A Plan to Restore Ecolog Southwest's National Forest .4:1 Economic

Home , Apache National Forest, Kaibab Plateau

A Plan to Restore Ecolog .4:1 Economic Integrity to the Southwest's National Forest rest Dependent Communities FORESTS FOREVER! A PLAN TO RESTORE ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC INTEGRITY TO THE SOUTHWEST'S NATIONAL FORESTS AND FOREST-DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES

The Southwest Forest Alliance is a coalition of more than 50 environmental groups from Arizona and New Mexico charting a new course for the Southwest's National Forests. Dedicated to restoring a natural balance to our public lands, the Alliance promotes solutions which will protect mature and old-growth forests and restore damaged watersheds while helping forest-dependent communities become self sustaining. Please join the 50,000 members of the Southwest Forest Alliance working for positive change and a vision of the future. Together we can restore the forests of the Southwest forever.

AMIGOS BRAVOS FRIENDS OF THE WILD RIVERS • ARIZONA AUDUBON COUNCIL • ARIZONA LEAGUE OF CONSERVATION VOTERS • AUDUBON PRESCOTT • AUDUBON EL PASO • AUDUBON OF NORTHERN ARIZONA • BORDER ECOLOGY PROJECT • CARSON FOREST WATCH • CENTRAL NEW MEXICO AUDUBON • COMMITTEE OF WILDERNESS SUPPORTERS • EARTHLAW • FOREST CONSERVATION COUNCIL • FOREST GUARDIANS • FOREST TRUST • FRIENDS OF THE GILA RIVER • FRIENDS OF THE OWLS • HUACHUCA AUDUBON • LAND & WATER FUND OF THE ROCKIES • LIFENET • MARICOPA AUDUBON • MESILLA VALLEY AUDUBON • NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY • NATIONAL PARKS AND CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION • NEW MEXICO FOREST PARTNERSHIP • NEW MEXICO WILDERNESS STUDY COMMITTEE • PUBLIC FORESTRY FOUNDATION • RIO GRANDE BIOREGIONAL PROJECT • RIO GRANDE RESTORATION • SANTA FE FOREST WATCH • SIERRA CLUB - EL PASO GROUP • SIERRA CLUB - GRAND CANYON CHAPTER • SIERRA CLUB - PRESCOTT • SIERRA CLUB - RINCON GROUP • SIERRA CLUB - RIO GRANDE CHAPTER • SIERRA CLUB - SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO GROUP

• SIERRA CLUB -SOUTHWEST REGIONAL OFFICE • SIERRA MADRE PROJECT • SKY ISLAND ALLIANCE • SONORAN BIOREGIONAL DIVERSITY PROJECT • SOUTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN SERVICE CORPS • SOUTHWEST CENTER FOR BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY • SOUTHWEST ENVIRONMENTAL CENTER • SOUTHWEST TROUT • STUDENT ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION COALITION • STUDENT ENVIRONMENTAL CENTER • T & E INC. • THE NEW MEXICO WILDERNESS STUDY COMMITTEE • THE SUSTAINABILITY PROJECT • THE WILDLANDS

PROJECT • WHITE MOUNTAIN CONSERVATION LEAGUE • WILDLIFE DAMAGE REVIEW • YOUTH ECOLOGY CORPS • ZUNI MOUNTAIN COALITION • ZUNI CONSERVATION PROJECT

THE SOUTHWEST FOREST ALLIANCE P.O. Box 1948 Flagstaff, AZ 86002 Phone 520.774.6514 Fax 520.774.6846 [email protected]

0 1996 Southwest Forest Alliance. All Rights Reserved. All photographic copyrights are held by individual photographers TRODUCTION: ECOSYSTEMS AT RISK A RESTORATION PLAN FOR SOUTHWESTERN FORESTS AND FOREST DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES Ecosystem Restoration Means More FOREST COMMUNITIES Than "Forest Health"

OF THE SOUTHWEST GOALS Pirion-Juniper: The Forgotten Forest Restore Southwestern Forests Woodland Co-evolution: A birds eye view to Fully Functioning Ecosystems Ponderosa Pine: Forest of Grass and Fire Provide Jobs for Local Economies Truffles, squirrels, goshawks and chainsaws Plan for Future Generations Mixed-Conifer: Deep Canyon Old-Growth Aspen: Child of Fire, Mother of Forests M .Thf.id.MENT RECOMMENDATIONS Spruce-Fir: Forests in the Sky Landscape Analysis Wetlands: Ribbons of Life Pine and Pine-Oak Cienegas: Southwest Wetlands Mixed-Conifer Oak WHAT'S WRONG WITH Grasses, Herbs, and Shrubs SOUTHWESTERN FORESTS Priority Watersheds Liquidation of 01 Cienegas Overgrazing Fire Fire Suppression Plants and Wildlife Road Building Map supplement: Declining Songbirds Key Ecological features of Southwestern Forests Declining Fisheries Predator Control Exotic Species

19TH CENTURY ECONOMICS: SUBSIDIZED ENVIRONMENTAL DESTRUCTION Big Trees, Big Subsidies Feeding at the Public Pasture Mining our Pocketbooks

Above: We must protect the Southwest's few remaining ancient forests for our children. Photo by Stewart Aitchison Cover: 600 year old ponderosa pine was over a century old when Columbus landed. Photo by Tom Bean Ihe Southwest is typically associated with redrock canyons and desert vistas, yet forests and woodlands cover nearly 45 million acres, including the largest contiguous ponderosa pine forest in the United States.

From the sky islands of southern Arizona to the Rocky Mountain peaks of northern New Mexico, these southwestern forests support an unparalleled diversity of plants and wildlife.

Spotted owls, goshawks, native trout, elk, and black bear all make their home in the Southwest's eleven National Forests. So do loach minnows, spotted bats, wild onions, and wood lilies.

A RICH HUMAN CULTURE Native Americans have a tradi-

tion of caring for the forests that stretches back at least 40,000

years. Despite the long record of human occupancy, the forests

The San Francisco Peaks in northern Arizona are covered with remained in excellent ecological condition up to the late 19th century a variety of dense forest ecosystems, from pine-oak, to aspen, to mixed-conifer, all the way up to spruce-fir. Coconino when large-scale logging, mining, and cattle grazing began. National Forest. Photo by Michael Collier Hispanic culture appeared in the Southwest 400 years ago and is still a Inset: Prior to industrial logging the Southwest's forests were vibrant part of the landscape, especially in northern New Mexico. Rural covered with old-growth ponderosa pine—a sight rarely seen today. White Mountains, Arizona. Circa 1900, Hispanic communities exist throughout the Carson and Santa Fe National Photo courtesy of Dale Schicketanz Forests. Residents depend on the forest for fuelwood, timber, small graz- Opposite: Mt. Graham is sacred to the Apache people and allotments, and clean water. home to some of the best remaining old-growth forests in the ing Southwest. Photo by Robin Silver

