The Seven Disciplines of Orality

Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Edition ISSN 2324-6375 ial Spec

Madinger • Snead • Gravelle • Moon • Getz Handley • Logan • Swarr • Koch • Williams • Rye SEVEN DISCIPLINES OF ORALITY: A Holistic Model

Courtesy of Dr. Chuck Madinger who leads Global Impact Mission and serves on the International Orality Network’s Leadership Team facilitating the Research Task Force. The Word Became Fresh Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 ISBN 962-7673-26-9 ISSN 2324-6375

Cover Photo Uniskript can be traced back to 1446 when King Sejoung launched the Korean alphabet which triggered a literacy revolution in Korea. In 2002 Korean linguist Dr. Kim Cho shared her doctorate discoveries on the ancient alphabet at the University of the Nations. The basic idea was then further developed by a team of innovators from the University of the Nations. As a result, the letters were redefined and a technique created to generate new alphabets that are both attractive and relevant.

The art—visual and font creation—is all derived from within the culture, thus providing greater opportunities for natural embracement than an alphabet that might be imported from outside of one’s culture.

As we watch the development of Uniskript, which had its roots in a phonic system from the mid-1400s, we are reminded just how much the digitoral era is mimicking and borrowing from the pre-Gutenberg era. Among the gods there is none like you, Lord; no deeds can compare with yours. All the nations you have made will come and worship before you, Lord; they will bring glory to your name. For you are great and do marvelous deeds; you alone are God. Psalm 86:8—10 (NIV) The Word Became Fresh

Orality Journal is the journal of the International Orality Network. It is published online semi-annually and aims to provide a platform for scholarly discourse on the issues of orality, discoveries of innovations in orality, and praxis of effectiveness across multiple domains in society. This online journal is international and interdisciplinary, serving the interests of the orality movement through research articles, documentation, book reviews, and academic news. Occasionally, print editions will be provisioned. Submission of items that could contribute to the furtherance of the orality movement is welcomed.

Editorial Committee Editor Samuel E. Chiang Associate Editor Laurie Fortunak Nichols Assistant Editor Bill Sunderland

International Editorial/Advisory Committee Amos Aderonmu Calvin Chong Gilles Gravelle William D. Taylor Mary Verghese Hannes Wiher

Graphic Design - Cindy Morris Cover - University of the Nations (U of N) Kona, Hawaii Editorial Email: [email protected] Website: www.orality.net Your Feedback Is Very Important! We welcome your comments, questions, and suggestions! Let us hear from you. Send your feedback to: [email protected]

Please include your name and organization. Any letters or emails used may be edited and excerpted. Please keep all letters and emails to three hundred words or less.

Wish to Contribute National Christian Foundation A/C 429666 1311 Tijeras Ave. NW Albuquerque, NM USA 87102

Orality Journal Disclaimer: Articles published in Orality Journal are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the editors, or the International Orality Network.

PRINTED IN HONG KONG CONTENTS Editor’s Note...... 7 Samuel E. Chiang

A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy...... 13 Charles Madinger An exploration of the Seven Disciplines of Orality.

Culture...... 41 Durwood Snead ‘Culture’ through the lens of a mission statesman and a savvy businessman.

More Than Words: Linguistics, Language and Meaning...... 47 Gilles Gravelle What is involved when we have mental images and pictures that are uttered and spoken and then written with meaning that are contextually framed?

I Love to Learn but I Don’t Like to Read: The Rise of Secondary Oral Learning...... 55 W. Jay Moon A multi-year research showing the shift of learning preferences in the classrooms.

Improving Memory for Bible Story Content by Using a Scene-Visualization Process...... 67 Mark A. Getz Memory at work helping us to learn the story and to retell it over and over. Leader Development and Orality: A Lab on Leadership Formation in the Church of Asia ...... 75 Joseph W. Handley, Jr. A look at how participatory learning works in different networks.

The Arts: Effectively Packaging the Gospel for Oral Audiences...... 79 Erica Logan Arts is vital to the communication process; the author offers examples and provides practical ways for communities to be involved.

Media: The Mortar that Holds It Together...... 87 David Swarr and Lori Koch What is the role of media in the discipline of orality, and how does it work in church planting and disciple making?

“Mobilizing” the Story of His Glory...... 95 Keith Williams The exponential rise of mobile usage has great implications for the Church and oral preference learners.

Telling the Gospel Through Story by Christine Dillon...... 105 Tara Rye Book Review

Miraculous Movements by Jerry Trousdale...... 106 Tara Rye Book Review Orality Journal 7 Editor’s Note Samuel E. Chiang More Textual / Digital Possibilities Please When my family moved to Canada as immigrants, I was in my early teens and I knew only the Roman alphabet and seven English phrases that my grandfather had taught me. On the UNESCO “illiteracy to literacy” continuum, I fitted nicely into the illiterate category as a young immigrant in Canada. On the orality continuum (see Lovejoy 2012), which includes learners from those who are exclusively oral to highly textual/digital, and who by necessity or by choice prefer to learn in an oral manner, I was and still am an oral preference learner.

As an eager immigrant, I sought to learn English with gusto. But the Roman alphabet for the English language seemed arbitrary to me, and spelling of words did not always make logical sense. It was bad enough that I could not exercise intuition in the language acquisition effort, but I was lost because logic could not be readily applied to make words and sentences. I wished there was some way in which I could see the link between sound, symbols, and the writing system, so that I could progress along the UNESCO literacy continuum a little quicker.

Decades later, I believe there is now an in-between system which will move people more quickly into textual and language acquisition. The developers of this innovative system call this Uniskript©.1

While working on her doctoral studies in linguistics, Ms. Sek Yen Kim- Cho discovered the applicability of the Korean Hangeul alphabet system (see http://sejong-nurigle.com/). This system was developed by King Sejong (1397-1450), and put into place in 1446 for the Korean people (see page 3 of http://sejong-nurigle.com/uploads/14_Nurigle_Project_ Proposal.pdf ). Innovators used the principles of the Hanguel system and developed Uniskript.

Uniskript is developed from a set of proto-symbols: a rectangle representing the lips; a triangle representing the tip of the tongue; one to three lines representing how wide the mouth opens for the generation of vowel sounds, and so on. Whereas the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA, 8 Samuel E. Chiang http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/) covers all phones (the sounds possible within human language), Uniskript2 is fitted to each language as it is developed, only covering the relevant phonemes (sounds possible within a specific language).

The difference between the Roman alphabet and Uniskript may be comparable to that of varying symbols used on public restrooms. Consider two washroom doors, the symbol ♂ on one and ♀ on the other. Most people will consider it common knowledge that the first symbol signals male gender and the second signals female gender, but these signs are completely arbitrary and perhaps difficult to remember. In fact, these symbols are created based on a high acquisition of literacy skills. On the other hand, one door with the icon of a man and another door with the icon of a woman in a skirt would be more intuitive (across most cultures), because the symbol corresponds directly to what it represents.

Uniskript is not meant to replace any already-existing alphabet; it is simply meant to introduce literacy in a variety of settings.

What Are the Applications of Uniskript, and Where Is It Going? The innovators are already launching test trials, academic experiments, and scalable study groups to implement Uniskript into different domains. Consider the following.

Reading. Uniskript can be used as an introduction to reading, because it helps people see the correlation between symbol and sound. Uniskript teaches symbols (icons) that correspond to symbols (phones) in a way that makes sense. This process is called iconophonological or icono- featural. Uniskript is unique in that a visual translates directly to sound. Furthermore, the art—visual and font creation—is all derived from within the culture, thus providing greater opportunities for natural embracement than an alphabet that might be imported from outside of one’s culture. The implications for oral preference learners are huge, including those who are highly textual/digital.

Children. Children sometimes have difficulty learning to read because the Roman alphabet is arbitrary, providing no intuitive connection between sound and symbol. Uniskript can accelerate the reading process by making Orality Journal 9 a clear visual representation of how and where sounds are made. Children then understand how an alphabet represents sounds. Can we dream of what might be possible with biblical literacy?

Dyslexia. Current focus group studies and trials in the English language, it is already demonstrating that the deployment of Uniskript as a tool to introduce the concept of an alphabet to a child produces different outcomes. The alphabet avoids any mirror images that might create confusion as to what sound is meant to be produced. More scalable studies are now underway to see how individuals with dyslexia will function better with Uniskript.

Apraxia. Speech therapists handing cases of children apraxia (difficulties in handing motor movements involving facial muscles) and adult apraxia due to trauma are teaching patients how to speak through Uniskript.

Deafness. The advancement of technology is so great that hearing devices implemented into the ears can now help people who are born deaf to “hear”—but how do they pronounce words after years of inactivity in the muscle formation of sounds and words? Uniskript is deployed to help formerly deaf people to recognize facial muscle formation and how sounds can be made and words can form.

Lack of space precludes me from discussing the Uniskript digital input system, and ultimately, the Uniskript contribution to shell books (www. shellbooks.org) through crowd-sourcing.

This fledging system will need to be reviewed by many others (an intensive process which has already begun), and if proven fruitful, will take time to gain acceptance. If this happens, it may present a fresh hope for the 1.6 billion adults who are excluded from the opportunity of reading scripture for themselves.

As I watch the development of Uniskript, which had its roots in a phonic system from the mid-1400s, I am reminded just how much the digitoral era is mimicking and borrowing from the pre-Gutenberg era.

This issue of the Orality Journal is a special one; not only do we celebrate our one-year anniversary, but also the articles are keyed off from the anchor 10 Samuel E. Chiang piece by Chuck Madinger. He provides both scale and scope of coverage in “A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy.” Then, we include an aspect of each of the disciplines of orality—culture (Snead), language (Gravelle), literacy (Moon), memory (Getz), networks (Handley), arts (Logan), and media (Swarr, Koch, and the ION Audio Scripture Engagement team). Keith Williams was gracious to provide digital and mobile interests and implications for oral-preference learners. Tara Rye provided reviews on two excellent books that are now being translated into multiple languages.

As promised in the last issue, the labs on adaptive changes are here—in print, it is covered by Joe Handley (covering network and participatory learning in leaders development), and online, the blog (www.orality.net/ blog) by Jennifer Giezendanner (describing the acceptance process of Bible storying in a cross-cultural organizational environment).

Finally, we are in for a special treat, as each of the writers of the “Seven Disciplines of Orality” are also the presenters at this year’s ION conference. What they have written is also mediated audibly into what they shall say and what we shall hear.

On the Journey Together,

Samuel E. Chiang From Johannesburg, South Africa Orality Journal 11

1 The developers of this system have filed patents globally. 2 A simplified description of the process for developing Uniskript for a language involves a few steps: 1.) First, the phonemes of a language must be determined; if certain phonemes do not exist within a language, there is no need to develop extra symbols for it. 2.) A team is sent to collaborate with indigenous speakers of the language in order to determine how the proto-symbols may be adapted in a way that is relevant to their culture and art—sometimes images and shapes that are significant within a culture may be incorporated into the Uniskript alphabet. This creates a connection between the people and this new alphabet as well as the shape of the symbol and the mouth. 3.) Once symbols are decided on, an artist finalizes them, ensuring their aesthetics. 4.) A font is developed.

Reference Lovejoy, Grant. 2012. “The Extent of Orality.” Orality Journal 1(1): 11-39. 12 A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 13 A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy Charles Madinger Chuck Madinger has spent 27 years in missional vocational ministry and serves universities and seminaries teaching in the US and abroad. He has launched three mission and consulting organizations, helping to reach the Oral Majority with partners in over 20 countries, and is now completing a second doctorate in communication at the University of Kentucky. A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy | Part 1 Thomas Cahill described a few of art we now call books. That eras as hinges of history when portal took us into the Gutenburg doors opened that changed the Galaxy (McLuhan 1962) and a course of the world—like the epic world defined by textuality. But of The Gifts of the Jews (How a as Thomas Pettit describes, it was Tribe of Desert Nomads Changed more of a “Gutenberg Parenthesis” the Way Everyone Thinks and or an interruption in the broader Feels) or When the Irish Saved arc of human communication. Civilization. It’s not like the world He says that we are now, via the was transported (beamed over) to discursive architecture of the web, a new era. That took some time in slowly returning to a state in which the making. What was certain was orality—conversation, gossip, the that no culture would go untouched ephemeral—defines our media by these cataclysmic changes. Some culture (Garber 2010).1 eras were more than hinges. They were more like portals from one It led to a world of the Digitoral galaxy to the next, where those Galaxy, and left us with the drawn through the gateway could challenge of sharing a planet never really come back. where people function in all three dimensions: orality, textuality, and Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden digitorality. The digitoral age was zum Gutenberg (now you know exemplified in Jonah Sachs’ Story why we know him by last name Wars this way: “Ideas today are only) gets credit for opening one never fixed: they’re owned and of those portals from a world modified by everyone. They move where in the 15th century more through networks at the will of than 90% of the people on the their members and without that planet could not read, and only activity, they die.”2 Curiously, the wealthy possessed the works Sachs doesn’t see this as a new 14 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger phenomenon, but rather a return thought, reflection, and research. to the good old days, when stories The Holistic Model of Orality (see were passed from one person to the box on right) is not meant to be a next in the grand oral tradition. formula or even a formal theory. “In the broadcast era, access was The disciplines simply describe power. And we developed all these and relate to true research and the bad habits when distribution was academic disciplines that should in the hands of a few. But now inform and guide the steps of our storytelling matters again” (Barrett missiological strategies and any 2012), and it’s coming digitally program or curriculum we hope to through Facebook to Ning. use among oral-preference learners as we move through the next portal Please, hear this article, do not into the digitoral age. simply read it. The style even betrays my academic fraternity, so For now, let’s take a mental voyage don’t look for or take up the word- to West Africa to work on a project smithing tendencies that I normally with seasoned media professionals. do when reading a journal, because Here you are working to produce this is not intended to be an a major program addressing your academic stake in the ground that key subject matter. The group once and for all defines orality already understands their task for the missiological world. It’s of developing the agreed upon not a theological apologetic for 13 episodes, and begins their the eternal nature of God and conversation around the table. our image-bearing dynamic of language producing, culture “OK, let’s get to writing some generating, speaking things into scripts, and then start revising existence that were not before. It’s them together,” says one of not a promotion of orality-framed the university-educated media methodologies like Bible storying, specialists. The veteran called in audio, or visual recordings. Finally, to supervise the project stops them it’s not a prescriptive for engaging and redirects the process. “No, the Holy Spirit in our call to don’t leave yet. We need to stay at persuade the world to conversion the table together and talk through and spiritual formation processes.3 each episode. Then, you can go write it down.” That’s another What the next few pages are process—one driven by orality, meant to be is a call for further not textuality. A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 15

Orality is simply the ways and means of communicating orally with either a preference over textuality (print) or to the exclusion of it. In purposes of mission, orality can be defined as “a complex of how oral cultures best receive, process, remember, and replicate (pass on) news, important information, and truths.”

