plenum. minar para un inventario de las enfermedades Esquinas, J.T. 1983. Las colecciones de legu- de leguminosas de grano en España. In J.I. minosas a nivel mundial. In J.I. Cubero & Cubero & M.T. Moreno, eds. Leguminosas M.T. Moreno, eds. Leguminosas de grano, p. de grano, p. 175-196. Madrid, Mundi Prensa. 273-320. Madrid, Muncli Prensa. Mateo Bo.!., J.M. 1960. Leguminosas de grano. Franco Jubete, F. 1989. Iniciación a la selec- Barcelona, Spain, Salvat. ción de Lathyrus cicera L. en la provincia de Pascual, M. 1978. Leguminosas de la Península Palencia. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Ibéricav Baleares. Madrid, INIA. (thesis) Santiago, C. 1983. Inventario de plagas de le- Gómez Cabrera, A. 1983. Los granos de legu- guminosas de grano. In J.I. Cubero & M.T. minosas como componentes proteicos para la Moreno, eds. Leguminosas de grano, p. 197- alimentación animal. In J.I. Cubero & M.T. 210. Madrid, Mundi Prensa. Moreno, eds. Leguminosas de grano, p. 249-Villax, E.J. 1963. La culture des plantes four- 262. Madrid, Mundi Prensa. ragéres en la région mediterranéenne occi- Guerrero, A. & López Bellido, L. 1983. Pro- dentale. Rabat, INRA. ducción y sistemas de cultivo en leguminosas- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 289

Tr onal vretes o rainI2LrnO

ita hltflJ.n consum

Since the beginning of agriculture, grain legumesperceived intuitively by farmers throughout the have had multiple uses depending on how theages because of its effects on crops and one different parts of the plant were utilized. The which necessitated the inclusion of legumes in all seeds are used dry or green, the legumes greenfarming. and the plant dry as straw for animal feed and There is always a legume which is suitable for green as fodder or as organic manure. The driedsowing whatever the climate and soil conditions. grain is used for animal feed or human consump-For example, the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) tion. In the latter case, it is used whole or hulled,can be used if the climate is semi-arid and sub- as flour, boiled or roasted. The flour is used on itstropical, which means it can be recommended for own or mixed with other flours, generally madecultivation throughout the Mediterranean basin, from cereals. Legumes are served as a main dish, as indeed happened in the past (until American either alone or accompanying meat or fish, as a beans became totally established). The field bean snack, green or dried. and, in general, American beans (Phaseolus vul- The same diversity exists in the cultivationgaris, P. lunatus, P. coccineus a.nd perhaps oth- systems (extensive dry or irrigated, purely horti- ers) share Mediterranean gardens with the cultural and winter or spring) and in postharvestcowpea, replacing it in colder regions such as handling (for fresh consumption, dry storage ornorthern Spain. Broad beans do not tolerate sub- immediate use). Packaging can be simple and the tropical and semi-arid climates but they can be product can be frozen or canned or precooked.cultivated exclusively to below 400 mm of win- Grain legumes are a source of oil with whichter precipitations. They therefore replace cow- protein-rich cake is made and they also have peas and beans perfectly in those environments, other substances of interest for industry and and even enable new land to be colonized. Below pharmacology. 400 mm, the preference is for the chickpea In addition to everything that the plant offers which, with the broad bean, shares a dual use in immediately, legumes have constantly been ac-food for both humans and animals. Below 300 companied by species that produce carbohy- mm and at a lower temperature, the lentil is the drates, i.e. cereals in temperate zones or roots and only legume suitable for human consumption tubers in tropical zones. This is due not only tothat is free from problems (there are restrictions their great nutritional value, but also to theiron the consumption of other grain legumes by ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen which is thenhumans). The garden pea can occupy very differ- released into the soil, a fact which has beenent areas: from kitchen gardens, where it is found with the broad bean and haricot bean, up to cold and semi-arid moorland, although it does not The author of this chapter is J.I. Cubero (ETSIAM, Córdoba, Spain). tolerate extreme conditions like the lentil. 290 Traditional varieties of grain legumes for Inman consumptimi

It is therefore not surprising that grain legumesmals, with a consequent reduction in the impor- have had a favoured position in agriculture and in tance of crops intended for them; the production, the human diet. However, according to the over-outside farming, of concentrated or compound all figures, their situation in world agriculture is feedstuffs; and the abandonment of rural areas, currently that of a group of crops clearly inwhich may still be seen nowadays, in favour of regression. These data are subject to qualifica- industrial regions. tion: in fact, horticultural crops are prospering but New scientific improvement was established this is not the case with extensive crops and those on a firm basis in the mid-nineteenth century, and specific to subsistence farming. Given that thethe essential needs for crops of the first order latter occupy a much bigger area than the former,were met, in particular, when genetic improve- which in actual fact are concentrated in a fewment came into its own this century. Grain leg- species, the figures may reflect the average situa- umes were not among them, unless they had a tion well but they do not describe it adequately. horticultural use, in which case they became part This situation affects all species of grain leg- of a refilled human diet as a complement and not umes. It should be noted that their decline is as a basic -food. The legumes of the poor, which occurring in agricultures that make abundant usehad served as a source of protein for thousands of of technology, i.e. Western or surplus agricul-years and which still perform this function ture, in contrast to the subsistence farming ofthrough subsistence farming in developing coun- many developing countries. In the latter type oftries, were relegated to marginal regions away agriculture, legumes may not play a very impor- from trade routes and scientific interest and away tant role as regards quantities produced, but theirfrom new agricultural techniques and improve- value is high from the qualitative point of view,ment work. as they generally supply the scarce proteins In an agriculture as highly competitive as ours, available for human consumption. while knowing the advantages these species pos- Highly sophisticated agriculture is very recent sess as regards a given aspect of farming, farmers in humankind's history and is actually a conse- put them in second place solely on the grounds of quence of the industrial revolution of the eight-yield. This is reflected in a limited and fragment- eenth century. At that time in the Uniteded supply that is inappropriate for proper market- Kingdom, scientific principles were successfullying and which, in its turn, results in the species' applied to certain agricultural problems. Experi-abandonment. It is interesting to note how, in an mentation, at the same time as inventions in other emergency situation, farmers revert to legumes. areas of knowledge, caused a genuine agricultur-Inregions of Spain where broomrape al revolution which may be summarized as fol- (Orobmiche sp.) has practically caused sunflow- lows: the demonstration of the fact thater to be abandoned, broad beans are once again monoculture, particularly of cereals, is possible;beginning to be sown. The same can be said of the gradual introduction of natural or artificial chickpeas in Seville, owing to problems connect- fertilizers; the idea that animals are not essentialed to the price of cereals. When agronomy and to farming; the accompanying reduction in the genetic improvement are applied to legumes, the importance of crops intended for animal feeding;latter respond generously. the increase in trade by rail or steamboat, which In sum, the situation of the species dealt with made self-sufficient farmingunnecessary; thehere applies also to numerous other legumes: replacement of oxen and horses as draught ani- valued by the farmer, the consumer and by indus- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 291

try, their cultivation is nevertheless decreasing current bean. In practice, the confusion began from year to year. The ultimate cause of theirwith the discovery: Columbus called a bean what marginalization is that they arrived late in theobviously could not be so, because of its great marketing world. similarity with the legumes he knew by that name in Spain. Thus, the superim.position with "caupf" and "frijol" occurred not only in agronomic con- COWPEA texts but also in botany and in the conceptual (Vigna unguiculata) sphere.

Origin of the name Present situation Cowpeas today are usually called "caupfes" in The cowpea was still cultivated in Córdoba 20 Spanish, which is a phonetic transcription of the years ago. It may still survive in some kitchen English name to distinguish them from the culti-gardens of the Spanish east coast and in others on vated species of Phaseolus. However, the Span-the peninsula, but it must be considered to have ish "frijol" or -judía" always corresponded to the practically disappeared in Spain. In the super- vegetable that is now called "caupl" and to a few markets of the larger towns, it has not been seen other species that are related from the agronomic for some years: the influence of American salads and cultivation point of view (particularly thosehas even meant that a product is being imported belonging to the genera Dolichos and Lahlab). that could be cultivated perfectly well domesti- The cowpea is the Greek faseol, the Latin faseo- cally. lus and the Arabic fasulia. It has also been given In the collections of grain legumes made on the the name "habichuela", probably because of itspeninsula, no sample of cowpea was gathered pods which are like those of the broad bean forand, if it has been, it should appear among the human consumption but finer (the Mozarabiccurrent beans, pending a botanical revision to word favichiela is found in writings of the yearclassify it correctly. The specific cause of its 1100), and the name "judihuela". The lattermarginalization, apart from the general causes name, which is important because it is where thementioned previously, is its total replacement by word "judía" comes from, and not the other waythe American beans. Both in the cultivation sys- round, is not easy to define etymologically. Ittem and in use (green pod, dry or green seed), the seems that "judihuela" is formed from faseolbeans of the new continent, and especially P. through the Mozarabic faseol (fusiol, fusiola vulgaris, quickly gained an advantage over the which diphthongizes into fusihuela; f indicates cowpea and, around the eighteenth century, it is aspiration, still present in the old Romance dia-possible that references to beans under their var- lects and languages), from which "judihuela"ious names referred exclusively to the latter. came to be formed through popular deformation and perhaps also through attraction. Prospects Transfer of the name to the species of Phaseo-The cowpea is one of the priority crops for the lus was due to morphological, agronomic andIITA, a member of CGIAR, because of its impor- culinary similarity (as well as botanical similari- tance in the tropics. The IITA is carrying out ty: delimitation of the genera Vigna and Phaseo-extensive work on the cowpea, both in the agro- lus has not been easy and may still benomic and the genetic area, and its future is safe unsatisfactory) between the old bean and the at world level. 292 Traditional varietiesofgrain legumes for human consuinption

Cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata), legume and seeds Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 293

As far as Spain is concerned, however, theAll are summer-grown species in Spain and, situation does not seem very promising, unless consequently, require water. This is why, like the new culinary uses originating from tropicalcowpea, they are kitchen garden or extensive countries are introduced, and even this will not beirrigation crops, except when dry-farmed in the enough to re-establish the cowpea significantly moist soils of the Cantabrian coast. in Iberian agriculture. The selling prices on the common bean mar- ket, both in the pod and fresh, as well as the popularity of some dishes (t'abada, with chorizo FIELD BEAN, KIDNEY BEAN, GARDEN sausage, pochas, caparrones, green beans, etc.) BEAN, HARICOT BEAN, FRENCH BEAN suggest a promising future for the legume. Al- (Phaseolus vulgaris) though this is relatively certain for the species, it is not so much the case with traditional cultivars. Origin of the name One has only to compare the situation in the These names (in Spanish judía, frijol, alubia and 1950s with that of the 19S0s: the wealth of indig- habichuela) and others are given nowadays to theenous forms described by Puerta Romero (1961) species of Phaseolus that reached Spain after the (who studied in detail no less than 300 from a discovery, in particular P. vulgaris, which iscollection of 1 000) was not maintained, and rightly called judía común (common bean). Thenumerous local races of excellent quality are in word "judía" did not appear before the eighteenthdanger of extinction. The collections made in the century (for example, in Suárez' 1733 edition ofsecond period mentioned barely amount to 12 the work by Laguna: in Laguna's text, only thespecimens, although surveys in northern Spain word "judihuela" appears, whereas in the com-were described in detail (Galicia, Asturias, ments of Suárez, judía is already synonymousBasque Country, Navarra) and with relatively with beans, frisoles, alubias, etc., as well as judi- good results: the alubias of Toulouse, the pochas huelas). In some regions, the dried seed is alsoof Rioja and the Asturian beans of La Granja given the name "chícharo", a teim applied tocould be considered as saved. more than one grain legume and obviously de- The reason for this change was the extensive rived from the Latin "cicer" which, strictlyirrigated cultivation of modem forms of deter- speaking, corresponds to the chickpea. mined growth, for example in El Páramo, León. Until then, the predominant cultivation was typ- Present situation ically horticultural, involving branched varieties As already mentioned, the only important spe-on small dispersed areas, a situation in which cies is the common bean. Another two species,pests and diseases are not generally limiting fac- Phaseolus lunatus and P. coccineus are cultivat-tors. In the transition to extensive cultivation, ed on small areas for specific purposes (as anboth have made their appearance and it was ingredient of paella, for example), and the trendnecessary to replace local races vith imported is to replace both of them completely with thecultivars. In El Páramo, for example, the excel- former. In fact, in the collections of genetic mate- lent local race, Riñón, has been replaced by Can- rial made in recent years, very few samples ofnellini, which is of lesser quality but resistant to either have appeared and always with somefusarium disease. doubt as to whether they are from recent popula- What happened with beans or dry seed also tions or, as would be desirable, old populations.occurred in the case of varieties intended for 294 Traditional varieties of grain legumes for human consumption

fresh consumption. The branching varieties were beans of the variety Garrafal (for fresh consump- replaced by dwarf varieties, and those with flat, tion), in many regions such as El Barco de Avila, curved pods (the exquisite Garrafal), traditionalLa Babeza, and even in the kitchen gardens of in Spanish cooking, by those with a round cross- Valencia, the loss of excellent local races may section, irrespective of the type of growth. Theoccur in the very short term. The Garbanceras, cause has to be sought once again in the industrial Riojanas, and Arrocinas of El Barco, the Panch- sphere. The straight, round pod makes canning inas and Montas of Asturia and the Riñón of La possible without any loss of material and, more-Bañeza, all produced for seed, and the numerous over, if the stalk has a given growth, it can be and varied Garrafal varieties, as an outstanding harvested mechanically. example of green beans, may very soon be no The situation has now worsened. Direct import more than a number in a gene bank. at higher prices has had a completely negative This is a curious case in which a stable demand effect on Spanish farmers and, consequently, on and a high price are causing considerable genetic cultivation. It should be borne in mind in favour erosion. of importers and marketers that they require large, uniform quantities which are not found in Spain. The fragmentation of supply, a conse- BROAD BEAN quence of genetic diversity, in the haricot bean(Vicia faba) and in all species dealt with here, plays a curious- ly negative role in its survival. Those who advo- Origin of the name cate an ecological agriculture and in situ The origin of the name is old in the Latin world. conservation should take this into account. The Romans used to celebrate the fabarias, a religious festival in which broad beans used to Prospects for improvement play a specific role. It is not certain whether the As in the case of the cowpea, the future seemsprestigious name of the Fabios derives fromfaba, secure as far as the species is concerned. Theor vice versa, but in any event one of the most developed countries consume the green podsnoble Roman families was clearly linked to this however tasteless they are, generally offeringspecies. It was in the Roman world, moreover, them as an accompaniment to a main dish. Nu-that table beans were selected for fresh consump- merous public and private institutions are work-tion. The Romans expanded the typically Medi- ing on genetic improvement, in particular toterranean cultivation through their legions, since obtain low plants with a specific growth and withthe seed was used not only for human consump- straight, rounded pods. The IITA is in charge oftion but also for feeding horses. The Celts, in them within the framework of the developingturn, spread it through the central and Atlantic countries, whatever their use. regions of Europe, to the point that, in some In Spain, however, the situation is alarmingas cases, it became known as Celtic grain. regards the conservation of native material. Al- though the beans of La Granja (the basic ingredi- Present situation ent of Asturian fabada) seem out of danger inOn the coast and in the kitchen gardens, the view of the active research being doneon them,situation of broad beans (Vicia .faba) coincides and although some commercial seed-producers with that of the old beans (cowpeas) and with that are carrying out improvement work with someof the new beans (judías, alubias, etc.). Bothwere Neglected crops: 1492 from a derent perspecrive 295

replaced by the former in regions whichwere acontinued to be fed to animals; of these,types little colder, with lesser rainfall and, in particular, suitable for horses have been selected (which where winter and not summer rains occurred.botanists have called Caballares in Spanish, Broad beans may not need irrigation above 400Horse beans in English and Equina in Latin) and mm of precipitation although, obviously, pro-others for pigs (called Cochineras, Tick beansor duction is to a certain extent dependenton theMinor). The division between them (forreasons water they receive. As regards their place inof convenience in work) has beenso great that it cooking, broad beans, haricot beans andcowpeas is even reflected in separate agronoinic and plant have been part of culinary preparations that stillimprovement categories. The same situation ap- exist in traditional dishes. For example, thevery plies in the case of the garden pea. popular Asturian fabada is made with fabes, During collection of the gennplasm at the be- which had to be broad beans, the usual nameup ginning of the 1980s, it was possible to gather to 100 or 200 years ago, but which nowadaystogether over 1 000 specimens of local popula- designates certain varieties of haricot bean. tions with a high representation of the types for Itis with broad beans that dual use of the human consumption, as was to have been expect- legume also beganboth for human consump-ed owing to the reduction observed in those for tion and for animal 'feedingwhich is unthink- feedstuffs. Of the grain legumes suitable for ani- able with Vigua and Phaseolus, and not only in mal feeding, broad beans are included among the Spanish agricultural environment. Broadthose that suffered most with the arrival of ma- beans have known every type of use: in thischinery and industrial feedstuff's. Broad beans respect, they could be the model of grain leg- were the basic feedstuff for horses and oxen and umes. In Spain, they are not at present eaten in thewere strong competitors of chickpeas for feeding form of whole seeds and boiled with meat andpigs. The 1973 energy crisis and the rise in the animal fat, but in the recent past they were stillprice of American soybeans that same year prepared in this way (for example, infabuda), as aroused new interest in the species, not only in the case of chickpeas, haricot beans and lentils.because of its possibilities as an animal feedstuff, In other countries, where the shortage of proteins but also for its role in fixing atmospheric nitro- makes it necessary to use those that exist forgen. ICARDA took charge of it; the EEC subsi- human consumption, broad beans continue to be dized projects in various areas of agronomy and eaten like this, just as grain legumes have gener- animal feeding, research and working meetings. ally speaking always been eaten. Where there are The exchange of information produced excellent other sources of proteins, the use of broad beansresults in broad beans as a feedstuff, and satisfac- has been diversified. Some traditional varieties, tory results in horticultural broad beans. Private of which those of Iberian originparticularly the undertakings in particular took charge of the Aguadulcestand out because of their quality, latter. It should be mentioned that there was an have been earmarked for fresh consumption, interesting transfer of horticultural varieties to both as seeds and as whole pods. These arethe extensive cultivation varieties, given the im- kitchen garden broad beans for direct sale on theportance of broad beans in the human diet market, which in recent times have been prepared throughout North Africa and in other countries as preserved foods. These varieties, which aresuch as the Sudan and Ethiopia. free of bitter ingredients, are sweet and mild At present, there are numerous kitchen garden tasting. Those without these characteristics haveand feedstuff varieties. The former have been 296 Traditional varieties of grain legumes for human consumption