4 FORESTS AT THE CROSSROADS One hundred and twenty years of intensive grazing, Broad public involvement in the planning process is mining, logging, road construction, and fire suppression the key to ensuring public lands remain open to every- have left their mark on New Mexico and Arizona. The one and are conserved for future generations. To insure dramatic loss of old-growth pines and large predators is this, the Southwest Forest Alliance initiated Forests evident everywhere. Less obvious is the disappearance Forever, a citizens' plan to restore Southwestern forests of lush native grasses, snags, songbirds, and perennial and forest-dependent communities. The restoration streams, likewise the increase in exotic fish, weeds, plan appears in the last chapter of this publication. In arroyos, and small trees. summary, every forest ecosystem should first be Increased public involvement and environmental mapped and inventoried to provide a basis for holistic laws are changing the way our National Forests are landscape planning. All old-growth and trees larger than managed. While the old ways are being recognized as 16 inches in diameter should be protected, snags should environmentally destructive and undemocratic, the be provided for wildlife, small trees in overly dense future is still uncertain. stands should be thinned, and natural wildfire patterns All eleven National Forest management plans will should be restored. To protect soils and wildlife, overgraz- soon be rewritten. The timber industry has already ing should be prohibited, excess roads should be closed, stopped a proposal to ban old-growth and steep-slope log- and watershed erosion should be checked. Native species ging. The cattle industry is pushing for more and heavier including predators, native grasses, and native fish grazing, especially in wilderness areas, and mining con- should be reintroduced. Finally, restoration jobs should glomerates are privatizing more and more public land. go to local forest communities.

5 (liii alili M,)ititam hu ton4 and S011ti .tvd. ' I , tA re.CONR. I lICV1 t • S i ' pxeparin,g . - rQtAncl ol Ino i n Phoic A) T1 1 " P/tcrc t liacl tAwb.//), 1),Ild . wrc ///7,,ro / HE SOUTHWEST'S FORESTS AND WETLANDS ARE REMARK -

ABLY DIVERSE. FROM THE OAK WOODLANDS OF SOUTHERN

ARIZONA TO THE ALPINE LAKES OF NORTH-

ERN NEW MEXICO, THEY SUPPORT A WIDE

ARRAY OF WILDLIFE HABITATS AND HUMAN

, mreur”-www COMMUNITIES.

THE "SKY ISLAND" FORESTS HAVE EVOLVED

UNIQUE SPECIES FOUND NOWHERE ELSE ON

EARTH. THE MOGOLLON RIM, STRETCHING

350 MILES FROM FLAGSTAFF, ARIZONA, TO

SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO, IS THE LARGEST CONTIGUOUS PONDEROSA

PINE FOREST IN THE UNITED

STATES. PERCHED ON THE

NORTH RIM OF THE

GRAND CANYON, THE KAIBAB PLATEAU IS HOME TO LARGE

NUMBERS OF GOSHAWKS, KAIBAB SQUIRRELS,

AND ANCIENT PINES.

THE MOUNTAINS OF NORTHERN

NEW MEXICO CONTAIN THE

SOUTHWEST'S LARGEST ASPEN GROVES,

SPRUCE FORESTS, AND MONTANE GRASSLANDS.

7 PINON the forgotten f Though less imposing than forests of tall ponderosa Dine and fir. Dition-iuniner woodlands have sustained L human and animal life in the Southwest for tens of thousands of years.

Every three to seven years, pirion trees produce large nut crops—up to

10 million pounds of nuts are gathered in a good year, primarily by Native

American gatherers. The pirion trade is so lucrative the New Mexico legis- lature has prohibited the sale of falsely labeled "pirion"nuts in the state. At least 150 vertebrate species live in pirion-juniper woodlands, includ-

ing a great diversity of bats, birds, and reptiles. Pirion nuts support squirrels and jays, while the berries of junipers are a staple of bluebirds, black

bears, and humans, who grind them into cakes and flavored gin. Pirion-juniper woodlands form a transition zone between desert and

forest, grading into arid grasslands below 5,000 feet and into ponderosa pine forests around 7,000 feet. In northern New Mexico, pifion and

juniper trees can be found beneath fir forests as high as 10,000 feet.

A FOREST IN FLUX

Due to overgrazing and fire suppression, pirion-juniper woodlands have

become denser, crowding out native grasses and herbs. Junipers have

moved downslope into desert grasslands.

In an ill-conceived effort to increase forage for cattle, the Forest Service

and Bureau of Land Management bulldozed, cabled, chained, and poisoned more than 600,000 acres of pirion-juniper woodlands in the 1950s and 1960s. The effort cost taxpayers millions of dollars but proved futile.

Continued overgrazing removed native grasses and prevented wildfire

from spreading—the pirions and junipers grew right back. Topsoil was

severely damaged over thousands of square miles.

Bulldozing junipers continues to this day, most recently under the

guise of "ecosystem restoration." The practice is not likely to be any more effective unless livestock numbers are permanently reduced, and low intensity fires are allowed to burn. Centuries old alligator juniper, Gila National Forest, New Mexico. Exposed root system, a direct effect of overgrazing. Photo by Robin Silver

"Type conversion, the predominant management

practice in pinyon-juniper woodlands, DR. RUSSELL P. BALDA NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY indicates a great insensitivity and lack of consideration on man's part for all native, dependent animals." 8 - WOOI )LAND Co EVOLUTION a birds eye view

pirion nut gatherers have much to thank the pinyon Over evolutionary time, jays preferentially selected jay for. By carefully selecting and planting the large, pro- large, visible nuts. Such high-energy nuts could not be tein-rich nuts, the pinyon jay is responsible for cultivat- produced for very long, so jays learned to cache them for ing pirion trees. later retrieval. Their cache sites—on the south sides of trees, rocks, and hills—provided perfect germination PLAYING THE ODDS sites. Thus, cached nuts survived in greater numbers To reproduce, species "choose" between having many than uncached nuts. Over tens of thousands of years the uncared-for offspring, or a few, carefully reared offspring. modern pirion tree evolved, while the unselected nuts, Spiders have thousands of babies; most die. Humans and their genes, disappeared. have just a few, and most live. Both reproduction strate- Through caching, jays "bred" pirion trees with nuts gies are successful. to their liking: wingless, spineless seeds for ease of han- The balance between many or few offspring is partic- dling, cones positioned to be easily seen, and nuts high in ularly delicate for the Southwest's woodland trees protein. because their seeds must survive dry, hot conditions. Large, protein-rich seeds, such as the pirion nut, can EVOLUTION IN TWO DIRECTIONS better tolerate heat and drought. They are also quick to Those jays best able to harvest and store pillion nuts had develop root systems. But the energy required more and stronger offspring, they became today's mod- of a plant to produce such seeds is ern pinyon jay. high, which means there will be Pinyon jays and Clark's nutcrackers devel- fewer of them. While small oped long, thick, tapered bills perfectly seeds are less likely to sur- suited for extracting pition nuts. They vive, many more can be tap and weigh nuts to make sure they produced. are not empty, and ignore yellow and Dispersal is another tan casings likely to contain dry nuts. consideration. Small seeds The birds carry the nuts for many are effectively scattered by the miles in specially evolved mouth pouches to wind. Large seeds drop close to communal flocking areas—a good substitute their parents with whom they will have for wind dispersal. Each nut is individually tapped to compete for water and sunlight. into the ground and covered with soil, often with a leaf If wind and weather were the only factors, the many- or a pine cone placed on top to conceal the evidence of small-seed strategy would generally prevail in arid cli- digging. mates, the result being few high-calorie or protein food One flock of 250 Clark's nutcrackers can store up to sources. A little animal help, however, can greatly eight million nuts in a single year. improve the reproductive odds. EVOLUTIONARY DELINQUENT AVIAN ASSISTANCE Scrub jays took an alternate route to evolutionary suc- Pirion trees receive assistance primarily from one bird— cess. One will sneak up and startle a pinyon jay just as it the pinyon jay. Seed dispersal and planting help from the successfully opens a cone. In a flash, the scrub jay whisks jays relieves environmental pressure, allowing pirion away the dropped cone. trees to develop larger, heavier nuts. Pinyon Jay. Photo Courtesy Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology

9 Ranging from southern Canada to nc rthern Mexico,

noncierosa nine is the. classic forest of the interior West. Nowhere is it more majestic than in the Southwest. The Mogollon Plateau, stretching 350 miles from Flagstaff, Arizona, to the Gila National Forest in southern New Mexico, is the largest contiguous ponderosa forest in the United States and the second largest in the world.

TRAVELING FOREST Ponderosa pine is a relative newcomer to the Southwest. Fossil and pollen records indicate the species migrated northward into Arizona and New Mexico about 10,500 years ago as the last ice age came to an end. Warm temperatures and regular summer monsoon rains created perfect growing conditions. Ponderosa pine soon became the dominant forest ecosystem. Generally growing between 7,000 and 8,500 feet, ponderosa pine cov- ers more than 10 million acres of National Forest, Bureau of Land Management, and Native American lands in the Southwest. Ponderosa pine forests are naturally dominated by large, old trees. The name ponderosa, in fact, refers to the ponderous mass of the ancient trees, which often reached ages of 400, some more than a 1,000 years.

GRASS-FIRE ECOSYSTEM Early explorers marveled as much at the lush grasses and wildflowers car- peting the forest floor as they did the large trees. The importance of grass to the ponderosa pine forest cannot be overstated. Healthy carpets of grass stabilize the soil, promote frequent, low-intensity fires, and most important, prevent excessive numbers of pines and shrubs from choking the landscape. Because of the thick grasses and abundance of large, accessible trees, ponderosa pine forests have long been prized by the timber and grazing industries. One hundred years of logging and cattle and sheep grazing have liquidated 98 percent of old-growth ponderosa forests, and has denuded native grasses and flowers from millions of acres. Active fire suppression has greatly exacerbated the problem.

Ponderosa pines in the twilight. Photo by Tom Bean

Of all pines, the ponderosa gives forth JOHN MUIR the finest music of them all...

10 - TkLIFFLES, SQUIRRELS, GOSHAWKS, & CHAINSAWS the ecology and destruction of a forest

cal food source is the fruiting bodies of the mycorrhizal fungus, known as truffles. In the late summer and fall, tassel-eared squirrels dig at the base of ponderosas for these underground delicacies. Living underground, truffles cannot cast their spores to the wind. Instead, they rely entirely on small mammals like tassel-eared squirrels to disperse their spores. But tassel- eared squirrels are tree dwellers, pre- ferring to move within the canopy of interlocking branches. The canopy keeps them safe from predators, chief among them the imperiled northern goshawk. It is when the squirrels are lured In 1851, physician-naturalist S.W. Woodhouse discov- to the ground by the odor of truffles that they become ered and named the Abert's squirrel, one of three tassel- potential food for goshawks. eared squirrel subspecies inhabiting the ponderosa pine The goshawk, in turn, nests high in the canopy of forests of the Southwest. Ecologists later discovered the old-growth ponderosa pines where it is shaded from the symbiotic relationship between ponderosa pines, Abert's sun and protected from larger predators. The squirrels, northern goshawks, and forest mushrooms. circle is complete. What we call the Ponderosa pines nourish 150 species of mycorrhizal ponderosa pine forest is an intri- fungi. Literally translated "root fungus," mycorrhizae cate web of relations from form sheaths around pine rootlets from which they tree, to squirrel, to fungus, to obtain necessary sugars. In return, the fungi pass water goshawk, and back and nutrients on to the tree. Since water is the primary to tree! factor limiting ponderosa pine growth, tree survival and As nest site, food, travel regeneration is closely tied to the presence of fungi. The corridor, and sun shade, the fungi are dependent upon the pines not only for sugar ponderosa canopy holds the but also for the cool shade provided by the tree canopy. entire web together. By removing The canopy also shelters squirrel nests, while needle large, old trees, logging strikes at the tufts, twigs, and bark provide food for the squirrels ecological heart of the ponderosa ecosystem. throughout the year. Seeds from green cones and endem- In 1995, the National Biological Survey declared pon- ic mistletoe berries are also eaten. But the squirrels' criti- derosa pine an endangered ecosystem.

Northern goshawk is imperiled by logging of old-growth and mature ponderosa pine. Photo by Robin Silver Right: The pine forest is as much dependent on the Abert's squirrel as the squirrel is on the forest. Photo by Tom Bean

11 deep canyon

Classic old-growth forest, the mixed-conifer ecosys-

tern is home to cleen forest RAI cies like Mexican spotted owls, black bear, Gila and Apache trout, pine martens, wild onions, and towering Douglas firs. This cool, dense-canopied forest surrounded by an arid landscape is known today as the Southwest's rainforest; a hundred years ago it reminded biologists of the great Canadian forests. This imaginative comparison with Canada, in fact, spawned an entire field of science called biogeography—the study of the laws which control the geographical distribution of plants and animals.

BIRTH OF A SCIENCE In 1889, C. Hart Merriam and Vernon Bailey arrived in Flagstaff, Arizona. With a budget of $600 and the blessing of the newly created U.S. Biological Survey, they quickly discovered 20 new species of mammals, including the now extinct Merriam's elk and the endangered Mexican grey wolf. Their greatest discovery, however, was the concept of life zones. Climbing from desert canyons to the 12,600-foot summit of the San Francisco Peaks, Merriam and Bailey discovered predictable changes in the vegetation, corresponding with changing temperature and precipitation. Meticulously recording the elevation and precipitation at which different plants and animals occurred, they mapped out seven basic life zones. They named the mixed-conifer ecosystem the Canadian zone, because it is similar in temperature, humidity, and species composition to forests far to the north. The comparison, they believed, was not metaphorical. From their per- spective, there was little difference between traveling upward from the Painted Desert to the top of the Peaks, and traveling northward from the deserts of Mexico to the forests of Canada. One would cross the same life zones. While the life-zone theory is simple by today's standards, it was the beginning of the science of biogeography and modern ecology and conservation biology.

