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Chapter 1 Definitions and classifications for and

In the broadest sense, the botani- Botanical and culinary cal term refers to any , definitions edible or not, including , bushes, and vascular , and Botanical definitions distinguishes plant material from ani- Broadly, the botanical term fruit refers mal material and from inorganic to the mature of a plant, matter. There are two slightly different including its , covering and botanical definitions for the term any closely connected , without vegetable as it relates to . any consideration of whether these According to one, a vegetable is a are edible. As related to food, the plant cultivated for its edible part(s); IT botanical term fruit refers to the edible M according to the other, a vegetable is part of a plant that consists of the the edible part(s) of a plant, such as seeds and surrounding tissues. This the stems and stalk (), includes fleshy (such as - (), tuber (), (), , , poach, , (, ), (globe ) and dry fruits, where the ), fruit (, , ripened ovary wall becomes papery, pumpkin, , tomato) or leathery, or woody as with seeds (, ). The latter , pulses (mature beans and definition includes fruits as a subset of peas) and nuts. vegetables.

Definition of fruit and vegetables applicable in epidemiological studies,

Fruit and vegetables

Edible plant excluding cereal grains, nuts, seeds, leaves, beans, cacao beans, and

Fruit Vegetables

Edible parts of plants that contain the seeds and pulpy Edible plant parts including stems and stalks, , surrounding tissue; have a sweet or ; gener- tubers, , leaves, and fruits; usually includes ally consumed as beverages, breakfast and seaweed and ; may or may not include lunch side-dishes, or pulses or ; generally consumed raw or cooked with a main dish, in a mixed dish, as an appe- tizer or in a

IARC Handbooks of Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables

Whether mushrooms and seaweed definition of fruit and vegetables that raw or cooked, generally with a main (foods commonly used as vegetables) has specific conditions relating to dish, in a mixed dish, as an appetizer are regarded as part of the plant macronutrient content, processing and or in a salad. Vegetables include kingdom depends on the choice of one serving sizes, but this definition is not edible stems and stalks, roots, tubers, out of four schemes used to classify practical for use in relation to epidemi- bulbs, leaves, flowers, some fruits, living organisms into kingdoms. The ological studies. pulses (mature beans and peas), fungi traditional scheme of two kingdoms The culinary term fruit refers to the (mushrooms, ), (sea- (plant and animal) places fungi and edible part of a plant, , bush or weed) and sweet corn and hominy algae (sources of food mushrooms that contains the seeds and pulpy (cereal grains used as vegetables). and seaweed, respectively) in the plant surrounding tissue and has a sweet or The culinary term vegetable excludes kingdom. In the other three schemes, tart taste. In essence, culinary fruits other cereal grains, nuts, (a the fungi and algae are placed either are the subset of botanical fruits that type of pulse) and culinary fruits. The together in the Protista kingdom or remains after excluding cereal grains distinction as to which botanical fruits separately in the Protista and fungi (, , , ), nuts, seeds are considered to be culinary vegeta- kingdoms (Stern, 1988). and fruits used as vegetables. Fruits bles depends on cultural use in are used as a breakfast beverage or patterns and the flavours they impart. Culinary definitions side-dish (for example, , Botanical fruits used as vegetables The main culinary groupings for edible berries, , ), lunch (e.g., , , ) tend to plant materials are fruit, vegetables, side-dish or , food be savory in taste, while those used as cereal grains, nuts, and seeds. (Minor between or dinner dessert. Raw fruits are generally sweet (due to a groupings include herbs or spices and and canned fruits are also used as higher concentration) or tart as plant parts used to make coffee, tea appetizers, salad ingredients and side- in , and limes (due and ). Populations are dishes. to a higher content). accustomed to these culinary group- The culinary term vegetable refers ings and use them to communicate to edible part(s) of a plant consumed about plant foods and to distinguish the types of plant food used in meals. These culinary groupings are used in households for meal planning and preparation, in educational settings where professionals commu- nicate skills and dietary advice to consumers, in the market place, where people purchase plant foods for home use, and in restaurants, where people order and consume prepared foods. The culinary term fruit and vegeta- J' bles may be defined as edible plant foods excluding cereal grains, nuts, seeds, coffee, tea, cacao and herbs :4 and spices, Dom el etal. (1993b) pro- vided a similar but more detailed defin- ition for fruit and vegetables, noting the ., exclusion of nuts, seeds, peanuts, , grains and vegetables 4 . u when used as grains and the inclusion - . of , , pickles, and products and mixed dishes that contain any amount of fruit and vege- table. They also provided a narrow a r MUMA A .

2 Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables

Cultural differences in culinary vegetables such as and vegetarians and vegans (Venti & definitions in the vegetable group. Johnston, 2002), places beans in a Culinary distinctions as to which plant Potatoes might be grouped with grains group and provides separate parts are used as fruits and vegetables because, like products, they are groups for dark leafy vegetables (and which are designated as fruits starchy, inexpensive, readily available and to encourage use of and which as vegetables) are based and commonly consumed. The sources of and other minerals that on traditional use and tend to be Swedish food guide has a separate are usually obtained from . imprecise, varying within and between for potatoes and other root Foods derived from fruit and veg- cultures. Information about which vegetables and recommends that root etables such as preserves, jams and foods serve as fruits and vegetables is vegetables be the foundation for a jollies, sugared fruit pieces used as generally presented in books on daily inexpensive supplemented candies, and sweet cucumber pickles cookery and in food guides that are with other vegetables that vary from fit into the sweets or group of developed for consumers by govern- day to day and between seasons. food guides. Food guides do not have ment agencies or by Seven of the guides place pulses in groupings for mixed dishes or desserts professional nutrition associations. the meat group because of their pro- that contain fruit or vegetables, for Food guides are used by nutrition edu- tein content; , and or snack foods that are cators to communicate the types and put pulses in the vegetable derived from fruit or vegetables, or for quantities of foods that should be con- group because of their , herbs and spices. sumed on a daily basis to meet nutri- and dietary fibre content. The US food ent needs, prevent deficiency diseases guide places immature pulses in the Summary of definition issues and lower the risk for diet-related vegetable group and mature pulses in Botanical definitions for fruit and veg- chronic diseases. the meat, and fish group. The etables are more precise than culinary A recent comparison of food guides Chinese guide places pulses (primarily definitions. However, culinary defini- used in Australia, , , and soymilk) in the and tions are based on cultural uses of Germany, (Republic of), , dairy products group. A food guide for foods and are more commonly under- the , , , Sweden, the and the (USA) revealed that despite the cultural differences in dietary patterns, food groupings (cereal grains, vegetables, fruit, meat and meat substitutes, dairy products, and sweets) are generally similar (Painter et al., 2002). Fruit and vegeta- bles appear as a sicgle group in six food guides (Canada, China, Korea, Portugal, Mexico and the United Kingdom), but are separate groups in the other guides. All the guides separate nuts, seeds and cereal grain products from fruit and vegetables. There are differences in the placement of starchy root and tuber vegetables and pulses between the guides. Six of the guides (Australia, Canada, China, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and the USA) group potatoes in the vegetable group. Germany, Korea, Mexico, Portugal and the United Kingdom group potatoes in the grain group, but place other root and tuber

