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Home , Carbohydrate catabolism, Food energy

Production In A (Chapter 25 )

Large contain a lot of potential energy in the form of chemical bonds but it requires a lot of work to liberate the energy. Cells need a quick easy way to get energy for : this is done with ATP. ATP is an unstable , the bonds of which are easy to break making it a useful source of energy for cells.

ATP → ADP + P + free energy from food + ADP + P → ATP

Catabolic reactions generate energy to make ATP, and the ATP energy is used to drive anabolic reactions, such as metabolic turnover (replacement of cell parts), growth and cell division, and special functions (such as secretion, absorption, contraction, or signaling).

Metabolism = the sum of all chemical reactions in the body; + anabolism

All energy production begins in the of the cell. Large molecules are catabolized into smaller molecules, but very little energy is produced: → amino acids Triglycerides → fatty acids and → short carbon chains These smaller molecules are then absorbed and processed in reactions inside the mitochondria. 40% of the energy is captured to produce ATP from ADP and the remaining 60% escapes as heat (used to maintain body temperature).

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions ( Rxns)

Oxidation = the removal of electrons (or addition of ) Reduction = the addition of electrons

These reactions are always coupled: one molecule must be oxidized while another is reduced.

A-e’ + B → A + B-e’

(A is oxidized while B is reduced)

The reduced molecule gains energy while the oxidized molecule loses energy. Cells more commonly perform dehydrogenation reactions where a hydrogen (1 proton + 1 electron) is exchanged instead of a free electron, but this is still a redox reaction.

Catabolism of large molecules results in reduced carrier compounds, which are then oxidized to generate ATP.

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 1 SCCC BIO130 Chapter 25 Handout ATP Production

Generation of ATP involves the addition of a phosphate to ADP and can be accomplished one of two ways: 1. Substrate Level Phosphorylation: a high-energy phosphate is transferred directly from a substrate to ADP thus forming ATP. 2. Oxidative Phosphorylation: electrons are transferred from an to a carrier molecule (e.g. NAD+). The electrons are passed through other carriers (the ) to a final acceptor (oxygen) and the passing of the electrons releases energy that is harvested to add a phosphate to ADP in a process called chemiosmosis.

Carbohydrate Catabolism

Carbohydrates are the primary source of cellular energy for most organisms. is the most commonly used and will always be used first. Fatty acids will be used second when glucose is in short supply, and then more rarely amino acids can be utilized. Glucose can be catabolized for ATP production in two ways:

1. Cellular respiration: requires oxygen to serve as the final electron acceptor in a series of redox reactions that generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. This is the most efficient method of ATP production (1 glucose generates 36 ATP) and involves reaction performed inside the mitochondria.

2. : requires an organic molecule to serve as the final electron acceptor and can be done in the absence of oxygen. ATP is synthesized using substrate level phosphorylation, which is less efficient (1 glucose generates 2 ATP). In this results in the production of . Fermentation reactions are carried out in the cytoplasm.

Aerobic Respiration Of Glucose

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O (energy from 1 glucose → 36 ATP)

Three stages of aerobic respiration:

1. : oxidation of glucose to with some ATP and NADH produced.

2. Cycle: oxidation of acetyl to with some ATP, NADH and FADH2 produced.

3. Electron Transport Chain: NADH and FADH2 are oxidized providing electrons for redox reactions ultimately reduce oxygen to generate ATP. The majority of the ATP is produced at this step.

*(NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) are coenzymes that function to transport electrons in the form of hydrogen: NAD+ carries 2 electrons but only one proton, FAD carries 2 complete hydrogen )

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 2 SCCC BIO130 Chapter 25 Cellular Respiration Handout Glycolysis a.k.a the Embden-Myerhof Pathway Glycolysis is an anaerobic process (does not involve oxygen) that occurs in the cytoplasm. It consists of a 10-step that catabolizes and oxidizes 1 glucose molecule into 2 pyruvic acid molecules and generates 2 molecules of ATP by substrate level phosphorylation. Many cells can survive on glycolysis alone (called fermentation) but it is not very efficient, and fermentation generates lactic acid as a waste product, which will need to be removed and processed to prevent a drastic alteration in pH and loss of homeostasis.

