What the Dialects Can Teach Us About Italian: The Case of Irpino

Aniello De Santo

Department of Linguistics Stony Brook University [email protected]

Center for Italian Studies Feb 23, 2017 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Language as a Tapestry Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Language as a Tapestry Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Outline

1 Why a study of Dialects?

2 Raddoppiamento Sintattico

3 The Irpino Dialect

4 Field Experiments Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Languages of Italy

Image cc @ Wikipeda 2 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Languages of Italy

Table: From Sabatini, F. (1978)

English Better an egg today than an hen tomorrow Standard Italian Meglio un uovo oggi che una gallina domani Friulan Mior un of ui che une gialine doman Piedmontese A l’e mej ’n euve ancheuj che na galin-a doman Emilian L’e mei un ov incu che la galeina edmeng Tuscan Megl’un ovo oggi he una gallina domani Corsican Medu ogji l’ou che dumane a jadina Romanesque Mejjo l’ovo oggi ch’a gallina domani Campanian Meglie ll’uove ogge c’a jalline rimane Salentine Megghiu i’d osce cca la caddina crai Calabrian Miegliu oje un ’uovu ca dumani ca dumani a gaddina Sicilian Megghiu oji un ’ovu ca rumani a jaddina Sardinian Menzus unu ou oje chi no una pudda crasa

3 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Languages vs Dialects

A common misconception Dialects are a corrupted version of the Standard Language

Latin

Sardinian Neapolitan Florentine Friulan Venetian

Italian

A language is a dialect with an army and navy Max Weinreich (1944)

4 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Languages vs Dialects

A common misconception Dialects are a corrupted version of the Standard Language

Latin

Sardinian Neapolitan Florentine Friulan Venetian

Italian

A language is a dialect with an army and navy Max Weinreich (1944)

4 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Languages vs Dialects

A common misconception Dialects are a corrupted version of the Standard Language

Latin

Sardinian Neapolitan Florentine Friulan Venetian

Italian

A language is a dialect with an army and navy Max Weinreich (1944)

4 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Death of the Dialects

Figure: Speak exclusively or mostly ”dialect” at home

I socio-political pressures

I migrations

I media 5 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Death of the Dialects

Figure: Speak exclusively or mostly ”dialect” at home

I socio-political pressures

I migrations

I media 5 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Death of the Dialects?

6 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments (Re)-discovering Italian Dialects

Ora che sappiamo parlare italiano possiamo (ri)parlare dialetto. Berruto

I New importance of regional identities I New spaces for communication:

I Social-media I Sms, email, web I Advertisments I Graffiti, Independent Music, TV Shows (e.g. Gomorra) I even literary works (e.g. Andrea Camilleri)

7 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments (Re)-discovering Italian Dialects

Ora che sappiamo parlare italiano possiamo (ri)parlare dialetto. Berruto

I New importance of regional identities I New spaces for communication:

I Social-media I Sms, email, web I Advertisments I Graffiti, Independent Music, TV Shows (e.g. Gomorra) I even literary works (e.g. Andrea Camilleri)

7 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments (Re)-discovering Italian Dialects

Ora che sappiamo parlare italiano possiamo (ri)parlare dialetto. Berruto

I New importance of regional identities I New spaces for communication:

I Social-media I Sms, email, web I Advertisments I Graffiti, Independent Music, TV Shows (e.g. Gomorra) I even literary works (e.g. Andrea Camilleri)

7 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Why a study of Dialects?

Enshrined in a language is the whole of a community’s history as well as a large part of its cultural identity. The world is a mosaic of visions. To lose even one piece of this mosaic is a loss for all of us. David Crystal (2000)

I Need for preservation and documentation

I Italianization I Some dialects are still more respected than others

I Opportunity to study independent linguistic phenomena I Understanding Italian Linguistics:

I Micro-variations I Separate individual variations from regional ones

8 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Why a study of Dialects?

Enshrined in a language is the whole of a community’s history as well as a large part of its cultural identity. The world is a mosaic of visions. To lose even one piece of this mosaic is a loss for all of us. David Crystal (2000)

I Need for preservation and documentation

I Italianization I Some dialects are still more respected than others

I Opportunity to study independent linguistic phenomena I Understanding Italian Linguistics:

I Micro-variations I Separate individual variations from regional ones

8 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Why a study of Dialects?

