The Nutrient Content of the Italian Food Supply 1961±1992

The nutrient content of the Italian Food Supply 1961±1992

C Zizza

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, US Department of Agriculture, 1120 20th St, NW, North Lobby, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20036, USA

Objective: To highlight the methodology used to determine nutrient per capita per day values, to report values for food energy and 12 nutrients and to compare these values with FAO nutrient per capita values and Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs) for Italy. Design: The nutrient content of the Italian food supply was calculated using food per capita data from FAO and food composition data from the Italian National Nutrition Institute. Results: All nutrient per capita values have increased since 1961 except carboyhdrate. Wheat-based products were important sources of thiamin, ribo¯avin, niacin, phosphorus, iron, and potassium; and vegetables were predominant sources of vitamin A, ascorbic acid, ribo¯avin, niacin, calcium, iron, and potassium. The increase in red meats has accounted for some of the increases in fat, protein, vitamin A, thiamin, ribo¯avin, niacin, phosphorus, and iron. FAO reported higher values for energy, fat and niacin and lower values for protein, ascorbic acid, ribo¯avin, thiamin, calcium in all years. The trends for vitamin A and iron were similar in both data sets; however, there were switches in which set reported higher values. The trends for niacin and calcium were not similar. When compared with the RDIs, most of the nutrients were adequate. The exceptions were iron for females ages 10±59 and calcium for adolescents. Conclusion: Different nutrient values and sometimes trends resulted when nutrient composition data and edible portion factors speci®c to Italy were used to determine nutrient per capita values. The nutrient content of the Italian food supply changed between 1961 and 1992, suggesting dietary patterns in Italy also changed. Sponsorship: Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, US Department of Agriculture. Descriptors: Italian nutrient per capita; nutrients available in Italian food supply; food and nutrient balance sheets.

Introduction not a direct measure of individual food intake, these data can be used (with caution) to estimate the dietary patterns Interest in the Mediterranean diet has increased recently prevalent in the Mediterranean region in the early 1960s with the development and release of the Mediterranean (Helsing, 1995). Food Guide Pyramid by the World Health Organization Food balance sheets are accounts of food supplies that (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) `disappear' into the national marketing system. The esti- Collaborating Center in Nutritional Epidemiology at Har- mates of food are referred to as `disappearance data' vard School of Public Health, the WHO Regional Of®ce for because of the method from which they are derived. Europe, and Oldways Preservation and Exchange Trust. A Supply commodity tables are constructed from data on food guide was based on this dietary pattern because there production, imports, and beginning of the year inventories, have been health bene®ts associated with it (Willett et al, while utilization commodity tables are from data on 1995). Low rates of chronic diseases and high life expec- exports, year end inventories, and nonfood uses. The tancies for adults in the Mediterranean region (the 16 amount of food from the utilization commodity table is countries with shores along the Mediterranean sea include subtracted from the amount in the supply commodity table. Egypt, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Algeria, Greece, The resulting food has `disappeared' and is assumed to be Israel, Spain, Italy, France, Croatia, Lebanon, Liberia and consumed by the population. Malta) have not been explained by educational level, Food balance sheets for almost 200 countries are devel- ®nancial status, or health care expenditures; thus, research- oped and published by FAO (Kelly et al, 1991) and the ers have focused on dietary patterns in this region. There Organization for Economic Corporation and Development are relatively few sources of information that describe the (OECD, 1991) for its member countries. Differences exist dietary patterns of this region, particularly after World War between the OECD and FAO values because the two II. The sources of dietary information that do exist include organizations have different de®nitions of products and the Rockefeller Foundation Study, the Euratom Study, different underlying methods to estimate the food supply. Ancel Keys' Seven Countries Study, and food balance FAO values were used in this analysis because their food data (Nestle, 1995). Even though food balance data are commodity list is more comprehensive (Sekula et al, 1991). More detailed food information allows more accurate estimation of nutrient per capita values. Correspondence: C Zizza. Received 2 September 1996; revised 16 December 1996; accepted 24 FAO used US Department of Agriculture's (USDA) December 1996 1963 Agriculture Handbooks (AH-8) and Die Zusammen- The nutrient content of the Italian food supply 1961±1992 C Zizza 260 setzung der Lebensmittel (Nahrwert-Tabellen) (Souci et al, composite edible portion factor. When too little informa- 1979) to convert foods into nutrient per capita values for tion existed to calculate weighted edible portion factors, European countries (FAO, 1991a). FAO has updated some simple averages were calculated for foods reported as of the food composition data, particularly for dairy pro- groups. ducts and beef. These updates, however, have been spora- FAO does employ a factor to adjust for the portion of dic, and they have not covered the entire list of food food not eaten, however, the values used by FAO are commodities (Gerrior, 1996). generally not speci®c for a country (Gerrior, 1996). FAO The methodology used to develop nutrient per capita uses values that re¯ect the amount of waste expected from data is highlighted in this study and is as similar as possible different commodities. Generally, waste values are the to the methodology used by USDA for the United States edible portion factors subtracted from 100%. The incor- (Gerrior and Zizza, 1994). Italy was chosen to represent the poration of INNs edible portion values should make the Mediterranean area because speci®c food composition and nutrient per capita estimates calculated in this study more edible portion data were available for this country. These speci®c for Italy and more current. In a letter dated food composition and edible portion factors speci®c to Italy September 1994, Michael Trant of the FAO wrote that were used to calculate nutrient per capita values (food FAO waste factors basically have not been revised for the energy and 12 nutrients). Nutrient per capita values are past 30 y. In addition, because this procedure is similar to reported for 1961 through 1992 and include two micronu- the one for the United States, comparisons of the Italian trients, potassium and phosphorus, not reported elsewhere. food supply with the US food supply can be made.