selected from local races, of which the English one hand, there is no adequate information serv- Windsor and the Italian Policoro deserve men- ice for the grower and, on the other hand, there is tion and, among the Spanish, Muchamiel, Ramil- not a sufficient homogeneous supply for the in- lete and, in particular, Aguadulce, which has dustrialist. The latter obtains other raw materials invaded all the cultivating countries (France, the more easily and in greater quantities. With a United Kingdom and Italy), where it is known by slightly better treatment on the part of the EEC this name as well as by the name Seville and authorities, or if an actual small increase in yield others. As a general defect of the species, itwere achieved for the grower, and with a more should be mentioned that it does not have anyefficient organization of the supply, the problem commercial types of highly productive deter-could be solved. Otherwise, the attraction that mined growth. Although suitable mutants are broad bean cultivation still has for the grower available and an attempt is being made to intro-particularly in cases of crisis with other crops duce them into better cultivars, high-yield me- may disappear. chanical harvesting (which is carried out with The trade in market garden broad beans is peas and haricot beans) is still not feasible. showing a slight market growth and an increase As regards broad beans intended for animalin the interest shown by commercial undertak- feeding, the numerous tests canied out by theings which, in some countries (the United King- EEC and by ICARDA have made it possible todom, for example), have incorporated genes of obtain numerous high-yield varieties that areagronomic importance (determined growth, ab- competitive with other grains, including cereals. sence of tannins, resistance). These factors could The broad bean cultivation technique, which was turn the broad bean into an industrial market very primitive even up to 20 years ago, is now garden crop in a short time. The quality of some suited to a modern cultivation. Even for its tradi- industrialized products and good acceptance by tional enemies (broomrape {Orobanche sp.] inthe consumer allow one to assume that market the Mediterranean countries and chocolate spot garden broad beans still have vast prospects. The [Botrytis fabae] in the humid climate of Europe) role played by the Aguadulce varieties in this genes have been identified which have effective process should not prevent other local races from resistance. being introduced into the work of improvers, industrialists and traders, particularly Ramillete Prospects -"u'or improvement and Muchamiel. There continues to be a reduction in the cultivat- ed area of broad beans grown for feedstuffs in the European countries, particularly in Spain. There CHICKPEA are many reasons for this: the abandonment of(Cicer arietinum) traditional cultivation lands; a lack of demandon the part of the compound feedstuffs industries; Origin of the name better profitability of othercrops, especiallyThe Latin cicer gives the words Cicero, pois those subsidized by the EEC; etc. The situation is chiche, chickpea and the Spanish word "chícha- odd, since plant material exists which has been ro", which seems to have been a fairlycommon obtained both by public institutions and privatename for dry seeds of legumes, including some undertakings and there is sufficient technicalLathyrus species. The Spanish word "garbanzo" knowledge to achieve a profitablecrop. On thetherefore seems to be a pre-Roman indigenous Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 297

name, since it has no connection with either thewhites" and of the Leonese "pedrosillano" (both Greek or Arabic. The antiquity of the crop inlocal races and not cultivars) has enabled them to Spain seems evident. spread to other areas for cultivation or for use by improvers. Agronomic techniques have for their Present situation part developed to the level required of a modern In climates that are too dry, broad beans are agriculture, and a genuine revolution has even replaced by chickpeas, which have the additional been achieved in this cultivation, with varieties advantage of a short cycle (from March to June: being obtained which are suitable for autumn autumn sowing is a recent introduction). sowing; are resistant to Ascochyta sp. and frost; As in the case of broad beans, chickpeas haveand which, by utilizing winter rainfall more effi- been used for human consumption and for animal ciently, double and sometimes quadruple pro- feeding, particularly cattle and pigs. Modernduction. The winter chickpea was bred by studies have revealed the high biological value ofICARDA and the new technology rapidly spread the chickpea in animal feeding, which is theto all producer countries. Its advantages are con- equivalent without any industrial treatment, for siderable but ill-informed growers and technical example, to suitably processed soya cakes.experts often sow in the autumn with local varie- Moreover, as in the case of broad beans, the dualties which, since they are not genetically pre- use in feeding has caused a clear varietal separa-pared for this, may end up disappearing because tion, particularly in the western Mediterranean:of the low temperatures and Ascochyta sp. at- white or cream-coloured seeds, very large and tacks. wrinkled for human consumption; seeds of vary- ing colour, shape and size (but never very big) Prospects for improvement and appearance for feedstuffs. The differenceIn spite of the high price received by the grower affects the cooking time and palatability, the for quality chickpeas, it is difficult lo explain the former being easy to cook and having a smooth reduction in area which is also occurring in the texture and mild flavour, unlike the latter. This is case of this crop. In addition, considerable short- a consequence of culinary use: in the countries ofcomings are being noted in marketing. Industri- the western Mediterranean basin, chickpeas con- alists complain of the absence of a sufficient, tinue to be eaten cooked and whole; the repre-homogeneous supply, which obliges them to re- sentative dishes could be the Spanish cocidosort to imports from Mexico, the United States where the seed is accompanied by meat, animal (California) and Chile. Mexican imports began fat and various vegetables, as in the case of other not less than 20 years ago for political reasons legumes; and the North African inrelating to trade. As imported chickpeas were which it is added to wheat and clearly of Spanish descent, similar to the milky also meat and vegetables. In other regions, it is whites, introduction on to the market was easy. first of all converted into flour, either to obtain a The imported quantities have for a long time paste with oil and other condiments (in the east- exceeded those produced in the country, which is ern Mediterranean), or mixed with other flours to surprising at a time when new profitable crops make various types of bread (on the Indian sub-are being sought. continent). Some 40 years ago, Puerta Romero collected There are excellent varieties for all these uses. about 600 specimens from all over Spain. Ten In Spain the quality of the Andalusian "milkyyears ago, he once again collected a similar 298 Traditional varieties of grain legumes for human consumption

number, but the genetic richness had suffered a value as a food explain why lentil seed is not used considerable loss: almost all were chickpeas forin animal feeding. For the latter purpose, other human consumption whereas, in the first collec-legumes are used with seeds that are as hard but tion, there were splendid examples of chickpeas of lesser value to man because of their antinutri- for animal feedstuffs, but which were lost as tional constituents. These include the one-leaved has been shovvn in so many other collectionsvetch (V. monanthos), bitter vetch (V. ervilia), made by Puerta Romero as a result of thechickling vetch and vetchling (Lathyrus sativus negligence and ignorance of the agricultural re-and L. cicera) and perhaps some others, as old as search bodies. At present, the improvement plans agriculture itself and in a permanent state of for chickpeas for cooking and those for use in thesemi-domestication (see previous chapter). feedstuffs industry and in the food industry in Nowadays, it is not an essential food in Spain, general, as well as the intervention of public andalthough itis in other parts of the world private institutions, suggest that the major local(ICARDA also concerns itself with the lentil at races will be saved and that the crop should bethis level). In Spain, it is consumed in the tradi- protected from further risks through a good advi-tional way as a grain legume: cooked in a mixture sory service and adequate marketing. In the case with meat and various accompaniments. It of the developing countries, ICARDA and ICRI- continues to be a valued dish, particularly in the SAT have succeeded in promoting cultivationcase of quality lentils, such as the Verdinas worldwide with new varieties and agronomicvarieties. techniques. Up to ten years ago, the lentil was a crop in the ascendant, the only grain legume to be so in the country. The reason for this was its good quality LE TI L and considerable acceptance by the consumer. (Lens culinaris) Agronomic techniques had improved but not the varieties, of which only the local races were Origin of the name known. Around 250 specimens were able to be The derivation from the Latin len.v is common tocollected, particularly from the northwest of the European languages. Castilian plateau, approximately the same and, for once, with the same variation as thoserepre- Present situation sented in Puerta Romero's collections from the There is no legume more resistant below 350mm 1950s. However, marketing difficulties have of precipitation and in the coldest climates: themeant that, in recent years, the area is also in lentil replaces all the others in these conditions. It regression. Imports from Turkey, Chile andre- accompanies barley, which it leaves behind be- cently also from the United States have brought low 250 mm, when itis no longer possible to about this change. In this case, it was exclusively speak of agriculture in the strict sense. Like thea problem of prices. It is regrettable that, in order chickpea, it has practically no antinutritional fac-to promote an imported product, for example, it tors except for ingredients which cause flatu-was even announced that Turkish lentils con- lence but which are easily tolerated, particularly tained more proteins and were ofa better quality in the extreme conditions in which it is usuallyan for cooking than Spanish lentils. In thecase of essential foodstuff. North American lentils, theway was opened up Its great resistance tosevere conditions and its by the excellent organization of the producers of Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 299

the northwestern United States. Spanishgrowersany other grain legume. They are suited to both did not know how to react to the sales drives ofkitchen gardens and to semi-arid coldzones. the imported product. They are not far from reaching the limits of the arid and subtropical zones where lentils andcow- Prospects for improvement peas, respectively, are grown. Being a legume Contrary to what has happened in thecase oftypical of the Near Eastern agricultural complex, closely related species, genetic improvementthe pea was for centuries intensively bred work on the Spanish lentil has been very limitedthroughout Europe as a green table grain (and and has lacked institutional support. It is essentialpod) in a similar way to broad beans, subsisting to continue, nevertheless, with the aim of obtain-in regions with difficult environmental condi- ing more productive high-yield cultivars, partic-tions because it was hardier than the latter. How- ularly from the local race Verdinas. This wouldever, unlike broad beans, at the time of the new prevent the import of foreign cultivars, which are agriculture propitiated by the industrial revolu- accepted because of the absence of Spanish ma- tion (eighteenth century), table peas (i.e. for fresh terial since, in spite of everything, the crop con- consumption) were already firmly established in tinues to be profitable. Otherwise, the indigenous countries that were industrialized early. Unlike material will diminish irremediably. broad beans, forms with determined growth were The improvements in agrarian techniques areknown since the sixteenth century at least, which also clue to private initiatives, which have man- enabled them to be harvested mechanically aged to solve even the problem of mechanization. whenever this was possible and facilitated their In Spain, the crop is not affected by pests (theconversion to an extensive horticultural crop. In weevil only attacks poorly tended crops) or dis-this connection, the process followed in the case eases (except for slight damage caused by of peas was similar to that of haricot beans. fusarium disease). However, elsewhere no resist- Dried peas which, like broad beans, are now ance has been found against the broomrapebeginning to be known as products (and wrongly (Orobanche sp.). named "fodder", instead of "feed" or simply In actual fact, growers are concerned only with"seed"), are no longer used for human consump- prices, imports and marketing. tion in Europe, although there have been regions where they were eaten in the traditional way until not long ago. They are still eaten in this way in PEA some Mediterranean areas, although they were (Pisum sativum) never as popular in this respect as lentils, chick- peas, broad beans and haricot beans. Origin of the name This species has a twofold use (for human As in the case of the chickpea, the Spanish use aconsumption and as animal feed), with conse- completely original word for this species. The quent varietal specialization. Garden peas which Latin pisum has given rise to the names by which are branching or which have determined growth the chickpea is known in most of the European are in big demand. In Spain, hardly any more languages. local races remain, except for various Tirabeques (frequently of unknown origin, rather than indig- Present situation enous, because of the remote source of imports). Peas are grown over a greater area than that ofInstead there are cultivars that are bred to a 300 Traditional varieties of grain legumes for human consumption

greater or lesser extent, mainly of European orjor pests to control (except damage caused by American 'origin. Numerous private and publicPseudomonas sp.). institutions, are undertaking improvement work Once the appropriate cultivars have been ob- throughout the developed world, particularly oftained, a rational supply will have to be secured the dwarf types suitable for mechanical harvest- for the feedstuffs industry: peas for animal feed- ing. Industry incorporated them from the begin- ing are of excellent quality. In fact, after the 1973 ning of agricultural mechanization and since thecrisis, the EEC considered the pea as priority canning industry began rapid expansion. Theyprotein species, along with broad beans and share this advantageous situation with haricot lupins. beans, intended for the sarne purpose. Fodder peas have a very different history. Not Conclusion having had the popularity of other legumes, ei-Three conclusions can be drawn from the experi- ther for human consumption or as animal feed, ence provided by grain legumes for human con- they have suffered competition from all of them,sumption: the first is that genetic erosion has since they do not occupy a specific ecologicalbeen and remains extensive and has occurred in niche that enables them to be the only one possi-relatively few years. The second is that this ero- ble or the most suitable. Their populations weresion was the consequence of the world being abandoned by improvers and agronomists afterseparated into two parts; one developed and the they had taken from them the best of their genetic other developing. The former accepted, con- content for their market gardens. Being a hardyserved, multiplied and improved the species that crop, they have resisted the worst soils but, whenwere suited to agriculture with a largely techno- these were abandoned, they perished with them. logical basis. The abandonment by scientists and It is not surprising that, in the collection of graintechnical experts of the other species resulted in legumes made in the early 1980s, the number oftheir being lost insofar as consumption was con- samples of peas used in feedstuffs did not evencerned. However, definitive abandonment was reach 100. No predominant local race is known, due to a poor agricultural policy and, in particu- and there is considerable genetic poverty in thislar, deficient marketing. type of pea in Spain. Bibliography Prospects for improvement Bond, D.A., Scarascia-Mugnozza, G.T. & It would be appropriate to plant peas on land Poulsen, M.H., eds. 1979. Some currentre- where there is a requirement for a plant for ani- search on Vicia faba in Western EUrOpe. Lux- mal feed, where neither winter broad beansnor embourg, CEC. chickpeas are able to survive owing to the harsh- CIAT, 1985. Potential,forfieldbeans (Phaseolus ness of the climate and where an autumn-sown vulgaris L.) in West Asia and North Africa. crop is needed: the Castilian plateau would be a Cali, Colombia. suitable region for this crop. It is there that theCubero, J.I. & Moreno, M.T., eds. 1983. Las first two Spanish cultivars were bred, and which leguminosas de grano. Madrid, Mundi have thus come into competition with the few Prensa. foreign cultivars which have been introduced. Cubero, j.I. & Saxena, M.C., eds. 1991. The genetic richness of the species is boundto Present status and future prospects of ,faba allow rapid improvement since thereare no ma- bean production and improvement in the Neglected crops: 1492 from a di erent perspective 301

Mediterranean countries. Zaragoza, Spain, ogy and breeding factorial analysis of yield CIHEAM/1AMZ. components. The Hague, the Netherlands, Hawtin, G. & Webb, C., eds. 1982. Faba bean Martinus Nijhoff. improvement. The Hague, the Netherlands,Webb, C. & Hawtin, G., eds. 1981. Lentils. Martinus Nijhoff. London, CAB International. Hebblethwaite, P.D., ed. 1982. The faba bean. London, Butterworths. Hebblethwaite, P.D., ed. 1985. The pea. Lon- don, Butterworths. ICRISAT. 1990. Chickpea in the nineties. Proc. Second Int. Workshop 017 Chickpea Improve- ment. Patancheru, India. Jambunathan, R. & Rajan, V., eds. 1989. Con- sultants' meeting on uses of grain legumes. Patancheru, Mateo Box, J.M. 1961. Las leguminosas de grano. Barcelona, Spain, Salvat. Osman, A.E., Ibrahim, M.H. & Jones, M.A. 1990. The role of legumes in the farming systems of the Mediterranean areas. Dor- drecht, the Netherlands, Kluwer Academic. Puerta Romero, J. 1961. Variedades de judía cultivadas en España. Madrid, INIA. Roberts, E. & Summerfield, R.J., eds. 1986. Grain legume crops. London, Granada Tech- nical Books. Saxena, M.C. & Singh, K.B., eds. 1987. Chick- pea. London, CAB International. Saxena, M.C., Cubero, J.I. & Wery, J., eds. 1990. Present status and future prospects of chickpea crop production and improvement in the Mediterranean countries. Options médi- terranéennes. Série A: Séminaires méditer- ranéens, No. 9. Zaragoza, Spain, CIHEAM/ ECC/ICARDA. Summerfield, R.J., ed. 1986. World crops: cool season food legumes. Dordrecht, the Nether- lands, Kluwer Academic. Summerfield, R.J. & Bunting, A.H., eds. 1980. Advances in legume science. Kew, United Kingdom, Royal Botanical Gardens. Thompson, R., ed. 1981. Vicia faba L.: Physiol- Neglected crops: 1492 frotn a different perspective 303