WILDLIFE HAVEN Located at high elevations and in steep, remote canyons, mixed-conifer forests provide rare, pristine conditions. All three native Southwest trout—the Gila, Apache, and Rio Grande cutthroat—depend on the shade Old-growth mixed-conifer forest containing a variety of Pine, Fir and Spruce. Photo by Tom Bean

12 and clean water provided by this forest, as do the Eventually, the Mexican spotted owl was listed as Mexican spotted owl, Gooding's onion, pine marten, and threatened under the Endangered Species Act, recreation black bear. In the last 15 years, however, the forest and and clean water came to be recognized all its creatures have become increasingly threatened by as public values, and old-growth logging and road construction. forests were acknowledged as Because it was more accessible, old-growth ponderosa biologically irreplaceable. pine was logged off earlier than old-growth mixed- The planned liquidation conifer. By the 1980s, though, there were not enough has been slowed, but not big pines left to sustain industrial-scale logging. Rather stopped. Some politicians than face the inevitable shift to small-tree logging, log- have amended the laws ging companies turned to unlogged mixed-conifer intended to protect our forests. Hundreds of miles of new roads were carved into forests. The Salvage Rider to remote forests, and new harvesting techniques allowed the 1995 Rescissions Act, for removal of old-growth trees on steep, fragile soils. example, exempts large-scale logging from environmental laws, another THE OLD-GROWTH OWL rider exempts grazing permits from public review, and When it became evident that the last of the Southwest's yet another prevented imperiled species from protec- old-growth was only a decade or two away from liquidation under the Endangered Species Act. tion, environmentalists, wildlife agencies, recreationists, While public involvement has increased, the struggle and local citizens began to take action. Appeals and law- to save the Southwest's mixed-conifer forests and the suits were filed to stop old-growth timber sales, new last of its old-growth trees is far from over. roads were challenged on biological and economic Top: The boundary line between Grand Canyon National Park (on left) and Kaibab grounds, and scientific studies were demanded. National Forest (right), shows the extensive effects of National Forest clearcutting. Photo by Robin Silver Mexican Spotted Owls. Photo by Robin Silver

In autumn, hikers and picknicl« rs all over Arizona

and New Mexico enjoyJ the gold en glow of aspens on Escudilla Mountain, Aspen Basin, and the San Francisco Peaks. Traditional woodcutters use aspens for vigas and latillas. Some 200 species of animals, including flammulated owls, mule deer, and northern goshawks, also depend on aspen groves. Aspen has been called the "mother of forests" because it is the first tree to regrow after fire, providing shelter and nutrients for the conifer forest which will eventually replace it. Like all beauty, aspen groves are fleeting. Few last more than 150 years, but the heart of aspen is ancient and underground. What we see as individual "trees" are actually sprouts cloned from a few underground rootstocks. The trees serve to convert sunlight into carbohydrate energy for the underground roots. While the trees are short lived, rootstocks can live for thousands of years. Some are thought to be a million years old.

FIRE AND CHEMISTRY Aspen reproduction involves a precise balance of fire and chemistry. A hot forest fire creates an open space. The solar heat absorbed by the blackened soil produces cytokinin, a chemical in the rootstock which sends sprouts up into the forest clearing. A single rootstock can produce thousands of aspen trees at a time. Too many trees competing for sunlight and water, however, can cause an aspen grove to be stunted and weak. As the trees mature, therefore, they produce a second chemical called auxin, which stops sprout production. By killing aboveground aspen, fire reduces auxin production. By black- ening and exposing the soil to solar heat, it simultaneously increases cytokinin production in rootstocks, a perfect chemical balance to promote new sprouts. As the sprouts grow, the balance is reversed. When tall enough, the aspen canopy produces high auxin levels through photosyn- thesis, while reducing cytokinin levels by shading the soil—a perfect chemical balance to prevent the growth of competing trees.

Glowing autumn aspens. Photo by Stewart Aitchison Inset: Fire allows aspens to regenerate. Photo by Dick Dietrich Opposite page: Firs overtaking aspens. Photo by Bill Gobus

14 But the aspen canopy does more "Cattle and sheep grazing the aspen understory has than moderate sprout growth for its the canopy also assists been the primary NORBERT V. DEBYLE, PLANT ECOLOGIST own species; U.S. Forest Service regeneration of the mixed-conifer for- consumptive use of Intermountain Research Station est. Mixed-conifer is generally domi- the aspen forest type in the West.' nated by large overstory trees and lots of woody debris, with little room or nutrients for younger trees. Growing space is naturally created by fire, but only with the help of aspens. Firs are deep-forest trees. They cannot reproduce in the intense sunlight of fire-created openings. By growing rapidly and shading the soil, aspens create perfect growing conditions for fir seedlings. In 70 to 100 years, the slow-growing firs will overtake the sheltering aspens. Shaded by the larger firs, the aspens die off, making room for additional fir seedlings. In a century the forest changes from dense mature fir, to a fire-created opening, to an aspen grove, and finally back to a mature fir forest.

A DISAPPEARING LEGACY? The Forest Service and logging industry claim that fire suppression has prevented aspen regeneration, that fir are taking over, and that aspen could disappear altogether in the Southwest.

Their answer is to log the maturing firs and to "simulate" forest fires by clearcutting the remaining aspen stands. They conveniently forget to mention that overgrazing is the primary cause of aspen declines, that many years of heavy logging have not improved aspen conditions in the Southwest, and that clearcutting does not simulate the complex ecological function of high-intensity fire. In fact, between 1962 and 1986, the most intense logging period in Southwest history, aspen declined because of overgrazing and fire suppression. The emerging pattern of more intense forest fires has created excellent conditions for new aspen stands throughout New Mexico and Arizona, if these areas are not salvage logged or overgrazed. .771'

: Logging has scarred the Sout eg s ore s Mt. Baiays.White ountains. Arizona. Ph■L I.e Michael Collierl

lo ,

f /4

411. 7 There is no better place to escape the summer heat than in the beautiful, inviting spruce-fir forests. In southern Arizona they cap the tallest peaks, and in northern New Mexico and Arizona they cover expan- sive mesas. Creeks abound, as do grassy meadows, wildflowers, and sudden thunderstorms. The spruce- fir forest is home to rare species such as the snowshoe hare, boreal owl, and marten. Englemann spruce is the most common spruce in the Southwest. Often, it is found with subalpine and corkbark fir. All three are adapted to heavy snowfall, cold winters, and short growing seasons. Due to predominantly wet conditions, spruce-fir forests rarely burn. When they do, hot fires con- sume the canopy and even the largest trees, creating openings for aspen stands, meadows, or young forests.