How will our audience interpret the information we need to communicate? Who are they, and what makes them, and us, different? (Culture) How will they receive this information as relevant and applicable? What makes the good news good news to this people?

How will they readily receive the information as friendly? (Language) Does this sound like us, or is this another outsider?

Will they personally understand the information and terms? (Literacy) All too often, we want others to learn and use “our terms” so that “our message” gets traction using our well thought jargon rather than the colloquial terms of the grassroots.

What validates the message spreading it to a larger audience? (Networks) When working in primary oral cultures, who passes on information is more important than the information itself. How does that information travel through a village in order for it to be embraced, and how does it best move on to nearby neighbors?

What makes this information stick in the minds of the receivers, and will real learning take place? (Memory) The tools of cognitive psychology open passageways to store information or messages when we simply follow those learning paths.

How is the information packaged? (Arts) Most people remember a good story; they can chant back musical lyrics and sound bites from fifty years gone by, and turn on a sensation by watching a dance, or feeling the beats of drums can deliver a consistent message repeatedly so that oral learners often are transported into action.

By what method(s) is the message delivered? (Media)Nothing replaces the medium of face-to-face communication, but audience context, size, and channels have definite impacts on oral-preference learners and oral tradition cultures. Mass Media (large numbers of people massed together) creates a clear channel to send information, but lacks affinity, accountability or continuity for community action. Collective Media or Meso Media (seminars, conferences, church, or mosque gatherings) assemble people with greater affinity and some degree of accountability, but usually fall short of collective decision and action. Micro Media small face-to-face gatherings of connected people memorize whole sections after three repetitions. When all three forms are used in collaboration (mass, meso, and micro), the probability of transforming knowledge, attitudes, and practices increase dramatically. A Holistic Model of Orality. Charles Madinger, Missiology 38(2): 205 16 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

These media professionals are oral cultures best receive, process, no different than your mission remember and replicate (pass on) organization, Bible school or news, important information, and seminary, or church with oral- truths” (Madinger 2010, 204). This preference learners. We have great explains why two of my heroes messages, training, and programs, in the faith, Ray and Effie Giles, but we begin by processing in ways saw only modest growth in their and means that make more sense early work in Ethiopia (using to us than to our target audiences. somewhat modified literate ways and means) until a young farmer The veteran understands something took the gospel message he heard that most of us don’t: before in the Sunday teaching and started composing and writing takes place, singing it out in his field. When language and text are first oral. he returned to the assembly, the Jack Goody explains it this way: whole congregation sang it with “The written word does not replace him and learned it so well that speech, any more than speech other villagers heard the message replaces gesture” (Goody 1968, and believed. Other villages heard 15-16). Walter Ong says, “Oral the message in its “new song” and expression can exist and mostly believed. A movement was born. has existed without any writing at all, writing never existed without Why the term “orality”? Orality has orality” (Ong 1982, 8). Writing been around for centuries, and used down our thoughts is important, but throughout multiple disciplines of what precedes the writing is more study, but it’s unfamiliar to a lot important than the writing itself, of people. It is similar to how we and that is especially critical when became accustomed to using the working with oral tradition cultures word “cancer”, which Hippocrates and oral-preference learners. coined around 400 BC from the Greek word for “crab” to describe What Is Orality—and Why Is ulcerations and growths—carcinos It Important? and carcinoma.4 Cancer is a term The dictionary states that orality used across every discipline. Orality is a reliance upon spoken, enjoys that same broad use across rather than written, language disciplines. for communication. For our purposes in mission, orality can Orality, as a topic of discussion be defined as “a complex of how and debate, played on the stage A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 17

as early as when Plato argued for with no written language, moving completely to textuality, and secondary orality, and Socrates insisted on the value where electronic text and of what we now call oral literature communication media emerge passed down in songs like those of from reading literacy skills Homer (e.g., the Iliad, with famous • In more anthropological terms, metered lines like, “Give me a as oral tradition cultures place to stand and I will move the juxtaposed to lettered tradition earth”). Old and New Testament cultures (see Figure 1), as will scholars have long emphasized be discussed in the descriptive the oral nature of scripture and discipline of literacy its teachings. The Bible as we know it LETTERED ORAL CULTURES CULTURES did not even exist Literary COMMUNICATION Oral for the masses until the last 300 years or Institutional LIFESTYLE Communal so, and the “first Individualism TIME AND SPACE Individualized Groups churches” passed GRATIFICATION along the stories Deferred Immediate and apostolic Linear LIFE PERSPECTIVE Circular teaching primarily Individually LEARNING Group Oriented PATTERNS Oriented by orality, not textuality (the Word is not the LEXICON Word is the “thing” “thing” “early churches” Figure 1. Tendencies6 of Oral and Lettered Cultures. had used both the Adapted from Parker (1980, 45-48). oral and written approaches). Neither a dialectic nor about literacy vs. orality. We often hear As a complex5, orality is an of orality and textuality/literacy orientation of oral-preference pitted as two contradictive concepts learners, not just for oral tradition that only offer their solution, but or non-literate cultures. We can neither orality nor literacy should frame that in a number ways: be positioned in that manner. The • Reading literacy, where people thing itself, the sounded word that range from non-readers/writers represents it, the technologies that to proficient archive it (from pictures to text), • Ong’s primary orality, where and our capacities to record it are aboriginal peoples still function part of the whole. Recapturing 18 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger orality is not a mandate to abandon field of ministry. We know it is a or neglect literacy, but simply a good starting point, but experts in description of another piece of the these and other disciplines must same puzzle. The literacy vs. orality weigh in to help us design better is a biased and unhelpful dialectic tools and processes for reaching when it comes to relating to a broad oral-preference learners. We also spectrum of people in oral or even recognize the highly literate nature highly textual societies.7 In fact, of the model, but view it on the same the orality movement explicitly continuum from primary orality calls for more efforts in teaching to high textuality, and it helps us people how to read so that they conceptualize, plan, and act. can more clearly interact with the historically revealed word of God. A frame to inform our strategies At the same time, we realize that and instruction. The descriptive it typically takes 120 years for a disciplines noted in Part 2 of this primary oral culture to arrive article and the related research at 30% literacy (Slack 2003). So disciplines intended to help what do we do in the meantime? teachers and practitioners fit their And what of the fundamental message and ministries to the characteristic of our being made oral-preference learners among in the image of a God who simply whom they work. To the degree speaks to create things that were which we are willing to allow those not there before? Missiologically, disciplines to shape the message, those who promote orality also call program, or curriculum at hand for teaching literacy, the need for all is that which we allow our target believers to be able to connect with audience to receive, process, the written historical word, and remember, and pass on that training leaders who can rightly message. Not only is this biblically divide it. and theoretically grounded, but I know from experience. We field Not exhaustive. The disciplines tested it with three million people that Ong referred to and I expanded in Afghanistan, 750,000 in Sudan, with the Holistic Model by no over one million in East Africa, means represent a static or exclusive and another one million in Nigeria. taxonomy of characteristics or categories. Others may be even The problem is that we lived more applicable. Some may not immersed in the literate/Gutenberg be as relevant as others to a given Galaxy for so long that we lost A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 19 our ability to intentionally relate high, but consider the massive to the Oral Galaxy that first growth of urban slums, where we defined us. Now we must move find the lack of education among back in time in order to move parents, young children, and forward into that next galactic orphans, and the decreased value experience of digitoral realities. of reading and writing. Canada Our unconscious textuality bias so alone will see a 25% decrease in dominates our missiological and reading skills by the year 2031.8 pedagogical theory and practice That goes along with the findings that it suffocates any breath of air of James Slack (2003), who said that our oral tradition partners that 20 million people are added and oral-preference learners might to the ranks of the functionally take on their own. We eliminated non-literate every year, so that by icons from the Eastern Church, the year 2050 there will be more physical gestures from the Latin functionally non-literate people Church, rhythm and drumming than there are people living today. from African cultures, and the ties to our ancestors from our Asian This ranges from groups like the brothers and sisters. Kambari of northern Nigeria, who in one village surveyed only Why Is Orality Significant? five people out of 200 (2.5%) who At least 80% of the world cannot had any literacy skills at all. Or or will not hear and understand take Saudika, an Afghan who now our message when we communicate lives in my hometown working in in literate ways and means. These an Italian restaurant. She is the people function as oral-preference daughter of a wealthy merchant learners. We can frame that in who educated her in English as terms of reading literacy, Ong’s much as possible during the era primary orality and secondary of Taliban dominance, and who orality categories, or in more before escaping to the U.S. through anthropological terms as oral Pakistan had already born two tradition cultures juxtaposed to young daughters. Once settled lettered tradition cultures (Parker in her new home, her younger 1980, 3). daughter developed an ear infection that required medical attention. In light of the United Nations’ When the doctor prescribed the Millennium Development Goals antibiotic drops, she heard the promoting literacy, 80% sounds pharmacist’s directions, but the 20 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger dosage said “one dropper, three They don’t hear or understand our times per day.” She put one drop in message when we communicate the ears three times a day, resulting with literate ways and means. in total deafness from lack of treatment. She is not illiterate. She “Ways and means” often carries simply did not understand what she the meaning of the resources and read, and the consequences will last methods of working especially a lifetime and beyond. with budgets. The ways of collecting revenue, and the means Now translate that to our sharing of distributing it. When we use the good news. When our audience those terms in communication, we cannot receive and process the are saying that there are resources message the way we do as literate (ways) we have of packaging our thinkers, they grow deaf to the message, and methods (means) of message. We have the prescription, delivering them. but it is not followed for lack of appropriate directions. What is Our resources (ways) for our at stake? We teach in our Bible programs come in the content we schools and seminaries exclusively develop to reach people with the from our Textual Galaxy with good news or help them grow in it. residents of the Oral Galaxy, That content must connect with the and our students model our text real needs of the audience and how preferences and fail to connect scripture applies to those needs with their own people. from their perspective. The seven descriptive disciplines of orality We use evangelistic and discipleship (see Part 2 of this article) lead us to methods designed for text-oriented better package that message (ways) learners, with Western worldviews, with cultural sensitivities (culture), and we make converts who rarely put it in terms the audience can find transformation in their own relate to and understand (language worlds. Those are negative realities, and literacy), use mnemonic tools but now translate them into positives. to make sure the truth sticks Training Oral Galaxy residents using (memory). We deliver the message the principles and methods from their (means) through locally-practiced part of the universe while introducing arts, by networks of trusted them to the Textual Galaxy is seed relationships, and media forms planted in good soil. It yields a crop that reach as far as we can and as 100 times over. deeply as possible. A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 21

A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy | Part 2 e argue in this journal that The Complex of Descriptive Wthe degree to which we frame Disciplines of Orality our message for oral-preference The intent of this model is for learners and oral tradition cultures is academicians and practitioners to the degree we allow that audience to meet on common ground that may receive and process the information not precisely describe either side for the Holy Spirit to bring deeper of the coin. Take the categories understanding and conviction. This and seed thoughts from Appendix is the foundation of the descriptive 1, and begin examining your disciplines that follow. The more ministry, programs, and instruction. our audience understands, the Appendix 2 provides some definition more scripture does his work. As and examples of theories. Let Professor Russell West of Asbury me take some time to explain the Theological Seminary explains, categories in Appendix 1.