Methodology Sources excluded in the nutrient content of the Italian food supply Some sources of nutrients could not be included The nutrient content of the Italian food supply was calcu- in estimating the nutrient content of the Italian food supply. lated by multiplying the amount of each food consumed by Vegetables produced in small family gardens are not the amount of food energy and each of 12 nutrients in the included in the FAO food statistics. It has been estimated edible portion of the food. Results for each nutrient for all that in Italy, vegetables grown in family gardens comprise the foods were totaled and converted to amount per capita almost 20% of the total production of vegetables (FAO, per day. The nutrient per capita per day values were 1992). Thus, some nutrient per capita values would be calculated with an interactive system written in Foxpro, a underestimated, particularly those for nutrients like vitamin relational data base management program. This system was A and vitamin C that are concentrated in vegetables. The developed by FU Associates, LTD (Arlington, VA) speci- nutrients provided by alcoholic beverages are also ®cally for USDA in order to maintain and revise data excluded. Vitamins and minerals added to the food necessary for producing reports on the nutrient content of supply through enrichment or forti®cation, drinking the US food supply. water, or supplements are not included in the nutrient per To calculate nutrient per capita estimates for Italy, two capita estimates. data bases had to be developed: a food per capita data base and a nutrient composition data base. Food per capita for Italy were obtained from FAO. The nutrient data base was Nutrient data base development based on Tabelle di Composizione degli Alimenti (Carno- A nutrient data base on a per kilogram basis was developed vale and Miuccio, 1989) from the Italian National Nutrition speci®cally for the Italian food supply data. Most of the Institute (INN). nutrient values were taken from Tabelle di Composizione degli Alimenti (Carnovale and Miuccio, 1989), which is maintained by the INN. Modi®cations and additions were Food data base development made to the nutrient data base so that it would match with FAO provided a spreadsheet of the amounts of 292 foods the food per capita values. In some cases, food per capita utilized on a yearly basis from 1961±1992 speci®cally for values were given very general descriptions (FAO, 1994), Italy (FAO, 1994). In addition, FAO supplied population such as `freshwater ®n®sh.' To develop nutrient values for estimates for those years. These food estimates were this group, the ®n®sh found in the Italian nutrient data base divided by the appropriate population estimates to yield were grouped according to FAO classi®cations, and values on a kilogram per capita per year basis. Foods with weighted averages were calculated based on the Italian per capita values less than 0.01 k were grouped with other reference diet as described by Turrini et al, 1991. When foods with similar nutrient composition pro®les. This FAO food per capita values were grouped together by the resulted in 193 foods. author, the relative amount of each food in the group was used to weigh nutrient information for a composite value. Edible portion factors Edible portion factors and food Weighted nutrient averages were developed wherever pos- composition data were provided by the INN. If a food had sible. When suf®cient information did not exist to compute an edible portion factor with a value other than 100%, the a weighted average, such as for lettuce, nutrient composites per capita amount of the food was multiplied by its edible were calculated by simply averaging the nutrient values portion factor. Thus, the nutrient per capita values exclude for different varieties like endive, lettuce, chicory, and nutrients from the inedible parts of foods, such as bones, radicchio. rinds, and seeds. When FAO reported several foods as a In some cases, no nutrient information existed in the INN total for a group of food, such as freshwater ®sh whole, data base that corresponds with foods reported by FAO. In weighted averages of the edible portion factors within the these cases (23 foods) nutrient values were imputed from group were calculated based on the Italian reference diet as either USDAs 1991 Primary Nutrient Data Set (PDS), described by Turrini et al, 1991. When FAO food per capita USDAs 1976±1992 Agriculture Handbooks (AH-8) or values were grouped together by the author, the relative USDAs 1963 Agriculture Handbook (AH-8) (Watt & amount of each food in the group was used to develop a Merrill, 1963). Nutrient composites were developed from The nutrient content of the Italian food supply 1961±1992 C Zizza 261 Table 1 Food energy and macronutrients per capita per day in the Italian food supply, 1961±1992