FOREST IN RETREAT Petrified spruce cones found in valleys testify that spruce-fir forests once lived at much lower elevations. In wetter, colder times these species occupied extensive areas throughout the Southwest. As the last ice age ended about 11,000 years ago, the forests retracted and moved upslope to the cool- er mountain tops, taking cold-adapted plants and animals with them. Some animals such as the Mount Graham red squirrel responded to this isolation by evolving into a new subspecies. The Jemez Mountain salamander of northern New Mexico and the Sacramento Mountain salamander of south-central New Mexico are two other unique species closely associated with spruce-fir forests. Like the Mount Graham red squirrel, they occur nowhere else on Earth. The small size and isolation of spruce-fir forests make them particularly vulnerable to destruction. Because much of the Southwest's water derives from snowpack in these forests, proper management is critical for both humans and wildlife. Elk Mountain on the Santa Fe National Forest in New Mexico has been a repeated and unsuccessful target of old-growth logging. Mount Graham,

Snow-dusted spruce trees. Photo by Tom Bean on the Coronado National Forest in southern Arizona, has not fared as well. Opposite page: Many southwestern rivers originate in the spruce-fir forest. Photo by Robin Silver The heart of this small spruce forest has been fragmented by roads and large astronomical observatories. Ski resort expansions are also a continual threat to spruce-fir forests throughout the Southwest.

Riparian forests and wetlands support an immense v of and wildlife. Seventy-five percent of all Southwestern vertebrates use them. Shady cottonwoods, willows, ash, alder, and sycamores are also popular recreation and fishing areas.

HABITAT FOR ALL Riparian trees and grasses armor streambanks against floods, ensuring that creeks stay narrow, deep, and shaded. Most native fish depend on some aspect of riparian forests: the pools created by downed trees, the nutrients provided by falling leaves, the shade furnished by the canopy, or the cool water in the deep channels. An even greater number of birds, especially late summer nesters such as the Southwestern willow flycatcher and yellow-billed cuckoo, rely on streamside forests. Unfortunately, riparian areas are also heavily used by cattle, mining operations, and road builders. As a result, about 95 percent of Arizona's and 85 percent of New Mexico's riparian forests have been destroyed. Over half of all endangered species became so because of riparian losses. There is no greater need in the Southwest's National Forests than riparian restoration.

UPLAND PROTECTION Public pressure and the need to protect endangered species have forced the Forest Service to begin riparian protection. Rather than eliminate the problems, however, the Forest Service often moves them elsewhere. Relocating cattle and roads out of riparian forests is incredibly expensive. (The cost to taxpayers of relocating cattle in just one grazing allotment in Riparian area snaking through desert. Photo by Michael Collier Arizona was $238,000.) Relocation can also degrade upland habitats which Opposite page, top left: Wetlands are valuable to human and wildlife communities. Photo by Robert McDonald eventually erode, flood, or simply collapse back into the stream channel. Opposite page, top right: High elevation cienega on Mt. Graham with wildflowers is home to the imperiled Blumer's dock. Successful riparian restoration must begin at the watershed level, Coronado National Forest. Photo by Robin Silver ensuring that both uplands and stream channels are protected. Opposite page, inset: Beavers create wetlands. Photo by Stewart Aitchison Inappropriate uses need to be eliminated, not just relocated.

20 Southwest wetlands

am does not come often to the Southwest, but when it does, floods are common and sometimes damaging. If native wetlands were intact, such damage would not be as severe. Wetlands, or cienegas, moderate floods by absorbing large bursts of water and slowly releasing them downstream at a steady rate. When wet- Once a thriving wildlife area and water lands are replaced by arroyos and parking lots, there is source, San Vincente de la Cienega, has nothing to hold or slow rainwater. The result is short joined the wetland ghosts haunting an destructive floods, followed by long dry periods. increasingly desertified landscape. It Humans are not the only species to benefit from joins the Cienega of Santa Fe and wetlands; they also provide spectacular wildlife habitat. others such as Cienega de los Pima, Cienegas, are places to see bald eagles, northern harriers, La Cienega Grande, and Cienega swans, geese, leopard frogs, meadow mice, garter Springs whose names are now only a snakes, and orchids. Many endangered fish also depend memory of their former wetlands. on the Southwest's few healthy wetlands. RESTORATION IN OUR LIFETIME GHOSTS OF THE PAST Wetland restoration is not as daunting as it may appear. Silver City, New Mexico, was formerly called San Upland erosion caused by cattle, roads, and logging can Vincente de la Cienega, for the wetland around which be eliminated. Checkdams and gully plugs can be the town was built. The cienega is long gone, destroyed installed, channelization structures removed, and ripari- by overgrazing-induced floods that carved a 30-foot- an vegetation planted. Streams can be made to gently deep gully through the center of town, taking away not meander once again. Perhaps most important, beaver only the cienega, but Main Street as well. can be reintroduced.

21 LIQUIDATION OF OLD-GROWTH The first European explorers in the Southwest consistently marveled at the size and quantity of old-growth forests. In 1858, Lieutenant Edward Beale led an expedition on the Mogollon Plateau through a "black forest of gigantic timber. . . rich soil, and noble forests. . . pine of the finest quality, and greatest size." Ten years later, Palmer exclaimed that "the trees are of immense proportions." In 1873, Rothrock found in the White Mountains "magnificent forests. . .dense forests alternate with well watered glades. . . deep and somber forests of evergreen." And in 1909, two observers found the Kaibab Plateau "practically an unbroken body of mature timber." WHAT IS WRONG WITH

These same forests looked very different to the Southwest's first professional foresters. Old trees were viewed as wasteful because they occupied space that could support faster growing, "healthier" trees. That 75 percent of the landscape was old-growth forest was thought to be a hindrance to economic forestry. With the creation of the National Forests, a program was established to convert open, old-growth forests to dense crops of young, vigorous trees. Eighty years later, the program is almost complete. About 90 percent of the old- growth has been liquidated, including 98 percent of old-growth ponderosa pine.

4 . Though public pressure has slowed cutting — of old-growth, ancient trees continue to

Above Inset: Bulldozer with log deck. Lincoln National Forest, fall. In 1995, some of the Southwest's finest remaining old-growth pines New Mexico. Photo by Bill Gobus Above: Cutting of old-growth fragments habitat for many were logged on the Hay timber sale on the Apache-Sitgreaves National species. Kaibab National Forest, North Rim of Grand Canyon. Forest and the Felipito timber sale on the Carson National Forest. The Photo by Robin Silver. Opposite page, top: Livestock grazing and fire suppression even- controversial La Manga timber sale targets another prime stand. A Forest tually leads to more severe fires. Photo by Tom Brownold. Service promise to prohibit cutting of all Southwest old-growth was scrapped in June 1996, following complaints from the timber industry.