3 IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables

stood by nutrition researchers and by pulse with various cultural uses small amounts used, but they participants in epidemiological studies. (e.g., snack food, part of a main may contribute important food The following botanical and culinary dish, boiled side-dish, peanut butter, components and should not be issues may affect the grouping of or peanut ). Peanuts are usu- ignored in terms of dietary assess- fruits, vegetables, mixed dishes and ally considered to be nuts and ment. desserts containing fruits and vegeta- grouped with the high-protein foods. Fruits and vegetables that are part bles, and foods derived from fruits and Fresh or sweet corn and hominy of mixed dishes (i.e., main dishes vegetables: are cereal grains, but are generally or desserts) may be overlooked • Mushrooms (fungi) and seaweed used as vegetables (i.e., side- when assessing total fruit and vege- (algae) are commonly considered dishes with a dinner meal). Mature table intake. Food guides do not to be vegetables because of their corn (also known as field corn or have groupings for mixed dishes culinary use. However, botanically, ) is generally used as a (meat and vegetable casseroles, they may or may not be considered cereal grain in the form of corn grits, , stir-fries) or desserts that to be derived from plants, depend- corn meal or corn . Corn meal may contain fruits or vegetables ing on the scheme used to classify and flour are used to make corn- (chocolate-covered , fig bars, organisms into kingdoms. , tortillas and tortilla chips. fruit pies, , carrot ). • In some cultures, potatoes and Although most fruits and vegeta- Some food products derived from other starchy root and tuber bles are low in , several fruit and vegetables may not retain vegetables (e.g., ) are sepa- (avocados, coconut, olives) have the nutritive value of the original rated from other vegetables and higher fat content and varied uses fruit and vegetable and may con- considered to be a separate group in . Food guides do not tain added fat or sugar. Food or part of the grain group. provide sufficient detail to indicate guides usually group jams, jellies, • Pulses (mature beans and peas) where these foods are grouped. and fruit (, fruit may be considered as meat alter- Avocados and olives may be punches) with the sweets or sugars natives (substitutes) rather than grouped with fruit, vegetables or food group, but it is not clear where vegetables (or in addition to being fats. Coconut may be grouped with potato crisps, fried potatoes or vegetables) in some cultures. nuts, fruit (e.g., cut or shredded in pickled fruits or vegetables are Products derived from soybeans a ) or vegetables (e.g., grouped. such as and soy-based meat used in stews mixed with substitutes are often grouped with and other vegetables). high-protein foods (meat, fish, Herbs (e.g., , ) Subgroup classifications for poultry, eggs, nuts and seeds), include the stems and leaves of plants, fruit and vegetables rather than with vegetables. plants, and some vegetables Soymilk is usually classified in the (e.g., and chili peppers) are milk group, with the assumption used as spices or garnishes. Subgroup classifications for plants, that it is fortified with . Herbs and spices are not included fruits and vegetables according to their • Peanuts (groundnuts) are a type of in food guides, mainly due to the content of food components can be

7 Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables useful for epidemiological studies. pulses). Food composition data and Botanical families Because most fruit and vegetables databases are beginning to be Botanical classification of plants is have low , fat, and developed for other bioactive compo- based on the physiological character- content and are devoid of nents such as , indoles istics of , organiza- cholesterol, the classifications may and in cruciferous tion and structure. The 11 levels of focus more on , minerals and vegetables (Fahey et al., 2001); botanical classification are kingdom, other bioactive components. Such flavonols, flavones and other division, class, subclass, order, , classification is complicated by the (Herfog et al., 1992, 1993b; , , , and large number of food components in Häkkinen et al., 1999; Peterson & strain. As an example, the 11 classifi- fruit and vegetables, and by the facts Dwyer, 2000; Sampson et al., 2002); cation terms for the Gray zucchini that not all the components have yet flavonoids and phenolic in fruit are, respectively, been identified and that not all fruits (Spanos & Wrolstad, 1992); Plant, Spermatophyta, Angiospermae, and vegetables have been analysed to flavonoids and in Dicotyledonae, , Cucurbi- determine the level of the components fruits (Ranganna et al., 1983); - taceac, , Pepe L., Melopepo that have been identified. Some com- tenoids (Mangels et al., 1993); Alef., Zucchini, and Gray (Yamaguchi, ponents (dietary fibre, , plant isoflavones (Coward et al., 1993; 1983). Botanical classification is useful sterols) are present in most fruit and Wang & Murphy, 1994; USDA, 1999a); for biologists to establish plant origins vegetables, while others (, isoflavones, coumesterol and and relationships and to help identify carotenoids, folacin (folie acid), iron, (Boker et al., 2002); plants across different cultures , , calcium, flavonoids) (Reinli & Block, 1996; Pillow et al., and languages; it is also useful for occur mainly in specific fruits and 1999); and lemonoid glucosides in cit- horticulturists because plants within a vegetables. For many of the food rus juices (Fong et al., 1989). family may have similar climatic components, the published data have Several subgroup classifications requirements, economic uses, and not yet been aggregated and summa- for plants, fruits, and vegetables are disease and insect controls. The rized and therefore have not been considered below, to assess how they usefulness of botanical classification in incorporated into food composition relate to the presence of and dietary assessment is less clear, databases. bioactive food components. The sub- because foods derived from the same Table 1 lists selected vitamins and groups include botanical families and botanical family may or may not con- other bioactive components and their growing conditions for classifying tain similar levels of bioactive food fruit and vegetable sources. Current plants and botanical fruit development components. food composition databases provide terms for classifying fruit. Fruit and The plant kingdom (using the information about fruit and vegetable vegetable subgroups used for report- traditional two-kingdom scheme) has sources of 13- (dark green ing food supply and consumption data four divisions, of which three leafy vegetables, deep and are presented, as are subgroups (Thallophyta, Pteridophyfa and orange fruits and vegetables), vitamin based on edible parts, colour and pro- Spermatophyta) contain foods con- C (citrus fruits, dark green leafy cessing and preparation. sumed by humans (Encyclopedia vegetables, cantaloupe) and folacin Britannica, 1974). Most human foods (dark green leafy vegetables, oranges, are within the Spermatophyta ( IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables

Vitamins : Folacin: Orange, ; collards, corn, , lettuce, pumpkin, , orange; , black , black-eyed , pepper, spinach, , , , , endive, green pea, kidney Flavonoidsb: bean, lentil, greens, navy bean, okra, pinto bean, soy- Anthocyan ins: bean, spinach, turnip greens Apple, , , , , chokecherry, , elderberry, nectarine, , Vitamin C: , , , red , red/green , Blackberry, blueberry, cantaloupe, cranberry, elderberry, grape- ; asparagus, carrot, red , red fruit, kiwi fruit, , , , orange, , peach, rasp- onion, redbean; red , strawberry, tangerine; , Brussels sprout, cabbage, Flavanols: , kale, , spinach, sweet red/green pepper, Apple, , nectarine, peach, pear, red grape, strawberry; tomato Catechins: Apple, blackberry, cranberry, elderberry, red- grape Other bioactive components Epicatechin: Apple, red-purple grape Allyl sulfides: : Apple, blueberry, cranberry, red- : purple grape, strawberry Chives, garlic, leek, onion, shallot Flavanones: Grapefruit, lemon, orange; tomato : Grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, : tangerine : Grapefruit Neohesperidin: Grapefruit, orange Carotenoids: Flavones: u-carotene: Grapefruit, lemon, orange; carrot, celery, parsley sweet Carrot, pumpkin, red/green pepper fl-carotene: : Carrot, celery Apricot, cantaloupe, , mango, peach, persimmon, Luteolin: red/, grapefruit; Arugula, asparagus, beetgreens, Sweet red/green pepper broccoli, Brussells sprouts, cabbage, carrot, Flavonols: leaves, , chili pepper, collards, cress, dandelion Orange, red-purple grape; broccoli, Brussels sprouts, greens, tiddlehead greens, kale, mustard greens, cauliflower, onion, turnip greens pak-choy, pumpkïn, sweet redpepper, romaine, spinach, : Apple, apricot. , blackberry, sweet potato, Swiss , tomato, turnip greens, winter blackcurrant, blueberry, cherry, cranberry, elder- berry, grapefruit, lemon, mango, peach, pear, plum, squash raspberry, red bilberry, , red-purple grape, frcryptoxanthin: strawberry, whitecu rrant; broccoli, cabbage, Apple, apricot, avocado,cantaloupe,carambola, grape chives, corn, endive, kale, lettuce, pepper, red fruit, , , , mango, , orange, cabbage, red onion, string bean, sweet potato, papaya, passion fruit, peach, persimmon, plum, tomato tangerine, ; broccoli, corn, pumpkin, red : Apple, bilberry, blackcurrant, blueberry, pepper, tomato, cranberry, red-purple grape, red bilberry, redcurrant, whitecurrant; carrot : : Apple, apricot, bilberry, blackberry, Guava, red/pink grapefruit, watermelon; tomato blackcurrant, cherry, cranberry, mango, peach, : pear, plum, raspberry, red bilberry, redcurrant, Kiwifruit, orange, tangerine, watermelon; asparagus, red/pink grapefruit, red-purple grape, whitecu rrant; broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrot, collards, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, chives, endive, corn, kale, lettuce, potato, pumpkin, spinach, sweet red green bean, horse , kale, lettuce, Leek, red pepper, tomato, turnip greens onion, tomato Isorhamnetin: Apple, blackberry, cherry, pear Rutin: Apple, blackcurranis, cantaloupe; asparagus Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables

Isoflavones: Green bean, , : Blackberry, cherry, mango, pomegranate, Genistein: Currants; alfalfa sprouts, legumes, soy- red-purple bean Daidzein: Currants; legumes, soybean : Daidzin: Soybean Grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, tangerine Genistin: Soybean Glycitin/Glycitein: Soybean Plant sterols Biochanin A: 3-sitosteroL: Apple, apricot, avocado, , Coumestrol: Legumes, soybean cantaloupe, cherry, fig, grapefruit, lemon, orange, Formononetin: Legumes peach, pear, , plum, pomegranate, red grape, strawberry, watermelon; asparagus, Brussels Glucosinolates, indoles and isothiocyanates: sprout, carrot, cauliflower, cucumber, eggplant, , broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, col- lettuce, okra, onion, pea, potato, pumpkin, radish, lard greens, kale, , turnip soybean, tomato : Glutathione: Apple, apricot, banana, fig, grapefruit, lemon, pineapple, Cantaloupe, grapefruit, orange, strawberry; asparagus, spinach orange, peach; asparagus, Brussels sprout, carrot, cauliflower, lettuce, okra, onion, pea, radish, soybean, Lignans: tomato Banana, cantaloupe, cranberry, orange, pear, peach, pomegran- Phytosterol: ate, strawberry; asparagus, bok choy, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, Pulses cauliflower, iceberg lettuce, lentil, nape cabbage. onion, potato, Saponins: pumpkin, rutabaga, soybean, summer squash, sweet red/green Asparagus, beet, garlic, spinach pepper, tomato, turnip, winter squash Stigmasterol: Banana, fig, grapefruit, lemon, orange, peach; asparagus, Phenolic acids: carrot, cauliflower, eggplant, lettuce, okra, pea, potato, soy Apple, citrus fruit; olive bean, tomato Cinnamic acids : Apple, , grape, olive, rasp- : berry, strawberry; broccoli, Brussels sprout, carrot, Apple, cherry, pear endive, red onion, savoy cabbage, sweet potato, tomato : Chiorogenic acid: Apple, apricot, blackberry, Blueberry, red-purple grape blueberry, cherry, cranberry, grape, plum, - granate, strawberry; cabbage, carrot, sweet red/ Rutin: green pepper, tomato Cantaloupe; asparagus Ferulic acid: Apple, blackberry, blueberry, cantaloupe, grapefruit, plum, raspberry, strawberry: Salicylates: Brussels sprout, corn, endive, red onion Apricot, cantaloupe, cherry, date, grape, guava, orange, pineap- para-Coumaric acid: Apple, blueberry, cherry, goose ple, , raspberry, strawberry; Chili pepper, endive, radish, berry, plum, red-purple grape, strawberry; sweet green pepper, zucchini Brussels sprout, cabbage, carrot, savoy cabbage, sweet red pepper, tomato /terpenoid s: : Lemon, lime, orange, pink grapefruit Blackberry, blueberry, , cranberry, elderberry, : , pomegranate, red/black raspberry, red grape, Grapefruit, lemon, orange, tangerine; carrot, celery strawberry

Fruits are listed first, followed by a semicolon and the listing of vegetables. b There are over 4000 compounds, but far fewer have been identified in commonly consumed foods; most of them are within the six classes listed here. Sources: Smith et al., 1995; Perry et al., 1996; USDA, 1998, 1999a, 2002; Holden et ai., 1999; Barratt-Eornell & Drewnowski, 2002; Mayo Clinic et al., 2002; McCann et ai., 2002; Pennington, 2002; World Health Organization & Tufts University School of Nutrition and Policy, 2002

VA IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables

plants) division. Of the two classes complexity of the botanical classifica- similar food component profiles within the Spermatophyta (Gymno- tion. Various food components in fruit include rue (), (Rosa- sperm and Angiosperm), almost all and vegetables are concentrated in ceae), cabbage (Cruciferae), amaryllis human foods are in the Angiosperm some families, but are also widely and (), goosefoot (Cheno- (flowering) class. Within the two variously distributed among the podiaceae), heath (), legume Angiosperm subclasses (Monoco- families. Peterson and Dwyer (1998) (Leguminosae) and sunflower (Astera- tyledonae and Dicotyledonae), there reported that botanical classifications ceae). Foods within the are approximately 93 orders and 432 may be helpful in ascertaining the (Cucu rbitaceae), nightshade (Solana- families (20 orders and 67 families for likely presence of flavonoids in foods ceae), carrot and laurel families do not the Monocotyledonae and 73 orders when food composition data are not contain similar food component and 365 families for the Dicotyle- available; however, they noted that profiles. The gourd family includes donae). Even though only a small per- quantitative estimates are likely to be cantaloupe (vitamin C and 11-caro- centage of available plants are used Imprecise. tene), watermelon (lycopene) and as human foods, hundreds of different Table 3 lists 16 botanical families pumpkin and deep yellow winter types of fruit and vegetable are con- that are sources of food components squash (13-carotene). Other members sumed across the world and consider- (as identified from Table 2) and lists of the gourd family ( melon, ation of the various and some of the fruits and vegetables summer squash, and non-yellow strains for each fruit and vegetable within these families. The asparagus winter squash) do not serve as major increases the number of available fruit (Asparagaceae), olive (), sources of these or other food and vegetables into the thousands. grape () and morning glory components. The nightshade family Table 2, which lists the subclasses, (Convolvulaceae) families contain only includes chili peppers (3-carotene, orders, and families of Spermatophyta one type (or main type) of food, and capsaicin); sweet peppers (vitamin C, that are used as human foods and each has a unique food component lycopene if red); tomatoes (vitamin C, provides examples of food plants profile. Individual families that contain 13-carotene, lycopene); and eggplant within each family, illustrates the fruits and vegetables with somewhat and white potatoes (not major sources of food components). The laurel family includes avocado (folacin, ) and plants that are sources of herbs or spices (, sassafrass, sweet bay). The carrot family includes carrot ((X- and [3-); the stalk vegetable celery; the root vegetables and ; and plants used as herbs (, , coriander, , , parsley). Thus, although, some botanical families have some fruits and vegetables with similar food components, not all foods within a family may be reliable sources of a given food component. Another issue that makes the use of botanical families somewhat difficult for classifying fruits and vegetables as foods is that different parts of some plants may be eaten separately and have different food components (e.g., beet roots and greens, turnip roots and greens, broc- coli stems and flowers, chive bulbs and green tops). Botanical classification applies to the entire plant and is not