Food energy Carbohydrate Protein Fat Year (kilocalories) (kiloJoules) (gm) (gm) (gm)

1961±70 2838 11879 444 94 90 1971±80 3157 13216 456 106 115 1981±90 3190 13352 418 111 133 1991 3311 13858 421 116 143 1992 3309 13851 422 115 143

Figure 1 Sources of dietary fat in the Italian food supply, 1961 and 1992.

USDA information for 12 foods. Lastly, four foods, fresh exceeded that of all other types of oils, including maize, tropical fruit, fresh other berries, potato starch=tapioca, and palm kernel, rapeseed, sesame, soybean, and sun¯ower. By minor cereals had nutrient composites developed with 1992, these other oils combined accounted for a higher nutrient information from both the INN and USDA. percentage of oil use than did olive oil. Another change in the fats and oils group was that more dietary fat was being Comparisons between new nutrient per capita values and contributed by margarine, shortening and lard during the FAO values and between new nutrient per capita values later years (Table 4). The proportion of fat from the dairy and RDIs for Italy group actually decreased slightly between 1961 and 1992. Means for various years were calculated to compare nutri- The meat group provided more fat than it did in earlier ent per capita values reported here with similar data from years. These changes in the contribution from the food FAO (FAO, 1995 and FAO, 1991b). The nutrient per capita groups to total dietary fat has caused the net contribution values were compared with the RDIs for Italy (Trichopou- from animal sources to change slightly, 39±41%, from lou and Vassilakos, 1990). 1961±1992. During this period, the level of protein has been increasing steadily (Table 1) but not at the same rate as the increase in fat. An increase in pork and beef Results consumption primarily accounted for the greater protein Macronutrients levels although dairy consumption, particularly cheese and Between 1961 and 1992, energy levels have increased lowfat milk consumption, contributed slightly (Table 4). (Table 1), and most of these increases were caused by This shift to more meat products accounts for the increase higher levels of fat. Over the years, the percent of calories in protein contribution from animal sourcesÐfrom 34± derived from fat has risen from 25% in 1961 to 39% in 52%. 1992. Meanwhile, the percent of calories from carbohy- From 1961 through 1973, the level of carbohydrate drates has dropped from 66±51%. The contribution to generally increased (Table 1), after which the level of energy from protein has remained stable over the years at carbohydrate generally decreased from 1974±1988. The about 13%. initial increase was caused by a rise in re®ned sugar The level of dietary fat almost doubled over this time consumption and, to a lesser extent, an increase in cereal period (Table 1). A large portion of the higher fat levels grain consumption (Table 4). The decrease that followed was attributable to greater oil use (Table 4). Historically, was caused by a decline in cereal grain products, particu- olive oil has been the predominant oil; however, the larly wheat-based products. From 1988±1992, the level of relative contribution from olive oil has declined (Figure carbohydrates increased slightly due to an increased con- 1). In 1961, the amount of olive oil used per capita per year sumption of non-citrus fruit and re®ned sugar. The nutrient content of the Italian food supply 1961±1992 C Zizza 262 Table 2 Vitamins per capita per day in the Italian food supply, 1961±1992

Vitamin A Retinol equivalent Ascorbic acid Thiamin Ribo¯avin Niacin Year (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)

1961±70 987 194 1.8 1.6 22.0 1971±80 1197 212 2.0 1.8 24.4 1981±90 1369 222 2.0 1.9 25.5 1991 1455 226 2.0 1.8 25.7 1992 1466 226 2.0 1.8 25.5

