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A Grammar of Kristang (Malacca Creole Portuguese)

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A Grammar of Kristang (Malacca Creole Portuguese) PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Series B - No. 95 A GRAMMAROF KRISTANG (MALACCACREOLE PORTUGUESE) Alan N. Baxter Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY Baxter, A.N. A Grammar of Kristang (Malacca Creole Portuguese). B-95, xiv + 254 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1988. DOI:10.15144/PL-B95.cover ©1988 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. PACIFIC LINGUISTICS is issued through the Linguistic Circle of Canberra and consists of fo ur series: SERIES A: Occasional Papers SERIES C: Books SERIES B: Monographs SERIES D: Special Publications FOUNDING EDITOR: S.A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD : T.E. Dutton, D.C.Laycock, M.D. Ross, D.T. Tryon EDITORIAL ADVISERS: B.W. Bender H.P. McKaughan University of Hawaii University of Hawaii David Bradley P. Muhlhausler La Trobe University Bond University Michael G. Clyne G.N. O'Grady Monash University University of Victoria, B.C. S.H. Elbert AK Pawley University of Hawaii University of Auckland KJ. Franklin KL. Pike Summer Institute of Linguistics Summer Institute of Linguistics W.W. Glover E.C. Poloma Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Texas G.W. Grace Gillian Sankoff University of Hawaii University of Pennsylvania M.A.K Halliday W.AL. Stokhof University of Sydney University of Leiden E. Haugen B.K T'sou Harvard University City Polytechnic of Hong Kong A Healey E.M. Uhlenbeck Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Leiden L.A. Hercus J.W.M. Verhaar Australian National University Divine Word Institute, Madang John Lynch C.L.Voorhoeve University of Papua New Guinea University of Leiden KA. McElhanon Summer Institute of Linguistics All correspondence concerning PACIFIC LINGUISTICS, including orders and subscriptions, should be addressed to: PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies The Australian National University Canberra, A.C.T. 2601 Australia Copyright © The Author First Published 1988 Printed by A.N.U. Printing Service Typeset by Jeanette Coombes Bound by Adriatic Bookbinders Pty Ltd The editors are indebted to the Australian National University fo r assistance in the production of this series This publication was made possible by an initial grant fr om the Hunter Douglas Fund. ISSN 0078-754X ISBN 0 85883 375 1 L TABLE OF CONrENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v INTRODUCTION vii 0.1 Previous work on Kristang viii 0.2 The data ix 0.3 Organisation of the grammar x 0.4 Symbols and abbreviations Xl CHAPTER 1: SOCIOLINGUISTIC BACKGROUND 1 1.1 Malacca and its ethnolinguistic diversity 1 1.2 The origins of the Kristang speech community 3 1.3 Use and disuse of Kristang 12 1.4 The current linguistic situation 13 CHAPTER 2: PHONOLOGY OUTLINE 19 2.1 Consonants 20 2.2 Vowels 23 2.3 Unstressed vowels in word final position 29 2.4 Diphthongs and vowel sequences 30 2.5 Phonotactics - the syllable 33 2.6 Stress 37 2.7 Orthography 42 CHAPTER 3: PARTS OF SPEECH 46 3.1 Articles 46 3.2 Quantifiers 47 3.3 Cardinal numerals 48 3.4 Nouns 49 3.5 Pronouns 52 3.6 Adjectives 57 3.7 Verbs 59 3.8 Modals 63 3.9 Relators 64 3.10 Particles 65 3.11 Interjections 68 3.12 Adverbs 68 111 IV CHAPTER 4: THE NOUN PHRASE 84 4.1 Constituents of the NP 84 4.2 Co-ordination 114 CHAPTER 5: THE AUXILIARY COMPLEX 118 5.1 The auxiliary complex 118 5.2 'Adverbial' fe atures of TMA particles 136 5.3 The NEG constituent 137 5.4 The modal category 142 CHAPTER 6: CORE AND PERIPHERAL ARGUMENTS 149 6.1 Grammatical relations defined for Kristang 149 6.2 Object marking 150 6.3 Other NP types 160 6.4 Elision of NPs 166 6.5 The origin of Kristang ku as a multifunctional relator 167 CHAPTER 7: THE CLAUSE 171 7.1 The verbal clause 171 7.2 The non-verbal clause 182 7.3 Imperative clause 185 7.4 The interrogative clause 186 7.5 Information fo rmatting devices 191 CHAPTER 8: INTERCLAUSAL AND INTERPREDICATE RELATIONS 199 8.1 Structures involving more than one clause 199 8.2 Existential sentences 206 8.3 Cleft sentences 210 8.4 Verb serialisation 211 CONCLUSION 218 BIBLIOGRAPHY 226 ACKNOWLEDGEMENrS The present book is a slightly revised version of my 1984 doctoral thesis presented at the Australian National University. I am deeply indebted to many people who contributed to it directly and indirectly. To begin I would like to express my gratitude to the people of the Creole Portuguese speaking community of Malacca who showed overwhelming hospitality in accepting me into their community and who taught me their language and traditions. I am particularly grateful, however, to my principal informant Mr Patrick De Silva fo r his generosity, his patience and the interest he showed in my project, and to many other friends in the Portuguese Settlement, Praya Lane and Trankera who provided information used in the