8 Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables specific for the different parts of a plant component composition and not very , and berries. Drupes that are consumed. useful for nutritional epidemiology. have a single seed enclosed by a hard, Classification by growing conditions stony pit, as in the apricot, cherry, Growing conditions might have some use for population coconut, date, nectarine, olive, peach Plants may be classified according to studies where fruits and vegetables and plum. In pomes, the flesh comes habitat, i.e., whether they grow in are locally grown and are of limited from the enlarged that or in , and the soil-growing plants variety. Such a classification is less grows up around the ovary, and the may be further classified according to useful for populations with access to endocarp around the seeds is papery whether they grow in areas that are national and international food or leathery, as with the apple, pear desert (low humidity, high temperature), commerce and commercial methods and . Berries develop from a tropical (high humidity, high tempera- of (freezing, compound ovary and usually contain ture) or temperate (moderate humidity ), processing and prepara- more than one seed. The three types and temperature) (Yamaguchi, 1983). tion. of berry are true berries, pepos and Aquatic plants include lotus, taro, water hesperidiums. True berries are fruits , water convolvulus and water- Fruit development from flowers with a thin skin that is soft at maturity, cress. Desert plants include and In addition to the botanical classifica- as in avocado, blueberry, cranberry, some desert cucurbits (buffalo gourd). tion of whole plants (Table 2), there is date, eggplant, gooseberry, grape, per- Tropical plants include avocado, a botanical classification of fruits simmon, red/green pepper and tomato. banana, , carambola, cas- according to how they develop from Pepo berries have a relatively thick sava, date, , guava, mango, their flowers. Fruits typically have three rind and include cantaloupe, cucum- papaya, passion fruit, pineapple and regions, the exocarp, which is the skin ber, pumpkin, squash and watermelon. winged beans (goa beans). Plants () or outermost layer of the fruit berries have a leathery grown in temperate areas may be wall; the mesocarp or middle region; -containing skin, and outgrowths divided according to their growing sea- and the endocarp, which is the from the inner lining of the ovary wall son. Cool-season , which are innermost area around the seeds become sac-like and swollen with juice adapted to mean monthly temperatures (Stern, 1988). Fruits with a mesocarp as the fruit develops. All members of of 16-18'C (60-65F), include that is dry at maturity are classified as the rue family (grapefruit, kumquat, artichoke, asparagus, Brussels sprout, dry fruits (cereal grains, beans, peas, lemon, lime, orange and tangerine) broccoli, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, and nuts), and fruits with a mesocarp produce this type of fruit. celery, chard, endive, garlic, kale, that is at least partly fleshy at maturity Aggregate fruits develop from a lettuce, mustard, onion, parsnip, pea, are classified as fleshy fruits (all single flower with several to many radish, spinach, turnip and white potato. others). Fleshy fruits may be simple, pistils. The pistils develop into tiny dru- Warm-season crops, which are adapted aggregate or multiple. pes and mature as a clustered unit on to mean monthly temperatures of 18-30'C Simple fleshy fruits develop from a a single receptacle. Examples are (65-86 F) and are intolerant of frost, flower with a single pistil; the ovary blackberries, , include cantaloupe, cucumber, eggplant, alone may develop into the fruit, or and strawberries. lima bean, okra, pepper, snap bean, other parts of the flower may develop Multiple fruits are formed when a squash and pumpkin, sweet corn, sweet with it. Simple fleshy fruits include cluster of flowers grouped closely potato, tomato and watermelon. Several foods within the tropical plants (avocado, mango, papaya), the cool-season plants (Brussels sprout, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, chard, endive, garlic, kale) and the warm-season plants (pumpkin, sweet potato, tomato, watermelon) contain a range of vitamin and bioactive components. However, it appears that classifica- tion by growing season, habitat, or climate is not directly related to food IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables

Table :2. Botanical classification of edible angiosperms

Class: /Iiliopsida Order: Dipsacales Subclass: Alismidae Order. Alisamales Elderberry (Water plantain family) Order: soaproot, old world arrowhead, sarsaparilla Lamiaceae!Lamïnariaceae (Mint family) Subclass: Arecidae , , , , , sage, spear- Order: A raies mint, Araceae ( family) Order: Polemoniales Alocasia, ape, belembe, calalu, cocoyam, dasheen Boraginaceae (garage family) giant taro, giant taro, tanna, taro, yautia Order: Arecales Convolvulaceae (Morning Glory family) PaimaelArecaceae (Palm family) Sweet potato, water convolvulus (water spinach) Coconut, date, palm cabbage, palm heart, palmito Order: Scrophulariales Subclass: Commelinidae (Nightshade family) Order: Bromeliales African eggplant, chili/hot pepper (red, green), eggplant (Pineapple family) (aubergine), (wonderberry), jib, Pineapple naranjillo (lulo), pepino, pimento pepper, sweet/bell Order: Cyperales pepper (red, green, orange, yellow), tobasco pepper, Cyperaceae (Sedge family) tomatillo, tomato (red, green, yellow), white/Irish potato Water chestnut (matai) Subclass: Caryophyllidae Order: Poales Order: /Chenopodiales Gramineae/ (Grass family) ( weed family) , barley, corn/maize, oats, , rye sorghum, spinach , wheat aceae (Amaranth family) Subclass: Liliidae Amaranth, tampapa (Chinese spinach, edible amaranth) Order: Liliales Basellaceae (Baseila family) Amaryllidaceae (Amaryllis family) Malabar nightshade (malabar spinach) Chinese chive, chive, garlic, Japanese bunching onion, Cataceae (Cactus family) leek, onion, rakkyo, scallion, Welsh onion Prickly pear (Indian fig, nopal, nopalitos, Sharon's fruit) Asparagaceae (Asparagus family) Chenopodiaceae (Goosefoot family) Asparagus Beet (greens and root), orach (mountain spinach), spinach, ( family) Swiss chard Chinese yam, nagaimo, winged/water yam, white/Guinea yam, Portulacacea (Purslane family) yam Purslane (Lily family) Order: Polygonales lily ( family) Order: French , garden sorrel, (pieplant) Cannaceae ( family) Subclass: Dillenhidae arrowroot Order: Capparaies Marantaceae (Arrowroot family) Cruciterae/ (Cabbage family) Arrowroot Arugula (Italian cress, garden rocket), bok choy (Chinese Musaceae (Banana family) cabbage), broccoli, broccoli raab (rapa, Italian turnip), Banana, plantain brown mustard (Chinese spinach), Brussels sprouts, Zingiberaceae ( family) cabbage, cauliflower, collards, , , Ginger, Japanese ginger (mioga) Indian mustard, Japanese horseradish, kale, kohlrabi, maca, mustard greens, mustard spinach, napa cabbage Class: Dicotyledons/magnoliopsida (), pak chol (Chinese mustard), radish, Subclass: Asteridae rocket salad (sea rocket), rutabaga (Siberian kale, hanover Order: Asters/es salad), turnip (turnip greens), upland cress (winter cress), /Compositae (Sunflower family) cress, garden cress) Butterhead lettuce, (edible burdock, gobo), Order: Cucurbitales dandelion, endive (Belgian endive, chicory, ), (Gourd family) luki, garland chrysanthemum, globe artichoke, iceberg Bitter melon (balsam pear, bitter cucumber, bitter gourd), lettuce, artichoke (sunchoke), loose gourd (zucca melon, while flowering gourd), lettuce, romaine, salsify (vegetable oyster, oyster plant) cantaloupe (musk-melon), , Chinese okra (vegetable Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables

gourd), cucumber, dishcloth gourd (sponge gourd, loofa), Anise, arracacha, caraway, carrot, celeriac, celery, honeydew melon, snake gourd (serpent gourd), summer coriander, dill, fennel (sweet anse), fennel, squash (e.g., zucchini), watermelon, gourd (Chinese mitsuba, parsley, parsnip winter melon, preserving melon), West gherkin, winter Order: squash (e.g., pumpkin) LeguminosaelFabaceae (Legume family) Order: Ebenales Adzuki beans, alfalfa, asparagus beans, bambara ground (Ebony family) nuts, black beans, broad beans (horse beans, Persimmon field beans, fava beans), , (garbanso Sapotaceae beans), cluster beans (guar), cowpeas, edible- Sapotes podded peas (e.g, sugar peas, China peas), Egyptian Order: lupines, , green/garden peas, hyacinth beans ( family) (chickling peas), jack beans, jicama (yam bean), kidney Kiwi (kiwi fruit, Chinese gooseberry) beans, lentils, lima beans, mat beans, mung beans, peanuts Ericaceae (Heath family) (ground nuts), potato beans, ricebeans, scariet runner Blueberry, cranberry, lingonberry beans, snapbeans (includes green beans, string beans, wax Order: Euphorbiales beans, yellow snap beans, romano beans, haricots), soy (Spurge/Castor Bean family) beans, sword beans, (Indian date), winged deans Cassava (manioc, , ), Chinese artichoke, (goa beans) Order: Mal vales Order: Geraniales (Bombax family) Malpigbiaceae Duriari Acerola ( cherry, West Indian cherry) (Mallow/ family) Oxalidaceae Egyptian mallow, okra (lady's finger, gumbo), Carambola (Jamaican sorrel) Order: Tiliaceae (Basswood/Lindin family) Myrtaceae (Myrtle family) Jew's mallow Feijoa (pineapple guava), guava Order: /es Punicaceae (Pomegranate family) Car[caceae ( family) Pomegranate Papaya (tree melon) Order: 0/cafes Passifloraceae (Passion flower family) Oleaceae (Olive family) Passion fruit (granadilla) Olives Order: Thea/es Order: Rhamnales (Tea family) Flbamnaceae (Buckthorn family) (Chinese date, red date) Subclass: Hamamelididae Vitaceae (Grape family) Order: Urtica les Grapes (Mulberry family) Order: Resales Breadfruit, fig, jackfruit, mulberry (Rose family) Subclass: Magnollidae Apple, apricot, blackberry (brambleberry, ), cherry Order: Laura/es (sweet cherry), , loquat (may apple, Japanese Lau raceae (Laurel family) medlar, Japanese plum), nectarine, peach, pear, Avocado, cinnamon, sassafrass, sweet bay plum, quince, raspberry, strawberry Order: Magnoliales Order: Hula/es (Custard apple family) ( family) (custard apple) Mango Order: Nymphaeales Rutaceae ( family) Nymphaeceae (Water Lily family) Calamondin, grapefruit, kumquat, lemon, lime, orange, Lotus root (East Indian lotus) pummelo (, pommelo, Chinese grapefruit, Subclass: Rosidae shaddock), tangerine Order: Corna/es/Umbeilales Order: Sapindales Araliaceae (/ family) (Soapberry family) Udo , lychee (litchi), rambutan Um bell iferae/ (Carrot/Parsley family) Order: Saxifra gaies Saxïfragaceae (Saxifrage family) Currants (red, pink, white, black, Asian), gooseberry Sources: Masefield et al., 1969; Encyclopedia Britannica, 1974 IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables

Family Foods in family Food components

Amaryllis Chive, garlic, leek, onion, scallion Allyl sulfides

Asparagus Asparagus Folacin, lignans, -sitosterol, campesterol, vitamin B6

Cabbage Arugula, bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprout, -Carotene, lutein, folacin (collards, kale), magnesium, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, garden cress, kale, calcium, quercetin, kaempferol, glucosinolates, indoles, kohlrabi, mustard greens, mustard spinach, napa isothiocyanates, lignans, caffeic acid, para-coumaric acid, cabbage, pak choi, radish, rutabaga, turnip, chlorogenic acid, vitamin C watercress

Carrot Anise, caraway, carrot, celeriac, celery, a- and (3-Carotene, lutein, apigenin, lignans, (3-sitosterol, coriander, dill, fennel, parsley, parsnip campesterol (all in carrot)

Gcosefoot Beet greens and root, spinach, Swiss chard ft-Carotene, lutein (spinach), zeaxanthin, folacin, magnesium, calcium, glutathione (spinach), vitamin C

Gourd Bitter melon, calabash gourd, cantaloupe, chayote, p-Carotene (cantaloupe, pumpkin, orange-yellow squash, cucumber, honeydew melon, summer squash, lycopene (watermelon), vitamin C (cantaloupe) watermelon, winter squash

Grape Red-purple grapes, green grapes , catechins, proanthocyanidins, quercetin, myricetin, ellagic acid, gallic acid, resveratrol (all in red- purple grapes)

Heath Blueberry, cranberry, lingonderry Arithocyanins, proanthocyanidins, quercetin, ellagic acid, vitamin C

Laurel Avocado, cinnamon, sassairass, sweet bay Folacin, 13-sitosterol, para-coumaric acid, chlorcgenic acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, glutathione, vitamin B6 (all in avocado)

Legume Black beans, broad beans, carob, chickpeas, Folacin, iron, isoflavones, protein, , vitamin B6 cowpeas, green peas, jicama, kidney beans, lentils, lima beans, mung beans, peanuts, snap beans, soybeans

Morning glory Sweet potato, water convolvulus a- and l3-Carotene (sweet potato)

Nightshade Chili pepper, eggplant, sweet red/green pepper, Capsaicin (chili pepper), 3-carotene (chili pepper), tomato, white potato lycopene (tomato), luteotin (sweet pepper), lignans, vitamin C (tomato, sweet pepper)

Olive Olives Monounsaturated fatty acids, (3-cryptoxanthin, phenolic acids

Rue Grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, tangerine Lycopene (red grapefruit), hesperidin, neohesperidin, citric acid, (3-sitosterol, campesterol, salicylates (orange), lirnoneno, vitamin C

Rose Apple, apricot, blackberry, cherry, loganberry, p-Carotene (apricot, nectarine, peach), anthocyanins, loquat, nectarine, peach, pear, plum, quince, quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, caffeic acid, ellagic raspberry, strawberry acid, -sitosteroI, campesterol, pectin, salicylates, vitamin C

Sunflower Butterhead lettuce, endive, globe artichoke, Kaempferol, stìgmasterol, lignans iceberg lettuce, , loose leaf lettuce, romaine, salsify