Enshrined in a language is the whole of a community’s history as well as a large part of its cultural identity. The world is a mosaic of visions. To lose even one piece of this mosaic is a loss for all of us. David Crystal (2000)

I Need for preservation and documentation

I Italianization I Some dialects are still more respected than others

I Opportunity to study independent linguistic phenomena I Understanding Italian Linguistics:

I Micro-variations I Separate individual variations from regional ones

8 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Why a study of Dialects?

Enshrined in a language is the whole of a community’s history as well as a large part of its cultural identity. The world is a mosaic of visions. To lose even one piece of this mosaic is a loss for all of us. David Crystal (2000)

I Need for preservation and documentation

I Italianization I Some dialects are still more respected than others

I Opportunity to study independent linguistic phenomena I Understanding Italian Linguistics:

I Micro-variations I Separate individual variations from regional ones

8 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Why a study of Dialects?

Enshrined in a language is the whole of a community’s history as well as a large part of its cultural identity. The world is a mosaic of visions. To lose even one piece of this mosaic is a loss for all of us. David Crystal (2000)

I Need for preservation and documentation

I Italianization I Some dialects are still more respected than others

I Opportunity to study independent linguistic phenomena I Understanding Italian Linguistics:

I Micro-variations I Separate individual variations from regional ones

9 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Raddoppiamento Sintattico

A well-known process of Standard Italian Raddoppiamento Sintattico consists in the lengthening (gemination) of the initial consonant after particular stress-final words (monosyllables and polysyllables).

citt´a vvecchia vs scuola vecchia perch´e ppiangi vs quando piangi verr´o ddopo vs arrivo dopo

10 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Raddoppiamento Sintattico

A well-known process of Standard Italian Raddoppiamento Sintattico consists in the lengthening (gemination) of the initial consonant after particular stress-final words (monosyllables and polysyllables).

citt´a vvecchia vs scuola vecchia perch´e ppiangi vs quando piangi verr´o ddopo vs arrivo dopo

10 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Raddoppiamento Sintattico

A well-known process of Standard Italian Raddoppiamento Sintattico consists in the lengthening (gemination) of the initial consonant after particular stress-final words (monosyllables and polysyllables).

citt´a vvecchia vs scuola vecchia perch´e ppiangi vs quando piangi verr´o ddopo vs arrivo dopo

10 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Raddoppiamento Sintattico

A well-known process of Standard Italian Raddoppiamento Sintattico consists in the lengthening (gemination) of the initial consonant after particular stress-final words (monosyllables and polysyllables).

citt´a vvecchia vs scuola vecchia perch´e ppiangi vs quando piangi verr´o ddopo vs arrivo dopo

10 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments A caveat Raddoppiamento Sintattico is a well-attested phenomenon in standard and regional varieties of Italian, but...

I Not taught in schools → speakers are not aware of it I More restricted or absent in northern varieties

However... Evidence from orthography

chi sa → chiss´a [who knows][goodness knows]

cos´ıdetto → cosiddetto [so said][so-called]

11 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments A caveat Raddoppiamento Sintattico is a well-attested phenomenon in standard and regional varieties of Italian, but...

I Not taught in schools → speakers are not aware of it I More restricted or absent in northern varieties

However... Evidence from orthography

chi sa → chiss´a [who knows][goodness knows]

cos´ıdetto → cosiddetto [so said][so-called]

11 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments A caveat Raddoppiamento Sintattico is a well-attested phenomenon in standard and regional varieties of Italian, but...

I Not taught in schools → speakers are not aware of it I More restricted or absent in northern varieties

However... Evidence from orthography

chi sa → chiss´a [who knows][goodness knows]

cos´ıdetto → cosiddetto [so said][so-called]

11 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments An Exception: /s/ + [consonant] Clusters

/s/ followed by a consonat seems to avoid Raddoppiamento citt´a vvecchia vs citt´asporca

verr´o ssolo vs verr´ostanco

´effreddo vs ´esregolato

/s/ + [consonant] sequences in general seem to be special Article allomorphy a. b.

il sole ”the sun” lo scolaro ”the schoolboy” il sale ”the salt” lo stipendio ”the stipend” il treno ”the train” lo sforzo ”the effort”