22 OVERGRAZING Much has been written about the importance of cool ground fires in the ponderosa pine ecosystem. They kept pine trees from overpopulating the forest by thinning out small trees at frequent intervals while leaving the larger trees undamaged. But "ground fire" is a misnomer. These were grass fires, and the eradication of grass through overgrazing removed fire from the ecosystem long before the era of organized firefighting. There is a perfect and consistent correlation between increasing livestock numbers and decreasing fire frequencies. Yet native grasses regulate tree densities at an even more profound level. To successfully reproduce, pine seeds must fall on exposed soil and be free from competition for water and sunlight. In most cases, lush coverings of native grasses will prevent pine reproduction. In fact, the famous 1918-1919 seed crop, which produced most of the ponderosa trees standing today, was successful only where overgrazing had removed the grass cover. Industry calls to re-establish natural fire regimes rarely touch upon the prior necessity of restoring native grasses and eliminating overgrazing. This is because natural grass densities would preclude the level of reproduction required by industrial forestry. Foresters, in fact, often encourage overgrazing as a tool to expose pine seedbeds and reduce competition. Ironically, the more fire suppression succeeded, the greater the threat of fire became. As more and more small FIRE SUPPRESSION trees filled in the forest, and as logging slash accumulated To convert old-growth forests to dense young tree farms, on the ground, the forests became ripe for damaging fires. federal foresters set out to grow many more young trees Today, unnaturally large fires are becoming increasingly than naturally occurred. As a first step, they eradicated common and the cost of fire suppression is skyrocketing. the frequent wildfires which favored old-growth and Though forest managers acknowledge the problem, lit- native grasses while killing off pine saplings. The strategy tle has changed, or is likely to change, until timber and worked too well. But the more the forest resembled a livestock production are dislodged as the primary goals tree farm, the less it worked as an ecosystem. Stagnation of forest management. and erosion set in, nutrient recy- cling slowed, competition "Tye made it clear for 20 years there's heen a population increased, grasses declined, and crash of old-growth trees leave the WALLACE COVINGTON, PHD wildlife disappeared. Fire is an damn things alone." NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY essential process of forest ecosystem; without it, the ecosystem quickly degrades.

23 ROAD BUILDING The Forest Service is the largest road-building agency in the United States, surpassing even the Federal Highway Administration. Roads are intimately connected with logging and grazing since most roads are built to reach timber sales and grazing allotments. Roads disrupt natural fire patterns by preventing the spread of grass fires. Roads are the number one cause of erosion in the National Forest system. They pollute streams, destroy fisheries, and desiccate meadows. High road densities are also closely correlated with low predator and ungulate populations.

DECLINING SONGBIRDS Breeding bird surveys conducted yearly since 1964 record significant declines in 75 percent of all songbirds associated with logged ponderosa pine forests. Not surprising- ly, timber surveys from the same period record a marked decline in large old trees and snags. Songbirds play a critical role in forest ecosystems. They are the primary consumers of insects and beetles in the forest, and their decline may have profound effects Endangered Species Act. In all, 28 of Arizona's 32 native on insect populations and forest ecology. This is espe- fish are threatened, endangered, or candidate species. cially true of overwintering birds because they reduce Native fish are indicators of overall watershed con- insect and beetle populations before they reproduce, in ditions. Reversing their extreme decline in the spring. Southwestern forests will require large-scale watershed protection and planning. DECLININGFISHERIES The Gila and Apache trout were among the first species PREDATOR CONTROL listed under the Endangered Species Act. While the Grizzly bears, wolves, and jaguars were eradicated from Apache trout has been downlisted to threatened and Southwestern forests because they were perceived as made an important sportfish, the Gila trout has contin- threats to the cattle industry. Thousands of coyotes and ued to decline and may well become extinct. The differ- mountain lions are killed every year for the same reason. ence between the two is that a concerted effort was Large predators exert a tremendous influence on the made to protect and restore Apache trout habitat, while entire food chain. Their absence greatly affects forest Gila trout habitat continues to degrade. "They quote us as saying the forest is too dense, but then The Southwest's third don't mention we're always saying you MARGARET MOORE, PH.D. native trout, the Rio Grande don't cut the presettletnent trees NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY cutthroat, is also imperiled and deserves listing under the older than about 100 years old."

24 ecosystems. When mountain lions and wolves were killed in the Kaibab National Forest in the mid 20th century, deer numbers exploded, which led to severe overgrazing, which in turn influenced tree regeneration, fire regimes, and erosion—virtually every facet of the ecosystem.

EXOTIC SPECIES Ecosystems are finely balanced net- works of species and processes. They can be quickly and disas- trously upset by the introduction of exotic—species which did not evolve in the ecosystem. Tamarisk trees were imported from the Middle East as windbreaks in the early 20th century. They have since displaced native riparian plants along thousands of miles of rivers. As a result, native birds adapted to the shade and stand structure of native willows and cottonwoods have suffered greatly. Native fish, amphibians, and reptiles have been deci- mated by non-native bullfrogs introduced as a game species. Bullfrogs are voracious predators against which native species have not evolved defenses. Native species whose populations artificially explode due to human intrusion can also be destructive. Great horned owls and red-tail hawks, for example, move into mixed-conifer forests after they are opened up by logging. Their presence increases predatory pressure on Mexican spotted owls and other old-growth birds. Exotic grasses and weeds are a tremendous threat to forests, grasslands, and wetlands. When palatable native species are devoured by cattle, less tasty exotic and inva- sive natives take over. These shorter annuals cannot ful- fill the ecological function of native species. Before long, pine regeneration, fire regimes, soil chemistry, and erosion patterns are all disturbed.

Left: Dead mountain lion heads. Taxpayer funded predator control by U.S. Animal Damage Control. Photo courtesy Wildlife Damage Review Top, right: Felipito timber sale, 1995, Carson National Forest, New Mexico. Photo by Joanie Berde Right: Ancient pines slated for destruction in proposed La Manga timber sale, Carson National Forest, New Mexico. Photo by Robin Silver

25 The ecological problems facing the Southwest's forests largely stem from 19-century government programs to subsidize settlement of the West and exploit its resources. Though they make little sense today, they continue to drive environmental destruction.

With so many people dependent on the National Forests for clean drinking water, recreation, hunting, fishing, and firewood gathering, it no longer makes economic or ecological sense to subsidize a few industries at the expense of the vast majority. Nor can we afford to do so. As concern over the national debt increases, it is time to reassess the massive public subsidization of private corporations and individuals to mine, log, and graze public lands.

TIMBER SALE LossFS • IN .1 994 BIG TREES, BIG SUBSIDIES According to the General FOREST $ LOSS Above inset: Old-growth pines such as these provide Accounting Office, the Forest 2,137,085 resources for future generations. Photo by Robin Silver Apache/Sitgreaves Service lost nearly $1 billion on Above: Hay timber sale, Apache National Forest, Arizona, Kaibab 1,942,363 1995. Thousands of ancient pines were logged at a loss to the its timber program between 1992 taxpayers, to "improve forest health". Photo by Robin Silver Coconino 1,790,176 Right: Public lands mining practices have left our children and 1994. Timber programs in with a multi-billion dollar cleanup bill. Photo by Bill Colitis Carson 1,734,671 Arizona and New Mexico lost $54 1,609,323 Gila million between 1992 and 1994, Cibola 644,900 not including losses to timber 612,052 Lincoln theft. In just one instance, Kaibab Tonto 377,404 Forest Industries agreed to pay 179,336 Coronado $300,000 for illegally logging well Santa Fe 43,795 over a million dollars worth of trees on the Kaibab National Forest. In 1994, total timber program losses worked out to a taxpayer subsidy of about $24,000 annually for each logging job in the Southwest.