12 Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables together consolidates into a mass dur- Fruits that are commonly referred to as fruits, there are four type classes (cit- ing . For example, each of the berries are found in the true berry and rus, , berries and other) and many sections that make up a pineap- classes. five processing classes (fresh, juices, ple is a developed flower, and each canned/chilled, dried and frozen). For one is attached to the center core, Food supply and consumption vegetables, there are five type classes which has a woody stem structure. data (dark green leafy; deep yellow/orange; Other multiple fruits are fig, mulberry Government agencies often use fruit starchy; dry beans, peas, and lentils; and osage orange. and vegetable classifications for and other) and four processing classes Classification of fruits based on reporting national food supply (avail- (fresh, canned, frozen and dehy- development from flowers is not ability) and food consumption data. For drated). Although these classes are likely to be useful for epidemiological example, the United States Department broad, they provide rank orders for studies because the classes are not of (USDA) Economic individual fruits and vegetables, so that specific for food component content. Research Service (ERS) reports the most commonly consumed foods One exception is the hesperidium national food supply data (i.e., per can be identified. berry class, which contains the capita food availability) for fruit and rue family (citrus) fruits. Classification vegetable classes (USDA, 1999b; Edible parts of plants by fruit development would be confus- United States General Accounting Classification by edible part attempts ing for nutritionists and survey partici- Office, 2002) and the USDA to group fruits and vegetables by the pants because the botanical term Agriculture Research Service (ARS) part of the plant, bush, vine or tree that berries is used for some fruits that are uses these same classes to report is used as food (Table 4). This classifi- not commonly considered to be summarized results from national food cation is useful because of the similar berries, such as avocado, banana, consumption surveys (Krebs-Smith & composition of some plant cantaloupe, cucumber, date, grape- Cantor, 2001). The classifications are tissues (e.g., leaves, stalks and Stems, fruit, kumquat, lemon, lime, orange, based on fruit and vegetable type as roots and tubers, and pulses). This squash, tangerine and watermelon. well as on processing methods. For type of classification is found in some food composition databases. The similarity in nutrient content among some plant parts is due to the functions of these tissues. Stem and stalk vegetables (e.g., celery, rhubarb) are usually high in dietary fibre, which serves to support the structure of the plant. Leaves, especially the dark green ones, tend to be the most meta- bolically active and most nutritious part of plants and are usually good sources of dietary fibre, folacin, carotenoids, vitamin C, flavonoids, and minerals such as iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium. Pulses (mature beans and peas) are high in protein, starch, isoflavones, vitamin B6, folacin, iron and other minerals. Bulbs (chives, garlic, onion, shallots) are noted for

t allicin. Enlarged roots and tubers are storage organs for plants and usually have high starch content; they may serve as inexpensive sources of t . energy (potatoes, sweet potatoes, taro). Other roots and tubers are lower titi_ -- in energy content (e.g., Jerusalem

13 ]ARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables , parsnips, turnips) and may responsible for their colour, and other only a small part by weight of the fruit provide specific food components components that are present in these or vegetable and the peel may not be (e.g., €L- and f3-carotene in ). foods. In relation to food consumption, consumed. Thus, reliance on peel Fruits, which are grouped as vegetable colour may be a useful indicator of the color could be misleading with regard fruits, citrus, berries, melons, and presence of some food components in to food component content. Examples other, are more variable in nutrient fruit and vegetables, but may not be are summer squash with yellow or content; some are especially high in specific for a bioactive component. For green peel; cucumber with green peel; vitamin C and/or 13-carotene. example, red could be due to eggplant with purple peel; potatoes anthocyanins or lycopene. White is with red peel; and apple with red, Colour indicative of the allyl sulfides in garlic green, or yellow peel. Another issue is The main responsible for and onion, but other white vegetables that there are many different cultivars colour in fruit and vegetables are such as potatoes, parsnips and turnips for each fruit and vegetable, and the (green), various caro- do not contain these protective compo- cultivars may vary by colour and tenoids (yellow, orange and red) and nents. As indicated in Table 5, fruits hence by their concentration of pig- anthocyanins, a type of flavonoid (red, and vegetables that contain the ments. For example, most cultivars of blue and purple). Variations in colour pigments chlorophyll, anthocyanins or are red, but some are white between different fruits and vegetables carotenoids may not have similar and others are yellow. Sweet potatoes and between various cultivars of a fruit profiles with respect to other food com- show variation in 13-carotene concen- or vegetable result from the different ponents such as vitamin C, minerals tration among the orange, yellow- concentrations of pigments. Caro- and phenolic acids. Some green veg- white and purple cultivars (Huang et tenoids and anthocyanins function as etables are sources of carotenoids; al., 1999). . Although chlorophyll some are sources of glucosinolates, does not appear to be useful in human indoles and thiocyanates; and some Processing and preparation , foods that are high in (iceberg lettuce, green peas, green The usefulness of processing terms for chlorophyll are usually also high in beans) do not contain these food com- classifying fruits and vegetables 13-carotene. (The yellow-orange colour ponents. depends on their association with food of 13-carotene is masked by the green Some fruits and vegetables have a component concentrations. The terms chlorophyll). The carotenoids most peel with a colour that is different to the fresh, juice, canned/chilled, dried and extensively investigated in relation to underlying tissue. The peel constitutes frozen for fruits and fresh, canned, human health are Œ-carotene, 13-carotene, 13-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutoin and zeaxanthin (IARC, 1998). a- and 13-carotene, 13-cryptoxanthin, and lutein provide an orange-yellow colour; lycopene red and zeaxanthin yellow. There are over 300 different anthocyanins and about 70 have been identified in fruits and vegetables. Their colours range from crimson or magenta red to violet or indigo purple or blue. Colour classifications for fruit and vegetables have been used to help consumers select a wider variety of these foods in their daily diets (Mangels et al., 1993; Heber & Bowerman, 2001; Joseph et aI., 2002; National Cancer Institute, 2002). Table 5 lists some common green, orange, red and blue fruits and vegetables by colour, the (s)

14 Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables

Flowers/flower with stems/stalks Shoots/sprouts Asparagus; broccoli; broccoli raab; Chinese broccoli; cauliflower; Alfalfa sprouts; bamboo shoots; kidney bean sprouts; lentil globe/French artichoke; green cauliflower; pumpkin flower sprouts; sprouts; navy bean sprouts; pea sprouts; pokeberry shoots (poke); radish seed sprouts; soybean sprouts; Stems and stalks taro shoots Cardoon; celery; fennel bulb; green/spring onion (scallion); kohl- rabi; leek; rhubarb Bulbs (underground with roots and short stem covered with leafy layers) Leaves Chives; garlic; leek; onion; onion, Welsh; shallot Amaranth leaves; arugula; balsam pear leafy tips (bitter melon/bitter gourd); beet greens: borage: Brussels sprouts; but- Fruits used as vegetables terbur (fuki) eaves; Chinese cabbage (pak-choi, pe-tsai); Avocado, balsam pear (bitter melon, bitter gourd); breadfruit; cabbage (green, red, savoy, swamp/); chard (Swiss chard); calabash/white-flowered gourd; cucumber; dishcloth gourd chicory greens; chicory, witloof; chrysanthemum leaves; collards; (towel gourd); eggplant (aubergine); snap beans, green, yellow; coriander/cilantro; cornsalad; cowpeas, leafy tips; dandelion hominy, white/yellow; horseradish tree pods; okra (lady's finger, greens: dock/sorrel; endive; eppaw; ; garden gumbo); pepino; chili/hot peppers (ancho, banana, Hungarian, cress; garland chrysanthemum; ; horseradish tree, jalapeno, pasilla, pimiento, serrano); sweet/bell peppers, leafy tips; jew's mallow; jute, potherb; kale; kale, scotch; lambs- green/red/yellow; plantain; sesbania flower; snow peas (edible quarters; lettuce (butterhead, iceberg, looseleaf/leaf, podded peas); summer squash (chayote, crookneok, , romaine/cos); malbar spinach; mustard greens; mustard scallop, straightneck, zucchini); sweet corn; tomatillo; tomato spinacb/tendergreen; New Zealand spinach; pumpkin leaves; (green, orange, red, cherry, Italian, plum, yellow); waxgourd purslane; radicchio; salsify (oyster plant, vegetable oyster); (Chinese preserving melon); winter squash (, butternut, spinach; sweet potato leaves; taro leaves; tree tern; turnip hubbard, pumpkin, spaghetti); zucca melon greens; vinespinach; watercress; winged bean leaves Fruits - citrus Pulses Grapefruit (pink, red, white); lemon; lime; mandarin oranges: Adzuki beans; black beans; black turtle beans; broadbeans (tava orange; tangerine beans); chickpeas (garbanzo beans, gram); cowpeas (blackeye peas, crowder peas, southern peas); catjang; cran- Fruits - berries berry (roman) beans; French beans; great northern beans; Blackberry; blueberry; boysenberry; cranberry; elderberry; goose- hyacinth beans; kidney beans; lentils; lima beans; lima beans, berry; loganberry; mulberry; oheloberry; raspberry; strawberry baby; lupins; motbbeans; mung beans; mungo beans; navy beans; peas, green; peas, split; pigeon peas (red gram); pink Fruits - melons beans; pinto beans; shellie (shell) beans; soybeans; white beans; Cantaloupe (muskmelon); casaba melon; honeydew melon; water- winged beans; yardlong bean; yellow beans; winged beans melon