12 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments An Exception: /s/ + [consonant] Clusters

/s/ followed by a consonat seems to avoid Raddoppiamento citt´a vvecchia vs citt´asporca

verr´o ssolo vs verr´ostanco

´effreddo vs ´esregolato

/s/ + [consonant] sequences in general seem to be special Article allomorphy a. b.

il sole ”the sun” lo scolaro ”the schoolboy” il sale ”the salt” lo stipendio ”the stipend” il treno ”the train” lo sforzo ”the effort”

12 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments A considerations on /s/ clusters

We can group the consonants following initial /s/ based on ”effort”

I t, b, p, d, c

I l, m, n, v

Open Question

I Is Raddoppiamento Sintattico influenced by the ”type” of consonant following /s/? → e.g. is stufa [stove] different from smalto [nail polish] ?

13 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments A considerations on /s/ clusters

We can group the consonants following initial /s/ based on ”effort”

I t, b, p, d, c

I l, m, n, v

Open Question

I Is Raddoppiamento Sintattico influenced by the ”type” of consonant following /s/? → e.g. is stufa [stove] different from smalto [nail polish] ?

13 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Interim Summary

I Raddoppiamento Sintattico (RS) is a well-known but still not understood phenomenon

I RS interaction with s + consonant clusters is particularly puzzling

I Previous studies are confounded by individual and regional variations

I Dialects can provide important insights into the structure of Italian and its evolution

Research Agenda We can use a dialect to understand more about RS in Italian!

14 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Interim Summary

I Raddoppiamento Sintattico (RS) is a well-known but still not understood phenomenon

I RS interaction with s + consonant clusters is particularly puzzling

I Previous studies are confounded by individual and regional variations

I Dialects can provide important insights into the structure of Italian and its evolution

Research Agenda We can use a dialect to understand more about RS in Italian!

14 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Interim Summary

I Raddoppiamento Sintattico (RS) is a well-known but still not understood phenomenon

I RS interaction with s + consonant clusters is particularly puzzling

I Previous studies are confounded by individual and regional variations

I Dialects can provide important insights into the structure of Italian and its evolution

Research Agenda We can use a dialect to understand more about RS in Italian!

14 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Interim Summary

I Raddoppiamento Sintattico (RS) is a well-known but still not understood phenomenon

I RS interaction with s + consonant clusters is particularly puzzling

I Previous studies are confounded by individual and regional variations

I Dialects can provide important insights into the structure of Italian and its evolution

Research Agenda We can use a dialect to understand more about RS in Italian!

14 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Interim Summary

I Raddoppiamento Sintattico (RS) is a well-known but still not understood phenomenon

I RS interaction with s + consonant clusters is particularly puzzling

I Previous studies are confounded by individual and regional variations

I Dialects can provide important insights into the structure of Italian and its evolution

Research Agenda We can use a dialect to understand more about RS in Italian!

14 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Choosing a dialect as case study

I Existing studies focus on Standard Italian used speakers from different Italian Regions → problem: factoring out regional variations

I Dialectal studies on northern/central italian speakers → a southern italian dialect could provide unexpected insights

I Additional value in choosing a less known dialect: → language documentation

15 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Choosing a dialect as case study

I Existing studies focus on Standard Italian used speakers from different Italian Regions → problem: factoring out regional variations

I Dialectal studies on northern/central italian speakers → a southern italian dialect could provide unexpected insights

I Additional value in choosing a less known dialect: → language documentation

15 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Choosing a dialect as case study

I Existing studies focus on Standard Italian used speakers from different Italian Regions → problem: factoring out regional variations

I Dialectal studies on northern/central italian speakers → a southern italian dialect could provide unexpected insights

I Additional value in choosing a less known dialect: → language documentation

15 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments The Irpino Dialect

16 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Irpino and Raddoppiamento Sintattico

/s/ palatalization

1.s → S in word initial position before {p,f,k,t} 2.s → ÿ in in word initial position before {b,m,g,l}

Restricted set of trigger words Words with final consonant in the latin etima:

I ´e ”is” (lat. EST)

I cchi´u”more” (lat. PLUS)

I tre ”three” (lat. TRES)

17 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Irpino and RS: Examples

Palatalization

sgobb´a → Zgobb´a ”to work hard” scarole → Skarole ”endive”