He ted honicuRuralcros

In the chapter on the processes and causes of the Origin of the name marginalization of Iberian crops, more than 20 The semantic origin of this plant's name alludes horticultural crops are mentioned which could be to the oldest crops of the Near East. The Persian considered to be in this situation. The authorsgirgir and Acadian gin giru gave the Aramaic, have selected eight which will be dealt with inHebrew and Syrian gargira, and from these the detail. Selection was based on a stricter identifi- Arabic yiryir and Latin eruca, from which, cation of their marginalized nature and choosingthrough Spanish, the words "roqueta" and "oru- from various taxonomic groups that would allow ga" of present-day Spanish appeared. a detailed view of the problem. Rocket (Eruca sativa), garden cress (Lepidium Properties and uses sativum), purslane (Portulaca oleracea), borage This plant is considered to be an excellent stom- (Borg go officinalis), alexanders (Smyrnium olu- achic, stimulant and aphrodisiac, and is also used satrum), scorzonera or black salsify (Scorzoneraas a diuretic and antiscorbutic. The leaves have a hispanica), spotted golden thistle (Scolymusbitter flavour which is made milder by cooking or maculatus) and Spanish salsify or Spanish oysterfrying. The seeds are hot, although rather less so plant (Scolymus hispanicus) are the eight species than mustard seeds. It contains glucosides, such selected. as ally' sulphocyanate, mineral salts and vitamin C. The oil of the seed contains erucic acid. Rocket was always considered to be a potent ROCKET aphrodisiac. In classic antiquity, it was conse- (Eruca sativa) crated to Priapus anci was planted at the foot of Botanical name: Eruca sativa Miller the statue of this deity dedicated to the procrea- Family: Brassicaceae = Cruciferae tive potential of males. Dioscorides wams that, Common names. English: rocket, saladeaten raw, it stimulates lust and that the seeds rocket, garden rocket; Spanish.. oruga, orugahave the same power. Columela also refers to its común, eruca, roqueta común; Catalan: sexually stimulating effect, but is also very well ruqueta; Basque: bekarki; Portuguese: acquainted with its cultivation technique:...and eruca, rúcula, fedorenta, pinchdo (Brazil); rocket and basil also remain in the place where French: roquette they have been SOWT1 and require no other care than manuring and weeding. Moreover, they can be sown not only in autumn, but also in spring...." The Hispano-Romans also compared the aphro- The authors of this chapter are F. Nuez (Department of Biotechnology, ETSIA, Valencia, Spain) and J.E. disiac power of rocket precisely with the anaph- Hernández Bermejo (Córdoba Botanical Garden, rodisiac power of lettuce. In Hispano-Visigoth Córdoba, Spain). culture, Isidoro de Sevilla supports the use and The authors wish to thank S. Zaragoza, V. Castell and P. Cornejo for their bibliographical contribution. knowledge of this plant's powers: "... rocket is, 304 Neglected horticultural crops

so to speak, inflammatory, since it has burning of the rocket grown is for this purpose, and it is properties and, if consumed frequently in the considered mainly as a potential oilseed product. diet, arouses the sexual appetite. There are two This plant's marginalization as a vegetable in species, one of which is in habitual use while the Spain may have been very much connected with other is wild with a more bitter taste. Both stim-its condemnation because of its aphrodisiac ulate sexual appetite." properties. Irrespective of these effects, rocket has been eaten basically as a vegetable (leaves) and as aBotanical description spice (leaves and seeds). It is thus an ingredient Rocket is an annual herbaceous plant, growing of "misticanza" (mixed salad), a speciality eaten up to 80 cm. The basal leaves occur in a rosette in Rome since the very foundation of that city. and are lyrate-pinnatifid (those normally eaten in Hispano-Arab agronomists also mention its cul-salads); the caulinar leaves are lobulate or den- tivation, for instance ibn Hayyay (eleventh cen-tate. The flowers have white or light yellow tury), Ibn Wafid (eleventh and twelfth century) petals. The siliquae measure up to 40 mm, are and, of course, Ibn al-Awwam (twelfth century).erect, attached to the stem, with a subcylindrical The latter author mentions the plant's use as avalvar portion and an ensiform face as long as the flavouring for musts and syrups, the seed beingvalves. The seeds measure 1.5 to 2.5 mm and are ground and scattered over the surface of thebrown. earthenware jars containing the syrup. He also The wild form flowers from February to June mentions its flowers being used in a similar way.and the cultivated form right into mid-summer. It In the sixteenth century, Alonso de Herrera'sis allogamous with a complex system of self- Tratado de agricultura contains no mention of incompatibility, mainly gametophytic, but with rocket. some alleles acting sporophytically. The exist- It is used to make sauces in which the leaves ence of genic male sterility has been verified. The are mixed with sugar or honey, vinegar and toast- chromosome pattern is 2n = 2x = 22. ed bread (rocket sauce). In Italy, it is eaten boiled with spaghetti, and then seasoned with garlic andEcology and phytogeography oil. In Spain, it is traditionally used in La RodaRocket grows spontaneously in places modified and Montealegre del Castillo (Albacete) in theby humans: abandoned gardens, waysides, tips preparation of gazpachos of La Mancha, an an- and among rubble. It prefers hot, dry climates. cestral dish which includes the meat of partridge It is distributed all around the Mediterranean, and rabbit and unleavened bread (gazpacho), extending to central Europe in the north and as far with lightly fried rocket. Some authors relate this as Afghanistan and northern India in the east. It tradition to primitive fertility rituals. has reverted to the wild state in North America, Nowadays it still remains very much appreci- and Australia. Vavilov described it ated in various countries of the Mediten-aneanin central Asia, the Near East and the Mediten-a- area, including Italy, Greece and Turkey, wherenean, the latter being considered its main centre it is eaten mainly in salads and asa garnish forof origin. meat. It goes very well with lettuce, chicory, It is cultivated mainly in India, and isgrown valerian and tomato. Another recipe is potato andmore rarely in Turkey and Greece. It is also rocket salad. In India, it is cultivated to obtaina cultivated in Italy. In countries such as Spain, semi-drying oil from the seeds. At present,most France and Great Britain, cultivation is rare. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 305

FIGURE 37

Horticultural crops: A) rocket (Eruca sativa), detail of fruit in the silicle; B) gardencress (Lepidium sativum), detail of fruit in the silicle; C) purslane (Portulaca oleracea) 306 Neglected horticultural crops

Genetic diversity Cultivation practices The biggest collections of rocket germplasm areRocket is a very hardy plant which requires little to be found at the Institute of Germplasm in Bari,care. It is generally sown direct in late winter or Italy, at the NBPGR in New Delhi, India, at the early spring, in shallow furrows. To encourage Haryana Agricultural University in India and at emergence, it is advisable to cover with light the VIR in St Petersburg. sieved soil. It requires little irrigation and manur- There are also smaller collections in Kabul in ing. It is usually hoed by hand. Afghanistan, Saskatoon in Canada, Gaersleben The young leaves are harvested in spring. and Braunschweig in Germany, Tapioszele in Hungary, Islamabad in , Blonie in Po- Prospects for improvement land and Alnarp in Sweden. A small collection ofThe use of rocket as a vegetable, salad or spice species of Eruct?, including E. sativa, is to behas been marginalized, possibly for moral or found at the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid religious reasons, and its recovery is limited by and there is also germplasm from wild popula- local gastronomic tradition, which is not always tions of the genus at the Córdoba Botanical able to appreciate its characteristic bitter flavour. Garden. This is due to and the high content Collecting expeditions have continued. In of mineral salts. 1985,25 samples of indigenous germplasm of E. The development of cultivars with a low allyl sativa were collected in the northeastern Sudan. sulphocyanate content does not appear to be an In an analysis using the ID2 statistic of Maha- improvement objective since, even though the lanobis, out of 99 lines of rocket no correlationplant would be rendered innocuous, it would lose was found between genetic diversity for 12 char-its individual identity. acters associated with production and geograph- In fact, a wide variability has been observed as ical origin. regards both erucic acid content and glucosi- There is wide variability as regards the charac- nolate content in 128 rocket specimens from ters of the siliqua and its stability, and a strongPakistan. Rocket already has a low content of interaction with the cultivation conditions. Simi-these constituents, and the local inhabitants larly, there is wide genetic variability for seed clearly distinguish this species from other more production per plant and related characters. bitter crucifers. Its use can be increased only An important group of studies is attempting tothrough the promotion of the traditional dishes in use E. sativa as a genetic resource for improvingwhich it appears. other crucifers. In this way, intergeneric hybrids The use of agronomic techniques suchas have been obtained with Raphanus sativas,nitrogen fertilization and shading would enable Brassica campestris and B. oleracea. Somaticyounger, more juicy rosettes to be obtained hybrids have been obtained through the fusion ofwhich have a milder taste andare more protoplasts with B. napus and B. juncea. palatable. There are lines of rocket (T27) known which The work on genetic improvement for theuse are resistant to mustard aphid and tolerant ofof "rocket" as a vegetable isvery limited, if we several stress conditions as wellas Fusariumexclude the development of in vitro cultivation, avysporum. Such lines may also be a sourcewhich has made it possible toregenerate normal of genes that are transferable to speciesofdiploid plants from isolated protoplasts of leaf Brassica. mesophyll. Neglected crops: 1492 from a di erent perspective 307

GARDEN CRESS known. It was also familiar to the Egyptians and (Lepidium sativum) was very much appreciated by the Greeks and Botanical name: Lepidium sativum L. Romans, who were very fond of banquets rich in Family: Brassicaceae = Cruciferae spices and spicy salads. Columela (first century) Common names. English: cress, commonmakes direct reference to the cultivation of gar- cress, garden cress, land cress, pepper cress; den cress. In Los doce libros de Agricultura, he Spanish: mastuerzo, mastuerzo hortense, writes: " ...immediately after the calends of Jan- lepidio, berro de jardín (Spain), berro de uary, garden cress is sown out... when you have tierra, berro hortense (Argentina), escobillatransplanted it before the calends of March, you (Costa Rica); Catalan: morritort, morrisd,will be able to harvest it like chives, but less Portuguese and Galician: masturco,often... it must not be cut after the calends of mastruco, agrido-mouro, herba do esforzo; November because it dies from frosts, but can Portuguese: mastruco do Sul, agridoresist for two years if itis hoed and manured (Brazil); Basque: buminka, beatzecrexu carefully.., there are also many sites where it lives for up to ten years" (Book XI). The latter Origin of the name statements seem to indicate that he is also speak- Cultivation of this species, which is native toing of the perennial species L. latifolium, as Southwest Asia (perhaps Persia) and which L. sativum is an annual. spread many centuries ago to western Europe, is Almost all of the Andalusian agronomists of very old, as is shown by the philological trace ofthe Middle Ages (Ibn Hayyay, Ibn Wafid, Ibn al- its names in different Indo-European languages. Baytar, Ibn Luyun, Ibn al-Awwam) and many of These include the Persian word turehtezuk, thethe doctors, such as Maimonides, mention gar- Greek kardamon, the Latin nasturtium and Ara-den cress. Ibn al-Awwam also includes refer- bic tuffa' and hurf. In some languages there is a ences from Abu al-Jair, Abu Abdalah as well as degree of confusion with watercress. It seemsfrom Nabataean agriculture and, among other that the meaning of the word nasturtium (nasumcomments, he says: "Garden cress is sown be- torcere, because its smell causes the nose to turn tween February and April (in January in Seville). up) must have been applied initially to garden It has small seeds which are mixed with earth for cress, as both Pliny and Isidoro de Sevilla ex-sowing to prevent the wind carrying them plain. The confusion remains with the terms used away.... It is harvested in May and is grown by the Hispano-. The word hurf is appliedbetween ridges, in combination/conjunction with without distinction to watercress and garden flax cultivation." cress (several species certainly of up to three Many of the authors of the old oriental and different genera: Nasturtium, Lepiclium and Mediterranean cultures emphasized the medici- Cardaria). Thus the medieval agronomists ofnal properties of cress, especially as an antiscor- Andalusia went as far as differentiating betweenbutic, depurative and stimulant. Columela notes several hurf, such as hurf abyad, hurl' babili, hurfits vermifugal powers. Ibn al-Awwam refers to niadani.... certain apparently antihistaminic properties, since it was used against insect bites and also as Properties, uses and cultivation an insect repellent, in the fon-n of a fumigant.It Xenophon (400 BO mentions that the Persianswas perhaps Ibn al-Baytar, an Andalusian bota- used to eat this plant even before bread wasnist (eighth century), who collected most infor- 308 Neglected horticultural crops

mation on its properties, summarizing the opin- interest; although it grows spontaneously on the ions of other authors such as El Farcy, who saysedges of rivers and lakes, it is also occasionally that it incites coitus and stimulates the appetite;grown in the same way as L. sativum. Its young Ibn Massa, according to whom it dissipates colic leaves can be used for salads; the ancient Greeks and gets rid of tapeworms and other intestinaland Romans used to grow it for this purpose. Its worms; or Ibn Massouih, who mentions that itleaves and seeds were also used as a spicy condi- eliminates viscous humours. Ibn al-Baytar alsoment. Several sauces are prepared with its leaves, says that itis administered against leprosy, isincluding in particular the bitter sauce of the useful for renal "cooling" and that, if hair ispaschal lamb of the Jews. The seeds of this washed with garden cress water, it is "purified"species were known in England as the poor peo- and any loss is arrested. ple's pepper. The roots have been used on occa- In Iran and Morocco, the seeds are used as ansion as a substitute for radish. aphrodisiac. In former Abyssinia, an edible oil In the fifteenth century, we know through was obtained from the seeds. In Eritrea, it was Alonso de Herrera that garden cress was one of used as a dyestuff plant. Some Arab scholars the vegetables most widely eaten in Castile. Dur- have attributed garden cress's reputation among ing the sixteenth century, obstinate attempts Muslims to the fact that it was directly recom-were made to introduce it into America. Right up mended by the Prophet. to the beginning of the nineteenth century, its Garden cress's main use was always as ancultivation in Spain continued to be important, aromatic and slightly pungent plant. Not only in since Boutelou and Boutelou (1801) deal specif- antiquity but also in the IVIiddle Ages it enjoyedically with this crop in their Tratado de la huerta, considerable prestige on royal tables. The youngcommenting on the existence of several culti- leaves were used for salads. The ancient Spartansvars. At present, the cultivation of cress is very ate them with bread. This use still continues and occasional in countries such as Spain and France. they are also eaten with bread and butter or withWater cress, in competition with garden cress, bread to which lernon, vinegar or sugar is added. has eclipsed the cultivation of the latter. Howev- However, itis mainly used nowadays in theer, this is not the case in other central European seedling stage, the succulent hypocotyls beingcountries or the United Kingdom, where its use is added to salads and as a garnish and decorationnormal and the system of cultivation has changed for dishes. substantially. The roots, seeds and leaves have been used as a spicy condiment. Columela explains how oxyg- Botanical description ala, a type of curd cheese with herbs, was pre-Cress is an annual, erect herbaceous plant, grow- pared: "Some people, after collecting cultivateding up to 50 cm. The basal leaves have long or even wild garden cress, dry it in the shade andpetioles and arelyrate-pinnatipartite; the caulinar then, after removing the stem, add its leaves toleaves are laciniate-pinnate while the upper brine, squeezing them and placing them in milk leaves are entire. The inflorescences are in dense without any other seasoning, and adding theracemes. The flowers have white or slightly pink amount of salt they consider sufficient.... Otherspetals, measuring 2 mm. The siliquae measure 5 mix fresh leaves of cultivatedcress with sweet-to 6 x 4 mm, are elliptical, alate from the upper ened milk in a pot...". half, and glabrous. Cress flowers in the wild state L. lattfolium L. stands out for its horticultural between March and June. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 309

It is an allogamous plant with self-compatibleleaves of L. campestre are used to prepare excel- and self-incompatible forms and with variouslent sauces for fish. degrees of tolerance to prolonged autogamy. Common cress (L. sativum L.), with regard to There are diploid forms, 2n = 2x = 16, andthe anatomy of the leaf, stem and root, has been tetraploid forms, 2n = 4x = 32. A degree ofdivided into three botanical varieties: vulgare, variability is noted in the character of the basalcrispum and latifolium. The latter is the most leaves which are cleft or split to a greater or lesser mesomorphic, crispum the most xeromorphic degree, a character which is controlled by a sin-and vulgare intermediate. gle incompletely dominant gene. At present, most of the studies on the variabil- ity and development of new cultivars are being Ecology and phytogeography carried out in liaison with the VIR of St Peters- Cress is a plant that is well suited to all soils and burg, where there is a good collection of material. climates, although it does not tolerate frosts. InOf the 350 forms of garden cress studied in the temperate conditions, it has a very rapid growth Ukraine, Uzkolistnyti 3 was the best, being high- rate. It grows subspontaneously in areas trans- ly productive and of good quality. It is being used formed by humans, close to crops or human as the basis of improvement programmes, as it settlements. It appears in this way on the Iberian appreciably surpasses the best Soviet varieties in peninsula, mainly in the eastern regions. production and quality. Other cultivars well suit- Wild cress extends from the Sudan to theed to European Russia are Tuikers Grootbladige Himalayas. Most authors consider it to be a na-(broad-leaved) and the lines Mestnyi k137, k106 tive of western Asia, whence it passed very and k115. Of the types most cultivated in Europe, quickly to Europe and the rest of Asia as aEarly European, Eastern, Dagestan and Entire secondary crop, probably associated with culti-Leaved stand out, being distinguished by the vars of flax. Vavilov considers its main centre tolength and shape of the leaf, earliness and suscep- be Ethiopia, where he found the widest variabil-tibility to cold. In Western Europe, one broad- ity; the Near East, central Asia and the Mediter- leaved type is especially appreciated (Broad ranean are considered secondary centres. It is Leaved French) as are curly types (Curly now naturalized in numerous parts of Europe,Leaved), the latter being used extensively to including the British Isles. garnish dishes. In Africa, there are red, white and black varieties. Genetic diversity This crop is also arousing interest in Japan, and The genus Lepidium is made up of about 150collecting expeditions to Nepal have been organ- species, distributed throughout almost all tem- ized. Some specimens collected during an expe- perate and subtropical regions of the world. On dition to Iraq in 1986 are now stored in Abu the Iberian peninsula and the Balearic Islands, atGhraib and in Gratersleben, Germany. There are least 20 species or subspecies exist among the also small collections of L. sativurn in the PGRC autochthonous and allochthonous taxa, some ge-in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), at the ARARI of netically close to L. sativum. Seven of them are IZmir in Turkey and in Bari, Italy. At the Univer- exclusively endemic to the peninsula or, at thesidad Politécnica de Madrid there are accessions very most, are common with North Africa. Otherof 20 species of Lepidium, while the BGV of the close species are L. campestre (L.) R. Br. andCórdoba Botanical Garden keeps germplasm of L. ruderale L. which also have edible leaves. Thethe southern Iberian species of the genus. 310 Neglected horticultural crops