God could have used Descriptive Disciplines (informative) mathematics to communicate aid us in defining the guiding his message to the world, and principles of orality in practice by many of us would get it. The informing, describing, and helping us rest of us would simply have conceptualize orality. They are built to say, “I guess that’s just not on relationships with other disciplines for me.” People might come to in more general terms that help us get the faith because they feel the our mind around something very love of those converted through complex, yet very simple. math, and they might even begin to understand some of it on an Research Disciplines (normative) elementary level. give us the theoretical foundations and rules of engagement when But, God did not use math it comes to the field of study. symbols and equations. He used There are usually several research language symbols and utterances. disciplines within each descriptive. He spoke through the prophets Here is where we are woefully and his son (Heb. 1:1-3). Before negligent in our field work of he wrote the commandments in mission. For decades, SIL/Wycliffe stone, he spoke in Hebrew to a and others have spoken into the prophet from the tribe of Levi. issues of language and literacy. 22 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

Christian anthropologists and Use media as a limb from the some theologians attempted to field of communication. The guide us through the landmines of research disciplines branches contextualization and analyzing within media could include social networks before beginning our mass, meso, and micro-mediated work. The arts and media ministries applications. Let’s say we want to touch hearts by the millions, but we micro-cast a specific message to a relegate them as an “add-on” to our group with high affinity and high grand curricula or programs. People accountability, so we begin in that who know education try to help us part of the information tree with understand the ways people learn questions like: and how to create healthy learning • What groups of five to ten environments, and we somehow people already naturally dismiss that as not allowing the gather to share information Holy Spirit to take our content and or entertainment? do something miraculous. • Do we want to form new groups that also share a lot in common The point here is that as we integrate and are accountable to one the disciplines of orality, we will design, another living among our target implement, and practice better mission audience? Of those groups, who strategies among oral-preference needs our message? learners and oral tradition cultures. • Are there clear leaders of those groups (may well be Issues are the cascade of questions unstructured and unofficial, but that must be answered if we are to others look to for direction)? reach oral-preference learners. Each How often do they meet? Where research discipline would look like an do they meet? Do we know a information tree informing us of a gatekeeper in the group? series of questions that lead to a series • How do we deliver the message of questions that lead to questions and with what small media until we are satisfied our message or technology (cassette, DVD, program completely connects with VDC, MP3, MP4, community our audience as best we can. Orality radio, etc.)? Who owns the is the trunk, and the seven descriptive technology? Who is responsible disciplines are the limbs informed by for the technology? the branches of research disciplines • How do we close the information with multiple factors represented by loop so that we can evaluate the twigs that ultimately bear fruit. program? A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 23

Biblical Examples reinforce Following through with our example our efforts and give precedence of the Song of Moses and Miriam, for producing strategies and God knew that he could tell the instruction with a view to how people, “You need to be faithful, God designed us and the principles or you’ll face dire consequences.” behind the methods rather than But in a song we bypass logical, the example itself. If we hope to straightforward arguments and go embed something in the memory right to the heart of things. The of our group or movement, look Elaboration Likelihood Model to the example of God telling (Caciappo, Feng, Petty, Rodreguez, Moses, “Now write down for 1986) of psychology reinforces yourselves this song and teach it that and helps find creative ways to the Israelites so that it may be of engaging a message to avoid a witness for me against them” distractive thoughts. We process (Deut. 31:19). Later, we see a story messages either through a direct that permeates the whole culture as processing route or the peripheral with Saul and David: route. Direct route processing The women came out of all calls for an argument. Peripheral cities of Israel, singing and route processing goes around the dancing, to meet king Saul, with argumentation to a deeper place in tambourines, with joy, and with the heart for association. It can be instruments of music. And the used or abused so that people don’t women answered one another as think. They act, then think about it they played, and said, Saul has later and longer. slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands… Developing more effective training (1 Sam. 18:6-7) and memorable learning experiences are also aided by the Social Cognitive A succession movement had begun. Theory (formerly social learning theory of Albert Bandura) that Theoretical Grounding lies behind guides us into developing ministry all scripture and every good where people learn from and with the practice. The key is not necessarily experiences of others. Participatory reproducing practices (development communication theories show how projects, Bible story sets, schools, to get people in the grassroots to community health evangelism define the key issues they face, how plans, etc.), but knowing more of to address them, and how to decide why they succeeded. on their own solutions. 24 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

We need the insights of Lev we now really believe we have all Vygotsky’s and his Zone of Proximal the answers? Ask more people with Development, which shows how experience, get more answers to people learn when one who has less the right questions, and give your experience looks to one who has audience a better chance to really more, or Jerome Bruner’s Scaffolding hear and understand your message. Theory (Wood, Bruner, and Ross 1976, 90), which helps us take people from Let’s go back to our West African where they are in their understanding, planning session of media specialists, attitudes, and behaviors to move them and practice with those living in an to the next level. The point is that Oral Galaxy. We’re going to frame an grounding theories keep us focused entire program for an oral-preference on the essentials of how God put learner audience of widows trying to us together, and our missional learn entrepreneurial skills. We begin community needs outside voices the storyboard for each episode, speaking into our processes and charting it on the whiteboard with strategies if we are to get better at a decision tree. our work. For the culture, we select the Appling Orality to Work in the Hausa tribe and examples from Field or Classroom: An Example some female heroes of the faith Through the degree to which in Kaduna State, among the we allow these seven descriptive sub-tribe of the Nikyop (“Let’s (and other research) disciplines to reason together”), and is one of inform and guide our strategies the dialects heard in the closest and instruction, we will find major town of Kafanchan, “Kafa greater impact. We need to act as uku” (meaning, Three Legs). The if we had a 7-person design team network relationship we’ll go representing each discipline that through is with Hosea-David, the would help our planning processes. district head, living in the village The more questions they ask that of Ambam, along with the elders guide us with good counsel, the of that particular village. better we’ll connect with our oral- preference learners. Many of us We’ll be using testimonies of spent anywhere from four to 12 successful regionally-recognized years or more in formal higher Christian business women, and education seeking others to train capturing some of their messages in us for ministry and mission. Do song. The women of the village will A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 25 learn and perform these together. the totality of who we are as oral Mnemonically, we’ll add motions creatures, especially as we reach to the songs to aid the women in out to oral audiences. Having lived remembering the words about with textuality for so long, relearning running a business by biblical our orality roots may take some principles and accurately passing intentional efforts. You’ll go through them on to the next village. that same learning curve from mechanical, to awkward, to novice, To keep the biblically-grounded and eventually to unconsciously message consistent and to ensure integrating orality with expertise. they answer application questions we raise about the messages, we’ll This is a call for remembrance, be using a small media player with reflection, research, and response. internal memory for the recorded Some of us remember the days Bible translation in their heart before the Sputnik, the Russian language and an SD Card for the space program that put the first modular sessions on how to start person in space, the Apollo and grow a micro-enterprise. The program that took us to the moon end goal is to ensure the widows and bred microwaves, Velcro, have long-term income and renewed shrinking computer technologies, status in the community, and that and new languages of the emerging they will learn the program well Digitoral Galaxy. We were out of enough to take it to a nearby this world focused on new galaxies, village with many Muslim women but most of the next generations to start the program there. The will never go there or even think small listening groups with Bible- in digitoral terms. They still live centered messages may begin a in the Oral Galaxy, with primary whole church-planting movement. orality or oral tradition cultural values and practices. Conclusion For too long, we’ve lived in the Reflect on it. Living in the Oral Textuality Galaxy with little regard Galaxy is not a bad thing, it’s just for the “deeper magic”9 at work a reality. Others moving into the among us in orality. It existed before Digitoral Galaxy do not remember the universe, and will go with us what the world was like back then, into eternity (Rev. 7:9-10; 15:3ff]).10 but by a combination of creation Again, this message is not a call away design and the end of modernity, from literacy, but a call to embrace set out into the new galaxy with 26 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger a preference for oral and visual trains leaders to connect with the packaging (ways and means) of grassroots in a purely orality- their information and learning. framed perspective, and not just methodologically giving them How do we capture the best of how bible story sets to implement and God made us as oral communicators diffuse. and bring it with us in the new world? How do we connect with Respond. Make some concrete those who may never launch out plans, and let us know through to the new galaxy since they have the International Orality Network to leave previous ways and means what your plans are for present and of learning and communication future work.11 Get to International preferences behind? Orality Network-type events, read (yes read—you live in the Digitoral Research! Don’t just talk about, Galaxy), and publish new and don’t just give your self- examples of how people practice evaluated anecdotal evaluations orality—what principles seem and reports. We desperately need to make it click in that context, biblical scholars to drive the and what might be generalized theological pilings in the ground, from those experiences. We need strengthening the foundation. We seminaries and Bible schools need experts from each of the who will rethink their curricula research disciplines to inform and and accreditation to find ways correct our novice notions of what of training oral-tradition- they are spending their careers background students beyond the practicing. We need mission constraints of textuality so that organizations and churches they can actually relate what they brave enough to put their work learned back home in an orality under the research microscope context. and do some pure qualitative and quantitative investigational The hinge is swinging. As you labor. We must have collaboration enter, how will you keep connected and cooperation among schools, with the Oral Majority? What will seminaries, funding partners, and you do differently to adapt to the the mission force to do any of this new Digitoral Galaxy? What will well. Who is training the new you do to take the best of that cadre of workers who eat, breathe, new world to those who cannot and think in digitoral terms? Who get there yet? A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 27

Appendix A Disciplines of Orality

Descriptive Research Biblical Theoretical Issues Discipline Disciplines Examples Grounding Cultural How do we make Acts 14: healing Performance Anthropology sense of this for at Lystra Theory our world? Acts 15: beyond Judaism Theology The nature of Colossians God as one who 1:9-23 speaks, and that C ulture image of God in humanity. Socio- How does our John 19:26-27: Speech Act Linguistics society shape the “’Dear woman, Theory way we use our here is your language? son,’ and to the disciple, ‘Here is your mother.’”

Regional proverb spoken with meaning Applied Factors of Acts 17:16-34: Direct Method Linguistics language Athens (For Language learning. How Learning) does a language move to scripted technology? Discourse Analysis

LANGUAGE Semiotics The use of The Lord’s Triadic Signs symbols, signs, Supper and metaphors, etc. baptism Model of Text Comprehension The meaning of John 6:41: “I am words in their the bread that context came down from heaven.” Lexicography Mental John 1: THEOS Modern Dictionary: Theory of “What does that Lexicographic word really mean for this people?” 28 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

Appendix A Disciplines of Orality

Descriptive Research Biblical Theoretical Issues Discipline Disciplines Examples Grounding Language What is the Revelation 1:3: Socio-cultural Arts value of reading, “Blessed is the Model writing, listening, one who reads speaking, and the words of this viewing among prophecy, and this people? blessed are those who hear it and take to heart what is written in it.” Education/ How do we 2 Peter 3:15-16: Zone of L iteracy Literacy contextualize and “…He writes Proximal understand what the same way Development we read/hear? in all his letters, (Vygotsky) speaking in Interactive them of these Theory matters.” Cognitive How the brain Deuteronomy Elaboration Psychology receives, stores, 31:19: “Now Likelihood and retrieves write down Model information for yourselves this song and teach it to the Israelites so that it may be a witness for me against them.” Educational How we learn Acts 10: Why Social Learning Psychology and respond did Cornelius Theory

MEMORY & Behavioral in the most and his Psychology productive household Participatory learning Learning needed to hear environment? and respond collectively?

Matthew 13:3: “He told them many things in parables” A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 29

Appendix A Disciplines of Orality

Descriptive Research Biblical Theoretical Issues Discipline Disciplines Examples Grounding Sociology How people Mark 2:13-17: Socio-Ecological function Jesus calls Levi, Model for Network together who then brings Behavior Analysis him to a gathering Change The ties of his friends. of social Participatory

N etwork relationships Communication Performing Arts Ethnomusicology How does Exodus 15:19-21: Rice: Three a culture “Then Miriam Dimensions of embed its the prophetess, Ethnomusicology values in Aaron’s sister, music? took a tambourine in her hand, and all the women followed her with tambourines and dancing. Miriam sang to them: ‘Sing to the Lord, for he is highly exalted. The horse and its rider he has hurled into the sea.’” Vocal How do Psalm 150 Evolution of Instrumental we express Music A rts ourselves emotively? Dance How do I Jeremiah 31:13: Performance of “become” “Then will their Unity the message? maidens dance and be glad.” 2 Samuel 6:14: “David danced before the Lord with all his might.” Narrative, How do we Acts 7:1-50: Acts 7:1-50: Proverbs, relate truths Stephen’s “Story Stephen’s Parables, in forms of Our Fathers” “Story of Our Folktales, etc. connected Fathers” with life experiences? 30 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

Appendix A Disciplines of Orality

Descriptive Research Biblical Theoretical Issues Discipline Disciplines Examples Grounding Visual & Graphic Arts Sculpting What can Exodus 35:30: “Then Religious we make to Moses said to the Aesthetics represent the Israelites, ‘See the truth we know Lord has chosen and cannot Bezalel son of Uri, see? the son of Jur, of the tribe of Judah, and he has filled him with the spirit of God, with skill, ability and knowledge in all kinds of crafts – to make artistic designs for work in gold, silver and bronze. To cut and set stones, to work in wood and to engage in all kinds of artistic craftsmanship.’”

A rts How might 1 Chronicles 28:11: Art and Architecture our buildings “Then David gave his Worship reflect our son Solomon the plans culture and for the portico of the values? temple, its buildings, its storerooms, its upper parts, its inner rooms and the place of atonement.” Photography/ How do we Revelation 1:11-12: Christian Digital preserve the “Write on the scroll Contemplative Design images of our what you see, and Practice culture? send it to the seven churches.” . . . “I turned around to see the voice that was speaking to me.” Painting Moral Foundations of Aesthetic Judgments A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 31

Appendix A Disciplines of Orality

Descriptive Research Biblical Theoretical Issues Discipline Disciplines Examples Grounding Decorative Arts Jewelry Exodus 39:8: Form and “They fashioned Function the breast piece – the work of a skilled craftsman.” Clothing/ How do Exodus 39:1: Fashion Fashion we express “From the blue, Code our identity purple and scarlet Theory through what yarn they made we wear? woven garments for ministering in the sanctuary.