26 G IVI N G AWAY PUBLIC LAND MINING OUR POCKETBOOKS PRICE BEING PAID FOR VALUE OF MINERALS The federal government allows COMPANY MINE PUBLIC LAND ON LAND mining companies to patent (i.e., Cambior Carlotta $3,070 $423,000,000 privatize) public land for $2.50 to Asarco Helvetia $3,470 $1,848,500,000 $5.00 an acre. The land, however, Phelps-Dodge Sanchez $1,640 $1,052,800 is often worth hundreds of thou- Magma Superior $500 $117,500,00 sands of dollars an acre because of TOTAL $8,680 $3,441,800,000 the valuable minerals it contains. Mining companies turn additional profits by selling the land to FEEDING AT THE PUBLIC PASTURE developers or building housing complexes. Grazing leases on private grasslands cost nearly eight But the real cost of mining is the cleanup expense. times as much as leases on public land. That difference is Mining corporations have left 50 billion tons of toxic made up by a whopping $178 million annual taxpayer waste ore, polluted 12,000 miles of rivers and streams, subsidy, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture. and spoiled 180,000 acres of lakes and reservoirs. The The public lands ranching industry in Arizona and cleanup cost passed on to the American taxpayer is $32 New Mexico managed to rope in $14 million to $30 mil- billion to $72 billion. lion a year in fee reductions. Add in the cost of road building and repair, pipeline construction, predator con- ECONOMIC HOSTAGES trol, administration, and restoration of overgrazed lands, More than 100 small, locally owned sawmills once and taxpayers are paying over $100 million a year to sub- operated in New Mexico and Arizona. Today, 10 corpo- sidize public lands grazing in the Southwest. rations control the vast majority of logging operations. The ranching industry pays just $1.35 per month to While the number of trees cut has increased, the num- run a cow and calf in the National Forests, less than the ber of jobs has decreased. cost of feeding a goldfish! By controlling government subsidies, extractive corporations control rural economies. School funds, for example, are arbitrar- ily linked to timber production. So are restoration and road repair funds. As a result, there is tremendous pressure to ensure that timber volume remains high, regardless of its effect on the environment or the long-term economic stability of the community.

27 and FORESMDEPENDEN

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION MEANS MORE THAN ILFOREST HEALTH" The Forest Service and the timber industry readily admit our forests are in bad shape. They prefer to exclusively blame 70 years of fire suppression, while conveniently failing to question overgrazing, logging, road construction, and predator eradication. According to their "forest health" rhetoric, fire suppression has caused excessive numbers of small trees. Stressed by unnatural levels of competition, these trees are more vulnerable to mistletoe and bark beetles. Older trees are threatened by hot fires which use the thickets as 'ladders" to leap up into the canopy. Finally, high tree densities create unnatural shade conditions, allowing firs to encroach upon, and eventually replace, ponderosa pine forests. This is only a partial truth because it focuses too narrowly on tree "health" as it relates to lumber production. It does not consider the myriad problems identified by decades of scientific research: the decline of ponderosa pine old-growth; habitat fragmentation; replacement of native grasses by weedy annuals and shrubs; widespread fish, amphibian, and songbird declines; loss of soil productivity; water pollution; predator control; erosion; and wetland losses. A recent timber industry proposal to manage the Southwest's National Forests is a good indicator of what it means by "forest health." The Forest Service judged the massive logging proposal to be the best "forest health" option, even though it was also judged the worst choice for wildlife and sensitive species. A competing proposal by state game and fish agencies to protect old-growth and sensitive species, on the other hand, was ranked lower on the "forest health" scale by the Forest Service. The reason for this discrepancy is that to the timber industry "forest health" means a regulated tree farm, rather than a naturally functioning forest. Oak Creek Canyon riparian area in the fall. Photo by Stewart Aitchison Opposite: Pine cones and needles on the forest floor. Photo by Tom Bean "The cumulative effects of 420 years of old-growth logging, non-native species introductions, overgrazing predator control, and fire exclusion has been ecosystem simplification so great

that Southwestern forest w- ALLACE COVINGTON, PHD. ecosystems are at risk of Northern Arizona University catastrophic losses of biological diversity."

28 GOALS MANAGEMENT

RESTORE SOUTHWESTERN FORESTS TO RECOMMENDATIONS FULLY FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEMS LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS Functioning ecosystems are naturally diverse and com- All management plans should be based on accurate land- plex. They have evolved with, and depend upon, natural scape inventories of forest and watershed conditions, fire, disease, and insect regimes. They can support care- including distribution of old-growth, thickets, native fully planned, sustainable levels of resource extraction. grasses, mistletoe class, and others. The needs of wildlife Forest composition and structure vary with eleva- and long-term economic stability should be insured by tion, aspect, slope, soil conditions, and eco-region. considering impacts and restoration potential on a land- Within these parameters, site conditions vary greatly as scape scale. well, depending upon fire, storm, pathogens, and other Outlined below are recommendations for managing disturbances. Management recommendations should each major forest community: reflect the needs of the ecosystem as a whole, rather than a single, desired future condition or the perceived PINE AND OAK needs of one or several species. • Retain, and if necessary invigorate, all mature and old- growth trees. This includes ponderosa pines which are PROVIDE FOR LOCAL ECONOMIES JOBS "yellow," "yellowing," gnarled, or 120 years or older. Forest restoration is an industry. Forest restoration jobs • Retain all pines over 16 inches diameter breast height should give priority to local communities and people (dbh) that do not meet the foregoing displaced from traditional extractive industries. description, unless they have invaded Nonextractive and value-added industries should be meadows or grasslands. developed and encouraged. Invigorate mature and old-growth pine trees stressed by competition, PLAN FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS pathogens, or insects by thinning Ecological restoration means improving current forest understory trees. Maintain an conditions and insuring that future resource use will not average of 7 snag trees per acre drive the forests back to unhealthy conditions. greater than 14 inches dbh. To reach Restoration plans must consider resource use well into the this figure, retain the largest dead and future. It must include the needs of future generations. dying trees. Because most areas are defi- cient in snags, recruitment strategies will be essential. DIVERSIFY AND STABILIZE • Clear excessive duff from around the base of mature and Like ecosystems, human communities are more stable old-growth trees if it presents an extreme fire hazard. and resilient when their economies are diverse. Federal • Permit no fragmentation of contiguous forest habitat. subsidies currently earmarked for timber, mining, and • Manage younger forests to provide for the natural vari- cattle interests should be redirected to locally based, for- ance of habitat conditions. est restoration projects. Substantial portions of the • Thin trees smaller than 16 inches dbh, emphasizing Forest Service's excessive road building and fire suppres- trees below 14 inches dbh, from excessively dense sion budgets should also be redirected. Value-added, stands. The appropriate density of a stand will depend small-tree industries should be supported. Finally, upon local and landscape site conditions, but will gen- extractive industries should not be subsidized to damage erally range from 50 to 250 trees per acre. A minority the environment required by our critically important of sites will support fewer. General local and landscape recreation-based businesses. site condition recommendations should be developed for each eco-region.