Cultivation practices pocotyls of the very young seedlings are eaten. Cress is an easily grown plant with few require- The seed is placed on the soil surface on soft, ments. It can be broadcast after the winter frostslevel beds. It is finely sprinkled with water and or throughout the year in temperate climates.then covered with sackcloth which has been However, Boutelou and Boutelou (1801) were steam-sterilized and moistened. The latter is fre- already recommending sowing in shallow fur-quently wetted to maintain moisture and is re- rows, which enables surplus plants to be thinnedmoved when the seedlings reach 4 to 5 cm in out and facilitates hoeing. Sowing has to beheight (after approximately seven days in spring repeated every 15 to 20 days so that there is noand autumn and ten days in winter). The yellow- shortage of young shoots and new leaves forish leaves turn green after two to three days. saladsthe leaves of earlier sowings begin to get The cress is harvested when the first pair of tough and are no longer usable. The seed sprouts cotyledon leaves have developed and it is mar- four or six days after sowing, depending on the keted in small bags or trays, sometimes together season, and the leaves are ready for consumption with seedlings of white mustard. after two or three weeks. Garden cress and white pepper are sometimes The usual form of cultivation continues to besown in the plastic trays or bags in which they as described, with 15 to 20 cm between rows andwill be sold, generally in peat with a nutrient the use of irrigation in the summer, since they aresolution. lightly rooted seedlings which can dry up in a few days. Its growth is very rapid and harvesting can begin in the same month as sowing, with yields PURSLANE reaching 6 tonnes per hectare. (Portulaca oleracea) Botanical name: Portulaca oleracea L. Prospects for improvement Family: Portulacaceae Most of the genetic improvement work on garden Common nantes. English: purslane, cress is being carried out in the CIS, with little or purslave, pursley, pusley; Spanish and no work being done at present in the countries of Catalan: verdolaga, verdalaga, buglosa, western Europe. Mainly early cultivars with a hierba grasa, porcelana, tarfela, peplide prolonged production period and better cold tol- (Spain), colchón de niño (El Salvador), flor erance are being developed. de las once (Colombia), flor de un día, lega Cress can be grown and used like white mus- (Argentina); Portuguese and Galician: tard. It germinates more slowly at low tempera- beldroega,bredo-femea,baldroaga; tures, the emergence period being three or four Basque: ketozki, ketorki, getozca; French: days longer. Shortening this period is an interest- pourpier, portulache ing improvement objective. However, cress' s recovery and its greater pres- Origin of the name ence on markets mainly depends on a modifica-The diversity of names and meanings already tion of cultivation and marketing techniques. In gives an idea of the age and geographical disper- countries such as the United Kingdom, where sion of purslane's cultivation or use. On the basis this vegetable is normally to be foundat the of historical, archaeological and linguistic docu- markets, cultivation takes place in greenhousesmentation, De Candolle thought that this species throughout the year. The whole succulent hy-was cultivated more than 4 000 years ago. Its Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 311

common names come from different roots: loni-the pharmacists of Cairo used to sell purslane ca or louina (Sanskrit), koursa (Hindustani),seed for various uses, recommending it in partic- kholza and perpehen (Persian), actrajne agriaular as a vermifuge. Laguna and Leclerc also (Greek), portulaca (Latin, which means "little recognized its different medicinal properties,es- door", because of the way its capsule opens). Thepecially the anti-inflammatory ones, in mixtures Arabs in the Middle Ages called it bagla hamqd, prepared with plantain, violets and gourds. Its which means "mad" or "crazy vegetable" be-magical powers have also been mentioned,as a cause of the fact that its branches spread over thecharm against evil spirits and for dispelling ground without any control. The Hispano-Arabsnightmares if placed in the bed. of Al-Andalus (from the tenth to fifteenth centu- However, in addition to its medicinal powers, ry) used the name ny/a, which means "foot",it is also a vegetable, a weed and a food for pigs. most certainly because of its dactyliform leaves, Columela writes in his poem on the garden: and also fulfil-, farfan, farfag, farfa gin, derived "Already the juicy purslane covers the dry beds"; from the Persian perpehen. They also called itand in Los doce libros de agricultura: "Leafy missita, which means "mixed", because itis purslane appeases the plot's thirst" (Book X); sometimes found growing in gardens and some- and in Book XI he gives a recipe for preserving it times growing wild. In Spanish, names such as in vinegar and salt. Paladio refers to it exclusive- verdilacas, yerba aurato and yerba orate arely because of its mucilaginous, medicinal and known (which again mean "crazy herb"). veterinary properties. Similar references are found in Kastos, taking up the Byzantine tradi- Properties, uses and cultivation tion. Isidoro de Sevilla mentions it without giv- As a medicinal plant, it is considered to haveing any information on its cultivation. In short, antiscorbutic, diuretic and cooling properties. such a summary reference to the Hispano-Roman Being rich in mineral salts and with a high waterand Hispano-Visigoth tradition regarding purs- content (95 percent) and mucilage content, it haslane is surprising. emollient and soothing properties for irritations It is the writers of oriental and Arabic treatises of the bladder and urinary tract. It is also used towho concerned themselves most with this vege- regulate the bowels. Dioscorides already recog-table. Ibn Wahsiyya describes its cultivation in nized its medicinal powers: these were anti-in-the Near East, presenting it as a summer crop. flammatory (eyes) and analgesic (headache),Most of the Hispano-Arab agronomists deal with emollient and soothing, antifebrifuge (in juice) this plant. Arib (tenth century) mentions it in his and anthelmintic. He also says that "it reduces theCalendario agrícola. Al Zahrawi and Ibn Hay- desire to fornicate". In the latter sense, otheryay (eleventh century) also mention it. Ibn Bassal authors also mention its anaphrodisiac powers(eleventh century) deals extensively with its cul- (1837 Codex of the Spanish Pharmacopoeia),tivation, already recognizing a certain intraspe- including this plant among the "four cold seeds",cific variability (he distinguishes early and late together with chicory, endive and lettuce. Thevarieties), setting out its temperature and water anaphrodisiac effect is perhaps due to the pres-requirements (summer cultivation and irrigation ence of norepinephrin, a precursor of adrenalin, or vegetable garden), drawing up a sowing calen- which causes a reduction in the blood flowdar which extends from March to August and through constriction of the main arteries. It is alsodemonstrating the practice of two basic cultiva- mentioned by Maimonides. In the Middle Ages,tion periods, depending on whether the aim is to 312 Neglected horticultural crops

produce seed or to produce for human consump-acidic flavour and is very juicy. In Spain, it is tion. Sowing quantities and manuring and irriga-usually eaten at a more advanced stage of growth, tion requirements also appear and are dealt with after cooking. It is also delicious boiled and in in great detail by the author. Ibn Wafid (Hispano- omelettes. Sautéed in butter or fried, it is used in Arab agronomist of the eleventh and tWelfthsoups, broths, salads and sauces. Together with centuries) mentions it under the names baglasorrel, it forms part of the French soup bonne hamad and missita. Ibn al-Awwam, in his Kitabfemme. Recipes are also known for purslane and al-Filaha, recalls that it is mentioned by almostpea soups. all the Arab authors and refers to different varie- To complete the range of its applications, one ties. He uses the adjectives "mild", "vain" andcould mention its use as an insecticide, in which "blessed". case its juice is poured on to anthills, and also its After the sixteenth century, cultivation of purs-ornamental use in Roman and medieval gardens. lane was gradually lost in Spain. Alonso de Her- At present in Spain, it is basically a volunteer rera (sixteenth century), for example, makes nospecies (weed) among summer irrigated crops, reference toit while Boutelou and Boutelou and its consumption is gradually declining; this is (1801) say that "purslane, which is not at allalso the case with individuals collected from wild appreciated in Spain, is one of the crops which, inpopulations. England and other countries further north, need to be cultivated in frames and hotbeds in order to Botanical description bring forward their vegetation artificially"; andPurslane is an, annual, herbaceous plant, with further on: "on this land, it is not usual to culti-branched, decumbent or fairly ascending stems vate purslane other than using those that have of up to 50 cm, and which are reddish, fleshy and grown at random among other plants cultivatedglabrous. The leayes measure 0.5 to 3.3 x 0.2 to with more care". In spite of Spanish disregard for 1.5 cm,- are obovate, entire and fairly papillose. this plant, it is still valued in many Latin Ameri-The flowers are yellow and solitary or in axillary can countries where it was introduced. groups of two or three. The fruit is in a capsule Purslane has been eaten as a vegetable, partic-(pyxidium) of up to 7 mm. The seeds measure 0.6 ularly -fresh. In England in the seventeenth centu- to 1 min; they are reniform, black, and maintain ry, the cooks of Charles II used to add its leaves their germinating capacity for eight to ten years. to all salads, perhaps to satisfy the king's taste orOf orthodox behaviour in gemination, their via- else for its digestive properties. In this recipe, the bility is maintained much more if they are stored chopped young leaves were mixed with doubledry at a low temperature. the amount of leaves of lettuce, chervil, borage flowers and marigold petals, the mixture being Ecology and phytogeography dressed with oil and lemon juice. The recipePurslane was one of the most widespread horti- resembles that mentioned by Tirso de Molina: "I cultural plants in the Old World since distant will have green coriander, garden cress,purs- times. It was taken to America where it was lane, borage and mint added to it." naturalized, as in Europe, in gardens, among Not only the leaves, but also the stems andrubble and at waysides. It originates from the rootless plantlets can be eaten raw and fresh. region extending from the western Himalayas to Columela mentions their being eaten pickledsouthern Russia and Greece. In eastern Asia it with salt and vinegar. Purslane hasa pleasantdoes not seem to be spontaneous. In Greece it Neglected crops: 1492 from a difPrent perspective 313

is spontaneous and cultivated. Vavilov(1951) accepted; it includes: var. oleracea, which is categorizes it in the Mediterranean countries ofwidespread as a weed; and var. sativa (Haw.) the Near East and central Asia as a weed andCelak, which is cultivated as a vegetable and has vegetable. a bigger and erect habit. Nowadays it is distributed over the hot temper- In a chemotaxonomic study comparingpro- ate zones of a great part of the world. Together teins and free amino acids, Prabhakar and with other species of the genus it occurs asa Ramayya(1988)found that, within the complex weed in the majority of tropical and subtropical P. oleracea, the var. ophemera is distinct from countries. the var. oleracea and sativa. Itis cultivated in the United Kingdom, the In the var. sativa, it is usual to distinguish two Netherlands and other European countries. It is a types which can be differentiated by their colour- popular winter vegetable in northern India. In ing: green purslane and golden purslane. How- Spain, it very frequently occurs as a volunteer,ever, it seems that colour depends basically on but it is very rare as a crop. exposure to the sun and is more an environmental than a genetic characteristic. Some markets, such Genetic diversity as the French market, appreciate red in particular. Little work has been done on the management of In the commercial catalogues of seed firms, purslane's extraspecific variability. Apparently,cultivars of this horticultural plant are not usually without any aim at improvement, protoplast fu-offered. sion of the genera Portulaca and Nicotiana has Girenko(1980)has described the intraspecific been attempted, and heterokaryons and the firstdiversity and composition of cultivars in various division have been observed, but it is not clearclimatic zones of the CIS, along with another set whether multiple divisions occurred. of data of agricultural interest.' Nevertheless, there is an enormous intragener- Extensive work also has to be done on the ic variability. The genus Portulaca is cosmopol- recovery and conservation of purslane gen-n- itan and many species are grown as a vegetable. plasm. In1985,as part of a joint project with the Thus, P. afro' Jacq., P. pilosa L. and P. tuberosa IBPGR, a mission of the Agricultural Research Roxb. in and P. quadrifida L. in Corporation collected indigenous germplasm of tropical Africa; P. retusa Engelm. in NorthP. oleracea in the northeastern region of the America and P. pilosa L. in South America; Sudan. At ARARI in Izmir, Turkey, some acces- P. napiformis Muell. in Australia; and P. lutea sions of P. oleracea are conserved. Forst in Polynesia. P. quadrifida L. is cultivated in many tropical regions. Cultivation practices Within P. oleracea and in its wild populations, This is a vegetable which develops rapidly in hot Danin and Baker distinguish five subspecies (ol- environments. Cultivation is very simple, entail- eracea, papillato-stellulata, stellata, granulato-ing the necessary hoeing and irrigation on light, stellulata and nitida), on the basis of the seed size rich soils which encourage emergence. and structure of the testa. Recognition of these It can be grown in greenhouses and may be subspecies is somewhat questionable, especiallybroadcast or sown by burying the seeds with light if we take into account their sympatric character. Generally s'peaking, the existence of a single 'This article, published in 1988, has not been translated P. oleracea complex with several varieties is from Russian. 314 Neglected horticultural crops

pressure. A first and second irrigation are essen- This type of product is practically unknown to tial and must be carried out either by sprinkler or the consumer and yet it is the most suitable for by hand. In order to ensure moisture during emer- salads. If plants or shoots of plants developed gence, the plots are sometimes covered with wet under high temperature conditions are used, they sackcloth. The seeds germinate quickly and havemay have excessive mucilage and an unpleasant to be raised up to accelerate emergence and de-texture. The plantlets have a milder flavour and velopment. The plantlets are harvested whentexture which make them more appetizing. four or five leaves have formed which, with Where plant material is concerned, practically suitable temperatures, is achieved in about 20 everything remains to be done, since very little days. It is possible to cover a long productionimprovement work has been canied out recently. period by staggered sowing. In temperate areas in central Europe around April, when the frosts are over, cultivation also BORAGE takes place in the open air with direct broadcast- (3orago officinalis) ing (10 g per m2). Moisture must be ensured Botanical name: Borago officina lis L. during emergence. Later, when the seedlings Family: Boraginaceae have reached the mid-point in their growth, they Common names. English.. borage, cool tolerate water shortages well. In this type of tankard; Spanish: borraja, borraja común, cultivation, the plant is normally allowed to de- borraga, borracha, bora, corrago, alcohelo, velop and the stalks are harvested throughout the flores cordiales; Catalan.. borratja, borraina, summer. If the plant is not pulled up, it sprouts pa-i-pexet; Basque.. borrai, borroin, again. murrum, assunasa, porraitia; Portuguese The crop's biggest enemies are low tempera- and Galician.. borrage, borragem, erva tures and weeds, which require as many hoeings borragem, borraxa as necessary. Pests and diseases do not appear to constitute important limitations. Properties, uses and cultivation Borage is attributed with sudorific (flowers), di- Prospects for improvement uretic (leaves and petioles) and emollient proper- Cultivation does not present any technical diffi-ties (cataplasms of leaves). It contains substantial culty preventing restoration of this vegetable'smucilage, , potassium and magnesium use. In experimental tests carried out by the salts and traces of essence. The seeds containup authors on the southeastern coast of Spain, uni-to 23 percent linoleic acid. form production of seedlings of between 6 and Pharmacologists in past times used to include 8 cm was obtainable after a month or so duringborage within the "four pectoral flowers", and it the winter and spring in an unheated polyethyl- was also strongly recommended in cases of rheu- ene greenhouse. matism, in which case the fresh leaveswere This type of cultivation is theone which mayapplied as a poultice, since they lose theirproper- be most readily acceptable on western markets,ties when dry. The flowers and seeds hada provided clean rootless seedlingsare offered, reputation as euphoriants andwere added to wine appropriately packaged in trays covered with for this purpose. Some authors think that borage plastic film. Under these conditions, they keep is the plant which the Greeks called eufrosinon well at low temperatures for a couple of weeks. and which, according to Pliny, "mademen joy- Neglected crops: 1492:from a different perspective 315

FIGURE 38

Horticultural crops: A) borage (Borago officinalis); B) alexanders (Smyrnium olusatrum); B1) leaves; B2) inflorescences in the umbel; B) fruit; B4) root; C) scorzonera (Scorzonera hispanica); Cl) capitulum; C2) basal rosette of leaves; C3) root

#.1 440-.., -fkoOkPL-t, arias oyf '11\

C3 316 Neglected horticultural crops

ous and happy". One Greek proverb used to say: and that, around the twelfth century, the Andalu- "I, borage, always give courage." In sixteenth- sian Muslims were not growing it. Indeed, in his century Spain, it was still attributed with this Kitab al-Filaha, Ibn al-Awwam makes a single property. reference to it, treating it as a wild plant which Thus, Alonso de Herrera (1981 [15131) statescould be used in times of famine. Other Andalu- that borages "are healthier than any other vegeta- sian agronomists and doctors such as Ibn Hayyay ble and, in truth, it can be said that in many cases (tenth century), Ibn Wafid (eleventh to twelfth they are not appreciated because these powers, centuries) and Maimonides (tenth century) seem which are many, are unknown". He also men-to mention it, but there is a degree of confusion tions some of these: "When raw, they engender aregarding its name, lisan al-lawr (ox tongue), very singular blood, and more so when cookedwhich may refer to both Borago officinalis and with a good mutton or capons, and for this reason Anchusa qfficinalis or A. italica. they are very good for old people... and if their Consequently, borage must not have been cul- seed is drunk in wine, it cheers the heart great- tivated until after the twelfth century. It is known ly...". The question arises as to whether the veg-to have been grown in Castile in the fifteenth etable's virtues might not be due to the othercentury and, in 1539, Alonso de Herrera gave an ingredient which accompa:nied it. extensive description of its cultivation and prop- In actual fact, its effects cannot be very obvi- erties. It was one of the first vegetables taken to ous, since "in many cases they are not appreciat-America by the Spanish; as early as 1494 it was ed". The mildness of its action perhaps explainsbeing grown in the gardens of La Isabela, the first the well-known Spanish expression "it is boragecity founded on American soil. In the seven- water" to indicate that something has come toteenth century, Cobo (1953 [16621) also stated nothing. For example, Boutelou and Boutelou that borage had adapted to Latin America. In the (1801) explained: "In ancient times it was veryeighteenth century, it was frequently grown but often used in medicine, but nowadays it is practi- had already lost importance. cally forgotten since it does not produce the Borage is grown for its leaves and stalks which effects for which it was applied in those days." are eaten as a vegetable. The young leaves can be As a food vegetable, the origin of its cultiva-eaten raw in salad dressed with olive oil, giving tion has not been pinpointed. Although it is un-an aroma ancl flavour similar to cucumber. They clear whether the Greeks and Romans madeshould be chopped, since they are not very ap- medicinal use of this plant, it is more certain that pealing whole because of their hairiness. They they did not cultivate it, since none of the writersare used cooked in soups, as a garnish for meats of treatises such as Columela or Paladio referredand also in olla, a kind of stew. The leaves to it, although some authors attribute a Latincooked in batter and served with hot or grated etymology to borago (derived from borra = rigidcheese are delicious. Similarly, borage dump- hair, because of the characteristic hairiness of the lings can be made, while its finely chopped whole plant). Other authors support an Arabic leaves can be cooked with almond milk to make etymology, from abu = father and rash = sweat, an exquisite soup or used to make an excellent because of the sudorific property of its flowers. borage omelette. Some historians even thought that the plantcame However, nowadays leaf petioles are the part from Africa during the Middle Ages. However, of the plant most used and lend themselves to there is no doubt that the plant is native to Spain most of the uses stated. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 317