Vitamins Table 3 Minerals per capita per day in the Italian food supply, Total vitamin A increased 75% during the years between 1961±1992 1961 and 1992 (Table 2). Slight increases in organ meat Calcium Phorphorus Iron Potassium consumption, particularly pork and beef types, resulted in Year (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) substantial increases in vitamin A. Vegetables have remained a predominant source, and within the vegetable 1961±70 755 1538 15.5 3492 1971±80 896 1713 16.9 3704 group, tomato products alone furnished about 10% in both 1981±90 974 1763 17.2 3885 1961 and 1992. 1991 965 1806 17.0 4041 Ascorbic acid increased during the ®rst 10 y and since 1991 959 1793 16.9 3982 then it has remained at a relatively high level (Table 2). In 1961, the vegetables group provided most of the ascorbic acid. By 1992, the share provided by vegetables dropped from 80±72%. Increasing fruit use accounted for the shift in leading source of iron for the entire time span, even though sources. their relative contribution has declined. The vegetable Thiamin, ribo¯avin and niacin levels have increased group is the next higher iron source. The relative impor- (Table 2). In Italy, wheat products have always been the tance of the red meat group doubled. predominant source of thiamin; however, their consump- Potassium levels increased rapidly until 1970, then tion has been declining. In 1992, the next leading source of decreased until 1977, and then increased more gradually thiamin was the red meat group, particularly pork meat. (Table 3). The largest source of potassium has been the Changes have occurred in the ranking of ribo¯avin and vegetable group, particularly other vegetables, white pota- niacin sources over the years. In 1961, wheat products, toes, and fresh tomatoes. milk, and the vegetable group were the leading sources of ribo¯avin. Because fresh milk consumption, particularly Comparison with FAO per capita values whole milk, (Table 4) has decreased, this source has FAO per capita per day values (1995) included energy, fat, dropped in importance while the relative contribution of and protein for the years 1970, 1980, 1990, and 1992. read meats has increased. In 1992, the largest source of Compared with ®ndings reported here, FAO reported ribo¯avin was the vegetable group, followed by red meats higher values for energy and fat and lower values for and wheat products. In 1961, wheat products contributed protein for all years. Both data sets showed fat and protein 37% of the niacin, and the meat, poultry and ®sh group levels increasing. FAO values (1990) for vitamin A, ascor- contributed 21%. In 1992, these relative contributions had bic acid, thiamin, ribo¯avin, niacin, calcium, iron, and shifted: 27% was from wheat products and 38%, from the potassium are for the years 1961±63, 1969±71, 1979±81, meat, poultry, and ®sh group. and 1987±89. FAO reported higher values for niacin than estimates in the current study for the years 1987±89 (Figure Minerals 3). Both data sets showed niacin increasing for earlier years The level of calcium present in the food supply greatly but were slightly different for later years because the FAO re¯ects dairy group consumption. Fresh ¯uid whole milk values re¯ected a slight decrease. FAO reported lower consumption peaked in 1985 (Table 4) and, consequently, values for ascorbic acid, ribo¯avin, and thiamin even the level of calcium did as well (Table 3). In 1985, fresh though both sets of data showed increasing trends for ¯uid whole milk and cheese each provided a quarter of the these three nutrients. For calcium, FAO reported lower calcium consumed (Figure 2). Since 1985, fresh ¯uid whole levels, but the trends were the same except for the later milk consumption has been declining while cheese use has years. The calcium levels reported in the study continued to been increasing so the relative contribution of cheese to the increase while FAO values began to decline slightly. supply of calcium has increased. The vegetable group Vitamin A levels showed the same increasing trend; how- ranked as the second leading source of calcium. ever, FAO levels were initially lower and then in later years The level of phosphorus peaked in 1980, declined surpassed the levels in this report. There was also a change slightly, and subsequently remained relatively stable in iron levels; FAO values were initially higher, then lower, (Table 3). Wheat products have remained the predominant and ®nally, nearly the same. However, both sets showed source of phosphorus, even though their relative contribu- iron levels increasing. tion decreased. The dairy group followed in importance. A considerable increase in the consumption of meat, poultry, Comparison with RDIs and ®sh caused this group's contribution of phosphorus to RDIs for Italy are presented in Table 5. Most of the nutrient double from 1961±1992. per capita values exceeded the RDIs. Calcium levels in the Iron levels have been gradually increasing, reaching a 1960s were lower than the RDIs for males and females over peak in 1990 (Table 3). Wheat products have been the one year old. Calcium levels have increased since then; The nutrient content of the Italian food supply 1961±1992 C Zizza 263