Roots (part of the plant below the ground that holds the plant in Fruits - other place, draws water and nourishment from the soil, and stores Abiyuoh; acerola (West Indian cherry); apple; apricot; Asian pear, food) banana; carambola (star fruit): carEssa (natal-plum); cherimoya; Arracacha; arrowroot; beet (); burdock root: carrot; cherry (sour, sweet); crabapple; currants (black, red, white, cassava; celeriac (celery root); chicory root; jicama (yambean); Lante); custard apple (bullock's heart); date; durian; feijea; fig; lotus root; parsnip; radish; radish, oriental; radish, white icicle; grape, red/green; grouncfcherry; guava: guava, strawberry; rutabaga (swede); salsify; sweet potato; turnip: root ackfruit; plum; jujube; kiwi fruit (Chinese gooseberry); kumquat; lychee (litchi); longan; loquat; mammy apple (mamey); Tuber (short, thickened, fleshy part of an ) mango; mangosteen; nectarine; papaya; passion fruit (grandilla), Jerusalem artichoke (sunchoke); Hawaiian mountain yam; purple; peach; pear; persimmon, Japanese; persimmon; - (taro root ); potato (brown-, red-, white- skinned and apple; pitanga (Surinam cherry); plum; pomegranate; prickly russet); Tahitian taro; yautia (tan nier); yam pear; prune: pummelo; quince: rambutan; rose apple; roselle: rowal; sapodilla; sapote; ; sugar apple; tamarind IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables

•! I•J L• I'll IIIIU1IUI 1! I I- IlL' Li! L{ I

Colour Food Pigment(s) Other food components

Dark green Kale Chlorophyll, p-carotene, lutein Calcium, iron, magnesium, quercebn, kaemp- ferol, glucosinolates, indoles, isothiocyanates, vitamin C

Dark green Spinach Chlorophyll, p-carotene, lutein Folacin, calcium, iron, magnesium, glutathione, saponins, vitamin C

Green Asparagus Chlorophyll, 3-carotene, lutein, Folacin, glutathione, lignans, saponins, rotin

Green Broccoli Chlorophyll, n-carotene, lutein Quercetin, glucosinolates, indoles, isothio- cyanates, lignans, caffeic acid, vitamin C

Green Brussels sprout Chlorophyll, p-carotene, lutein Glucosirolates, indoles, sothiocyanates, para- coumaric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, vitamin C

Green Cabbage Chlorophyll, p-carotene, lutein Quercetir, kaempferol, glucosinolates, indoles, isothiocyanates, chlorogenic acid, vitamin C

Green Kiwi fruit Chlorophyll, p-cryptoxanthin, lutein, Vitamin C zeaxanthin

Deep orange-yellow Apricot p-Carotene Quercetin, chlorogenic acid

Deep orange Cantaloupe a-Carotene, 13-carotene Glutathione, terulic acid, rotin, vitamin C

Deep orange Carrot a-Carotene, p-carotene, Apigenein, myricetin, caffeic acid, para-coumaric (3-cryptoxanthin, lutein acid, chlorogenic acid, linonene

Deep orange Mango p-Carotene, p-cryptoxanthin, antho- Quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, vitamin C cyanins

Deep orange Pumpkin a-Carotene, p-carotene, lutein, Lignans, ferulic acid zeaxanthin

Deep orange Sweet potato (3-Carotene Quercetin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid

Orange Orange p-Cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin Hesperidin, glutathione, p-sitosterol, linonere, vitamin C

Orange Tangerine -Cryptoxanthin, lutein Limonene, vitamin C

Yellow Corn Luteirr, zeaxanthin Quercetin, ferulic acid

Red Cherry Anthocyanins Quercetin, kaempferol, chlorogenic acid, para- coumaric acid, gallic acid

16 Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables

Mir 1'1[.IL'i'I1I('I

Colour Food Pigment(s) Other food components

Red Cranberry Anthocyanins Catechins, epigallocatechir gallate, proanthocyanidins, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol, ligrans, ellagic acid, chioro- genic acid, vitamin C

Red Pomegranate Anthocyanins Lignans, ellagic acid, chlorogenic acid, gallic acid

Red Raspberry Anthocyanins Quercetin, kaempferol, caffeic acid, ellagic acid, ferulic acid, salicylates, vitamin C

Red Red onion Anthocyanins Allicin, quercetin, kaempferol, caffeic acid, ferulic acid

Red skin Red-skinned apple Anthocyanins Quercetin, myricetin, ferulic acid, pectin, rutin

Red Strawberry Anthocyanins Glutathione, lignans, ellagic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, vitamin C

Red Tomato Lycopene, It-carotene Quercetin, kaempferol, para-coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, vitamin C

Red-pink Red-pink grapefruit It-Carotene, lycopene Hesperidin, naringenin, quercetin, kaempferol, glutatbione, ferulic acid, limonene, 3-sitosterol, vitamin C

Red Sweet red pepper 13-Carotene, lutein para-Coumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, vitamin C

Blue-black Blackberry Anthocyanins Catechins, quercetin, kaempferol, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, vitamin C

Blue Blueberry Anthocyanins Proanihccyanidins, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol, chlorogenic acid, para-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, resveralrol, vitamin C

Blue Elderberry Anthocyanins Catechins, quercetin, ellagic acid, vitamin C

Red-purple Red-purple grape Anthocyanins Catechins, epicatechïn, proanthocyanidins, quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, para-cournaric acid, resveratrol

Purple Plum Anthocyanins Chlorogenic acid, para-coumaric acid, ferulic acid

Source: Barratt-Fornell & Drewnowski, 2002; Joseph et aL, 2002; National Cancer Institute, 2002; Pennington, 2002

17 IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables frozen and dehydrated for vegetables commercial juicing may be different bles and may add other ingredients were presented earlier in this chapter. from those available in the market as (fat and sugar) as in frying vegetables, Current methods of commercial raw fruit and vegetables, so again food preparing vegetables in a or processing, such as the freezing and component levels may be different. butter sauce, adding or canning of fruit and vegetables appear Some commercial orange and grape- salad dressing to potatoes or , not to significantly alter the nutrient fruit juices are fortified with calcium, canning fruit in a sugar syrup or juice, content of these foods, although there giving significantly higher levels than in or preparing pickled vegetables in a may be some loss of components such unfortified juices. brine. as vitamin C and folacin. Often the cul- Fruit and vegetable juices and Classification of fruits and vegeta- tivars used for freezing and canning dried fruit offer different levels of bles by processing and preparation are different from those sold in markets nutrients and bioactive components on methods could be especially important as the raw product. Thus, differences in a weight basis compared with their in cultures where there is reliance on a nutrient profiles between a raw and fresh, canned and cooked counter- limited number of local crops and the processed food may be due to differ- parts. For example a serving of orange processing techniques alter the ences in cultivar as well as the effects juice might constitute the juice from composition so as to limit the intake of of processing. The drying of fruit and two or more oranges; dried will critical food components. For popula- vegetables removes water and proba- weigh less than the fresh. For dark tions that have access to a wide bly also some volatile nutrients, reduc- green leafy vegetables, the quantity variety of fruit and vegetables and a ing the volume and weight of the prod- (weight) consumed could vary range of processing and preparation uct and concentrating the remaining considerably between the raw and the methods, these methods are not likely food components. The juicing of fruit cooked. For example, a given volume to be useful as classification terms. and vegetables usually removes the of raw spinach yields only about half , which contains dietary fibre, and that volume of cooked spinach. may concentrate other nutrients on a Processing and preparation may Considerations for weight basis. The cultivars used for remove peels from fruits and vegeta- epidemiological studies