The flowers are used to garnish dishes andThe seed germinates very quickly, withoutany prepare an exquisite dessert. Genders(1988) don-nancy problems. The chromosome pattern is suggests a recipe for borage tart. In some regions, 2n = 2x = 16. a dessert is also prepared by frying the leaves, to which sugar or honey is added, in the same wayEcology and phytogeography as the paparajotes of Murcia, but using borageIn its spontaneous or subspontaneous form, bor- instead of lemon leaves. In Majorca, according toage grows on uncultivated land, embankments, Font Quer(1990)the leaves are used to makefallow land, wasteland, garden edges, waysides fritters by preparing a mixture with beaten eggs and among ruins. and wheat flour and then frying the leaves thus It is native to the Mediterranean region but has coated in hot oil and sprinkling them with sugarbeen naturalized in the hot zones of western, and cinnamon. central and eastern Europe, sometimes with un- Borage is also a honey-producing plant, thestable escapes northwards. It is also found in flowers and roots produce dye, while the activeSouthwest Asia, Macronesia and North America. synthesis of linoleic acidof pharmacological Cultivation of borage as a vegetable is limited and cosmetic interest occurs in the ovary,to certain regions of the Netherlands, France, which explains the high content of linoleic acidSpain and Latin America, being unknown in the in the seeds. rest of the world. In Spain, it is grown mainly in the Ebro valley, Botanical description in the provinces of Zaragoza, Logroño and Nav- Borage is a sturdy, annual herbaceous plant. Al-arra. The total cultivated area in1987was 303 ha most all the plant is covered with stiff hairs. It has and production7 818tonnes. a taproot and erect, sturdy stems which reach 20 In recent years, some expansion of cultivation to 100 cm and are sometimes branched. It hastowards Andalusia has been noted, particularly ovate or lanceolate, petiolate basal leaves in ain Almería. Sheltered cultivation is beginning to rosette which grow up to 25 cm. The upperbe carried out, with excellent results. caulinar leaves surrounding the stem are ses- sile. The flowers are a bright celestial blue onGenetic diversity branched tops. Flowering occurs from spring to The genus Borago has only two Mediterranean autumn. The fruit contains four oblongo-ovoidspecies. In humid areas of Corsica and Sardinia, nucules measuring 4 x 2.5 mm. B. pygmaea (DC.) Chater & W. Greuter, a peren- Borage is an allogamous plant, which has her- nial with decumbent stems, is found. maphrodite flowers with exserted stamens. It has Bol-ago officinalis L. is a very variable species. a self-incompatibility system controlled by nu-There are varieties characterized by the flower merous genes. Pollination is predominantly ento-colour. Although they are generally bright blue, mophilous (bees). there are also types with white and pink flowers. The plant is propagated from seed. Seed col- However, these are very heterogeneous popula- lection is laborious, since the seeds drop easily.tions with a great diversity in habit, vigour and Sixty-five seeds weigh 1 g; 1 litre of seeds weighs development of the plant, shape, colour and size around 430 g. In commercial storage conditions, of the limb and leaf petiole, flowering, etc. germination capacity remains high for eight to The cultivar Flor Blanca, which is marketed in ten years. Its behaviour is orthodox in storage. Spain, has leaves with petioles of 40 to 50 cm in 318 Neglected lu»-ticultural crops

length and 1.5 cm in width. The plant grows to aper hectare in sheltered cultivation, Navarra be- height of around 50 to 60 cm. ing foremost with yields of 40 tonnes per hectare In the gene bank of the SIA at the Diputación using both methods of cultivation. General de Aragón (Zaragoza), there is a small Recently, sheltered cultivation under plastic collection of accessions of this vegetable. has been gaining in importance. Under these conditions, much longer and fleshier leaf stalks Cultivation practices are obtained and the stalk/plant yield rises to 60 Borage is a very hardy plant which is suited to all percent, as against the 40 percent obtained with types of soil, although it grows best on clayey- open-air cultivation. Production levels are also muddy soils. It prefers land that is rich in organic usually better. matter. It tolerates low temperatures, down to The crop's main enemies are virus diseases -50°C, and starts to sprout again when the tem-(cucumber mosaic virus), soil fungi (Fusariunt perature rises. sp.), soil grubs, caterpillars and aphids. In Spain, direct sowing is used. The ground The plant is usually marketed in 15 to 20 kg should be prepared with a basal dressing using"bundles", amounting to 15 to 30 clumps, or in 10 about 50 tonnes of manure per hectare, if it has to 12 kg boxes as complete plants, with part of not been incorporated into the previous crop, and the leaf removed. However, the consumer prefers 90 to 120 units per hectare of nitrogen, phospho- borage to be completely stripped and packed in rus and potassium. The soil must be well broken trays protected with plastic film. up with deep ploughing and a couple of harrow- Borage is subject to the technical regulations ings. In Aragon, staggered sowings are carriedon the control and certification of horticultural out in the open air from mid-August to January,plant seeds. The requirements for seeds of the in rows or individual drill holes with 25 to 30 cm basic, certified and standard category are 97 per- between plants. cent specific purity, 65 percent germination of Cultivation presents no particular problems; pure seeds, with a maximum tolerance of 0.5 the plants must be irrigated and, in the event ofpercent of seeds of other species. According to intensive cultivation, after thinning out top-INSPV data, in 1989 2 567 kg of borage seed dressing must be supplemented by 150 units perwere marketed, 2 489 kg of which were home- hectare of easily assimilated nitrogen. grown. Only the white variety was grown. The vegetative cycle takes between 50 and 120 Another method of cultivation carried out in days and harvesting can begin in mid-October, the Netherlands uses plantlets. After direct sow- ending in May since, when high temperatures ing, these are allowed to grow to a height of 10 to come with spring, the plant goes into flower and 15 cm and the complete plantlets are harvested. loses its value. Harvesting is done by hand. Each After washing and root removal, these can be plant has two or three rosettes with five to seven marketed in trays covered with plastic film. leaves each, with a weight of 500 to 1 000 g per plant. Prospects for improvement Production levels of around 60 to 100 tonnes Most improvement work has been carried out per hectare are obtained. According to data in theusing white flower types. Breeding by growers Spanish Government's Anuario de Estadísticahas created forms with more succulent, longer Agraria, average yields are 25 tonnes per hectare and wider leaf stalks, with little pigmentation and in the case of open-air irrigation and 36tonnesless hair than the wild forms. Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 319

One of the main problems of cultivation is its low content of lasiocarpine, a pyrrolizidinic alka- ease of bolting, including the formation of flow-loid, would also be advisable, although itscon- ers, which lowers the value of production. This tent is not excessively high. process is caused by high temperatures and light As regards the plant's pharmacologicaluse, in intensity and reduced humidity. Breeding for vitro cultivation of embryos is being developed; resistance to bolting is a priority improvementthis is a technique whereby the active synthesis objective, and a very high response to breeding isof linoleic acid takes place. In vitro propagation observed. techniques of borage have also been developed. Although this plant has traditionally been cul- tivated in the open air, excellent results arenow being obtained under plastic, in whichcase ALECANDERS growth improves. A quality product, with long, (Smymium olusatrum) tender leaf stalks and less hair can be obtained for Botanical name: Smyrnium olusatrunt L. a good part of the year in a greenhouse. The plant Family: Apiaceae = Umbelliferae tolerates low winter temperatures and high hu- Common names. English: alexanders, midity well. In the area around Zaragoza, borage alisander, maceron; Spanish: apio caballar, has been converted into the most profitable crop apio equino, apio macedénico, perejil under plastic. maced6nico, esmirnio, olosatro, catiarejo; The expansion of sheltered cultivation may Portuguese and Galician: salsa de cavalo, encourage the recovery of this marginalized veg- cegudes, apio dos cavalos, rosas de pé de etable. The first tests in this connection have been piolho; Catalan: api cavallar, abil de siquia, carried out in Almería. If they prove positive, julivert de moro, cugul, aleixandri they would contribute to the diversification of production and to improving the supply in thisOrigin of the name region, which has great agricultural importanceThis is the hipposelinon of the Greeks, a word and yet depends on a very small numberwhich means parsley or "horse celery". In Ara- of crops. bic, during the Andalusian period, it was called As far as the consumer is concerned, in the casekarafs barri, one of the various karafs (celeries) of regions that do not have a tradition of usingknovvn by Hispano-Arab agronomists, different this plant, borage must be presented stripped and from cultivated celery (Apium graveolens), properly packed, so that the work of culinaryaquatic celery (A. nucliflorunt) and mountain or preparation is reduced. The plant's coarse, hairy rock celery (the Greek and Latin petroselinum or appearance may cause some degree of rejection,oreoselinon). Alexanders has always been iden- which is avoided with appropriate cleaning andtified as oriental or Macedonian, very possibly as presentation. a reference to its geographical origin and its With sights set on possible external marketsallochthonous character. which are even more demanding than the Span- ish market, the high nitrate content of leaves and Properties, uses and cultivation leaf stalks will need to be reduced. This can be Its use as a medicinal plant is very old. The Greek achieved without great difficulty, as breeding to botanist Theophrastus (fourth century BO made obtain a low nitrate content has been effective in reference to the plant. Dioscorides (first century) other cases. Breeding to obtain individuals with a also included it in his Materia medica, comment- 320 Neglected horticultural crops

ing that its roots and leaves were edible. Accord-was probably being gathered before the Neolithic ing to this author, its seed, taken with wine, is an period and was already being grown as early as emmenagogue. However, (jalen said that it wasthe Iron Age. It became very popular during the less active than celery. In the Córdoba of thetime of Alexander the Great (fourth century Bc) caliphs, Maimonides also spoke of its powers. and was widely grown by the Romans, who During the Middle Ages, it was constantly con- certainly introduced it into western and central sidered as a plant with diuretic, depurative andEurope, including the British Isles. It is now aperient properties, particularly through its root.naturalized in these regions and on the Iberian However, its most outstanding quality was per-Peninsula. haps as an antiscorbutic because of its high vita- Columela elaborates on its cultivation and min C content. The fruit has carminative andmethods of consumption: "Before alexanders stomachic properties. In the eighteenth century, puts out stems, pull up its root in January or it continued to maintain its reputation as a medic- February and, after shaking it gently to remove inal plant, as the Flore économique des plantes any soil, place it in vinegar and salt; after 30 days, qui croissent aux el7Vil'011S de Paris described it take it out and peel off its skin; otherwise, place in 1799. its chopped pith into a new glass container or jar The plant, and especially the leaves, have a and add juice to it as described below. Take some smell and flavour similar to myrrh. Hence the mint, raisins and a small dry onion and grind origin of the word smyrnion, its generic name. them together with toasted wheat and a little Columela (first century) refers to the plant ashoney; when all this is well ground, mix with it "myrrh of Achaca", because it was grown in two parts of syrup and one of vinegar and put it Greece, which the Romans called Achaica orlike this into the aforementioned jar and, after Achaca. It is also because of its characteristiccovering it with a lid, place a skin over it; later, flavour and smell that it is used as a condiment; it when you wish to use it, remove the pieces of root is used to season food in a similar way to parsley, with their own juice and add oil to them." giving flavour to soups and stews, and to prepare Isidoro de Sevilla (sixth century [1982]) seems sauces accompanying meat and fish. However,to attach less importance to alexanders. its commonest use has been as a fresh vegetable, In France, it was an important vegetable, and with a preference being shown for its leaves,was grown on the estates of the Carolingian young shoots and leaf stalks, which impart akings. Thus, in the Capitular de Villis, promul- pleasant flavour similar to celery, althoughgated by Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne somewhat sharper. It has also been eaten cooked. (around AD 795), alexanders appears among the The Latin word olusatrum, whichmeans "black plants which should be cultivated. In the eight- vegetable", reflects these uses. The rootswere eenth century, in Versailles, it was used blanched used preserved in a sweet-and-sour pickle. Theto accompany winter salads. In the early nine- fruit contains an essential oil, cuminal, which is teenth century, Rozier, in his Dictionnaire uni- reminiscent of cumin. verse' d' agriculture pratique, writes: "The The history of its cultivation is surprising.Ofleaves of alexanders canappear among cooking all the Umbelliferae used as vegetables,alexan- condiments, like parsley. Its roots andyoung ders has been one of the commonest in gardensshoots are still eaten in England after blanching for many centuries, although in the nineteenth in the same way as celery." century it was almost completely forgotten. It There is documentation on its cultivation in Neglected crops: 1492 froni a different perspective 321

Belgiuminthe fifteenth century and on its abun- around Alexandria. Vavilov (1951) places this dance in English gardens in the sixteenth century. crop in the Mediterranean gene centre. The Italians also traditionally used this plant. It also occurs on the Canary Islands and in the However, by about the eighteenth century its rest of the Macronesian region. cultivation was only very occasional or had fall- en into disuse. In Spain, Font Quer (eighteenth Genetic diversity century 119901) says that its root was eaten in Perfoliate alexanders(Srnyrnitun perfoliaturn L.) many countries as a salad, raw and cooked, as has smaller fruit (3.5 mm long) and is distributed were the stems and young leaves. By the nine-through central and southern Europe and south- teenth century, Spanish agronomists were nowest Asia. The blanched stems and leaves are longer making any reference to it. Thus, Boute- used in salads. Its cultivation is documented in lou and Boutelou (1801) do not mention it, an the sixteenth century. According to Mathon omission which contrasts with the 13 pages de-(1986), this species is of superior quality. voted to celery cultivation. Nowadays it is very difficult to find cultivars Alexanders was -falling into disuse as from theof alexanders. However, several cultivated varie- seventeenth century, in direct competition with ties must have existed. For example, in England the "celery of the Italians", an improved form ofin 1570, Petrus Pena and Mathius Lobel wrote: wild celery (Apiuni graveolens). This is a case of"...the cultivated form is far better than the wild marginalization in which one plant, doubtlessplant...". It seems that the plant is still occasion- widely used since prehistory, is replaced by an- ally grown in Great Britain. other one improved later. Accessions of this species are kept only in the gene bank of the Córdoba Botanical Garden. Botanical descripiion They are from wild populations in Andalusia. Alexanders is a biennial herbaceous plant with a thick elongated root. The stems grow up to Cultivation practices 150 cm and hollow on fruiting. It has large, pin- According to Columela, "alexanders must be natisect, basal leaves, with ovate to subrhombic grown from seed in ground dug out with a pasti- terminal segments; the caulinar leaves are pinna- no,particularly close to walls because it likes tisect. The umbels have seven to 22 rays, with shade and thrives on any kind of ground: so once black, didymous .fruit measuring 5.5 to 7.5 x 4 to you have sown it, if you do not uproot .it fully but 7.5 mm. Alexanders flowers from April to June leave its stems for seed instead, it lasts forever and propagates well from seed. Its chromosome and requires only light hoeing. It is sown from the structure is 2n = 2x = 22. 'feast day of Vulcan (August) until the calends of September, but also in January...". Ecdogy andphytogeogaphy Nowadays, since cultivation has been rele- Wild populations of alexanders grow abundantly gated to a few .family gardens, similar practices in salt-marshes and uncultivated land near theare frequently seen. The stem is left to seed, sea, normally in lime soils. It is also found inand sowing and spontaneous cultivation takes hedges, and on waysides. place. Something like this usually occurs with It is spontaneous throughout southern Europe, chard: weeds are removed and a little fertilizer North Africa (Algeria) and in the Near East. In is applied. 'former times it was very abundant in t.he area Modernization of this crop will depend on 322 Neglected horticultural crops

techniques similar to those used for celery, in-agronomic references to the cultivation of alex- cluding blanching, taking into account the fact anders mention the introduction of the blanching that alexanders requires less soil and water. technique. It appears thus in the reports by Ver- sailles and Abbot Rozier: "...after they have been Prospects for improvement blanched in the same way as celery..."; and Bar- Celery was also known from antiquity but wasra' and Sagnier, in Diccionario de agricultura considered to be an inedible plant of ill omen. (1889), write: "...in Turkey the cultivation of this The Greeks, who called it apion, used it in funeral plant is still an honour. The leaf is eaten after it ceremonies. It appears to have been grown earlyhas been blanched...". The blanching technique in our era by the Latins. Columela refers to it: also used to be employed in North America. It is "...after the ides of May, nothing must be put inobvious that the smaller plant, celery, had assert- the earth when summer approaches, except fored itself and now served as a reference, making it celery seed, which must nevertheless be watered, necessary to adopt the same cultivation practice since in this way it does very well...". Paladio for alexanders, evidently with little success. also mentions it, probably basing himself on the While cultivation of alexanders is waning, cul- earlier source. Likewise, in the Capitular de Vil- tivation of celery is by contrast on the increase, as lis (eighth century) reference is made to both is its importance in cool subtropical and tropical apium and Wisatum. Throughout this period, cul- areas of Latin America and the Far East. Petiolate tivation of alexanders seems to be predominant. cultivars with big leaves are chiefly used. Around the seventeenth century, types of cel- The recovery of alexanders would be achieved ery appeared which were derived through breed-via the derivation of plant materials with a specif- ing to obtain a better size and improvedic typology, for specific uses, and the develop- succulence of the leaf stalks (var. dulce (Mill.)ment of associated agronomic techniques; this Gaud.-Beaup.) or fuller leaf development (var. seems very unlikely. secalinum Mill.) and which were clearly differ- entiated from the wild plant. These types are actually different vegetables requiring specific SCORZONERA cultivation practices. Thus sweet-leaved celery (Scorzonera hispanica) ("celery of the Italians")is well suited to Botanical name: Scorzonera hispanicy L. "blanching", which enables a milder, more ten- Family: Asteraceae der product to be obtained. Common names. English: scorzonera, The marginalization or disuse of many vegeta- Spanish salsify, black oyster plant, viper's bles used since ancient times in Europemay be grass; Spanish: escorzonera, escorcionera, connected with the changing tastes in the West- escurzo, yerba viperina, salsifí negro, salsifí ern world. The trend has been away from dishes hispánico, churrimana, tetas devaca; rich in spices and hot ingredients towards milder Catalan: escurqonera; Basque: sendaposei, dishes, which respect the flavour of the food astobe-harri; Portuguese and Galician: itself or enhance it. This is perhaps thecase with escorcioneira, escorzoneira celery vis-à-vis alexanders. Alexanders ismore bitter and pungent and notas tender as sweetProperties, uses and cultivation celery. Scorzonera has diuretic and depurativeproper- It is significant in thisrespect that the lastties. The root has restorative and sudorificprop- Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 323