preparation of this study. In particular, in Malacca, I thank Messrs and Mmes Roy Alcantara, Lawrence Astrock, Leslie Banerji, Agnes Banerji, Daniel Coller, Angela de Costa, Anna de Costa, Benjamin de Costa, Francis de Costa, Gerard de Costa, Mendes de Costa, Teresa de Costa, Josephine de Cruz, Felix Danker, Joan Danker, Morris Danker, Harry Fanwell, Alan Felix, Constance Felix, Flora Felix, Joseph Felix, Marina Felix, Noel Felix, Nolan Felix, Patrick Felix, Albert Fernandez, Elsie Fernandez, Lucy Fernandez, Mary Lowe, Morris Fernandez, Vincent Fernandez, Veronica Fernandez, Bonny de Franco, Maria Fredericks, Angela Goonting, Johnson Goonting, Oswald Goonting, Herman Hendroff, Rita Lai, Angelique Lazaroo, Emile Lazaroo, George Bosco Lazaroo, Gerard Lazaroo, Janet Lazaroo, Roslyn Lazaroo, Jane Lopes, Joseph Lopes, James Lowe, Norman de Melo, Julia Monteiro, Andrew Nunis, Jacqueline Nunis, Thomas Paul Nunis, Ann Pereira, Cristobel Pereira, Mary Pestana, Andrew Pinto, Clare Pinto, Joseph Pinto, Gregory de Roche, Joseph Rodrigues, Francis Savage, Jennifer Savage, Adrian Singh, Margaret Sta Maria, Regina Sta Maria, Jennifer Shepherdson, Eric de Silva, Fidelis de Silva, Michael de Silva, Sebastian de Silva, Sybil de Silva, Victoria de Silva, Tan Lai Hock, Tan Lam Chai, Leonard Theseira, Maria Theseira, Michael Theseira, Nicholas Theseira, Stephen Theseira, Roslyn Young, Theresa Young. And in Singapore Messrs and Mmes Christie Cornelius, Emile Hendricks, Roy Hendricks, Michael Longue, Francis Rodrigues, Conrad Scharnhaus, Cyril de Souza. v vi For their patient and valuable assistance in many ways I wish to thank Professor S.A. Wurm and others in the Department of Linguistics in the Research School of Pacific Studies at the Australian National University. In particular I am indebted to Dr D.C. Laycock and Dr T.E. Dutton for their guidance and advice in supervising the original thesis. For assistance with computer use I wish to thank Mrs E.M. Winburn. I am also indebted to fellow students Harry Feldman, Walter Seiler and Jeff Siegel for their comments on drafts of the text and for helpful discussions concerning many aspects ofthe grammar. Earlier drafts of parts of chapters were also read by Dr D. Bradley of La Trobe University, Dr. C. Corne of the University of Auckland, and Dr 1. Smith of the University of Singapore. I also thank my examiners Professor 1.F. Hancock of the University of Texas at Austin, and Dr P. Miihlhausler of the University of Oxford for their valuable comments on the original thesis. For the final outcome of course, I alone am responsible. I also wish to thank my sponsor in Malaysia, Professor Hajah Asmah Hj . Omar, of the Universiti Malaya, for her support and assistance. I am also indebted to Fr M.J. Pintado, of the Portuguese Mission in Malacca, Mr Richard Dorall of the Universiti Malaya and Mr Michael Young, regedor of the Portuguese Settlement, for their invaluable aid. I wish to thank the Australian National University for granting me a PhD research scholarship and the Government of Malaysia for permission to undertake research in Malacca. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor R.W. Thompson of La Trobe University fo r first introducing me to Malacca Creole Portuguese. INTRODUCTION This study describes the language called Kristang or Malacca Creole Portuguese, spoken in Malacca, West Malaysia. It focuses on the main structures of the grammar of Kristang as spoken by conservative speakers and includes an outline of the sociohistorical context of the language and a sketch of the phonology. Kristang is unique as the last surviving variety of Creole Portuguese in South East Asia which still functions as a mother tongue and home language of a speech community. However, its speech community is small and is receding. A detailed account of Kristang is fu ndamental to an overall understanding of the diffusion of Creole Portuguese in Asia and is of prime importance to the overall field of Creole Portuguese and creole language studies. For these reasons, observational accuracy is given prime importance in the present study. The study is not couched in terms of any particular theory and is not intended as a discussion of linguistic theory. The grammar is essentially descriptive, the aim being to present an account of the basic structures in an informal way that reflects the language faithfully and which at the same time is readily accessible to the reader. However, in the description of certain grammatical points some theoretical discussion is incorporated either to facilitate description of the point at issue, for example accusative marking (6.2), or where the point at issue is pertinent to theory, for example Bickerton's Creole Universals. Moreover, where particularly relevant to the understanding of certain important points of the grammar, comparisons are made with Malay, Baba Malay, Bazaar Malay, Hokkien, Dutch, Portuguese or other varieties of Creole Portuguese.
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