Two stages: 1. Preparatory Stage: two ATP molecules are used to phosphorylate one 6-carbon glucose and catabolize it into two 3-carbon molecules. 2. Energy Conservation Stage: The two 3-carbon molecules are oxidized to generate two 3- carbon pyruvic acid molecules. At the same time two NAD+ molecules are reduced to two NADH molecules and four ATP molecules are produced by substrate level phosphorylation.

Summary of glycolysis: 1 Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P → 2 Pyruvic acid + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP

Decarboxylation (Preparation for the )

This is the first step in the aerobic process of glucose metabolism. This and all subsequent steps (Citric Acid Cycle and Electron Transport) will occur only when oxygen is available and will take place inside the mitochondria. The 3-carbon pyruvic acid is decarboxylated into carbon dioxide and a 2-carbon acetyl. The acetyl is attached to (which serves only as a carrier) and one NAD+ is reduced to NADH (this will happen twice: 1 glucose generates 2 pyruvic acid molecules). Decarboxylation reactions occur in the matrix of the mitochondria.

Summary of decarboxylation: + 2 Pyruvic acid + 2 NAD + 2 CoA → 2 Acetyl CoA + 2 CO2 + 2 NADH

Citric Acid Cycle a.k.a. The Kreb’s Cycle or The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle This part of the aerobic metabolism of glucose involves 8 enzymatic reactions occurring in the mitochondrial matrix that function to reduce the coenzymes NAD+ and FAD. The 2-carbon acetyl is attached to a 4-carbon creating a 6-carbon citric acid. Oxidation and decarboxylation reactions occur which catabolize the 6-carbon citric acid back into a 4-carbon oxaloacetic acid and two carbon dioxide molecules. At the same time three NAD+ and one FAD are reduced into three NADH and one FADH2 respectively, and one ATP is produced by substrate level phosphorylation. (Remember: 1 glucose → 2 pyruvic acid → 2 acetyl so this cycle will run twice.)

Summary of the Citric Acid Cycle: + 2 Acetyl Co A + 6 NAD + 2 FAD + 2 ADP + 2 P + 4 H2O → + 2 CoA + 4 CO2 + 6 NADH + 4 H + 2 FADH2 + 2 ATP

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 3 SCCC BIO130 Chapter 25 Cellular Respiration Handout Electron Transport Chain

This is the truly aerobic part of the aerobic metabolism of glucose as this is where the oxygen is utilized. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs on a membrane, the mitochondrial cristae, to generate most of the ATP produced from glucose. Coenzymes from the previous reactions pass electrons to a series of electron carrier molecules, which carry out redox reactions resulting in the chemiosmotic generation of ATP.

There are three classes of carrier molecules: 1. FMN (flavin mononucleotide): + flavin coenzyme 2. CoEnzyme Q : nonprotein 3. Cytochromes: protein + an iron group (most common)

Events of the electron transport chain: 1. NAD+ and FAD collected energy in the form of hydrogens (electrons) from organic molecules during Glycolysis, Decarboxylation, and the Citric Acid Cycle becoming the

reduced forms NADH and FADH2

2. NADH and FADH2 are oxidized and pass hydrogens (electrons and protons) to the electron transport chain consisting of flavoproteins, cytochromes, and coenzyme Q. As electrons are passed along the chain, protons are pushed out through the membrane. This sets up a concentration gradient with protons (positive charge) on the outside and electrons (negative charge) on the inside. 3. At the end of the chain the electrons are accepted by oxygen creating an anion (O-) inside, which has a strong affinity for the cations (H+) outside. 4. Chemiosmosis generates ATP: H+ from the outside moves toward O- on the inside through special membrane channels that are coupled to ATP synthase, and the high-energy diffusion of H+ drives the reaction ADP + P → ATP. The energy from 1 NADH from glycolysis can generate 2 ATP, the energy from 1 NADH from decarboxylation and the Citric Acid Cycle

can generate 3 ATP, and that from 1 FADH2 can generate 2 ATP for a total of 32 ATP. + - 5. H combines with O inside the mitochondria creating (H2O).