erties and is an ingredient of many infusions. It is (1801) commented: "Scorzonera is usually sown very rich in carbohydrates (18 to 20 percent inon the edges of unoccupied beds, the empty fresh weight), with a high proportion of inulin spaces being profitably used by this tasty root", and laevulin, which makes it very suitable for athereby demonstrating a marginal rather than a diabetic diet. It also contains conopherin (gluco- main crop. side), asparagine, arginine, histidine and choline. On the other hand, it is curious that these same In upper Aragon, the latex is added to milk as aauthors visualized a greater agricultural impor- cure for colds. Its ground, fresh leaves are usedtance for white salsify than scorzonera, contrary against viper bites to soothe the pain. Its peeledto what actually happened. Thus, they thought root, :fresh or cooked, acts as a tonic for thethat "...sometimes the roots of scorzonera can stomach and fortifies the body. begin to be used the first year after sowing, but It is considered to be an antidote to the bite ofthey are so thin that there is no point in wasting poisonous animals, for which reason in Spanish it them so young. They require two or sometimes is called "escorzonera", i.e. herb against escuer- three years for their root to form. Salsify, which zo toad]. The Diccionario de la lengua españolahas the same taste and properties and which of the Real Academia Española mentions that theforms in one year, should be preferred because it name derives from the Latin "black root" be- requires less time in the ground and its product is cause of its external colour. In Italian, too, scorzamuch more plentiful." The main improvement means "root" and nera "black". However, asactivity on this crop has enabled some good documented in Mattioli's Epistolarium cultivars to be obtained, with a greater growth naliunt libri quin que, published in 1561, the first rate and better yields than salsify in annual culti- interpretation seems correct. vation. Cultivation of this plant is thought to be recent. The part of the plant most used is the tender, No Roman or Arab agronomist mentions it. Infleshy root. It is peeled and then cut into pieces Spain, its cultivation is not dealt with either by and placed in water with lemon to prevent it from Andalusian agronomists (tenth to fourteenth cen- turning black. It can then be eaten in a wide turies) or Castilian writers of treatises in thevariety of exquisite dishes: raw in a salad; sixteenth century. The same applies in otherdressed with vinaigrette or with other sauces, countries. In France, itis not mentioned in thesteamed and served with Béarnaise or Béchamel Capitular de Vi/lis of the Carolingian kings, norsauce or with whole milk cream and toast; sau- does Olivier de Serves, Henry IV 's minister,téed in butter with parsley or other herbs; boiled mention it.It was from the sixteenth centuryas an accompaniment for meat; grated with onwards that botanists began to concern them-cheese; baked with tomato and roast mutton or selves with this species, describing it as wild,pork, fried with oil or butter after being lightly although sometimes introduced into botanicalcooked and served with lemon; scrambled with gardens. It is not quoted as a cultivated plant untileggs or in omelettes; and preserved in sugar. up lo one century later. In time, it was to become It is recommended that, once cooked, the roots fashionable in several countries. Thus Louis XIV should be peeled so that they do not lose their of France was very fond of it. flavour. Although scorzonera was perhaps first culti- The leaves can also be eaten, especially the vated in Spain, its cultivation has never been very young ones after boiling. The "beards"young, important in the country. Boutelou and Bouteloufresh and tender leavescan also be eaten raw. 324 Neglected horticultural crops

The young shoots are used in the same way as amateurs, with the plant being cultivated in pro- asparagus. fessional gardens on a very small scale. Some The flowers are added to salads as a flavouring. estimates put cultivation at only a few dozen They have an aroma reminiscent of cocoa. Forhectares. The countries with the biggest cultivat- this purpose, the flowers of other species such as ed area of scorzonera are Belgium. Poland and S. mollis and S. undulata are also used. The flow- members of the CTS. er buds can be used too. Recipes exist for scor- At present, its cultivation is practically un- zonera flower omelette. known in Spain. Although it is subject to the Technical Regulations on the Control and Certi- 3otanical description fication of Agricultural Seeds and Plants, there is Scorzonera is a perennial plant with a long, frag- no evidence of the seed being marketed in Spain ile taproot, which is blackish on the outside andin recent years. white and milky inside, and which increases in size each year. The stems are solitary or few in Genetic diversity number., usually branched on the upper part and The modern Scorzonera genus, which is very between 30 and 120 cm long. The leaves are close to Tragopogon, only includes three sec- broad, long, fleshy and spatulate. The yellowish tions (Podospermum, Scorzonera and Lasiospo- flowers are in capitula at the end of the stems. ra) with some 28 species in Europe. The majority Flowering is in spring and summer (April-June).of them are perennial diploid plants with 2n = 2x Propagation is from seed. The achenes are 10 = 14. Cytotypes also exist with 2n = 2x = 12, to 20 mm long, cylindrical, whitish and rough,x = 6 being derived from the earlier type through with a pappus that has several rows of hairs. The transloeation. weight of 75 to 90 seeds is 1 g, tbe weight of one In Spain, some 13 species are to be found. The litre of them is around 580 g. Under ordinary majority of them prefer dry soils. This is the case storage conditions they maintain a high germina- with S. angustifolia L., S. transtagana Coutinho. tion capacity for two to three years. S. hirsuta L., S. crispanda (Boiss.) Boiss. and It has a diploid chromosome number: 2n = 14. S. brevicaulis Vahl. S. parvhelora Jacq. is found In the var. crispattda, some polyploids have been predominantly on saline soils; S. laciniata L. on detected: 2n = 4x = 28. alkaline soils; S. aristata Ramond ex DC. is ealcicolous and is found only in meadows and Ecology and phytogeography other grassy places of the Pyrenees, the Alps and Scorzonera grows on dry pasture, rocky areas, in Apennines; S. fistulosa Brot. del W. in Portugal thickets and on limy or marly soils of temperate and southwestern Spain. S. humilis L., dwarf zones. scorzonera, grows very widely in Europe, while It is distributed over central and southern Eu-S. baetica (Boiss.) Boiss., S. (Anvils Cosson and rope and the south of the CIS, although it is notS. reverchonii Deveaux ex Hervier are found found in Sicily or Greece or in northwestern only in southern Spain. Africa or southwest Asia. It probably originates Scorzonera (S. hispanica L.) is extremely var- from the Mediterranean region and is native to iable, especially in its leaf shape. The botanical Spain. varieties recognized are crispatula Boiss. The plant is little cultivated outside Europe.(S. crispatula (Boiss.) Boiss.), which is very Most cultivation takes place in the gardens ofwidespread, and pinnatifida (Rouy) Díaz de la Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 325

Guardia & Blanca, which is relatively rare; they About 12 kg of seed per hectare is required. are basically distinguishable through their leafDeep, fresh, loose soil is needed; it must be rich morphology. in decomposed organic matter and free from Numerous commercial cultivars already exist, stones or gravel, which cause root deformation. and there are generally populations with openThe basal dressing recommended is 30 tonnes pollination: per hectare of rotted manure, 50 units of N, 100 Gigante de Rusia, with a regular cylindri- units of P20 and 200 to 250 units of _ 5 K20). cal, very long and smooth root and a very Attention must be paid to the first irrigations black skin. Various selections derive from it, and hoeings, which can be controlled chemically, such as Gigante negra de Rusia, Gigante both at pre-emergence and post-emergence, with anual, Annual Giant Bomba, RussiskCIPC. It prefers sunny soils and the presence of Kaempe, etc. easily assimilable nitrogen of which an addition- Lange Jan, which is of good quality. al 50 units can be applied as a top-dressing. Elite Stamm, which is productive, stable, Harvesting takes place from November to with a high yield of superior size roots. March and requires perhaps more care than the Schwarze Pfahl, which is similar to Eliteharvesting of white salsify, since the roots are Stamm. very fragile. This means furrows of about 40 cm Pronora, which has well-formed roots, ahave to be opened parallel to the rows of roots. smooth skin and, when canned, a good col-Storage is good, both on the actual cultivation our and flavour. It is especially suitable forland and in cold stores at between 0 and -1°C, industrial processing. possibly for two to three months, or frozen, with Vulcan, Duplex and Pilotis, which are suit- light industrial processing to clean, peel, cut and able for the frozen foods industry. scald the vegetables to prevent oxidation. Hoffman 83, Flandria, Nero, Duro and Yields of around 20 to 30 tonnes per hectare Habil are also good cultivars. have been obtained. There are collections of local races and old The most important diseases are mycosis, cultivars at the Rijksstation voor Plantenvere- white rust, oidiopsis and strangulation and split- dling de Merelbeke (Belgium), at the Nordic ting of the roots, the aetiology of which is un- Gene Bank in Alnarp (Sweden) and atknown. the Vavilov Institute of Industrial Plants, St Petersburg. Prospects for improvement Although it is thought that this vegetable is very Cultivation practices little cultivated in Spain, because it has not been Scorzonera is a vegetable that resists droughtintroduced into Iberian cooking, it should be well when the plant has already developed. recognized that serious cultivation problems still It has similar cultivation requirements to white exist. salsify. It is a typically winter vegetable which, Although scorzonera is more productive than although perennial, is grown as an annual. salsify and its cultivation more frequent, the two It is usually sown direct in early spring, in crops have many problems in common: shallow furrows, with 25 to 35 cm x 12 to 15 cm a prolonged cultivation cycle, with garden spacing. Care must be taken to provide protection space being occupied for an excessively from birds, which are very fond of these seeds. long time; 326 Neglected horticultural crops

susceptibility to bolting, even during the SPOTTED GOLDEN THISTLE first year of cultivationalthough this does (Scolymus maculatus) not hollow the root or impair its quality, it Botanical name: SCOly17711S maculatus L. does affect yield, making systematic cuts of Asteraceae --= Compositae the flower sterns necessary; Common names. English: spotted golden poor seed storage; thistle; Spanish: tagarnina, diente de porro; slow emergence and the need for a constant Portuguese: esc6limo-malhado level of moisture; very laborious harvesting, since deep Origin of the name and properties trenches have to be opened because the roots The generic name derives from .the Greek,sko- are very long and fragile; los, meaning spines, a characteristic shared with high nitrate content. many other Compositae. In ancient Greece, a Some of these problems have already beenthistle with an edible root was known by the tackled or are on the way to being solved. Thus, name skolymos. Diuretic and antisudorific prop- Schwarze Pfahl is more resistant to bolting thanerties were attributed to these plants. Elite Stamm. Spotted golden thistle has occasionally been Einjiihrige Riesen is particularly resistant tocultivated, but generally the wild plant has been bolting and produces a low percentage of rootsused, with harvesting being limited to the leaves with cavities. However, it does not attain theonly in spring. At present, its cultivation is very yields of the former. Since genetic variability in restricted and is tending to disappear. respect of the character exists within commercial Cervantes did not seem to set great store by this cultivars, rapid progress in improving this culti-plant: "...I do not have a stomach made .for spot- var may be expected. ted golden thistle, nor for piruétanos, nor for In Belgium, material is being selected which is roots of the forests." However, the fleshy parts of especially suited to mechanical sowing and har- the young leaves, like those of Spanish oyster vesting. Lange Jan, Hoffman 83 and Flandriaplant, constitute a delicious vegetable which can were the ones which contributed the best product be used in soups, stews and scrambled eggs or as qualities among the cultivars tested. an accompaniment for meat. 'Baked au gratin, In Poland, work is being done on the develop-they make an excellent dish. ment of cultivars suited to industrial processing (both canning and freezing); some cultivars dis- Botanical description play a good behaviour in this respect. Spotted golden thistle is an annual, glabrescent Insofar as these improvement objectives are plant with latex. The stems are 20 to 130 cm long, achieved, scorzonera may be expected to begin broadly wing-shaped, irregularly dentate and acquiring greater economic importance.It spiny. The leaves, bracts and wings of the stem should not be forgotten that it is a vegetable withhave a white and continuous cartilaginous edge. a very delicate flavour; its glucide composition isThe basal leaves are oblong-lanceolate, smooth rich in inulin, very unlike other tubers androots and pinnatifid, with few spines. The pinnatifid rich in carbohydrates, for instance thepotato caulinar leaves are sinuate, more or less oval and which has a high starch content. Thisproperty spiny. The bracts are lanceolate, involucral and may be the reason for the increase in demand andare more than five in number. The capitula are price. golden yellow, solitary or in clusters of two to Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 327

four and flower from May to June. The achenes spontaneously in a wide variety of environments. are of 3 to 4 mm and without a pappus. The It tolerates cold and drought. chromosome number is 2n = 2x = 20. The method of cultivation is similar to that of The plant is propagated from seed. Its behav- Spanish salsify, although the latter thrives better iour is orthodox in storage and its germination on looser soils. Sowing is direct into the soil capacity is maintained for a long time. Dormancy ready for cultivation, in late winter, with .furrows phenomena are not very pronounced. 30 cm apart. After thinning, the plants are spaced 30 cm apart. Itis preferable to apply organic Ecology and phytogeography fertilizer beforehand. The usual cultivation prac- Spotted golden thistle is found on uncultivatedtices are very simple, being limited to removing land, in abandoned fields and ditches and along weeds. paths and waysides. It prefers clayey soils and With hot temperatures, the plant grows very temperate climates. rapidly, with the basal rosette forming quickly, at Itis distributed through southern Europe,which time the leaves have to be harvested. Southeast Asia, North Africa and the Macrone- sian region. It is a native plant of the Mediterra- Prospects for improvement nean region. In Spain,it grows very widelySpotted golden thistles, like Spanish salsify or throughout the country, including the Canaryoyster plants, are practically unknown vegeta- Islands. bles on the market. However, they are appreciat- It is occasionally cultivated in some areas ofed in many Spanish regions on account of their the Maghreb, southern Italy and Greece. Invery pleasant flavour. As in the case of so many Spain, cultivation has practically disappeared. other crops, its revival will have to be accompa- nied by a marketing system which creates de- Genetic diversity mand. This means publicity campaigns, The genus Scolymus L. includes another twoutilization standards, recipes for traditional dish- Mediterranean species with a use similar to thates, etc., as well as a product of sufficient quality of the spotted golden thistle, the Spanish salsifybeing available on the markets. The fleshy leaf or Spanish oyster plant (S. hispanicus L.), parts would have to be offered peeled and clean with a wide Mediterranean distribution, and and suitably packaged. S. grandiflorus Desf., with a more restricted dis- From the point of view of improvement, one of tribution in the eastern Mediterranean. These arethe most serious problems of the spotted golden very close species which differ in the leaf margin thistle is the ease with which it goes into :flower, and wings of the stem and in the involucralencouraged by long-day spring conditions and bracts, among other characters. Unlike the spot-high temperatures. Selection for resistance to this ted golden thistle, these Spanish salsify oysterprocess would increase the cultivation period and plants are biennial or perennial. make it possible to improve yields of the basal A great morphological variability is observed, rosette. The plant's general spininess is another but no collections of material are known. problem. Undoubtedly, the most urgent task is to carry Cultivation practices out collecting expeditions in the Mediterranean The spotted golden thistle is a very hardy plantbasin, including the Maghreb, and to characterize which prefers clayey soils, although it growsthe material collected as a starting point for im- 328 Neglected horticultural crops

provement. At the present time it is already very prets that silyan and adaliq, spiny plants which difficult to find traditional cultigens. people collect among wild vegetables, are indeed This problem is not limited to the spotted Spanish salsify, Scolymus hispanicus. golden thistle and Spanish salsify, or even to the Although it has been cultivated occasionally, genus Scolymus, but affects many other Com- at present it is clearly in recession. Most of the positae. For example, the tribe Carduaceae con- Spanish salsify that is eaten comes simply from tains 80 genera with over 2 650 species, 227 ofcollecting the wild plant. which are found in Spain and 150 of which are Several parts of the plant have a fairly delicate endemic in the country. Many of these plantsflavour. The young basal leaves are eaten as a have agricultural value and have occasionallyvegetable in salads, boiled, in soups, stews, ome- been cultivated. In the majority of cases, cultiva- lettes, etc. The most pleasant part of the leaf is the tion is on the decline, even though it is beingcentral rib, a white fleshy part which is obtained maintained. The recovery of these genetic re- by peeling the leaf, with a scraping movement sources, the characterization of the materials and with one hand from the base to the apex, while the initiation of improvement programmes couldthe other hand holds the base. The young stems contribute towards diversification, both of pro- are used in a similar way. Font Quer (1990) duction and supply, thus helping to make Spanish mentioned that this plant is appreciated in almost agriculture more competitive. all of Spain's provinces and "...is used widely in stew during the spring". In the sixteenth century in Salamanca, the washed young plants used to SPANISH SALSIFY be eaten with their root, either raw or in stews (Scolymus hispanicus) with meat. In soup, its roots are prepared with Botanical name: Scolymus hispanicus L. milk, butter and flour. Family: Asteraceae = Compositae Common names. English: Spanish salsify, Botanical description Spanish oyster plant, common goldenSpanish salsify is a biennial or perennial plant, thistle; Spanish: cardillo, cardillo de comer,which is erect, contains latex and is very spiny. cardillo de olla, cardillo bravío, cardoThe stems are between 5 and 250 cm long, lechar, cardón lechar, cardón lechal,branched at the top, with discontinuous spiny, lechocino, cardo zafranero; Catalan: cardet,dentate wings. The basal leaves are oblong- cardelina;Basque:kardaberaiakca; lanceolate, smooth, pinnatisect, with few spines, Portuguese: cardo de ouro, cangarinha and a long petiole. The caulinar leaves are rigid, coriaceous and spiny. The capitula haveone to Properties and uses three golden-yellow, enveloping leaves; theyare The Spanish salsify plant has been recognizedas about 3 cm long, in a lateral or terminal arrange- having antisudorific and diuretic properties. Thement and surrounded by an involucre of spiny Greeks knew it and it is mentioned by Theo- bracts. The achenes are 2 to 3 mm witha pappus phrastus. Pliny makes reference to it and consid- that has a short corona. It flowers from Mayto ers it an antiperspirant. However, it is barelyJuly. The plant is propagated from seed, which mentioned by Andalusian agronomists. Thehas a very good germination capacity for several translator of an anonymous Hispano-Arab docu- years and does not exhibit any marked dormancy ment of the eleventh and twelfth century inter-phenomena. It is a diploid plant: 2n= 2x = 20. Neglected crops: 1492 fi-orn a di erent perspective 329