A rts They also made sacred garments for Aaron, as the Lord commanded Moses.” Martial Arts How can By design Brain based we use body learning movement theory to reinforce knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors? Communication Mass Media Reaching large Sermon on the Agenda numbers of Mount. “You have Setting people with a heard it said….but I message tell you. . .” Message Framing Joshua 8:34: “There was not a word of all that Moses had commanded M edia that Joshua did not read to the whole assembly of Israel, including the women and the children, and the aliens who lived among them.” 32 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

Appendix A Disciplines of Orality

Descriptive Research Biblical Theoretical Issues Discipline Disciplines Examples Grounding Meso-Media Reaching a Matthew 4:21: Interaction middle-sized “Jesus went Process group with a throughout Analysis message Galilee, teaching in their synagogues. . .” Micro-Media Reaching Matthew 16:13: Participatory a small “When Jesus came Communication

M edia group with to the region of a focused Caesarea Philippi, message he asked his disciples, ‘Who do people say that I am?’” A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 33

Appendix B Glossary of Termsi

Agenda Setting We have the ability to affect how people think about a topic, help organize it, and tell others what to think about. What are the important issues to talk about? Through repeated exposure to a message (priming), the public agrees with that agenda (public agenda), which may then lead to setting a policy agenda and ultimately cultural change. www.youtube.com/watch?v=nLqOIeS6gX8 Brain-based Orchestrated immersion, i.e., creating learning environments that Learning fully immerse students in an educational experience. Relaxed Theory alertness, i.e., trying to eliminate fear in learners, while maintaining a highly challenging environment. Active processing, i.e., allowing the learner to consolidate and internalize information by actively processing it. www.funderstanding.com/brain/brain-based-learning/#sthash. D0JsA8Ry.dpuf and www.ascd.org/publications/books/104013/ chapters/movement-and-learning.aspx Direct Method Language is best learned by directly listening to and engaging in conversation versus learning grammar and vocabulary in rote exercise (Brown 1987). www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvtR0WI4ukc Elaboration Persuasion can change or form attitudes via one of two routes: the Likelihood Central Route (high elaboration) processes arguments with careful Model scrutiny, while the Peripheral Route (low elaboration) relies on credibility of the message and its presentation, as well as internal connection with it (Petty and Cacciopo 1986). changingminds.org/explanations/theories/elaboration_likelihood. htm Evolution of While much of this field is Darwinian, it does speak to the place Music of music in cultures through the ages. “Today, music still serves the function of demarcating personal and group space, creating social cohesion, arousing to action and just pure enjoyment. Because of its ability to reawaken and allow us to re-experience primeval survival emotions, music is also cathartic and therapeutic” (Levman 2000). evolution of modern music; Greece to Renaissance ; A digitoralist commentary Formative How people historically construct, socially maintain, and Processes in individually create music through analytic procedures (Rice 1987). Music www.eltingo.org/images/Theories%20of%20Ethnomusicology.pdf Model of Text We create representations in our mind of new words (vocabulary) Comprehension that relate to our own experiences. People who have a preconceived notion and need for that item better remember the word (Kintsch 1998). psycnet.apa.org/?fa=main.doiLanding&doi=10.1037/0033- 295X.95.2.163 34 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

Appendix B Glossary of Termsi Fashion Code Davis concludes that it is better to consider fashion as a code and not as a language, but a code that includes expression of such fundamental aspects of an individual as age, sex, status, occupation, and interest in fashion (Davis 1992). angelasancartier.net/theories-of-fashion Interaction Here, we analyze the contributions of group members in four Process general categories: (1) social emotional positive contributions, (2) Analysis social emotional negative contributions, (3) attempted answers, and (4) questions. By analyzing each group member, we can determine how to better engage each person relationally or move toward a collective task. Message This relates to Agenda Setting and how we structure and organize Framing a message so that it gives cues about how to understand the content about any issue. We can show either flattering or complementary pictures of someone or something, our choice of language, or even tone of voice used to frame how others perceive them. www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPqA07apDsk Form and The form and function of jewelry in most cultures with long Function history helps identify not only the affiliation, but status role in the community. But for more than adornment, jewelry is wealth to be displayed or bartered. www.contemporary-african-art.com/african-jewelry.html#sthash. Dmd6UKqJ.dpbs Generative There rules (a grammar) for generating music that include: (1) Music Theory grouping structure, i.e., any contiguous sequence of pitch events, drum beats, or the like can constitute a group; (2) metrical structure, i.e., “Every beat at a given level must also be a beat at all smaller levels present at that point in that piece”; (3) the smallest level of beat defines the time span; and (4) there is a single event in the underlying grouping structure. electro-music.com/forum/phpbb-files/ replygenerativetheorytonalmusic_156.pdf Modern Dictionaries (even mental dictionaries) are utility products for Theory of collective understanding (Bergenholtz and Tarp 2003). Lexicology The concept of’dictionary usage, 130.241.35.204/ojs/index.php/njes/article/viewFile/231/228 Moral Addressing the question of why the pursuit of truth is no longer Foundations acceptable in academic circles even though it has been intrinsic to the purpose of art at most times and in most cultures. Without the pursuit of truth, of some degree of knowledge of what is true and good, the humanities necessarily lack intellectual and cultural grounding and purpose (Pontynen 2006). A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 35

Appendix B Glossary of Termsi Oral-preference These are people who “can’t, don’t, or won’t” read to receive Learners information and truth. They may live in a literate culture, but cannot read. They may be literate, but will not read since they prefer electronic media sources with high use of audio and visual presentation. www.mnnonline.org/article/16415 Oral Tradition Cultures from Appalachia and Native Americans to the Cultures Australian Aborigines that value oral forms of communication and information archiving over literate. Their use of narrative, proverbs, song, genealogy, visual art, etc. with collective memory and processing are highly relational even as textuality spreads to and permeates their societies. fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-925778-7.pdf Participatory Participatory communication engages the people we hope to help Communication at a level where they aid in defining the issues and participate in the decisions for solutions. It differs from “diffusion type communication,” where we take our message to other, and get them to agree to our definition of the problems and embrace the solutions we provide. Transformation is much more likely when communication comes from the bottom up rather than top down. web.idrc.ca/openebooks/066-7/ Performance In an oral tradition we need to look at the non-literal meaning Theory of the words as they are spoken or “performed”, and see the communication performance as an event rather than simply a technology (Bauman 1974). www.faculty.de.gcsu.edu/~mmagouli/performance.htm Performance of The performance of art forms (in this case, dance) help define the Unity collective identity of a cultural group (Mendoza 2000). books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=z_TsK7LKCi0C&oi=fnd&pg= PR9&dq=Performance+of+unity:+dance&ots=cPfBL8XPFH&sig= wN254ri5jO_TuJ5KnSEoCtYAKOc#v=onepage&q=Performance%20 of%20unity%3A%20dance&f=False Social Individuals learn from watching other people in action. Cognitive Implications of this theory come into play when we reach people Theory that others watch for an example. Cornelius was well respected, and his family followed what they saw in him (Bandura 1977). www.youtube.com/watch?v=OMBlwjEoyj4 Social In order to understand human development, the entire ecological Ecological system in which growth occurs needs to be taken into account Theory from the person outward to those closest, to the community, to the culture, and the society (Bronfenbrenner 1977). www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/overview/social- ecologicalmodel.html 36 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

Appendix B Glossary of Termsi

Sociocultural Reading and writing as we learn language in a literate culture Model is an autonomous activity that produces cognitive skills. In an oral culture we learn in social environments dependent upon one another, and we produce social achievement (Goody 1984). Speech Act When you state / say / utter something, the act of speaking those Theory particular words within your culture makes a declaration. Jesus makes an utterance act: “As the Father has sent me, I am sending you.” With your shared understanding of his words, he is now making a propositional act (he is sending you). The message is an “illocutionary act,” because it makes you interpret the offer as an invitation. If you accept and affirm this statement (even non- verbally), he completed a successful “perlocutionary act” by your acceptance. Here is where knowing culture is essential (Littlejohn and Foss 2011). https://sites.google.com/a/sheffield.ac.uk/all-about-linguistics/ branches/pragmatics/example-research-speech-act-theory Textuality The quality or use of language characteristic of written works as opposed to spoken usage (Oxford Dictionary). More so, it includes the very transition from hearing a word to recording it (Dressler 1986). Seven Standards of Textuality Transportation The theory suggests that enjoyment can benefit from the Theory experience of being immersed in a narrative world, as well as from the consequences of that immersion. Consequences implied by transportation theory include connections with characters and self- transformations (Green, Brock, and Kaufman 2006). onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00317.x/ abstract Triadic A sign, an object, and a meaning—all three elements form a Symbols triangle of meaning. The sign represents the object, or referent, in the mind of an interpreter. A cross, the word itself (sign)— the word is not the actual cross, it merely symbolizes one (the object) that has a meaning of execution to the first-century Jew (Parmentier 1985). Zone of In order for learning to happen through social connect with three Proximal concentric circles, we begin with the learner and what he or she can Development do on his or her own without help. We have a learning goal of what he or she cannot yet do (outer circle). The middle circle represents what he or she can do with assistance and some direction (Vygotsky 1978). www.youtube.com/watch?v=rX8lRh1u5iE

iReferences in this appendix are listed in the full reference list at the end of Madinger’s main article. A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 37

1See Megan Garber in the web article, http://www.niemanlab.org/2010/04/the-gutenberg- parenthesis-thomas-pettitt-on-parallels-between-the-pre-print-era-and-our-own-internet-age/ 2We need to constantly revisit this term and concept, and publish more research and practices that navigate this new course. See especially the Editor’s Note from the first and second issues of the Orality Journal. 3For more on these topics, read some of the experiences of Jim Slack, Rich Brown, Wayne Dye, Avery Willis, Mark Snowden, Grant Lovejoy, and the new pioneers of this renaissance (bibleandmission.redcliffe.org/resources/bible-and-orality/ ). 4See example, www.bordet.be/en/presentation/history/cancer_e/cancer1.htm 5Think of a school campus, corporate office buildings, or industrial areas. Every building houses some type of specialized function, but they collectively produce something much bigger. As a complex, the disciplines of orality do just that. 6These are not typologies, but tendencies and preferences that can be culturally learned but affect cognitive development. 7James Gee (1986, 719) points out that rather than thinking in previous dichotomies of oral/literate, literate/non-literate, civilized/primitive, and restricted literacy/full literacy, we see literacy as necessarily plural. There are different kinds of literacy. 8http://www.ccl-cca.ca/ccl/Reports/ReadingFuture/LiteracyLevels.html 9Used in the sense of C.S. Lewis with reference to the plan set in motion before time began for Aslan to sacrifice himself and take on the guilt of one condemned. Similarly, God gave us a power to connect at a much deeper level that could lead to transformation of those redeemed. 10http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JtRmWb1YhQE 11Please do contact us at [email protected] (research task force) or www.orality. net/contactus

References Angelasancritier. http://angelasancartier.net/theories-of-fashion

Ayres, Barbara. 1973. “Effects of Infant Carrying Practices on Rhythm in Music.” Ethos 1: 387-404.

Bales, Robert. 1950. Interaction Process Analysis: A Method for the Study of Small Groups. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Bandura, Albert. 2004. “Social Cognitive Theory for Personal and Social Change by Enabling Media.” In Entertainment-Education and Social Change. Eds. Singhal, Arvind, M. Cody, Everett Rogers, and M Sabido. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 75-96.

Barrett, Victoria. 2012. “3 Golden Rules of Successful Storytelling in the Social Era.” Forbes: August.

Bauman, Richard. 1974. “Verbal Art as Performance.” American Anthropologist. 77(2): 290-311.

Bergenholtz, Henning and Sven Tarp. 2003. “Two Opposing Theories: On H.E. Wiegand’s Recent Discovery of Lexicographic Functions.” Journal of Linguistics 31. http://130.241.35.204/ojs/index.php/njes/article/viewFile/231/228 38 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

Bessette, Guy. 2004. Involving the Community: A Guide to Participatory Development Communication. International Research Development Center. http://web.idrc.ca/ openebooks/066-7/

Brandt, Deborah. 2001. Literacy in American Lives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bronfenbrenner, Uri. 1977. “Toward an Experimental Ecology of Human Development.” American Psychologist 32: 515-531.

Brown, H. Douglas. 1995. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Bruner, Jerome. 1977. The Culture of Education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Caciappo, John, Feng Kao, Richard Petty, and Regina Rodreguez. 1986. “Central and Peripheral Routes of Persuasion.” Journal of Personal and Social Psychology 51(5): 1032-1043

Carter, Alexandra. 2005. “London 1908: A Synchronic View of Dance History. Dance Research.” The Journal of the Society for Dance Research 23(1): 36-50.

Centers for Disease and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/overview/ social-ecologicalmodel.html

Chiang, Samuel. 2012. “Editor’s Note.” Orality Journal 1(1): 7-9.

_____. 2013. “Editor’s Note.” Orality Journal 2(1): 7—10.

Contemporary African Art. http://www.contemporary-african-art.com/african-jewelry. html#sthash.Dmd6UKqJ.XBYFtYYe.dpbs

Davis, F. Fashion. 1992. Culture and Identity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Dressler, Wolfgang U. 1981. An Introduction to Text Linguistics. London: Longman.

Finnegan, Ruth. 2003. “Orality and Literacy: Epic Heroes of Human Destiny?” International Journal of Learning 10: 1551–1560.