Summary of Electron Transport: 2 NADH from Glycolysis + 2 NADH from Decarboxylation + 6 NADH from Citric Acid Cycle

+ 2 FADH2 from Citric Acid Cycle + 6 O2 + 32 ADP + 32 P → + 12 H2O + 32 ATP + 10 NAD + 2 FAD

Final Summary For Aerobic Respiration:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 36 ADP + 36 P → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP

(In most Eukaryotic cells, 36 ATP are produced from 1 glucose molecule: 2 from Glycolysis and 2 from the Citric Acid Cycle by substrate level phosphorylation, and 32 from Electron Transport by oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, the Citric Acid Cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria, and Electron Transport occurs on the cristae of the mitochondria. Some energy is lost as electrons are carried from the cytoplasm across the mitochondrial membrane and thus the NADH from Glycolysis can generate only four total ATP instead of the 3 each observed for NADH created inside the mitochondria.)

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 4 SCCC BIO130 Chapter 25 Cellular Respiration Handout Cellular Respiration Review:

1. Glycolysis: - anaerobic, occurs in cytoplasm - 1 glucose oxidized into 2 pyruvic acids - 2 ATP produced by substrate level phosphorylation - 2 NADH produced by reduction of NAD via oxidation of glucose

- If no O2 available, pyruvic acid reduced to lactic acid (fermentation) - Erythrocytes (RBCs) → glycolysis only (no mitochondria!)

- → fermentation when no O2

- Neurons and cardiac muscle cannot ferment, need O2

2. Decarboxylation + Krebs / Citric Acid Cycle: -occur in matrix of mitochondria -Decarboxylation: - 2 pyruvic acid decarboxylated and oxidized into 2 acetyl Co A +

2 CO2 with 2 NADH -Citric Acid Cycle: - 2 acetyl combined with 2 oxaloacetic acids creating 2 citric acids

- citric acid decarboxylated and oxidized → 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2 - 2 ATP generated by substrate level phosphorylation

3. Electron Transport: - aerobic, occurs on cristae of mitochondria

- NADH and FADH2 reduced during glycolysis and citric acid cycle are oxidized - electrons are passed to cytochromes, finally accepted by oxygen - 32 ATP generated by chemiosmosis / oxidative phosphorylation

- 12 H2O produced as waste from oxidation of oxygen

* With oxygen, 1 glucose will produce 36 ATP in most tissue cells.

* Without oxygen, 1 glucose will produce 2 ATP in human tissue cells that are capable of fermentation (not neurons or cardiac muscle).

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 5 SCCC BIO130 Chapter 25 Cellular Respiration Handout ( Catabolism)

The process of lipid catabolism hydrolyzes triglycerides, the storage form of , into glycerol and three fatty acids. The glycerol is converted into pyruvic acid in the cytoplasm and catabolized through the Citric Acid Cycle in the mitochondria. The fatty acids are catabolized by Beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to be entered into the Citric Acid Cycle as two-carbon fragments. For each two-carbon fragment of fatty acid produced by Beta-oxidation, the cell can generate 17 molecules of ATP. This is 1.5 times the energy production (when compared carbon to carbon) as with glucose. Although lipolysis generates more energy, it requires more oxygen and occurs much more slowly than equal .

Protein and Catabolism

For proteins to be used for energy production, they must first be broken down into individual amino acids. Then for the amino acids to be used in the Citric Acid Cycle they must first have the amino group (NH2) removed in a process called deamination, which requires B6. The amino group is removed in conjunction with a hydrogen creating ammonia (NH3) which is very toxic. The must then convert the ammonia to , which is relatively harmless, for excretion by the kidney. The remaining amino acid carbon chains are then used at various stages in the Citric Acid Cycle to generate ATP. The amount of ATP produced varies with the type of amino acid, depending on which step into the Citric Acid Cycle it was entered.

Catabolism of amino acids is not a practical source of quick energy and is typically only used in situations. Proteins are harder to break apart than carbohydrates or , their catabolism generates toxic waste products, and they are the structural and functional parts of every cell, and thus tend to only be used when no other energy source is available. Instead, amino acids are usually simply recycled by hydrolysis of peptide bonds in one protein, to be reassembled by dehydration synthesis into the next.

Nucleic Acid Catabolism

DNA is never catabolized for energy. RNA can be broken down into simple and nitrogenous bases. The sugars are metabolized in glycolysis but only the pyrimidine bases, uracil and cytosine, can be processed into the Citric Acid Cycle. The purines, adenine and guanine, are deaminated and excreted as uric acid making RNA metabolism very inefficient. Typically are simply recycled into new nucleic acid molecules and are not used for energy production.

Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D. 6 SCCC BIO130 Chapter 25 Cellular Respiration Handout