Ecology and phytogeography formed. The roots are usually harvested around Spanish salsify is found on waste ground andthe end of October or during the winter. If the uncultivated land, among rubble, in ditches andplant is left until the following year, itgoes into along paths; it is most frequently found in sandy flower and develops a sturdy stem, while the places in temperate zones. basal leaves lose their quality because of tough- Distributed through southern Europe andening. Therefore, although the plant can be kept North Africa, it extends to northwestern France.for several years, it should be cultivatedas an Vavilov (1951) pinpoints its origin as the Medi- annual. terranean region. In Spain, it grows wild in most There are no serious phytopathological of the country but shuns high mountains; it is less problems. common in the north. It is also found in the Canary Islands. Prospects for improvement It is occasionally cultivated in MediterraneanThe considerably spiny nature of the Spanish countries such as Spain, Greece and the Magh- salsify plant, and especially of the caulinar leaves reb;itis practically unknown in the Unitedwhich have big, tough spines, is a serious draw- States. back to its handling and deters attempts to culti- vate it. The breeding of less spiny forms would Genetic diversity facilitate the plant's handling. There is considerable variability in the morpho- As far as the most widely used portion is logical characteristics of Spanish salsify such as concerned i.e. the fleshy part of the leaves hairiness, leaf morphology and involucral bracts,forms will need to be bred that have thick, tender receptacular scales, spininess, etc. and juicy ribs. Wide collections of material must No definite cultivars exist; it is still possible to be made, especially of the old cultigens which obtain a few cultigens, although there is a seriouscan still be recovered, so as to characterize and risk of losing these materials. select them. The areas of greatest interest are the There has been no significant activity in col- Maghreb, southern Greece and non-horticultural lecting or conserving genetic resources of this Spanish regions. spec ies. If the intention is to use the roots, harvesting should be carried out until the end of the winter. Cultivation practices Resistance to flowering will enable root yield to Spanish salsify is a very hardy plant, is resistant be improved by encouraging rapid root growth at to cold and thrives on all kinds of soil, although it the time of hot weather. prefers light-textured soils that are rich in organic matter. Its cultivation requires very little care. Bibliography Sowing is direct and is carried out in lateAdachi, T. & Osei-Kofi, F. 1984. Intraspecific winter or in spring. A light, well-drained, ma- and intergeneric fusion of protoplasts among nured soil should be used. It can be sown in some species of Nicotiana and Portulac. Bull. futTows, 30 cm apart with a distance of 30 cm Fac. Agrie. Miyazaki Univ., 31(1): 11-19. between plants after thinning. Alonso de Herrera, G. 1513, ed. 1981. Agricul- The young white shoots can be pulled up when tura general. E. Terrón, ed. Madrid, Ministry they reach 20 cm or so in height. The fleshy parts of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. of the leaves need the basal rosette to be wellBettencourt, E. & Perret, P.M. 1986. Directory 330 Neglected horticultural crops

of European institutions holding crop genetic certificación de semillas de plantas hortícolas. resources collections, 3rd ed. Rome, UNDP/ In F. Nuez & L. Rallo, eds. La horticultura IBPGR. espanola en la Comunidad Europea. Reus, Boutelou, C. & Boutelou, E. 1801. Tratado de Spain, SECH eds de Horticultura. la huerta. Madrid, Imprenta Villalpando. Font Quer, P. 1990. Plantas medicinales, 12th Cobo, B. 1662, ed. 1953. Historia del Nuevo ed. Barcelona, Spain Editorial Labor, S.A. Mundo. Madrid, Editorial Atlas. Gálvez, C. & Hernández Bermejo, J.E. 1986. Columela, L.J.M. 1824. Los doce libros de agri- Fundamentos para la domesticación de espe- cultura (AD 42). Madrid, Imprenta Miguel de cies silvestres ibéricas de carduaceas con in- Burgos. terés potencial agrícola. Actas de/II Congreso Columela, L.J.M. 1988. De los trabajos de cam- Nacional de la SECH, 2: 1173-1182. po (siglo I). A. Holgado Redondo, ed. Madrid, Genders, R. 1988. Plantas silvestres comesti- Siglo XXI de España Editores, S.A/Ministry bles. Barcelona, Spain, Editorial Blume. of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Gil, J.. & Varela, C. 1984. Carta de particulares Cotrina, F. 1989. Cultivo de la borraja. Informe a Colón y relaciones coetáneas. Madrid, Al- del SEA de la Diputación General de Aragón. ianza Editorial. (unpubl.) Girenko, M.M. 1980. Collection of minor spe- Crecini, F. 1952. Piante erbacee di grande col- cies of vegetable crops as breeding material. tura, 3rd ed. Rome, Ramo Editoriale degli Byulleten' Vsesoyuznogo Ordena Lenina i Agricoltori. Ordena Druzhby Narodov Institute Ras- Dayal, N. 1987. Towards synthesis of x Rapha- tenievodstva Imeni N.I.Vavilova, 101: 14-18. noeruca. Cruciferae Newsl., 12: 7. (Plant Breeding Abstr., 1982: 7104) de Candolle, A. 1883. Origine des plantes cul-Government of Spain. 1987. Anuario de Es- tivées, 10th ed. Paris, Baillière. tadística Agraria. Madrid, Ministry of Agri- Diaz de la Guardia, C. & Blanca, G. 1987. culture, Fisheries and Food. Karyology of the Scorzonera (Cornpositae)Gupta, A.K. & Dubey, M.M. 1988. Field reac- species from the Iberian Peninsula. Plant sys- don of taramira germplasm to Fusarium wilt. tematic and evolution. 156(1-2): 29-42. Indicm Mycol. Plant Pathol., 17(1): 74. Fahleson, J., Rahlen, L. & Glimelius, K. 1988.Hammer, K. & Sabir, A.A. 1987. Collecting in Analysis of plants regenerated from proto- Iraq. Plant Genet. Resour. Newsl., 70: 44. plast fusions between Brassica napus and Herrera, A. 1539, ed. 1968. Agricultura genet.- Eruca sativa.Theor. Appl. Genet., 76(4): 507- al, 2nd ed. Madrid, Ministry of Agriculture, 512. Fisheries and Food. FAO. 1983. Development of erucic acid andIbn al-Awwam. 1988. Libro de agricultura (sig- -free crucifers in Pakistan. In lo XII). Translated and annotated by J.A. Ban- J.C. Holmes & W.M. Tahir, eds. More .food queri, 2 vols. Madrid, Ministry of Agriculture, from better technology. Rome. Fisheries and Food. Faulkner, G.J. & Jackson, J.C. 1984. Experi-Ibn al-Baytar. 1991. Trait(' des simples (siglo mental seed production. Avonresister parsnip. XIII). Translation by L. Leclerc, 3 vols. Paris, Annu. Rep. Natl Vegetable Res. Sta. Welles- Institut de Monde Arabe. bourne, 1983: 60-61. Ibn Bassal. 1955. Libro de agricultura (siglo Fernández de Gorostiza, M. 1991.Control y XI). Edited, translated and annotated by J.M. Neglected crops: 1492 ,Thorn a different perspective 331

Millas Vallicrosa & M. Aziman. Tétuouan,Oguro, H., Hinata, K., Samejina, M., Sugiya- Morocco, Instituto Muley El-Hasan. ma, T. & Tsunoda, S. 1988. Photosynthetic Ibn Luyun. 1988. Tratado de agricultura (siglo characteristics of the reciprocal interspecific XIV). Translated and annotated by J. Eguaras hybrids and their progenies between Atriplex Ibáñez. Granada, Spain, Patronato de la Al- triangularis (C3) and A. rosea (C4). Japanese hambra y Generalife. J. Breeding, 38(1): 53-64. Isidoro de Sevilla. 1982. Etimologías (siglo VI). Plucinska, M. 1981. Investigation of black salsi- Latin text, Spanish translation and notes by J. fy varieties with regard to yield, quality and Oroz Reta & M. Marcos Caspuero, 2 vols. suitability for canning and freezing. Biuletyn Madrid, B AC. Warzywniczy, 25: 311-335. (Plant Breeding Jackson, W.M., ed. Diccionario enciclopédico Abstr., 4009) hispano-americano, 28 vols. Boston-London,Prabhakar, M. & Ramayya, N. 1988. Chemo- Simmonds. taxonomy of the genus Portulaca L. protein Kumar, P.R. ,n: Kumar, P. 1989. Genetic im- and non-protein free amino acids of leaf. Indi- provement of rapeseed-mustard, achieve- an J. Bot., 11(1):51-58. ments, critical gaps and future priorities. J. Quer, J. 1762-1764. Flora española o historia Oilseeds Res., 6(2): 211-219. de las plantas que se crían en España, 4 vols. Kumar, D. & Yadav, I.S. 1986. Genetics of Madrid, Ibarra. yield and its components in taramira. Indian J. Quinn, J., Simon, J.E. & Janick, J. 1989. His- Agric. Sci., 56(3): 167-170. tology of zygotic and somatic embryogenesis Laumonnier, R. 1963. Cultures marafchéres in borage. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci., 114(3): 2nd ed. Paris, Baillière. 516-520. López & López, A. 1990. Kitab fi tartib Awqat Rivera Núñez, D. & Obón de Castro, C. 1991. al GirasaWa-L-Magrusat. Un tratado agríco- La guía de las plantas útiles y venenosas de la andalusí anónimo. Granada, Spain, CSIC. la Península Ibérica y Baleares. Madrid, Maroto, V. 1983. Horticultura herbácea espe- INCAFO. cial. Madrid, Pub. Mundi Prensa. Rohilla, H.R., Singh, H., Kalra, V.K. Mathon, C. Ch. 1986. Potagères autrefois Kharub, S.S. 1987. Losses caused by mus- répandues et aujourd'hui disparues. Sugges- tard aphid, Lipaphis erysitni (Kalt.), in differ- tions pour une typologie. In Bureau des res- ent Brassica genotipes. In 7th Int. Rapeseed sources génétiques. La diversité des plantes Congr., Pozndn. legutniéres (Angers, 17-19 October 1985).Seehuber, R. & Dambroth, M. 1984. Die Po- Paris, Lavoisier. tentiale zur Erzeugung von Industrie Grundst- Matsuzawa, Y. & Sarashima, M. 1986. Inter- offen aus heimischen Ölpflanzen und die genetic hybridization of Eruca, Brassica and Perspektiv en fiir ihre Nutzbarmachung. Raphanus. Cruciferae Newsl., 11: 17. Landbauforschung Válkenrode, 34(3). Nikitina, A.Y. 1980. Promising cress varietiesSikdar, S.R., Chatterjee, G., Das, S. & Sen, for the fagestan ASSR. Byulleten' Vsesoyuz- S.K. 1990. "Erussica" the intergeneric fertile nogo Ordena Lenina i Ordena Druzhby Nar- somatic hybrid developed through protoplast odov Institute Rastenievodstva Imeni N.I. fusion between Eruca sativa Lam. and Brassi- Vavilova, 101: 71-75. (Plant Breeding Abstr., ca juncea (L.) Czem. Theoret. Appl. Genet., 1982: 7107) 79(4): 561-567. 332 Neglected horticultural crops

Simmonds, N.W., ed. 1976. Evolution of cropVerma, S.C. 1984. Genic male sterility in Eruca plants. London-New York, Longman. sativa Cruciferae, plant cell incompatibility. Sodani, S.N., Sastry, E.V.D. & Nehra, M.R. Newsl., 19: 74-78. 1990. Divergence analysis in taramira (ErucaVolodars'ka, A.T. 1986. Breeding evaluation of sativa Mill.) Indian J. Genet. Plant Breeding, a salad cress collection. Ovochivnitsvo i Bash- 50(1): 9-12. tannitovo, 31: 43-45. (Plant Breeding Abstr., Tindall, H.D. & Willams, j.T., eds. 1977. Trop- 1987, 10277) ical vegetables and their genetic resources. Yadav, I.S. & Yadava, T.P. 1987. Identification Rome, IBPGR. of parents for hybridization through combin- Toll, J. & van Sloten, D.H. 1982. Directory of ing ability analysis in taramira under rainfed germplasm collections. 4. Vegetables. Rome, conditions. J. Oilseed Res., 4(1): 82-88. IBPGR. Yamagishi, H., Yui, S. & Yoshikawa, H. 1986. Tutin, T.G., ed. 1967. The Flora Europaea Or- Genetic resources of cruciferous crops col- ganization. Vol. II. London, Linnaean Society lected in Nepal by IBPGR. Cruciferae Newsl., of London. 11:7. Valdés, B., Talavera, S. & Fernández-Gal-Zeven, A.C. & Zhukovsky, P.M. 1975. Dic- iano, E., eds. 1987. Flora vascular de Anda- tionary of cultivated plants and their centers lucía occidental. Barcelona, Spain, Ketres of diversity. Wageningen, the Netherlands, Editora. Pudoc. Vavilov, N.I. 1951. The origin, variation, immu- nity and breeding of cultivated plants. New York, Ronald Press. Neglected crops: 1492 from a di erent perspective 333

-Faxon() dex

Acanthocereus pentagonus 14 A. cherimola 14, 30, 85, 86, 87,89 Acer negundo 268 A. diversifolia 14, 42, 44, 85, 86,87, 88, A. saccharum 268 89 Adenanthera 21 A. glabra 85, 86 Aechmea magdalenae 13 A. macroprophyllata 89 Agave 43 A. montana 86 A. americana 266, 271 A. muricata 14, 30, 85, 86, 87, 91, 198, A. angustifolia var. letonae 13, 42 267 A. cantala 13 A. purpurea 14,86 A. cocui 13 A. reticulata 14, 30, 42, 85, 87, 89, 90 A. fourcroydes 13, 42 var. lutescens 90 A. mapisiga 13, 43 var. primigenia 89, 90 A. salmiana 13, 43 A. scleroderma 14, 42, 85, 87, 90, 91, A. sisalana 13, 42 92 A. tequiliana 43 A. squamosa 14, 85, 86, 87, 89 Ageratum 43 Apium graveolens 319, 321 Alnus 249 A. nudiflorum 319 Amaranthus 8, 93, 97, 146 Arachis hypogaea 16, 266 A. albus 271 Araucaria 5, 249 A. blitoides 271 Arctium lappa 263 A. blitum 146 Armoracia rusticana 263 A. caudatus 12, 100, 128, 142, 144, Arracacia andina 170 145, 146 A. elata 170 A. cruentus 12, 42, 93, 95, 97, 98, 271 A. incisa 170 A. dubius 146 A. moschata 170 A. hybridus 146 A. penneffi 170 A. hypochondriacus 12, 30, 42, 44, 93, A. peruviana 170 95, 97, 98, 145, 271 A. sequatorialis 170 A. lividus 263 A. tolucensis var. multiflora 170 A. muricatus 271 A. wigginessi 170 A. palmer 146 A. xanthorrhiza 20, 31, 128, 167, 168, A. retro flexus 271 169, 170 A. spinosus 146 Asimina 85 A. tricolor 146 triloba 30 A. viridis 146 Astrocaryum 200 Anacardium occidentale 14, 200 Atriplex hortensis 263 Ananas comosus 14, 198, 200, 266 Attalea funifera 14 A. erectifolius 13 Avena 286 Anchusa italica 316 A. officinalis 264, 316 Bactris 215,217 Aniba roseodora 30, 201 caribea 215 Annona 85, 86, 89, 92 B. chantaduro 215, 217 334 Index

B. culata 215, 217 C. indica 267 B. dahlgreniana 215 Capsella 263 B. gasipaes 16, 18, 198, 200, 211, 212, Capsicum 8, 41, 117, 200, 264 213, 217 C. annuum 13, 42, 43, 266, 267 B. insignis 215, 217 C. baccatum 13 B. macana 215,217 C. chinese 13 B. microcarpa 215 C. frutescens 13, 43, 267 Bambusa angustifolia 21 C. pubescens 13, 185 Barbarea yema 263 Cardamine pratensis 263 Bertholletia excelsa 15, 31, 200 C. vulgaris 263 Bielschmieidia anay 15 Cardaria 307 Bixa ore/lana 20, 30, 198, 267 Carduaceae 328 Borago 317 Carduus benedictus 263 B. officinalis 263, 303, 314, 315, 316, Carica 188, 190 317 C. candamarcensis 188 B. pygmaea 317 C. chrysopetala 15, 189 Borojoa patinoi 17 C. cundinamarcensis 188 B. sorbilis 17, 198 C. monoica 18, 189 Bougainvillea 270 C. papaya 15, 188, 189, 190, 198, 267 Brassica 306 C. pentagona 15, 189 B. campestris 306 C. pubescens 15, 128, 183, 188, 189, B. juncea 306 190 B. napus 306 C. stipulata 189 B. oleracea 306 C. x heilbomi 15 Britoa sello wiana 16 Carludovica pa/mata 13 Bromus mango 9, 12 Carthamus arborescens 263 Brosimum alicastrum 16, 40 C. coerulescens 263 Browallia 11 Carya illinoensis 270 Brugmansia 11 Caryocar glabrum 200 Bumelia persimilis 266 C. nuciferum 200 Bunchosia armeniaca 16 C. villosum 15, 200 Bunias erucago 263 Caryodendron orinocensis 19, 200, 202 Bursera 267 Casimiroa edulis 17, 30, 42 simaruba 266 Cassia leiandra 16 Byrsonima crassifolia 16, 30 Castilla elastica 43 Celtis australis 264 Cajanus calan 55 Ceratonia sil/qua 264 Calathea 43, 240 Chamaedorea tepejilote 18, 42 allouia 20, 30, 239, 240, 241 Chenopodium 9, 12 C. lutea 240 (aff. buschianum) 12 C. macrosepala 18 C. album 263 Calendula officinalis 263 C. ambrosioides 12 Calochortus 11 C. berlandieri 44, 136 Campanula rapunculus 263 spp. nuttalliae 18, 42 Campomanesia 229 C. bonus-henricus 263 C. guazumifolia 16 C. hircinum 136 Canavalia ensiformis 19 C. pallidicaule 12, 128, 131, 132, 133, Canna 11 134, 136, 157 C. edulis 20, 31, 128 C. quinoa 12, 128, 133, 135, 136, 267 Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 335