Figure 2 Sources of calcium in the Italian food supply, 1985 and 1992.

ribo¯avin, niacin, phosphorus, iron and potassium. The importance of wheat-based products is even more impress- ive considering these levels do not include any additions from enrichment. Vegetables have also been notable in the Italian diet. This groups has been an major source of vitamin A, ascorbic acid, ribo¯avin, niacin, calcium, iron, and potassium. Red meats have become more prevalent in the Italian diet and accounted for some of the increases in levels of fat, protein, vitamin A, thiamin, ribo¯avin, niacin, phosphorus, and iron. Cheese consumption has increased and is a substantial source of calcium. There are some differences in the nutrient per capita values reported here and those reported by FAO. One obvious difference is that FAO reports averages for non- consecutive years, whereas in this paper, per capita values were estimated for every year between 1961 and 1992. Figure 3 Trends in niacin available in the Italian food supply: FAO data Establishing nutrient per capita values on a yearly basis versus values in this study. permits researchers to analyze these values in a greater variety of ways. However, developing and reporting per capita values for every year for about 200 countries would however, there are still some age groups, particularly be a monumental task. adolescents, whose RDIs are higher than the estimated Another difference in the FAO procedure and the one level in the food supply. Throughout the years, iron used here is the nutrient data base. A drawback to using levels have been lower than the RDIs for females 10± regional or international nutrient composition data to cal- 59 y old. Energy and ribo¯avin levels in the 1960s were culate nutrient per capita values is that only differences in low compared with the RDIs. However, these levels have the supply of food are captured. Differences in nutrient increased and in later years have surpassed the require- composition are ignored; not only is this an issue across ments of all the sex=age groups. countries, but it is an issue across time as well. For example, in the United States the fat content of poultry has varied over the years because the breeding and feeding practices of the poultry industry have changed. Thus, the Discussion nutrient data for poultry were strati®ed into 3 y ranges to Food and nutrient per capita values have certain limita- re¯ect the varying fat content of poultry in the United tions; however, these data are good indicators of trends in States. Unfortunately, tracking changes in the nutrient dietary patterns. The data clearly show that the Italian diet composition of foods has generally not been documented. has changed since 1961. Energy levels have been increas- Most foods in the US food supply, though, have not ing primarily because oil use has expanded. In addition, changed and, in this study, the author assumed the foods olive oil has been replaced by other types of oils. The only in the Italian food supply have not changed. nutrient that has dropped substantially is carbohydrate. Because FAO and this study used the same food per Wheat-based products were important sources of thiamin, capita information, the differences in nutrient per capita The nutrient content of the Italian food supply 1961±1992 C Zizza 264 b

rs estimates can be attributed to either the edible portion 24.9 29.4 26.6 26.7 27.0 factors or the food composition data. It is dif®cult to Suga discern which of these two in¯uenced the nutrient per capita values more. No consistent trend was observed b when the differences in edible portion factors and waste Oil 16.0 20.3 22.6 24.9 24.7 values were compared; that is, employing the Italian edible portion factor resulted in food values that were sometimes b less and sometimes more than those of FAO. 4.1 5.9 7.4 7.8 7.9 Fats The distinctions between FAO methodology and the one used for this study resulted in different nutrient values and

b in some cases, such as niacin, in different patterns or trends 6 0 1 8 7 over the years. Determining which nutrient per capita tables 101. 108. 106. 109. 110. Other values are more accurate is impossible because both sets

vege of values are only estimates. However, similar methods, used here and for the United States, will yield differences

b that are not caused by the methods. es Nutrient per capita values can be used to estimate the 39.4 40.5 56.3 67.5 61.3 capacity of the food supply to meet the nutritional needs of

Tomato the Italian population. Since 1961, the nutrients available in the Italian food supply have increased and by 1992, the

b food supply appeared to meet the Italian population's needs es for energy, protein, vitamin A, ascorbic acid, thiamin, 44.9 37.4 38.1 39.7 39.9 White

potato ribo¯avin, and niacin. Interpreting the importance of the low levels of calcium and iron for some age=sex groups is dif®cult. Losses, such as those from cooking, plate waste, b n-

rus and spoilage are not accounted for in nutrient per capita 98.8 88.1 91.4 96.6 No 104.1 cit estimates. However, contributions from enrichment, forti- ®cation, drinking water, and supplements are not included

b in the estimates. Further research is needed to determine s the total amount of calcium and iron in the Italian diet and 22.4 35.2 37.2 37.2 38.9