Fruit and vegetable groupings used in dietary assessment tools The various instruments used to assess dietary intakes in epidemio- logical studies are discussed in Chapter 2, which covers the advan- tages and disadvantages of various methods as well as the estimation of associated measurement errors. Dietary assessment tools are mentioned in this chapter with respect to aspects of fruit and vegetable definitions and classifications. The definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables vary between epidemiological studies because of differences in the purposes of the study and the dietary patterns of the population being evaluated. Table 6 provides examples of several fruit and vegetable groupings based on plant part, colour and/or botanical family that have been used to collect and/or report information from Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables epidemioLogical studies. The table pro- toes and taro. Soybeans are usually presented in these materials. Dietary vides information on botanical families, considered with pulses; however, guidance materials emphasize the important food components and some soybean products (tofu, , temph, weekly or biweekly consumption of considerations with respect to food soy-based moat analogues, soymilk) dark green leafy vegetables and/or processing. The list does not cover all are generally grouped elsewhere. deep yellow-orange fruits and vegeta- fruits and vegetables, e.g., it does not FFQs usually ask questions about bles as a source of the include some commonly consumed mixed dishes containing fruit or vegeta- precursor, (3-carotene; daily consump- fruits such as , and bles (casseroles, stews, stir-fries; tion of citrus fruit or juice for vitamin C; . Open-ended dietary assess- pasta, rice and with tomato and daily consumption of protein ment tools (e.g., 24-hour recalls or sauce; with vegetables; and pies sources such as meat and meat food records) allow flexibility in terms containing fruit, pumpkin or sweet substitutes, which include beans, peas, of identifying and classifying fruit and potato) separately from questions and soy products. Thus, the public is vegetable consumption because the about fruit and vegetables. For a num- usually exposed to and has some investigators may organize the results ber of fruit and vegetable foods, deci- understanding of several fruit and veg- as desired after the survey has been sions about placement and grouping in etable groups depicted by colour, plant completed. Food frequency question- FFQs may be made according to how part and/or botanical family. naires (FFQs) require a priori deci- they are usually used in dietary pat- Dark green leafy vegetables sions as to which foods are to be listed terns. Examples of these foods are represent both the plant part and on the questionnaire and how the tomato ketchup, paste, puree, sauce colour; deep orange/yellow fruits and foods are organized into groups. and salsa; fried potatoes; soups con- vegetables represent colour; and citrus There are many similarities taining tomatoes, pulses, or other veg- fruits and pulses represent both between available FFQs with respect etables; garlic and onion (used as gar- botanical families and plant parts. to questions asked about fruit and nish versus vegetable); coconut; Consumers are also generally familiar vegetable consumption. Differences ; pickled fruits and vegeta- with the plant part groupings of berries, include the number of fruits and bles; and olives. Potato crisps, jams, melons and starchy root/tuber vegetables that are listed; which foods jellies, preserves and are vegetables and with processing terms are considered to be fruits and which usually not counted as vegetables or such as fresh, frozen, canned and vegetables; the placement of certain fruits in FFQs. dried. Cabbage family vegetables are fruits and vegetables in other food likely to be familiar to survey partici- groups: and the listing and placement Fruit and vegetable groupings pants because of media attention over of foods that contain fruit and familiar to survey participants the past 10-15 years. Consumers who vegetables or are derived from these Because food gudes and related are especially interested in food and foods. For example, fruit and dietary guidance information are health may also have read or heard vegetables that are used as dietary provided to children and teenagers in about bioactive components in garlic, staples (i.e., as a main source of schools and to the general public from , tomatoes, tomato products, energy) for a population may not be government health and/or agricultural watermelon, grapes, cherries and considered to be fruits or vegetables. agencies and from health profession- . Consumer knowledge of These foods include pulses (mature als (dietitians, nurses, physicians), fruit and vegetable groupings might be beans and peas), bananas, plantain, many survey participants are likely to used to advantage by researchers in white potatoes, sweet (yellow) pota- be familiar with the food groups designing epidemiological studies. IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 8: Fruit and Vegetables

Suggested groupings Botanical family and foods Important Processing considera- components Lions; Notes

Dark green leafy Goose foot: beet greens, spinach, (3-Carotene, folacin, magne- Separate questions for raw vegetables Swiss chard Cabbage: couards, kale, slum, calcium and cooked because of mustard greens, mustard spinach, changes in weight and turnip greens volume

Cabbage family (some green Cabbage: arugula, bok choy, broccoli, Glucosinolates, isothio- Separate questions for leafy vegetables, stem and flower Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauli- cyanates, indoles coleslaw and sauerkraut; vegetables) flower, collards, kale, mustard greens, some overlap with dark napa cabbage, pak chol green leafy vegetables (collards, kale)

Lettuce Sunflower: butterhead Lettuce, May be commonly con- endive, iceberg lettuce, loose Leaf sumed lettuce, romaine

Deep orange-yellow fruits and Gourd: cantaloupe, pumpkin (3-Carotene, u-carotene (car- roots Car/ca: papaya rot, pumpkin, sweet potato) Rose: apricot, nectarine, peach Carrot: carrot Morning Glory: Sweet potato Cashew: mango

Citrus family fruits and juices Rue: , lime, lemon, grape- Hesperidin, naringenin Separate questions for citrus fruit, orange, tangerine, clementine (grapefruit), neohesperidin fruit juices and juices forti- (grapefruit, orange), f ied with calcium limonene, vitamin C

Tomatoes, tomato Nightshade. tomato (3-Carotene, lycopene, Separate questions about products, and Gourd: watermelon vitamin C tomato juice, tomato sauce, several red fruits Rue: red-pink grapefruit ketchup, salsa, pizza, toma- Myrtle: guava to and pasta with tomato sauce

Red cherries, berries, Rose: cherry, raspberry, strawberry Anthocyanins, quercetin, several vegetables Health: cranberry phenolic acids (berries) Nightshade: red sweet pepper, red chili pepper Goose foot: beets Legume: red beans Brassica: : red onion

Blue-black berries Rose: blackberry, loganberry Anthocyanins, quercetin, Separate question for juices; and red-purple grapes Heath: blueberry, lingonberry phenolic acids; red-purple separate questions for Saxifrage: gooseberry grapes also have proantho- grapes of other colours Grape: red-purple grape , catechins, myri- cetin, resveratrol, vitamin C

20 Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables

Suggested groupings Botanical family and foods Important Processing considerations; components Notes

Allium family bulbs Amaryllis: chives, garlic, leeks, onion, AI]yI sulfides Clarify if garlic and onion are shallots consumed as a vegetable, , powder or salt

Legume family Legume: black beans, broad beans, Iron, isoflavones. protein, Include beans in mixed dish- chickpeas, cowpeas. edible-podded starch, vitamin B6 es (chili, burritos, soups), peas, green peas, hyacinth beans, tofu, soy-based meat substi- kidney beans, lentils, lima beans, soy- tutes, and other soy products beans

Starchy vegetables Nightshade: potato , starch, phenolic Separate questions for deep- Grass: corn, hominy acids fried potatoes or potatoes Arum: taro made with sauce or mayon- Yam: yam naise

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