Funderstanding. http://www.funderstanding.com/brain/brain-based-learning/

Garzone, Giuliana. 2005. ‘The Seven Standards of Textuality.’ www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&ved= 0CFgQFjAH&url=Http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lincom.unimi.it%2Fmateriale 0910%2FHandout_2.doc&ei=PE3GUYWIMInQygGl2ICoCQ&usg=AFQj CNHnrAZN1NUy5AUg8CQitEfz61T0ng&sig2=CbYbp0lRNHzUf3jgcr_ FYg&bvm=bv.48293060,d.aWc&cad=rja

Gee, James Paul. 1986. “Orality and Literacy: From the Savage Mind to Ways with Words.” TESOL Quarterly 20(4): 719-746.

Goggin, Peter N. 2008. Professing Literacy in Composition Studies. Cresskill, N.J.: Hampton Press. A Literate’s Guide to the Oral Galaxy 39

Goody, Jack, ed. 1968. Literacy in Traditional Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gordon, Alan D. 2004. A Survey of the Development of the Theories of Ethnomusicology From 1955 TO 2003: From “Sciencing about Music” To “People Experiencing Music.” http://www.eltingo.org/images/Theories%20of%20Ethnomusicology.pdf

Green, Melanie, Timothy Brock, and Geoff Kaufman. 2004. “Understanding Media Enjoyment: The Role of Transportation into Narrative Worlds.” Communication Theory 14(4): 311–327.

Jackendoff, Ray and Fred Lerdahl. 1981. "Generative Music Theory and Its Relation to Psychology." Journal of Music Theory 25(1):45–90. Kintsch, Walter. 1998. Comprehension: A Paradigm for Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lerdahl, Fred, and Ray Jackendoff. 1985. ‘A Reply to Peel and Slawson's Review of "A Generative Theory of Tonal Music"’. Journal of Music Theory 29, no. 1 (Spring, 1985): 145-160. electro-music.com/forum/phpbb-files/replygenerativetheorytonalmusic_156.pdf

Levman, B. 2000. ”Western Theories of Music Origin, Historical and Modern.” Musicae Scientiae Fall 4(2): 185-211.

Madinger, Charles. 2010. “Coming to Terms with Orality: A Holistic Model.” Missiology: An International Review 38(2): 201-213.

Magoulick, Mary. ‘Fieldwork / Ethnography and Performance Theory. http://www.faculty. de.gcsu.edu/~mmagouli/performance.htm

McGee, Lea M. and Donald J. Richgels. 2000. Literacy’s Beginnings: Supporting Young Readers and Writers. Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

McLuhan, Marshall. 1962. The Gutenberg Galaxy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Mendoza, Zoila S. 2000. Shaping Society through Dance: Mestizo Ritual Performance in the Peruvian Andes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Olson, David R. and Nancy Torrance. eds. 2009. The Cambridge Handbook of Literacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ong, Walter. 2002. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. 1982. London: Routledge.

Parker, William. 1980. “Cultural and Academic Stress Imposed on Afro-Americans: Implications for Educational Change.” Princeton: E.R.I.C. #ED134646. www.eric.ed.gov.

Peirce, Charles S. 1906. “Prolegomena to an Apology for Pragmatism.” The Monist 16(4): 492–546.

Pontynen, Arthur. 2006. For the Love of Beauty: Art History and the Moral Foundations of Aesthetic Judgment. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. 40 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Charles Madinger

Rice, Timothy. 1987. “Toward the remodeling of ethnomusicology.” Ethnomucicology 31(3):469-488.

Sachs, Jonah. 2012. Winning the Story Wars. Boston: Harvard Business Review.

Slack, James. 2003. Introduction to Orality. The International Orality Network Conference Workshop. Dallas, TX.

Straker, Dave. Changingminds.org. http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/ elaboration_likelihood.htm

Stuckey, Elspeth. 1991. The Violence of Literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

The University of Sheffield. https://sites.google.com/a/sheffield.ac.uk/all-about-linguistics/ branches/pragmatics/example-research-speech-act-theory

Van Dijk, Teun A. and Walter Kintsch. 1983. Strategies of Discourse Comprehension. New York: Academic Press.

Vygotsky, Lev Semyonovich. 1962. Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

_____. 1978. Mind and Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wiles, Jerry. ‘Seven Billion People, 4.9 Billion are Oral Learners.’ 1 November 2011. Mission Network News. http://www.mnnonline.org/article/16415

Wood, David, Jerome S. Bruner and Gail Ross. 1976. “The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 17: 89-100.

Youtube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvtR0WI4ukc

_____. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XC6TlS41DNM

_____. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNTP9rYh3Hk

Zhu, Jian-Hua and Deborah Blood. 1997. “Media Agenda-Setting Theory: Telling the Public What to Think About.” In Emerging Theories of Human Communication. Ed. Banislav Kovacic, 88-114. Albany, NY: Suny Press. Culture 41 Culture Durwood Snead Durwood heads the international work of North Point Ministries in Alpharetta, GA. There he leads a worldwide ministry that mobilizes thousands, helping children at risk and creating churches that are effective at reaching their cultures. Durwood travels extensively, teaching and strategizing with ministries around the world. Before joining North Point in 2001, Durwood spent 26 years in business, including executive assignments at CMD Group and AC Nielsen. He is a graduate of the University of Richmond and has an MBA from the College of William and Mary in Virginia. Durwood and his wife Judi have five children and nine grandchildren (so far). A Story n East Africa, there was a nomadic you go? What are some of your Iand quite remote people group. biggest challenges? How do you Some African evangelists and communicate? This pastor went to pastors had been working among a village gathering and watched and these people for years bearing very listened. He noticed the people would little fruit. Because the people had gather in groups and begin telling so few visitors, they would assemble stories. The stories were animated, and listen to African pastors dressed with people partially acting them in suits and ties, preach to them, and out, sometimes breaking into song go through the Bible verse by verse. as they passionately wove their They listened the best they could tales capturing the rapt attention and went back to their villages and of everyone in the group. After the huts. Over time, only women came story was done, they would discuss to these meetings and even they it. By the end of the session, they had seemed to do so out of obligation thoroughly digested the story and or the novelty of having an outsider anyone in the group could recount it. visit. But they were not responsive to the messages they heard and did not After observing for quite a while, seem to engage with the speaker. the new African pastor began asking more questions about the One day, a new African pastor challenges these people dealt with came, gathered a few villagers and how they handled them. He together, and began asking them learned they were a nomadic people about their village. Who are who raised goats and followed the you? What do you do? Where do water, wherever it was. But he also 42 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Durwood Snead learned that they believed some of belonging, familiarity, and peace. things that were not true. For Culture can be one of the glorious instance, they believed that all water manifestations of the diversity was the same and that it should be and complexity of God’s creation. withheld if someone had diarrhea. The beauty of music, the colors They also believed they should of apparel, the stimulating tastes marry their daughters off early to and aromas of food from different ensure they get a husband. Many cultures around the world prime were suffering from malaria, but our senses and delight our souls. had no idea where it came from. Spiritually, these people believed Cultural anthropologists tend to that there were two gods who study culture, appreciate its beauty, created everything and demanded and celebrate its uniqueness. sacrifice from everyone. Sometimes, however, a closer look at a culture reveals lies people believe It became apparent to this new that are destructive to them physically, pastor that Satan had deceived mentally, and spiritually. Beliefs these people into believing many determine actions and actions have lies. However, the only teaching consequences. These consequences they were receiving did not deal can be deadly. We live in a broken with the lies and was done in a world and often the glory of diversity way that did not resonate at all is tainted by cultural customs that with they way they communicated can be as extreme as child sacrifice. with each other. The pastors who had come to this group had not God Using Culture found the key to unlocking their After humanity’s rebellion hearts and minds. This new pastor, thousands of years ago, God however, was discovering some ordered divisions to occur in the clues and his ministry among them population of the earth, causing became dramatically different. people to speak many languages. It is amazing how multiple languages Culture—What Is It? can be spoken by hundreds of Culture is what defines our “tribe,” people groups on one island like our group of people that have New Guinea. But what if God, similar education levels, beliefs, ever pursuing men and women, customs, dress, music, language, created all of these people groups and communication methods. as part of a strategy to bring people Culture connects us, gives us a sense to himself? Culture 43

God knew that the population of best interests at heart. Satan uses the world would grow dramatically illiteracy to keep people in bondage and it would be increasingly to lies that can destroy them and difficult to bring the truth to almost cause them to lose hope. seven billion people scattered over the earth. Purposely dividing these But when the culture is studied and people into nations and people engaged, when customs, methods groups gives us direction in how of communication, and physical to bring them the truth. needs are examined, the keys to unlocking hearts appear. Culture becomes the key to unlocking the hearts of people In the story above, the new all over the world. Studying it pastor learned that this people illuminates strategies ordained by group communicated through God to reach people in their own animated stories that also included setting. The characteristics of impromptu singing. The pastor people groups vary widely. But most then examined some of the lies groups that have never heard the the people believed about water, truth, commonly called unreached illness, malaria, and even raising groups, have several characteristics their own children. He developed in common. They are: content that addressed those issues • Poor and began delivering it in the story/ • Uneducated drama/song methodology that he • Very connected to their tribe or had observed. The people actively group responded to this new method of • Easily deceived, controlled, and communication, embracing the manipulated truths as they tried them out. This • Oral communicators led the group to ask for stories from scripture about creation, original They cannot be reached with sin, God’s love, and the Redeemer, traditional print communication, all presented in the familiar format. even in their own languages, because they cannot read. This Revival broke out. Men began characteristic makes them quite coming to meetings for the first time susceptible to all kinds of lies. in years. Churches assembled under Their sources of information are trees—many grew to the point what they hear from others and where they needed bigger trees. the others may not have their Pastors that had been ministering 44 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Durwood Snead in the area began changing their Urbanization and civil war are causing methodology of preaching to the people to flock to cities or adjoining story/drama/song format and they countries for jobs, opportunities, and too began to see greater results. safety, bringing previously difficult to reach people to city metropolises, where What God Is Up to Today they are much more readily accessible. This is the most exciting time in history to be alive. It is astounding Social media is connecting people and to observe how fast God is drawing sharing ideas on a geometric scale. people to himself. College students today have more in common with college students from God is disrupting the world, causing other countries than they do with people who were captivated by previous generation from their own generations of erroneous beliefs to countries. Target marketing allows be open to new ways of looking at those meeting a very specific metric the world and God. Political upheavals description to be targeted with specific in the Arab world are causing many messaging at a low cost. For example, for traditional Islamists to become just a few dollars a Facebook message disenfranchised with their governments like a quote from Jesus can be sent and to turn from Islam to atheism or to millions who describe themselves to look for alternative belief systems. as “loving the prophet Mohammed” and the response is immediate. The Culture is changing radically and trickle down effect of these ideas on rapidly. The first time I went to China oral learners is profound. in 2002 most men over the age of 50 were wearing the traditional attire Cell phone technology is radically of the communist era—matching changing the landscape even among pants, shirt, and cap. A couple of those who are poor. While there years later I saw that khaki pants are five billion cell phone accounts had replaced the traditional dress. in the world today, it is estimated Within five years, men over 50 dressed that 90% of the world will have a very much like men of the same age smart phone by 2020, establishing a in the U.S.—even wearing baseball communication “channel” with oral caps. The introduction of Western learners that has never existed before. fashion ideas through international business took a culture that had Engaging with what God Is Doing existed for decades and changed it There are a number of things we can do in less than ten years. to engage with what God is doing today. Culture 45

Study the culture, embrace it, and use A friend in Afghanistan told me it. In Acts 17, the Apostle Paul was in of a prominent villager who had Athens. Scripture tells us that Paul was come to be a follower of Jesus. getting upset with all the idols in the He visited a small church with city. As he engaged with the people his entire family—six wives and and asked questions, he attracted a host of children. Suddenly, the attention and was eventually asked “husband and wife” issue became to speak publicly. He used things about less important than this entire the culture to bring his message. Seeing family becoming followers of Jesus. an inscription to an unknown God, Paul said, “Let me tell you who he is,” Don’t confuse culture with tradition. and proceeded to give them a gospel While culture may be radically presentation in their own culture. changing, traditions are parts of a culture that are clung to because God has created each culture in a they are familiar. This is frequently unique way and we must study it to observed generationally. Culture is a make the gospel as relevant to that bit like the wind—it shifts one way culture as we can. We should address and then another. It can be feared issues important to them, do so in because it is different, or it can be familiar ways, and use every contextual embraced, harnessed, and used to example we can find to make the present truth. In many cases, God is truth of the kingdom vital and real. rapidly changing culture while some Some cultures have adopted creeds (the church in particular) may hold from familiar European creeds with on to tradition. When the church examples relevant to those cultures. holds on to tradition instead of embracing culture, the church can Don’t make the gospel harder than it become irrelevant. needs to be. In Acts 15, the church met and determined that the new Gentile Help meet human needs through believers did not need to be weighed love. Jesus set the perfect example down with all the rules the Jewish for us. He healed the sick, cast out believers used in their worship. The the demons, and introduced people gospel needed to be clear, but not out to the truth that set them free. As of reach for the people. oral learners embrace truth that helps them practically (especially Transformation of hearts needs to their health), they become more occur, and often the rules we have open to the truth of the gospel that are related to transformed hearts. will set them free spiritually. 46 More Than Words: Linguistics, Language and Meaning 47 More Than Words: Linguistics, Language and Meaning Gilles Gravelle

Gilles Gravelle is Director of Research and Innovation with The Seed Company. His research and writing focuses on translation, missiology, technology, and strategic planning with the goal of improving mission and ministry models in general and Bible translation practice in particular. His PhD is from Free University, Amsterdam. He bases out of his home in Seattle.