Raddoppiamento

tre ssordi ”three coins” ´e dduro ”(it) is hard” ki´uffatti ” more facts”

but not ...

parl´o bbene ”(he) spoke well”

18 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Irpino and RS: Examples

Palatalization

sgobb´a → Zgobb´a ”to work hard” scarole → Skarole ”endive”

Raddoppiamento

tre ssordi ”three coins” ´e dduro ”(it) is hard” ki´uffatti ” more facts”

but not ...

parl´o bbene ”(he) spoke well”

18 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Irpino and RS: Examples

Palatalization

sgobb´a → Zgobb´a ”to work hard” scarole → Skarole ”endive”

Raddoppiamento

tre ssordi ”three coins” ´e dduro ”(it) is hard” ki´uffatti ” more facts”

but not ...

parl´o bbene ”(he) spoke well”

18 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Setting up the experiments

We want to test the following hypotheses:

1 is RS really affected by the kind of consonant following /s/? 2 is the set of trigger words actually restricted in Irpino?

Test [1] Test [2] Triggers followed by words Words starting in single starting with: consonant preceded by:

I /s / + {t,b,p,d,c} I Italian RS triggers (e.g. all I /s/ + {l,m,n,v} stressed monosyllable) I Reduced trigger set as reported

19 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Setting up the experiments

We want to test the following hypotheses:

1 is RS really affected by the kind of consonant following /s/? 2 is the set of trigger words actually restricted in Irpino?

Test [1] Test [2] Triggers followed by words Words starting in single starting with: consonant preceded by:

I /s / + {t,b,p,d,c} I Italian RS triggers (e.g. all I /s/ + {l,m,n,v} stressed monosyllable) I Reduced trigger set as reported

19 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Choosing the right task

Problems

I Avoid priming effects due to orthography

I Avoid priming effects due to italian pronunciation

I Force the exact sequence: trigger word + target word

Four different Tasks

I Image description

I Italian to Dialect translation

I Reading

I Non existent words

20 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Choosing the right task

Problems

I Avoid priming effects due to orthography

I Avoid priming effects due to italian pronunciation

I Force the exact sequence: trigger word + target word

Four different Tasks

I Image description

I Italian to Dialect translation

I Reading

I Non existent words

20 tre SSkope na Skopa

Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Images

Expected pronunciation

21 tre SSkope na Skopa

Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Images

Expected pronunciation

21 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Images

Expected pronunciation

tre SSkope na Skopa

21 ´e SStanco fu Stanco

Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Reading

è stanco fu stanco

Expected pronunciation

22 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Reading

è stanco fu stanco

Expected pronunciation

´e SStanco fu Stanco

22 Expected Expected

→ nufurno → ki´u ffurni

→ nalista → tre lliste

→ a Skarola → tre SSkarole

Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Translation

un forno pi´uforni

una lista tre liste

la scarola tre scarole

23 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Translation

Expected Expected

un forno → nufurno pi´uforni → ki´u ffurni

una lista → nalista tre liste → tre lliste

la scarola → a Skarola tre scarole → tre SSkarole

23 ki´u SSmurfi sette Smurfi

chiù smurfi sette smurfi

Expected Pronunciation

Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Nonce

Non existent words respecting Irpino natural sounds

24 ki´u SSmurfi sette Smurfi

Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Nonce

Non existent words respecting Irpino natural sounds

chiù smurfi sette smurfi

Expected Pronunciation

24 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Nonce

Non existent words respecting Irpino natural sounds

chiù smurfi sette smurfi

Expected Pronunciation

ki´u SSmurfi sette Smurfi

24 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Data Evaluation I

25 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Data Evaluation II

I /s/ + {t,b,p,d,c} vs /s/ + {l,m,n,v}

I Italian Triggers vs Reduced set

I fillers

I around 30 min of recording per speakers

I some speakers had to be discarded due to hyper-articulation or noise

I fluency on a spectrum: → discriminate between Italian vs Dialect exclusive results

26 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Data Evaluation II

I /s/ + {t,b,p,d,c} vs /s/ + {l,m,n,v}

I Italian Triggers vs Reduced set

I fillers

I around 30 min of recording per speakers

I some speakers had to be discarded due to hyper-articulation or noise

I fluency on a spectrum: → discriminate between Italian vs Dialect exclusive results

