A Thorn in Transatlantic Relations

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A Thorn in Transatlantic Relations Palgrave Studies in Governance, Security, and Development S e r i e s E d i t o r : D i e t r i c h J u n g o f t h e D a n i s h Institute for International Studies

This series contributes to the critical analysis of international affairs, linking the theoretical and the empirical, especially through comparative works. The focus is on three processes in international relations: governance involving both formal and informal institutions; security , meaning that of key actors in international society, with a focus on the distinctions and differences among security of and for individuals, groups, and states; and development , meaning the improvement of both political and economic conditions for individuals and groups. The links among the three will be a focus, which is pertinent given the interactions among them and among the levels of influence (from individual to global society).

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American and European Perceptions of Threat and Security

Mary N. Hampton

A THORN IN TRANSATLANTIC RELATIONS Copyright © Mary N. Hampton, 2013. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2013 978-1-137-34326-0 All rights reserved. First published in 2013 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States—a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-46557-6 ISBN 978-1-137-34327-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137343277 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Newgen Knowledge Works (P) Ltd., Chennai, India. First edition: August 2013 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is dedicated to my wonderful mother, Mary Nelle Feathers Hampton. It is also dedicated to the memories of my beloved father, James Webb Hampton, and his namesake, my dear brother, James F. Hampton. This page intentionally left blank Contents

Preface i x Acknowledgments x i

1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 1 2 “God Has Favored Our Undertaking”: Explaining American Security and Strategic Culture 23 3 Oasis or Mirage? EU European Security and Strategic Culture 5 1 4 Combating Communism “from the Abodes of Righteousness” 8 5 5 Naming Terror: US and European Counterterrorism Strategies since the 1970s 117 6 Conclusion: Transatlantic Security Cultures in Transition 153

Notes 163 Index 1 9 7 This page intentionally left blank Preface

have long been interested in the role of religion in society. Aside from I my family’s rich tradition with Methodism, Presbyterianism, and Quakers, I became even more interested in the role of religion after join- ing the academic community. The significant role religion played in the world around me seemed to disappear under the scrutiny of social sci- ence and to be relegated to the study of distant societies and peoples. As a graduate student, I absorbed the findings and prejudices of mod- ernization theory, where religion recedes in significance under the clear and hot gaze of the scientific method, succumbs to rational society, and falters under materialism. As I studied the US-German and transatlantic relationships, however, I kept noticing a divergence when examin- ing how people perceived their place in the world. While the Academy may have largely accepted the findings and dispositions of moderniza- tion theory until recently, American national identity seemed to be resil- ient in its sense of religiosity and sense of closeness to Providence. This aspect of American identity became even more starkly clarified when I compared it to the attitudes and beliefs I encountered when living in Germany, where the beautiful and historic cathedrals and churches always seemed more frequented by tourists than by citizens. In churches across America, although in the South and Midwest more so than in the Northeast, patriotic songs can become hymns sung in church alongside hymns by John Wesley. Such a practice would be unheard of and unac- ceptable in Germany. The idea that these real differences regarding religiosity and faith might actually impact how Americans and Europeans, especially Germans, viewed threat in the world had been with me for some time, but became a lightning bolt for me when British Prime Minister Tony Blair was interrupted in a 2003 interview by his Director of Strategy and Communication, Alastair Campbell. The Prime Minister was asked a question about his Christianity and before he could answer, Mr. Campbell intervened by saying, “We don’t do God.” 1 What a transatlantic divide was uttered with those words. American leaders, political and religious, x PREFACE right and left, have always and continue to call on God to bless and pro- tect America. I realized that it was not just Germany that seemed differ- ent: Britain and much of Europe seemed so, and a real expression of that differentness was emerging in the articulation of a European Union (EU) security culture model. So began the effort to write this book. In developing my central argument about religiosity and Providence, I am not casting aspersion on beliefs and practices in the United States or Europe. I am developing an argument to explain why differences between them cause discord. I am also necessarily depending on generalizations about religiosity in the United States and Europe. Obviously, ideological, local, and regional variations exist. The American South, for example, is much more religious and churchgoing than the rest of the country. Republicans and self-identified conservatives are more likely to identify themselves as religious. Yet, rare is the successful presidential candidate who rejects the United States as providentially blessed. The stability of American beliefs about their role in the world and the nature of threat is notable, although some change appears to be emerging in the short term. In Europe, there is also local differentiation, although frankly, religiosity has declined significantly throughout Europe, and most dramatically since the 1960s. In Protestant and Catholic areas alike, decline has been precipitous. Indeed, it is surprising how rapidly religiosity has declined in Poland, where Catholicism long held sway as part of national identity and was part of the liberating force that brought down the Cold War. Yet, the cosmopolitan European model that has been promoted in recent decades by political elites is currently under tremendous stress. Finally, I do not suggest through the study that religious America and secularist Europe have had no challenges. There is certainly a secularist and cosmopolitan tradition in the United States; antimilitarism has had its place among various denominations at various times, and with the Quakers at all times. Likewise, there are many religious Europeans and the religious, especially Christian moniker has never been completely erased from European identity. That said, useful generalizations concern- ing religious America and secularist Europe can be made, and are especially important when discussing how societies perceive their role in the world and the nature of threat that they face. Acknowledgments

thank many people who helped me clarify, edit, and articulate my ideas. I I thank Drs. Pat Hanna, Mary Reddick, Kim Hudson, Don Hancock, Rebecca Oxford, Lewis Griffith, Robin Gunter, and Mike Weaver for their comments and suggestions. I especially thank Dr. Michael Allsep for his careful reading of the manuscript and the excellent assistance he offered. Drs. Giacomo Chiozza and Carol Atkinson also read the final manuscript and gave me excellent suggestions. I am very grate- ful to Dr. Andy Markovits, who was a careful and critical reader of the manuscript. His comments were extremely helpful to me in identifying the parameters of the argument. I thank Dr. Fawaz Gerges for helping me articulate the argument and for helping me bring the manuscript to the light of day. I received excellent suggestions when presenting the work in a panel paper, “Challenges to Transatlantic Security: Explaining Contrasting Constructions of Threat” at the Cross-Cultural Conflict Management Symposium, held in Washington, DC, in September 2010. I also presented ideas developed in the book under many circumstances during talks at the United Methodist Church, Montgomery, Alabama, the “Cathedral in the Pines,” and thank the thoughtful people there who listened and offered their comments and suggestions. I also appre- ciate the comments from the outside reviewers at Palgrave Macmillan. Finally, I want to thank the editors at Palgrave Macmillan for bringing the manuscript to the world, and a special thanks to Isabella Yeager for her assistance.