he seminal work of Erick characters, and sign language. In this THavelock and Walter Ong light, translation “can be looked at influenced our understanding of as a process of substitution, in which how primary oral cultures and print- one code for referring to a realm of oriented cultures communicate, universal forms is replaced with process, and retain information. another code referring to the same Havelock described orality as realm” (Tymoczko 2010, 290). Maria action or performance-oriented Tymoczko points out how this model communication and literacy as presents meaning as a relatively syntactic linear sequencing (1984, simple thing. It can be analyzed, 24-25). The former involves auditory understood, and then transferred processing, whereas the latter linear into the code system of another analysis of symbols. This assumes language, hence the disembodied differences in thought processes, universality of meaning. as Havelock and Ong have argued. Whether someone is speaking or Linguistic universals are the writing, information is produced. forms and structures that all How a listening and reading languages presumably utilize to audience makes meaning out of generate meaning, and on the that information in the process of surface it seems to be consistent. translation is the subject of this article. Descriptive linguists can identify those universal syntactic operations Linguistic Meaning in most any language. Syntactic A structural functional positions indicate semantic roles. understanding of linguistics says Changes in word order shift the meaning is disembodied and role of subject and object. This is represented by universal codes. The the translation theory of form and meaning is indicated through signs meaning; to decode and encode, a and symbols, such as alphabets, positivistic understanding of how 48 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Gilles Gravelle meaning is made. However, the Rather than view all of this as turn to transdisciplinary studies meaning to be transferred in in the field of translation is now translation—if that were possible— challenging this notion of meaning Christiane Nord suggests that and translation. Making meaning translators consider this meaning is perhaps more complex than we as information. She argues that have imagined. only part of this complex web of information can be transferred in Where Does Meaning Reside? translation. Thus, “a translation is a This is not a recent question. new offer of information in the target During the last century, linguists culture about some information such as Wilhelm von Humboldt offered in the source culture and and Benjamin Whorf believed language” (1997, 26). Translators meaning resided in language. Franz make choices over the information Boas hypothesized that meaning they deem necessary to bring into resided in the mind in the form of the local language and culture. mental images (Slobin 1996, 72). How, then, do translators deal with If meaning resides in words within meaning generated by non-linguistic a syntactic structure (e.g., phrase, signs? This is the Jakobsonian notion sentence, and paragraph), then the of intersemiotic translation. code model of translation seems predictable and thus workable. Non-linguistic Meaning Robert Hodgson explains, “Non- However, Tymoczko questions linguistic signs are potentially the simplicity of this translation words, images, cultural artifacts, model. She argues that in secret codes, thoughts, feelings, addition to linguistic meaning, plants, animals, lines and colors, there is ideological meaning, smells and tastes” (2007, 164). He metaphorical meaning, embodied also speaks of how the Bible has meaning, and emotional meaning. been translated in non-linguistic Meaning is derived from genre and forms. That is, biblical information performatives. It is also derived is communicated dynamically from historical and cultural through performance in music, context. Embedded within these drama, dance, storytelling, and two contexts are situations, recording. The information is practices, customs, symbols, and also communicated in a static way qualities that all express meaning through sculpture, icons, mosaics, (2010, 282-284). and stained glass. The receiving More Than Words: Linguistics, Language and Meaning 49 culture makes meaning from these cognitive sciences support Slobin’s sorts of non-linguistic signs through claim. Laboratory experiments in the five senses of sight, sound, taste, cognitive processing of information touch, and smell (2007, 167, 182). (i.e., thinking) suggests that instead of symbols conveying meaning, Along with this linguistic and meaning could really be something non-linguistic information, add much more closely intertwined with the context-generated information our experiences in the world. That is, a hearer or reader brings to the meaning is not made away from our text being translated into his or bodies—specifically our minds—but her cultural setting—that is, instead is tightly connected with our his or her naturally-occurring bodies (Bergen 2012, 12). biases, assumptions, experiences, knowledge, and perceptions. This Studies using MRI imaging suggest is the filter he or she uses to make that meaning is made in our minds meaning from the information through simulation. That is, being transferred through “actively imagining or visualizing translation. The combination of an action uses parts of the brain linguistic and non-linguistic signs that actually control those imagined represents a significant amount actions…That’s because, to a large of information that a receiving extent, when we’re visualizing, our language hearer or reader utilizes brain is doing the same thing it to make it meaningful in his or her would in actual practice” (Bergen own cultural context. It is clear that 2012, 25). The brain sends signals the linguistic code model seems like to the muscles to move them. It an oversimplified understanding of also does that when just imagining translation and meaning-making. a movement, albeit at reduced levels so muscles don’t actually move. Embodied Meaning Dan Slobin claims, “The language Simulation involves seeing. Our or languages we learn in childhood visual system sees non-present are not neutral coding systems of things in the “mind’s eye” in the an objective reality. Rather, each same way it sees present things one is a subjective orientation to the in the world. So this means that world of human experience, and this thinking is performing. When you orientation affects the ways in which are seeing it in the mind’s eye, you we think while speaking” (1996, 91). are performing it in your mind, too. During the last decade, advances in When you hear language about 50 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Gilles Gravelle things, like the action of running, If so, then meaning really is more of you use the same brain pathways to an embodied experience. Conjuring visualize it as if you were actually mental images is accessing doing it. It’s not just vague perception. embodied information (2012, You construct very detailed meaning. 45). When you hear, read, or see, You hear a sound in your mind. you are making meaning and not You see an action happening. You just decoding phonetic sounds in imagine a result. syntactic constructions or analyzing linguistic symbols in linear type Your mind’s eye places you in a face, according to Bergen. distinct position in relation to the thing you are visualizing. You Mental and Oral Processing visualize brilliant colors. You see (or Thinking and Speaking) all of this in your mind just from Based on this understanding of hearing or reading something. where meaning resides and how In other words, there is far more meaning is made, what meaning- information encoded in your mind making process would benefit than what you draw from when translators? Should they just hearing, reading, seeing, touching, mentally decode the meaning or smelling something. All of that conveyed by the writing system of comes from experiences in the world. the source language and recode it in This is what embodied meaning is. the target language writing system? Or would oral processing of the Bergen takes it a step further in saying, source language text with the target “If we use our brain systems for language audience produce clearer perception and action to understand, or more precise understanding of then the processes of meaning are what should be conveyed in the dynamic and constructive. It’s not target language translation? about activating the right symbol; it’s about dynamically constructing Slobin says that when people are the right mental experience of the thinking, they are not so constrained scene” (2012, 16). Therefore, the by the grammaticalization patterns hypothesis states that meaning of their language. They can think is not disembodied universal code more freely in concrete and abstract represented by signs and symbols. ways. But when they verbalize Rather, the signs and symbols stimulate meaning, their language forces them meaning that is already present in the to speak in more constrained ways brain through experiences. according to how their language More Than Words: Linguistics, Language and Meaning 51 works. Testing convinced Slobin source text? What sort of non- that events involving seeing, as in linguistic information is shaping seeing a story in a picture book, are their understanding of it? experienced differently by speakers of different languages. That was As Tymoczko and Nord say, there is evident in the process of making a far too much meaning that can be verbalized story out of the pictures brought into a written translation. they looked at (1996, 88). Nord believes that a translator must choose how much information to Therefore, orally processing a text communicate in the translation. with the target language audience This means some negotiation must would aid the translator and the take place, assuming the translator audience in knowing what each works closely with the target of them understands the text to audience. Oral processing allows mean. First, as they act out the for this sort of negotiation. The information in their mind (i.e., goal is to figure out what should be make meaning), then as they said or written and what should be verbalize the information through left unsaid or unwritten. oral language, which begins to reveal how they understand the What Does Worship Mean? text, and finally as they code Consider the following example the information in their written from the Meyah language of language. The following graphic Indonesia. A Western translator illustrates the path and amount wants to translate the concept of information conveyed from of worship symbolized by the imagining to speaking to writing English verb (or noun) “worship” the translated text. into Meyah. Thinking about the concept, the Western translator sees what worship is by visualizing it in his mind’s eye. What the translator visualizes will draw from his own The oral processing step (2) seems experiences of worship. He will critical in helping a translator know also draw from what he visualized how the audience understands the in his mind’s eye while studying text to be translated. How does the word proskuneo “worship,” the audience imagine situations, literally “bow low,” in the Koine actions, and timeframes from the Greek language context where it was 52 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Gilles Gravelle first used. According to the theory meaning—the sort mentioned earlier. discussed in this paper, the translator It can’t possibly all be translated from is making meaning of it all. one language code into another through a word or phrase. Choices The translator’s thinking for speaking have to be made to capture in a coded process requires him to communicate word or a phrase so people in the in another language, one that he source language and people in the learned. He receives help from Meyah target language understand those speakers by asking them how they concepts to mean in generally the express “worship.” But it’s not a same way. It seems oral processing concept these Melanesian people to negotiate understanding would have experienced. They understand aid in the translation process. This is “appease” or “pacify,” but they don’t because mental simulation helps the understand worship. The former translator and the target language concept is typical of animist societies. audience to see together what is meant Benevolence is not a characteristic of to be conveyed in the word “worship.” the spirit world in their experience, thus they do not worship those spirits, Conclusion at least in the Western understanding Oral processors and print media of the word worship. processors mentally simulate the things they hear or read, according In addition, the English and Meyah to Slobin and Bergen. Havelock grammaticalized forms force says primary oral cultures process both language speakers to express information differently. Slobin worship differently. There is no way believes differences in meaning to reconcile the differences to produce are apparent when speakers of the same meaning. Oral processing different languages verbalize the allows for meaning negotiation to same information, as testing has take place. The translator and target shown. Either way, oral processing language audience need to arrive at of a text to be translated (or indeed, some degree of mutual understanding oral translation) could greatly aid (i.e., agreement) of what “worship” in producing similar experiences in means in Koine Greek—as far as the mind of the receiving language one can know—and how that can speakers so that what they simulate be expressed in Meyah. matches, more or less, what is simulated in the mind of the source Abstract concepts, such as worship, language oral or written text. That are packed with complex intersemiotic is a goal of translation. More Than Words: Linguistics, Language and Meaning 53

References Bergen, Benjamin K. 2012. Louder Than Words: The New Science of How the Mind Makes Meaning. Basic Books, New York.

Havelock, Erick. 1986. The Muse Learns to Write. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Hodgson, Robert. 2007. “Semiotics and Bible Translation.” Semiotica,163-1/4:163-185. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter,

Nord, Christiane. 1997. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome.

Ong, Walter. 1986. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Methuen.

Slobin, Dan, I. 1996. From “Thought and Languages” to “Thinking and Speaking.” In Rethinking Linguistic Relativity. Eds. J.J. Gumperz and S.C. Levinson, 70-96. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tymoczko, Maria. 2010. Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators. Manchester: St. Jerome. 54 I Love to Learn but I Don’t Like to Read: The Rise of Secondary Oral Learning 55 I Love to Learn but I Don’t Like to Read: The Rise of Secondary Oral Learning1 W. Jay Moon W. Jay Moon is Associate Professor of Church Planting and Evangelism at Asbury Theological Seminary. From 1992-2001, he was an SIM missionary among the primarily oral Builsa people in Ghana, West Africa, and focused on church planting and water development. His two upcoming books discuss oral discipleship. he wrinkled brow and heavy be much more efficient to speak Tsighs informed me that this to the professors and dialogue seminary student was frustrated with students in class instead of and discouraged. He plopped writing it out. Furthermore, once down in the chair, slumped down I finish seminary, I will likely be with his head resting on the seat evaluated by others based on how back, and started talking. A slow I communicate orally instead of in trickle of emotion at first grew print.” Hopelessly, he sighed, “I feel into a rushing river. like quitting school all together!”

“I love to learn, but I don’t like Unfortunately, this student is not to read!” he started. “All of the alone. The above fictional story is reading assignments are weighing based on many conversations with me down. I start a lot of interesting seminary students who are oral books, but I usually end up not learners. In a study over a 9-year finishing them. For my class period, 53.5 % of seminary students assignments, it’s even worse—it preferred oral learning compared to takes me an hour to write down print learning. These are bright and on paper what would take me dedicated students called by God ten minutes to say out loud,” he for ministry, yet they prefer to learn continued. This river was now and be transformed by oral means overflowing the banks, gathering compared to print means. increased force by the minute. Walter Ong (1982) used the His next words burst forth like a call term “secondary oral” learners for help from a drowning victim, to describe these students. In “Why are all of the assignments the 1980s, Ong observed that a based on my ability to write down new learning preference called my thoughts anyway? It would “secondary orality” was occurring 56 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 W. Jay Moon due to recent technological advances Sachs observed that contemporary such as television, radio, movies, etc. learners are now accessing Secondary oral learners are those information through digital who have the ability to read and write, means, and they are exhibiting the but they prefer to learn or process characteristics of oral learners. As a information by oral, rather than result, he described these secondary written, means, aided by electronic oral learners using the term “digit- audio and visual communications oral” as follows: (Lovejoy and Claydon 2005, 63–64). The oral tradition that dominated Rick Brown (2004) describes this human experience for all but historic shift as follows: the last few hundred years is A general trend in history has returning with a vengeance. It’s been the progress from primary a monumental, epoch-making, orality to some literacy with totally unforeseen turn of events residual orality, and from then in . . . our new digital culture of some cases [e.g., U.S. academia] information sharing has so rejected to a print-oriented culture. The the broadcast style and embraced modern trend is to move on to key elements of oral traditions, secondary orality, to a post- that we might meaningfully call literate or multi-media culture… whatever’s coming next the digitoral era. (2012, 20) Whereas previous generations in U.S. seminaries assumed that While some have called this print-based means of teaching learning preference the “21st and assessing were effective Century Literacy” (NMC 2005), to produce student learning the roots of this learning preference and transformation, many stretch far back into oral cultures. contemporary students prefer to At one end of the continuum, learn through oral means. Jonah primary oral learners cannot I Love to Learn but I Don’t Like to Read: The Rise of Secondary Oral Learning 57 read or write. At the other end of The students were enrolled in the the continuum, there are highly following degree programs: print learners. In between, there is a range of learning preferences. The secondary oral learners fall near the middle, as they shift from a print to an oral learning preference as shown in Figure 1.