26 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Data Evaluation II

I /s/ + {t,b,p,d,c} vs /s/ + {l,m,n,v}

I Italian Triggers vs Reduced set

I fillers

I around 30 min of recording per speakers

I some speakers had to be discarded due to hyper-articulation or noise

I fluency on a spectrum: → discriminate between Italian vs Dialect exclusive results

26 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Data Evaluation III

Raddoppiamento and /s/ + [consonant] sequences:

+RS -RS /s/ + {t,b,p,d,c} X /s/ + {l,m,n,v} X

Language documentation:

I Set of trigger words is more restricted than what reported

I Variation in palatalization

I Fluency depending on age, upbringing, exact position of hometown

I Interestingly, no variation due to gender

27 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Data Evaluation III

Raddoppiamento and /s/ + [consonant] sequences:

+RS -RS /s/ + {t,b,p,d,c} X /s/ + {l,m,n,v} X

Language documentation:

I Set of trigger words is more restricted than what reported

I Variation in palatalization

I Fluency depending on age, upbringing, exact position of hometown

I Interestingly, no variation due to gender

27 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Data Evaluation III

Raddoppiamento and /s/ + [consonant] sequences:

+RS -RS /s/ + {t,b,p,d,c} X /s/ + {l,m,n,v} X

Language documentation:

I Set of trigger words is more restricted than what reported

I Variation in palatalization

I Fluency depending on age, upbringing, exact position of hometown

I Interestingly, no variation due to gender

27 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Data Evaluation III

Raddoppiamento and /s/ + [consonant] sequences:

+RS -RS /s/ + {t,b,p,d,c} X /s/ + {l,m,n,v} X

Language documentation:

I Set of trigger words is more restricted than what reported

I Variation in palatalization

I Fluency depending on age, upbringing, exact position of hometown

I Interestingly, no variation due to gender

27 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Data Evaluation III

Raddoppiamento and /s/ + [consonant] sequences:

+RS -RS /s/ + {t,b,p,d,c} X /s/ + {l,m,n,v} X

Language documentation:

I Set of trigger words is more restricted than what reported

I Variation in palatalization

I Fluency depending on age, upbringing, exact position of hometown

I Interestingly, no variation due to gender

27 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Conclusions

I New contributions to existing prediction about Raddoppiamento’s contexts of application

I One of the first attempt of documentation of the Irpino Dialect

Future Work

I Influence of other phenomena (e.g. palatalization)

I Comparison to other dialects in the area

I Continue the documentation effort. → next step: structure of the language?

28 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Conclusions

I New contributions to existing prediction about Raddoppiamento’s contexts of application

I One of the first attempt of documentation of the Irpino Dialect

Future Work

I Influence of other phenomena (e.g. palatalization)

I Comparison to other dialects in the area

I Continue the documentation effort. → next step: structure of the language?

28 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Conclusions

I New contributions to existing prediction about Raddoppiamento’s contexts of application

I One of the first attempt of documentation of the Irpino Dialect

Future Work

I Influence of other phenomena (e.g. palatalization)

I Comparison to other dialects in the area

I Continue the documentation effort. → next step: structure of the language?

28 Italian Dialects Raddoppiamento Sintattico Irpino Experiments Aknowledgments

This research was partially funded by a Travel Grant from the Stony Brook University Center for Italian Studies, which made the collection of data on field possible. I am particularly thankful to: Prof. Mario Mignone Josephine Fusco and Donna Severino

I am also grateful to Prof. Lori Repetti for the guidance and assistance in setting up the experiment and understanding the results. Grazie! Production

1. Take an Italian word and translate:

pagare → pag´a”to pay”

2 . ”Negate” the translation (create a non existent work):

pag´a → Spag´a

3. Add a trigger word:

Spag´a → pe’ SSpag´a

30 Production

1. Take an Italian word and translate:

pagare → pag´a”to pay”

2 . ”Negate” the translation (create a non existent work):

pag´a → Spag´a

3. Add a trigger word:

Spag´a → pe’ SSpag´a

30 Production

1. Take an Italian word and translate:

pagare → pag´a”to pay”

2 . ”Negate” the translation (create a non existent work):

pag´a → Spag´a

3. Add a trigger word:

Spag´a → pe’ SSpag´a

30