Chiranthodendron pentadactylon 267 C. maxima 9, 18, 63, 66, 73 Chrysobalanus ¡caco 15 C. moschata 18, 41, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, Chrysophyllum cainito 17, 104, 266 70, 71, 72, 73, 75 Chrytmum maritimum 263 C. palmieri 63 Cicer arietinum 263, 273, 296 C. pedatifolia 67 Cichorium intybus 263 C. pepo 18, 41, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, Cirsium 286 69, 70, 75, 270 Chinchona 21 ssp. ovifera 69 Cissus gongyloides 19 ssp. pepo 69 Citrus medica 264 var. clypeata 68 Cleome 11 var. cylindrica 68 Cnidoscolus chayamansa 18, 42, 44 var. fastigata 68 Coccoloba uvifera 266, 268 var. longa 68 Cochlearia officinalis 263 var. pepo 68 Colocasia esculenta 168, 253 var. recticollis 68 Conyza bonariensis 271 var. torticollia 68 C. canadensis 271 var. turbinata 68 Copaifera multijuga 201 C. radicans 67 Cosmos 11, 43 C. texana 68, 69 Couepia bracteata 15 Cupressus sempervirens 270 C. longipendula 15, 200 Cyclanthera explodens 18 C. polyandra 15,42 C. pedata 18 C. subcordata 15 Cydonia oblonga 264 Couma utilis 14, 201 Cymbopetalum penduliflorum 43 Crambe 263 Cynara scolymus 251 Crataegus pubescens 17 Cyperus 12 C. azarolus 264 Cyphomandra 186 198 C. betacea 17, 128, 183, 185, 186, 187 C. alata 30 C. bolivariensis 186 Crotalaria 43 C. cajanumensis 186 C. longirostrata 18, 42 C. crassifolia 185 Cucumis sativus 75, 181 hartwegii 186 Cucurbita 8, 41, 42, 63, 64, 67, 69, 70, 71, Cyrtocarpa procera 30 73, 76, 266, 270 C. argyrosperma 18, 41, 63, 64, 65, 66, Dahlia 11,43 67, 70, 71, 72 excelsa 31 ssp. argyrosperma 63 Datura stramonium 267 ssp. sororia 63, 66, 67 Dioscorea 21, 43 var. argyrosperma 63, 64, 66 D. trifida 20, 30 var. callicarpa 63, 64, 66, 67 Diospyros digyna 15, 31, 42, 266 var. palmieri 63, 66, 67 D. ebenaster 15 var. stenosperma 63, 64, 66, 67 D. virginiana 30 C. digitata 67 Dipteryx odorata 19 C. ficifolia 18, 31, 41, 63, 65, 71, 74, 75, Dolichos 291 76 D. lablab 263 C. foetidissima 66 Dors tenia con trajerva 266 C. fraterna 68, 69, 70 Duguetia 85 C. lundelliana 66 C. martinezii 66 Eclipta prostrata 271 336 Index

Elymus 9, 12 G. barbadense 14 Eruca 306 G. herbaceum 270 E. sativa 270, 303, 305, 306 G. hirsutum 14, 42, 266, 268, 270 E. vesicaria 263 hopei 30 Eryngium foetidum 13 Grias neuberthi 15 E. maritinium 263 Guaiacum sanctum 266 Erythrina 21 Gustavia superba 15 E. edulis 19, 128, 186 Erythroxylum coca 13, 196 Haematoxylon brasiletto 266 E. novo-granatense 13 Helianthus annuus 19, 267, 270 Eugenia brasiliensis 16 tuberosus 9, 20, 30 E. cabelluda 16 Helicomia bihai 30 E. floribunda 16 Herrania 206 E. klotz 16 He vea brasiliensis 43, 200 E. luschnathiana 16 Hippeastrum 11 E. pyriformis 16 Hylocereus ocamponis 14 E. stipitata 16, 198, 201, 230, 231 H. undatus 14 spp. stipitata 230, 232 Hymenocallis 11 ssp. sororia 230, 232 Hyoseris radicata 263 E. un/flora 16 Eupatorium aya pana 12 1/ex 249, 251 Euphorbia 11, 43 I. affinis 249 E. nutans 271 I. argentina 249, 251 Euterpe 219 I. brevicuspis 249 E. oleracea 200 I. cognata 249 Euterpe oleracea 18 I. dumosa var. guaranina 249 I. guayusa 245 Feijoa 229 I. paraguariensis 13, 245, 246, 247, Fsellowiana 16, 233, 235 248, 249, 251 var. rugosa 233 var. paraguariensis 245, 248, 249 Femaldia pandurata 12, 43, 44 var. vestita 248, 249 Ficus carica 264 I. theezans 249 Foeniculum vulgare 263 I. verticillata 251 Fragaria chiloensis 17, 31 Indigofera 43 Fvesca 269, 270 I. suffruticosa 31 x ananassa 269, 270 Inga cinnamomea 16 Fuchsia 11 I. densiflora 16 Furcraea 43 I. edulis 16, 208 andina 13 I. fagifolia 16 cabuya 13 I. feuillei 16 F foetida 13 I. jinicuil 16, 42 gigantea 13 I. macrophylla 16 Fhumboldtiana 13 I. paterno 16,42 Fmacrophylla 13 I. ruiziana 16 Fusaea 85 I. setifera 16 lpecacuanha 21 Gaillardia 11 lpomoea 11 Gen/pa americana 17, 198 L batatas 20, 196, 266 Gossypium 8 I. jalapa 11 Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 337

purga 266 Lonchocarpus utilis 198 Isatis tinctoria 264 Lophophora 21 Ischnosiphon arouma 240 Lupinus 140, 141 Iva annua 9, 12 L. albus 144 L. angustifolius 144" Jatropha curcas 267 L. luteus 144 Jessenia 200 L. mutabilis 19, 128, 139, 140, 141,142 bataua 200 Lycopersicon 117, 185 Juglans boliviana 17 esculentum 18, 41, 266, 267 J. honorei 17 J. neotropica 17, 186 Macoubea witotorum 14, 198 J. nigra 270 Madia sativa 9, 19 J. regia 270 Magnolia grandiflora 268 Malpighia glabra 16, 30 Lablab 291 Mammea americana 10, 15 L. purpureus 55 Manihot esculenta 18, 20, 195, 266 Lagenaria siceraria 9, 20, 55, 270 17, 31, 42, 104 Lasiospora 324 Maranta arundinacea 10, 30, 240 Lathyrus 273, 274, 285, 296 Matricaria 286 L. cicera 263, 273, 274, 276, 277, 278, Mauritia flexuosa 200 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, Melicoccus bijuga tus 17 287, 298 Melothria dulcis 15 var. foliolatus 278 Mirabilis expansa 20, 128, 172, 173, 174, var. palentinus 278 175, 176 var. pedunculatus 278 postrata 174 L. sativus 263, 273, 274, 276, 277, 278, Monstera deliciosa 14, 30 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, Myrciaria 229, 230, 231 287, 298 M. cauliflora 16, 229, 230 Lawsonia inermis 264 M. dubia 16, 201, 232 Lecythis pisonis 200 M. jaboticaba 229 L. usitata 15 M. trunciflora 229 Lens culinaris 298 Myroxylon balsamum 266 L. esculenta 263 Myrtillocactus geometrizans 30 Lepidium 307, 309 Myrtus communis 264 L. campestre 263, 309 M. ugni 16 L. latifolium 307, 308 L. meyenii 20, 31, 128, 165, 166, 167 Nasturtium 307 L. peruvianum 166 N. officinale 263 L. ruderale 309 Neoglaziovia variegata 13 L. sativum 263, 303, 305, 307, 308, 309 Nicotiana 313 var. crispum 309 N. glauca 271 var. latifolium 309 N. rustica 21, 266 var. vulgare 309 N. tabacum 21, 266 Lewisia 11 Nierembergia 11 Licania platypus 15, 42 Nopalea cochenillifera 266 L. sclerophylla 19 Liquidambar styraciflua 266 Oenocarpus 200 Liriodendron tulipifera 268 Olea europaea 200, 270 Lolium 286 Opuntia 18, 30, 54, 266, 271 338 Index

O. amyclaea 14 augusti 50, 57 O. ficus-indica 15 bolivianus 57 O. leucantha 42 P. coccineus 19, 42, 48, 49, 50, 51, 58, O. megacantha 15 59, 60, 61, 289, 293 O. robusta 15 P glabellus 50 O. streptocantha 15 P lunatus 8, 19, 47, 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, O. undulata 15 58, 61, 289, 293 Orbignya phalerata 200 P. pachyrhiozoides 57 Oxalis 150 parvifolius 52 O. latifolia 271 polyanthus 19, 42, 47, 48, 50, 51, 56, tuberosa 20, 31, 128, 149, 151, 157 58, 59, 60, 61 vulgaris 8, 19, 42, 47, 50, 51, 58, 59, Pachyrhizus 8, 168 60, 61, 128, 263, 266, 267, 268, 270, ahipa 20 289, 291, 293 P. erosus 20, 30, 42 var. acutifolius 52, 53 P. tuberosus 20 var. tenuifolius 52, 53 Paivaea 229 Phellopterus montanus 30 Paivaea lansdorfi 16 Photinia arbutifolia 30 Panicum miliaceum 264, 270 Physalis 8, 117, 120 sonorum 30 alkekengi 117 Papa ver 286 chenopodifolia 117, 120, 121 Parmentiera aculata 14 P. peruviana 17, 117, 128 edulis 42 philadelphica 19, 42, 117, 118, 119 Paspalum paspaloides 271 Phytolacca americana 271 Passiflora edulis 16, 198 Pimenta dioica 12, 43 ligularis 16,31 officinalis 12 P. maliformis 16 racemosa 19 mollissima 16, 128 Pis tacia vera 264 P. popenovii 17 Pisum sativum 263, 299 quadrangularis 17 Plantago 264 tripartita 17 Platanus 270 Pastinaca sativa 263 Platonia insignis 15, 30 Patinoa almirajo 14 Podospermum 324 Paullinia xxi, 223, 224, 227 Poligonum 286 cuneata 226, 227 Polymnia sonchifolia 20, 128, 173, 176, P cupana 13, 198, 223, 225, 226, 227 177, 178 var. cupana 224, 226 Populus 270 var. sorbilis 224, 226 Poraqueiba para ensis 15 pinnata 224 sericea 198, 200 P. yoco 13, 226, 227 Porcelia 85 Pennisetum 54 Porophyllum ruderale 12 P. glaucum 264, 270 Portulaca 313 Pereskia aculeata 15 P. aka 313 Persea americana 15, 42, 267 P. lutea 313 P schiedeana 15, 42 napiformis 313 Petunia 11 oleracea 263, 303, 305, 310, 313 Phaseolus 47, 48, 60, 263, 291, 293,295 ssp. granulato-stellulata 313 P acutifolius 19, 31, 42, 47, 49, 51,52, ssp. nitida 313 53, 54 ssp. oleracea 313 Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 339

ssp. papillato-stellulata 313 R. jimenezi 14 ssp. stellata 313 R. mucosa 14, 91, 198 var. oleracea 313 rensoniana 14 var. ophemera 313 Rubus glaucus 17 var. sativa 313 Rumex acetosa 263 P. pilosa 313 P. quadrifida 313 Salpiglossis 11 P. retusa 313 Salsola 263 tuberosa 313 Salvia 11 Pourouma cecropiae folia 16, 198 hispanica 19 Pouteria 106 Sapindus saponaria 267 P. arguacoensium 17 Sassafras albidum 267 caimito 17, 104, 198 Schinus molle 266 P. campechiana 17, 30, 42, 104 Scolymus 327, 328 P fossicola 104 S. grandiflorus 327 P. hypoglauca 17, 43, 104 S. hispanicus 263, 303, 327, 328 P. macrocarpa 17 S. maculatus 263, 303, 326 macrophylla 17 Scorzonera 324 P. obovata 17, 104, 128 S. albicans 324 P. pairiry 17 S. angustifolia L. 324 P. sapota 17, 31, 42, 103, 104, 105 S. arista ta 324 P. ucuqui 17 S. baetica 324 viridis 43, 104 S. brevicaulis 324 Proboscidea parviflora 9, 12 S. crispatula 324 Prosopis sp. 54 S. fistulosa 324 Protium copal 267 S. hirsuta 324 Prunus capuli 43 S. hispanica 263, 303, 315, 322 P serotina ssp. capuli 17 var. crispatula 324 Psidium 229, 234 var. pinnatifida 324 acutangulum 16 S. humilis L. 324 cattleianum 16, 271 S. laciniata L. 324 friedrichsthalianum 16, 43 S. mollis 324 P. guajava 16,267 S. parviflora 324 sartorianum 16 S. reverchonii 324 Psylocibe 21 S. transta gana 324 S. undulata 324 Quararibea cordata 14, 198, 201 Sechium 41, 42, 79, 83 Q. funebris 12,43 S. compositum 79, 82, 83 S. edule 18, 41, 42, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, Raphanus sativus 306 84 Rapistrum rugosum 263 S. hintonii 79, 82 Reichardia picrioides 263 S. tacaco 18,41 Reseda lutea 264 Setaria italica 264, 270 Rheedia macrophylla 15 Sicana odorifera 18 R. madruno 15 Si/ene inflata 263 Rhus coriaria 264 Silybum marianum 263 Ribes grossularia 30 Simmondsia 54 Robinia pseudoacacia 268 Simphytum officinale 263 Rollinia 85 Smilax 21,267 340 Index

Smymium olusatrum 263, 303, 315, 319 Talisia 40 var. dulce 322 17 var. secalinum 322 T floresii 17 S. perfoliatum 321 T olivaeformis 17 Solanum 19 Taraxacum officinale 263 S. acaule 157, 158 Theobroma 205, 206, 208 S. americanum 19, 42, 43 T angustifolium 13 S. betacea 185 T bicolor 15, 198, 206 S. catipense 184 T cacao 13, 42, 198, 200, 206, 266 S. crassifolium 185 T canumanense 206 S. curtilobum 158 T grandiflorum 15, 201, 205, 206, 207 S. guatemalense 181, 182 T obovatum 206, 208 S. indigenum 128 T. subincanum 206 S. juzepczukii 158 Thuja occidentalis 267 S. muricatum 17, 128, 181, 182, 183, Tigridia 43 184, 185 T pavonia 20, 267 S. pedunculatum 181 Tragopogon 324 S. phureja 31 T porrifolius 263 S. quitoense 17, 128 Trichocerus 21 S. sessiliflorum 17, 198 Trigonella 273 S. stenotomum 158 T foenum-graecum 263, 273, 274, 276, S. tabanoense 184 277, 278, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, S. trachycarpum 184 286, 287 S. tuberosum 20, 158, 267 Triticum dicoccon 264 ssp. andigena 158 T spelta 264 S. tuberosum andigenum 125 Tropaeolum 153 S. variegatum 181 T edule 153 S. wendlandi 42, 44 T majus 266 S. x curtilobum 128, 154, 156, 157, 158 T patagonicum 153 S. x juzepczukii 128, 154, 156, 157, 158 T polyphyllum 153 Sorbus domestica 264 T tuberosum 20, 31, 128, 151, 152, 153 Sorghum 264, 270 Spilanthes acmella Ullucus tuberosus 20, 31, 128, 155, 157, var. oleracea 12 159 S. oleracea 12 Spondias 111 Vanilla planifolia 12, 43 S. dulcis 114 Vasconcellea pubescens 188 S. lutea 14, 112, 114 Verbena 11 S. mombin 14,31 Veronica 286 S. purpurea 14, 43, 111, 112, 113, 114, Vicia 273, 274, 276, 279 115 ervilia 263, 273, 274, 275, 276, 279, S. tuberosa 14,112, 114 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, Stevia rebaudiana 21 287, 298 Syzygium jambos 271 faba 263, 273, 279, 280, 281, 294 var. serratifolia 280 Tagetes 11, 43, 266 monanthos 263, 273, 274, 275, 276, T graveolens 12 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, T mandoni 12 286, 287, 298 Talinum triangulare 18 narbonensis 263, 273, 274, 275, 278, Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective 341

279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, X. caracu 254 286, 287 X. jacquinii 256 V. sativa 278 X. nigrum 254 Vigna 291,295 X. sagittifolium 19, 30, 168, 196, 200, V. sinensis 263, 270 253, 254, 255, 256 V. unguiculata 289, 292 X. violaceum 254 Vincetoxycum salvini 18 Virola 21 Yucca elephantipes 18

Xanthium spinosum 271 Zea mays 12, 266, 270 Xanthomonas phaseoli 54 Zephyranthes 11, 43 Xanthosoma 253, 254, 256 Zinnia 11,43 X. atrovirens 254 Ziziphus joazeiro 17 X. brasiliensis 18 Z. lotus 264 Vf WH_ELIE TO PL...ICHASE FAO PLIBLHC..Z.TIONS LOCALLY PONRITS DE VEMTE DES PUE;LflalATI1OLVS DE LA FAO fins TOS DE VENTA DE PUtzLIIC COONES Da LA FAO

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Cover illustration: Bernardino de Sahagtin. Códice florentino (Book Xl, p. 286r) Medici-Laurentian Library, Florence (Italy)

Text illustrations: J. Castaño \

Ilks ,,,*

ISBN 92-5-103217-3ISSN 0259-2525

II II 9 789251 032176 P-11 T0646E/1/12.94/4500