In this article, I will do two things: (1) describe the design of All of the students were enrolled a 9-year research project among in classes taught at Sioux Falls seminary students to quantify Seminary or Asbury Theological their preference for oral vs. Seminary.2 As evidenced above, the print methods of learning and students were from diverse cultural assessment and (2) summarize backgrounds, and they were in the data that demonstrates an various programs of study. The increasing preference for oral most common demographic or learning of seminary students “typical student” studied, however, compared to the print learning was a Master of Arts (MA) or preference of seminary faculty. Master of Divinity (MDiv) student from North America.3 Background of Seminary Students Assessed Keep in mind that all of these Over a period of nine years, 281 students have completed an seminary students were assessed undergraduate degree (or the and observed in the classroom. The equivalent); therefore, they can students came from various cultural read and write since they have backgrounds, as shown in Table 1: completed the rigorous admissions standards for both seminaries (as required by accreditation standards). The question is not one of intelligence; rather, the questions are, “How do students prefer to learn and have their lives transformed? How can professors accurately teach and assess the students’ 58 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 W. Jay Moon learning? Is this through oral or of secondary oral learners in print methods and assessment a seminary, the students were instruments?” By answering these asked to complete the “Learning questions, students can move from Preference Assessment” (LPA) as a frustration to learning. class assignment. The students were not informed that this assignment Assessment Instrument was to assess the preference of oral In order to assess a person’s learning vs. print learning; rather, they were preference, an “Orality Assessment told that it simply assessed their Tool” was developed by Lynn L. learning preference without any Abney (based on Ong’s work) correlation to intelligence or IQ. for use in primary oral cultures.4 Table 3 highlights a few of the To test the learning preferences differences that were assessed.

I Love to Learn but I Don’t Like to Read: The Rise of Secondary Oral Learning 59

The assessment consists of 40 51-80: Oral tendency. Tendency questions with opposing pairs. toward oral thinking and learning. The score for each question Secondary oral (digit-oral) learners ranges between 0 and 4 for a often fit in here, as they transition total combined score on the between oral and print preferences. assessment from 0 – 160. A score of 80 or below indicates 81-120: Print tendency. Tendency that the student has a preference toward print thinking and learning. for oral learning, while a score Person has been schooled, but does of 81 or above indicates a print not fully interiorize print learning learning preference. Along as the highly print learners. the continuum of oral vs. print learning preferences, the 121-160: Highly print. A heavy combined scores fall into the emphasis on print has shaped following categories: the person’s thinking/learning in print patterns. Shaped by 0-25: Primary oral. Someone extensive schooling. who cannot read and write. Alternatively, the person has great Assessment Results difficulty or strongly dislikes The test results of the 281 students reading. Thinking is shaped in indicate that the largest category of oral patterns. students falls in the oral tendency (47.5%). Combining this group with 26-50: Highly oral. Highly the primary oral and highly oral values oral learning students, the total number of students approaches due to personality, with an oral learning preference (LPA cultural background, and life score < 80) is 53.5%.5 The scores experiences. are shown below in Table 4.

60 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 W. Jay Moon

To compare the learning preferences of seminary students to that of seminary faculty, faculty from the following seminaries were asked to take the LPA as part of their faculty training:6 Sioux Falls Seminary in South Dakota, Baptist Theological Seminary of Richmond in Virginia, and William Carey International University in California. The test results of 23 faculty showed that the largest category of faculty falls in the print tendency (69.5%). There are no faculty members with a primary oral or highly oral preference, and only 21.5% of the faculty had an oral learning preference (LPA score < 80). The results of the faculty assessments are in Table 5.

Learning Primary Highly Oral Print Highly Preference Oral Oral Tendency Tendency Print (LPA Score (0-25) (26-50) (51-80) (81-120) (121-160) Range) % of 0 0 21.5 69.5 9 students

Table 5. Learning Preferences of Seminary Faculty.

Finally, I made a visit to LeTourneau University in 2013 to meet with 32 undergraduate students who were majoring in religious studies. Since this represents the likely rising seminary freshmen class, it would be instructive to see a snapshot of the learning preference for these future seminary students. The largest category of students falls in the oral tendency (65.5%). When combined with the primary oral and highly oral students, the Letourneau students with an oral learning preference (LPA < 80) is a whopping 78%. Table 6 summarizes these results.

Learning Primary Highly Oral Print Highly Preference Oral Oral Tendency Tendency Print (LPA Score (0-25) (26-50) (51-80) (81-120) (121-160) Range) % of 0 12.5 65.5 22 0 students Table 6. Learning Preferences of LeTourneau University Religious Studies Students. I Love to Learn but I Don’t Like to Read: The Rise of Secondary Oral Learning 61

Comparison of LPA Results Table 7 compares the above data in one table. Notice that the oral learning preference increases from the faculty to the seminary students to the LeTourneau students. The oral learning preference in the faculty is 21.5%, while this jumps to 53.5% for the seminary students. This huge gap indicates a likely source of misunderstanding in learning assessment and methods. An even more dramatic difference is observed in the LeTourneau University students who showed a whopping 78% oral learning preference compared to only 21.5 % for the seminary faculty. Clearly, the gap between the learning preferences of faculty vs. students is widening.

Learning Preference Oral Learners Print Learners (LPA Score Range) (< 80) (> 80) % of 23 Faculty 21.5 78.5 % of 281 Seminary 54 46 Students % of 32 LeTourneau 78 22 Students Table 7. Comparing LPA scores of Faculty, Seminary, and LeTourneau Students.

To track the increase in oral learning preference over time, the LPA scores for the seminary students were recorded for each year of testing. Table 8 shows the number of seminary students and percentage of those with an oral learning preference over the 9-year period.

Test Year # Students # Students with % Oral Learners Tested LPA < 80 2005 55 23 42 2006 24 13 54 2007 25 14 56 2008 68 37 54 2009 39 20 51 2010 15 10 67 2011 0 ############ ############ 2012 0 ############ ############ 2013 55 34 62 Table 8. Seminary Students’ LPA Results over Time. 62 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 W. Jay Moon

The last column in Table 8 demonstrates the increase in oral learning preference over a 9-year period from 42% to 62%. Plotting the percentage of oral learners over time portrays this upward trend.7 A linear regression of the data demonstrates a general increase in the percentage of oral learners over the 9-year research period. See Chart 1 below.

Chart 1. Seminary Students: % Oral Learners over Time.

This data suggests that there is a learning preference shift occurring in the seminary students that needs to be understood and addressed further. If faculty do not address this shift, seminary students who are gifted and called will continue to come to faculty offices with frustration. Conclusion The wrinkled brow and heavy their preference for oral vs. print sighs of frustration by the students learning, which helps me to teach described in the introduction are and assess their learning more etched in my memory. These effectively, as described by the students were often defeated, following seminary student’s email. questioned their own intelligence, and some even questioned their Hello Dr. Moon, own call to ministry. I can only I just wanted to say thank you imagine the number of seminary for the class this semester, but I students who never came to my also wanted to point out one office—they simply quit their element in particular that has seminary studies all together. The really helped me professionally. LPA gives an objective measure of The oral vs. literacy assessment I Love to Learn but I Don’t Like to Read: The Rise of Secondary Oral Learning 63 has helped me understand my of the class that have helped me, own learning preferences but it but this one has made the most has also helped me understand immediate impact in my teaching. my students. Since taking that My point is...Thank You. I am assessment and learning what it a better teacher because of this means, I have shifted my thinking simple assessment. in teaching to recognize how this Sincerely, Blair might affect my students of diverse backgrounds. We push the literacy Blair is recognizing the secondary model of teaching and testing and oral learning preference shift that I have found that some students Ong first observed in the 1980s. are having a hard time adjusting. Ong, however, had no idea that I started to implement more story the explosion of digital media was telling and oral based formative just around the corner. The small assessments to more accurately flame of secondary oral learning pinpoint if my students are actually has blazed into a brush fire of learning. Paper and pencil tests do digit-oral learning. This has led not portray the learning gains that to a significant increase in those oral students might show if they who learn best and are most likely were given alternative options transformed when learning comes that fit their styles. As a result, I through oral means. Recognizing have seen students express what and adjusting to this oral learning they know in new ways because preference can help move oral of the adjustments I am making. students from frustration to There are many other elements understanding. 64 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 W. Jay Moon

1Portions of this article were first printed in another article by the author. See Moon 2013. 2From 2005-2013, I taught Intercultural Studies classes at both seminaries. Dr. Terence Mournet taught New Testament classes at Sioux Falls Seminary for part of this time and conducted the same research. While I have an oral-learning preference, Mournet has a print-learning preference. Our hope is that both perspectives will inform and balance each other in the research. 3While we tried to gather as diverse a group as possible, we were limited by the students that were in the classes. I am proposing to do further studies to determine the effect of cultural background on oral vs. print-learning preference. 4This assessment tool was based on Ong’s work “Orality and Literacy.” See http:// orality.net/media/420. The assessment was adapted by removing the category titles “Oral Communicators” and “Print Communicators.” The research was then applied to seminary students instead of a primary oral audience; therefore, the learning style categories and descriptions were also adapted. 5This is the average of all of the scores over the 9-year test period. All of the percentages in the following data are rounded to the nearest 0.5%. 6For a further description of a faculty consultation by the author, see Moon 2013. 7The dips and spikes in the graph show that the data is not entirely consistent, but the linear regression indicates an overall upward trend. Further research should be conducted with larger sample sizes. I Love to Learn but I Don’t Like to Read: The Rise of Secondary Oral Learning 65

References Abney, Lynne L. 1992. “Orality Assessment Tool.” http://orality.net/media/420

Brown, Rick. 2004. “Communicating God’s Message in Oral Cultures.” International Journal of Frontier Missions 21(3): 26–32.

Lovejoy, Grant, and D. Claydon. 2005. “Making Disciples of Oral Learners: Lausanne Occasional Paper 54.” 2004 Lausanne Forum Occasional Papers. www.lausanne.org/documents/2004forum/LOP54_IG25.pdf

Moon, W. Jay. 2010. “Discipling Through the Eyes of Oral Learners.” Missiology 38(2): 127–140.

———. 2013. “Encouraging Ducks to Swim: Suggestions for Seminary Professors Teaching Oral Learners.” William Carey International Development Journal 2(2): 3-10.

———. 2012. “Understanding Oral Learners.” Teaching Theology and Religion 15(1): 29–39.

NMC. 2005. “A Global Imperative: The Report of the 21st Century Literacy Summit.” www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved =0CDIQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nmc.org%2Fpdf%2F Global_Imperative.pdf&ei=5KCPUeXDOtS20AGNvIGQAw&usg=AFQjCN GBctEmtHYXY4l3FRBdxMvcFIh7Qg&sig2=TPpViav6Vkx6lKaE6fS_jQ& bvm=bv.46340616,d.dmQ.

Ong, Walter J. 1982. Orality and Literacy. London, U.K.: Routledge.