29 MIXED-CONIFER • Maintain all existing old-growth and mature mixed- conifer stands. Permit no fragmentation of contiguous mature forest. Use natural and late season prescribed fire to thin overly dense stands and restore natural fire regimes.

OAK • Oaks are a dwindling and exceptional wildlife habitat. Permit no cutting except in unnaturally dense CIENEGAS stands. Educate fuelwood cutters about values of • Prevent erosion from filling in, or cutting through, wet- live, dead, and down oaks. lands. Restore degraded wetlands with erosion control structures. Prohibit cattle grazing and pollution. GRASSES, HERBACEOUS COVER, AND SHRUBS FIRE • Assess ecological conditions of grassland, • Return fire to its natural role in ecosystems through tree/grass/herb, and shrub communities based on prescribed, prescribed natural, and natural fire. density, distribution, vigor, and composition of • Where necessary, alter current forest conditions to native species not for their commercial forage pro- facilitate return of natural fire regimes without exces- duction. sive ecological damage. This will include the small • Determine level of combined wildlife/livestock tree thinning and duff removal prescriptions usage which will maintain native grass/herb and described above. shrub communities and prevent excessive tree regeneration. PLANTS AND WILDLIFE • Set livestock levels at or below the above • Reintroduce extirpated plants and wildlife, determined usage level. including predators, which are critical to healthy ecosystems because they regulate PRIORITY WATERSHEDS wildlife population numbers and distribu- • Identify priority watersheds and streams tion. Native grasses maintain soil integrity. based on ecological integrity, presence of Beavers create wetland and riparian habitat. threatened, endangered, and sensitive • Restore reduced wildlife populations. The species, or both. No degradation of these decline of songbirds, especially cavity nesters and watersheds and streams should be permitted. No insect eaters, is directly related to increasing insect new road construction should be permitted. populations and forest fragmentation. Prohibit the intro- • Exclude livestock from priority streams. Permit duction of non-native species. Exotic species such as bull- upland grazing only if there will be no degradation frogs, red shiners, and cheatgrass have severely impacted of forest, grass/herb, shrub or watershed conditions. native species through competition and predation. • Identify and prioritize degraded watersheds for restoration. Use erosion control structures to prevent sheet erosion and gullying. Close and restore damaging or unnecessary roads. Allow no new road Above right: Monkey Flowers are found in riparian areas and wetlands. Photo by Michael Collier construction. Set livestock levels as described above. Above: Vermillion Flycatcher. Photo by Frank Brandt

30 CREDITS FORESTS FOREVER! Written for Southwest Forest Alliance by Kieran Suckling, Southwest Center for Biological Diversity Design and Production by Sullivan Scully Design Group Map supplement by Dick Cameron and John Talberth, Forest Guardians Project Coordination by Peter Galvin, Campaign Coordinator, Southwest Forest Alliance Printing by Courier Graphics Special thanks to the many photographers who donated the use of images for this project. FORESTS FOREVER! was made possible by the generous support of The Pew Charitable Trusts, The David & Lucille Packard Foundation and the contributors to the member groups of the Southwest Forest Alliance. Back cover: Old-growth ponderosa pine forest near the turn of the century. White Mountains, Arizona. Photo courtesy of Dale Schicketanz Inside back cover: Mountain streams with clear running water are some of the Southwest's treasured places. Upper West Clear Creek. Photo by Stewart Aitchison • "Ike 6.4° .041

Key Ecological Features of Southwestern National Forests

Carson National Forest

Chuska Mountains National Forests Navajo Indian Reservation Designated Wilderness/ Primitive Areas Santa Fe anta National Wildlife Refuges National Forest and Selected Conservation Areas Fe National Parks and Monuments Urban Areas Late Successional/ Old Growth Clusters Low Road Density/ Cibola Cibola Prescott Roadless Areas National Forest National Forest High Quality Watersheds Prescott National Major Rivers Forest Interstate Highways

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest

Phoenix 25 0 25 50 75 100

Miles

35 0 35 70 105 140 I I T Kilometers

°Silver Lambert Conformal Conic Projection City Gila Coronado National Forest ational Forest Las Cruces

Coronado National Forest

Coronado ational Forest

Low Road Density/ Roadless Areas for National High Quality Watersheds represent a few of the larger Forests taken from RARE II inventory and watersheds containing combinations of any of the updated for entry. US Forest Service inventories following resources: intact native riparian woodland, FOREST , were used when available. Minimum size of areas native fish, TES fish and wildlife, outstanding water quality, GUARDIANS is 2000 acres. Late Successional/ Old Growth domestic drinking water source. Complete watershed not is overlaid where both resources are present. shown for all areas. Data provided by NM Game and Fish, AZ State Land Office, AZ Natural Heritage Program, Also shown are some of the features of the forests in the Chuska Late Successional/ Old Growth clusters shown for US Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service. areas outside of designated wilderness. Data sources Mountains on the Navajo Indian Reservation. This forest is include USFS inventories, USFS stand data, and field This map is intended to show the distribution administered by the Navajo Forestry Department and Bureau of verification. Navajo old growth information taken from of critical resources in the 11 Southwestern National Indian Affairs. Navajo Forestry Department stand data. Further field Forests. SWFA and Forest Guardians make no claims checking must be done to validate data. Data set is as to the accuracy of this map. It is meant for display incomplete. Areas burned in 1995-96 not updated and education only and is not meant to be used for on this map. analytical purposes. Major Forest Zones of Arizona and New Mexico

45 0 45

Miles

Forest zones are based on Brown and Lowe '.t Biotic Communities of the SouthnT.NI. Digital data provided by Earth Data Analysis Center in Albuquerque. NM and Arizona State Land Office in Phoenix, AZ.

1111 Coniferous and Mixed Woodlands- 31,360,952 acres Mixed Evergreen Woodlands- 1,895,716 acres Montane Coniferous- 10,691,409 acres 1E1 Subalpine Coniferous- 2,482,733 acres Montane Grasslands Alpine Tundra

Threatened Old Growth Carson National Forest- West Half Colorado New Mexico Dulce C ha ilia

National Forest

Old Growth - Timber Sales

Hopewell Ridge Tierra rc, Agua/Caballos Amartlla Pied1;1, Felipito El Vado MN La Manga Reservoir a 5 0 5 Miles

Old Growth by Forest Type Growth compiled from Carson West Half Old - Forest Type Total rh USFS inventories, sorts of large AcresOldAG tree dePshy from USFS database Pinyon-luniper 409,176 1791 and field verification. 1 Ponderosa Pine 239,039 5364 12 4 Mixed Conifer 129555 62265%) Abiquiu Spruce/ Fir 77,590 4929 16%1 Resen.oir

Fragmented Wilderness Jemez Mountains, New Mexico

Bandelier National Monument

, GUARDIANS

Primitive Roads Gravel Roads Dirt Roads Paved Roads Roads inventory done by Craig Allen, Bandelier National Monument using 1981 aerial photographs. Primitive roads Santa Fe NF 1.5 0 1.5 3 4.5 include some logging roads, skid trails, and 4WD roads. Miles