Citru to examine the health consequences of these levels.

year Nutrient per capita values serve as important indicators. b

per As described previously, these data were used to develop 0 2 8 3 4 dietary recommendations. In addition, policymakers use Total 132. 133. 116. 117. 116. pita grains nutrient per capita values to assess the capability of the ca food supply to satisfy the nutritional needs of the country's per e population, and these data aid in translating nutrient 9.6 11.4 11.7 12.4 12.3

Eggs recommendations into plans for food production. Food

lograms supply data can also be used to evaluate the in¯uence of

Ki technological and marketing changes on the food supply d over time. Continued reporting and re®ning of these esti- a ood 6.6 7.0 9.3 ly 11.2 10.8 mates are necessary. Seaf supp c food ry an 6.3 References 11.2 13.4 13.5 13.6 Poult Itali Carnovale E & Miuccio FC (1989): Tabelle di Composizione Degli

the Alimenti. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and National Institute c of of Nutrition: Rome. nt eat Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1995): FAO 1994 production Red 25.3 36.0 43.5 46.9 47.0 m yearbook. 48, 233±238. Rome.

conte Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1994): De®nition and classi-

;b ®cation of commodities (draft). Rome. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1992): FAO production year- 9.1 eese nutrient 11.9 15.9 18.8 18.7 book. 46:x. Rome.

Ch Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1991a): FAO Food balance the sheets 1984±86 average. Rome. to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1991b): FAO 1990 production b

at yearbook. 45, 238±260. Rome. 4.7 cs. 10.5 13.2 20.9 20.8 Milk Gerrior S (1996): Review of Food Balance Sheet Nutrient Factors. FAO ributors t. lowf Internal document. Rome. cont

statisti Gerrior S & Zizza C (1994): Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply, weigh b

t 1909±1990. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Home Economics food ilk t. ole Research Report No. 52, Washington, DC. FAO t. r 57.9 66.3 63.0 29.6 29.9 M

wh Helsing E (1995): Traditional diets and disease patterns of the Mediter- tion

weigh ranean, circa 1960. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 61 (suppl), 1329S±1337S. Majo from weigh equivalen por d Kelly A, Becker W & Helsing E (1991): Food balance sheets. In: Becker 4 uct W, Helsing E (eds). Food and Health Data Their Use in Nutrition ble ±70 ±80 ±90

ble Policy-Making. WHO Regional Publications, European Series No. 34, Prod Edi Adapte Boneless Shelled Ta 1961 a b c d e Year 1871 1981 1991 1992 Copenhagen, pp 39±48. The nutrient content of the Italian food supply 1961±1992 C Zizza 265 Table 5 Recommended dietary intakes for Italy: Females and malesa

Age (years)

Dietary intake 1±3 4±6 7±9 10±12 13±15 16±17 18±29 30±59 60 Pregnancy Lactation

Females Energy, kJ Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð kcal 1350 1650 1900 2000 2150 2200 2150 2150 1700 200 500 Protein, g 22 29 41 57 69 66 56 55 53 9 24 Thiamin, mg 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.1 0.2 Ribo¯avin, mg 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 0.1 0.3 Nicotinic acid, mg NE 9 11 13 13 14 15 14 14 13 1 3 Abscorbic acid, mg 40 40 40 45 45 45 45 45 45 20 40 Vitamin A, mg RE 375 400 500 600 600 600 600 600 600 200 400 Calcium, mg 800 800 800 1200 1200 1200 800 800 1000 400 400 Iron, mg 7 9 9 18 18 18 18 18 10 18 18 Males Energy, kJ Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð kcal 1450 1850 2100 2250 2550 2800 3050 2900 2000 Ð Ð Protein, g 24 31 41 55 77 81 68 66 64 Ð Ð Thiamin, mg 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.8 Ð Ð Ribo¯avin, mg 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.2 Ð Ð Nicotinic acid, mg NE 10 12 14 15 17 19 20 19 13 Ð Ð Abscorbic acid, mg 40 40 40 45 45 45 45 45 45 Ð Ð Vitamin A, mg RE 375 400 500 600 700 700 700 700 700 Ð Ð Calcium, mg 800 800 800 1200 1200 1200 800 800 1000 Ð Ð Iron, mg 7 9 9 12 12 12 10 10 10 Ð Ð

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