Sachs, Jonah. 2012. Winning the Story Wars: Why Those Who Tell (and Live) the Best Stories Will Rule the Future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press. 66 Improving Memory for Bible Story Content 67 Improving Memory for Bible Story Content by Using a Scene-Visualization Process Mark A. Getz Mark is a lay Bible teacher from central Illinois who for the past several years has been collaborating with professional storyteller John Walsh. They have been refining strategies to communicate the stories of the Bible within the basic storyline of Scripture using storytelling and active learning techniques. wo people were walking down The foundation of the biblical Ta road. They were so sad. As record is the historical storyline they talked, a man came up and that culminates in the story of walked along beside them. It was the Messiah, Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus, but they were kept from Many people would love to hear recognizing him. In the ensuing and understand this storyline if conversation, the two explained only someone would explain it to to him about the events of the them. Besides this clear incentive previous few days. They were to learn and tell the stories of the confused about the report that Bible, Jesus himself added further Jesus of Nazareth, whom they had incentive when he charged his hoped would be the long-awaited followers to communicate about Jewish Messiah, had been seen himself in such a way that others alive three days after his murder would follow and obey him (Matt. and burial. Jesus rebuked them for 28:18-20). being slow to believe the message of the Jewish prophets that the Since the majority of the Messiah was destined to suffer world prefers or needs on oral before entering his glory. presentation of this material, an effective telling of the stories is The following statement in this important and strategic. Such an story summarizes their next few approach necessitates a simple hours of conversation in a way and effective way for teachers to that redefined Jewish history learn the stories. The purpose of forever: “And beginning with this article is to consider how to Moses and all the Prophets, he best learn and relate a Bible story explained to them what was said in a way that is reproducible and in all the Scriptures concerning conducive to learning a large set of himself” (Luke 24:27). stories, one at a time. 68 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Mark A. Getz

The process outlined below is of obligation and a deadline— a collection of steps that were two elements crucial to ongoing borrowed from many different learning. biblical storytellers and after experimentation, knit together into Once the listener is chosen, it is a set of steps that seem to work time to start learning the Bible well for many of the people who story. Although the stories can desire to tell Bible stories and learn be taken straight from the Bible, this method. Feel free to pick and it is usually easier to start with a choose whatever steps work best story set that has been selected by for you and add them to your own experienced biblical storytellers. personal learning process. But do There are multiple resources that hang on to other strategies that offer sample story sets from which better fit your learning style. to choose. An example of a focused story set can be found at www. The key steps in this process are btstories.com and a complete set summarized in the accompanying can be found at www.bibletelling. diagram and are detailed below. org. Whatever source you use, the After I explain each step, I will principles for learning the story give an example illustrating the are the same. step in italics. For the purpose of illustration, let’s Pre-learning: Choose a look at the story of Jesus calming Designated Learner and a Story the storm from Mark 4:35-41; 5:1 Perhaps the most important and follow four steps. step in learning a Bible story is to choose a designated listener 1. Read and summarize the (or audience) who wants to story. Read the text or listen to a hear a story on a regular basis. recording of it, then summarize This could be your children, the story in one or two sentences. grandchildren, a Sunday school You can do this out loud to class, a small group, nursing yourself or preferably with a home residents, a friend, or an partner who is also interested interested acquaintance. The in learning the story. (This is a discipline of learning typically different role than the designated only occurs on a regular basis listener and should ideally be a if you are doing it for someone different person.) This step forces else. This step creates a sense an integration and verbalization Improving Memory for Bible Story Content 69 of the story in the learner’s mind. In the first scene, I include stick Therefore, don’t retell the story figures of Jesus, the disciples, and using a long run-on sentence. the crowd. There are several boats Rather, sum up the story in a on the west bank and the sun sets couple short phrases. farther west. One speech bubble would be drawn pointing to Jesus. In our example, I would say out loud, “A terrible storm came up The scene in the middle of the while Jesus and the disciples were lake contains a boat being rocked crossing the lake. Jesus calmed by waves. There is a storm cloud the storm and the disciples were overhead. In the boat are the terrified.” disciples, and Jesus is lying in the back of the boat on a cushion. There 2. Scenify and picturize the story. are four speech bubbles here—two Next, divide the story into scenes, for the disciples separated by two or “scenify” the story. Changes for Jesus. in location or time are natural breaks. Ideally, there should be The final scene has the boat arriving two to four scenes per story. with all passengers on board on the Sketch the scenes on paper and east side of the calm lake. add in any people or significant things that are present in the 3. Block and describe each scene. story. Sketch quickly. Do not The next step is the most crucial take extra time to make a good to the learning process. It is drawing. The idea is to identify called “blocking the scene” and is all the places, people, and things analogous to the process a movie in the story. Now describe your director would undergo to move the drawing to your partner without script from the page onto the stage. retelling the detailed story. Designate areas in the room for each scene and mentally picture the people In our example, I picture three and “props” in front of you. Walk scenes on the Sea of Galilee. The around the imagined scene, looking first scene is on the west bank, and pointing to where you have where Jesus and the disciples get mentally placed each item. Next, into boats. The second scene is explain to your partner (or aloud in the middle of the lake during to yourself) what is in each scene, the storm. The story finishes on pointing to where you see it, and the east side of the lake. describe what you “see” happening. 70 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Mark A. Getz

Do not give into the temptation summarize the flow of conversation to tell the story at this point. is a good first step. Rather, just describe what you see and explain what happens in a Sometimes, the main ideas summary form. You are blocking can be represented by objects the scene, just as the movie director in the mental picture of the would do when explaining how story that are “picked up” and he or she wants the scene to look talked about by the character. to his or her cast. Once you have Hand gestures are especially done this, the elements and flow helpful at representing the of the story will be embedded in components of the dialogue and your mind. tying the thought-flow together. Sometimes, that dialogue just In our example, I tend to block needs to be memorized. Work the geographic scenes as if I on the hard parts of the story am standing in the north and separately and repeatedly until looking toward the south. This they are easily recalled. They places the lake in front of me will then fit smoothly into the with the west bank on stage more easily visualized parts of right and the east bank on stage the story. left. The storm occurs in front of me, in between myself and For the dialogue boxes in our the person to whom I plan to story, in scene one, I picture Jesus tell the story. After placing the pointing to the other side of the lake in the room, I walk from lake when he speaks and I point stage right to the middle and there myself when I say, “Let’s go then finish on stage left, all the over to the other side.” During while pointing to the items as I the storm, I picture the disciples picture and describe them. shaking Jesus, so I reach my hands down and shake Jesus when I say, The dialogue and narration parts “Teacher, don’t you care if we of the story are the most difficult to drown?” Then, I raise my hands learn. There are many techniques to the sky as Jesus rebukes the to help with this, but the truth wind and says to the waves, is, this part will take more time “Quiet! Be still!” My hands go and effort. Knowing how many palm up and then point to my “dialogue bubbles” occur in each heart as Jesus asks, “Why are you scene and being able to quickly so afraid? Do you still have no Improving Memory for Bible Story Content 71 faith?” Then, the disciples point become unforgettable for you will to Jesus, the sky, and the sea as now be unforgettable for them. they say, “Who is this? Even the As you tell the story, keep the wind and the waves obey him!” picture and flow of events vivid in your mind. Tell the story 4. Read, tell, and repeat the story. slowly so your listener has time Now that you are finally ready to to develop the picture in his or learn to tell the story, go back and her mind. If you forget a part read or listen to the story again of the story while telling it and while “seeing” where the words fit remember it later in the telling, into your mental picture of the story. don’t get flustered. Just pause and say something like, “Now what Once you are ready, set aside the I didn’t tell you was that Jesus text and walk through the scene had previously gone to the back once again, but this time, instead of the boat and fallen asleep on of describing the scene, actually a cushion.” tell the Bible story. After you have stumbled through the story Any new process is difficult at first. once, go back and reread it to see Attempting to tell a Bible story is what you left out or inadvertently no different. However, those who added. Now tell it again in the same walk through this process typically manner. Repeat the process until react with the statement, “I can do you have it. The content of the this!” Working with mental pictures Bible story should now be locked first rather than just memorizing into your memory. words may initially seem like an unnecessary extra step. However, Post-learning: Tell the Story to once the process is learned, it Your Designated Listener usually speeds up learning and Now, go and tell the story to your significantly improves long-term designated listener(s) and anyone retention and recall. It also helps else who is willing to hear your when translating the story to a story. Once you have told the story different language or adjusting correctly about five times, it will be the story for time constraints. unforgettable. Interestingly, it will be A commitment to learn and tell fairly easy for the listener to repeat the stories of the Bible requires the story back verbatim, since a told determination and effort, but story transfers that mental image hopefully these steps can make this so effectively that the story that has goal more easily achievable. 72 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Mark A. Getz

Pre-learning Choose a designated listener and a story.

1 2 Read Scenify Read or listen to If the story were the story. Consider made into a movie, using more than one how many scenes version or translation would there be? so that you start to “see” Try to divide the story more easily and the story into from different angles. 2-4 main scenes.

& & Summarize Picturize

Summarize the Roughly sketch each whole story in scene. Draw stick one or two figure people and sentences. add the main items in each scene. Add an Tell your empty speech bubble summary to represent dialogue statement to for each time a partner someone talks. (or say it out loud to Explain your pictures to yourself). a partner. Improving Memory for Bible Story Content 73

Post-learning Tell the story to your designated listener.

3 4 Block Read Move the scene off Read or listen to the story the paper and into the while walking around room in front of you. the room to where you Designate where in the have placed each person room each scene occurs and item in your mental and where each person scene. Attach the words of and item is placed and the story to your mental moves in the scene. picture of the story. & & Describe Tell

Walk through and Put the story text aside around the scene in its and now walk around location and describe the room and tell the where each person and story while “looking at” item is placed. your mental picture of the story. Recheck the Explain what happens text for errors in order just like a movie or omissions. director would do for Repeat the telling and his cast. Describe, but checking process until do not tell the story in you can tell the story this step. accurately. 74 A Lab on Leadership Formation in the Church of Asia 75 Leader Development and Orality: A Lab on Leadership Formation in the Church of Asia Joseph W. Handley, Jr. Joe Handley graduated Azusa Pacific University and then began working at the University’s Office of World Missions. After working on his masters, the Lord called he and his wife to Rolling Hills Covenant Church in 1998, where Joe served as the Global Outreach Pastor. In June of 2008, Joe answered the call of God to become the new president of Asian Access; he is currently completing his PhD at Fuller Seminary.

t its core, Asian Access (A2) is key issues as the Global Church Aabout developing leaders who shifts from North to South and multiply churches that transform from West to East. These shifts communities and nations across are far more comprehensive than Asia. A2 believes that the local that popular slogan or jingle. They church is God’s primary agent for are evident in multiple arenas of spiritual and social transformation faith and life and are addressed in and that our best effort is to lift this article. up seasoned, yet emerging young leaders to lead the Church. A2’s leadership model focuses on collaborative learning through This laboratory (‘lab’) series cohorts of pastors over a 2-3- includes a number of case studies year period. This allows local on leadership development from leadership to sift through solid networks across Asia—some are material and presentations connected to Asian Access, and brought in initially from the all are connected to movements outside. These leaders then find and networks in and of themselves. ways to adapt and transform the Most of the case studies pertain learning into a local context. to networks other than A2; they represent the movement of God in While most of the pastors can Asia rather than the work of any read and write, their preferred one particular mission, network, and optimal learning style is or organization. oral, auditory, and sensory, rather than literary. This is pertinent When I joined the mission five years because most of the educational ago, I knew that leader development and leadership formation models and church multiplication were coming from the West are based on 76 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Joseph W. Handley, Jr. readings, writing assignments, and member. It was filled with practical a one-way, lecture-based pedagogy. examples of reproducing disciple- making leaders and emphasized These pastors have expressed being a leader in one’s family. Upon appreciation for community-based meeting and hearing this faculty learning, experiential pedagogies, member share, I was entranced. I and learning through dialogue, was so impressed with this trainer rather than through reading. This that I asked him, “Why would lab will explore some of those you come and teach 12 leaders in stories, as well as interviews with Cambodia when you are invited other organizational leaders to to train thousands in India?” His discern how the Global Church response was: can strengthen its effectiveness in developing leaders. That’s easy. Leverage and impact! Sharing here with 12 key Cambodia influencers will have far more It was a thrill to attend one of my impact as we interact with one first leader development sessions another than just me speaking with Asian Access in Phnom Penh, to several thousands. We can Cambodia. Walking through what learn and process together. had been a notorious torture center In addition, Joe, I know that during Pol Pot’s reign of terror kept each of these leaders represents my attention focused and provided significant movements and/or a gruesome pictorial of what I was denominations in this country hearing from each pastor. One and they are reproducing of the pastors, formerly a brutal everything they learn. general during The Killing Fields era, had come to Christ. After The key phrase in his reply was graduating from the Asian Access “learn and process together.” I leader development program, he was impressed with his content, went on to plant 30 churches near delivery, preparation, and style; yet, Siem Riep where many of the when it came time for interaction, Khmer Rouge peoples lived. What I noticed an odd, awkward silence. a transformation! This went on day after day. Outside of the sessions, I played table tennis As I attended the sessions, I with the pastors and heard them was impressed with the written staying up late at night processing curriculum provided by the faculty what they learned. They were A Lab on Leadership Formation in the Church of Asia 77 gaining powerful insights, but they the times set aside for recreation and weren’t sharing them during the rest, they discussed, debated, and sessions. As a newcomer, I saw my challenged one another in their own role as one of listener and learner. language. They stayed up late at night, sharing stories from their own By the end of the week, I asked lives and adapting what they were the Cambodia national director hearing into a format that worked what he thought of the session better for them. They invested many and how it went overall. This was “extra miles” together to get where insightful and significant since the they wanted to go. faculty member who taught the session had received high ratings Attending the session in Cambodia in India. In Cambodia, however, and getting feedback afterwards the national director told me that has been invaluable. Since then, we while the session went well and have started coaching the session the pastors learned a lot, most directors, translators, and faculty of their learning took place with on how to best facilitate learning one another through their peer in orality-based cultures. interaction between and after the sessions, not during. This story highlights an important truth for leader development in the While these pastors could read world today. The vast majority of and write, the literary and lecture the world—including literate and approach was not an effective educated leaders—learn best in oral learning environment for them. environments where they don’t just They preferred interaction and read materials and listen to lectures. small group time to discuss and Rather, learning happens best when learn together. They were not as these leaders have the opportunity enamored as I had been by the to engage with the faculty and one volume of written materials and another, discussing how the new the words written on the white ideas might work or not work board! While the lectures were in their contexts and cultures. It adequate, no time had been allotted happens through dialogue and for discussion in community with discussion, debate and conversation, the faculty member. sharing and prayer—together.

These Cambodian leaders took More stories will follow in the their learning to the street. During coming lab of ideas… 78 The Arts: Effectively Packaging the Gospel for Oral Audiences 79 The Arts: Effectively Packaging the Gospel for Oral Audiences Erica Logan Erica Logan is the Managing Director for Heart Sounds International (Operation Mobilization) helping ignite culturally relevant and biblically appropriate worship especially in places where Christ followers are restricted, persecuted or unknown. As an ethnomusicologist, Erica serves as an arts consultant and workshop facilitator for contextualizing the Gospel through indigenous expression.

“To understand just one life, you have to swallow the world.” –Salmon Rushdie he lights go down. The hustle expectations and symbols of Tand bustle of the crowd begins significance that alert your senses to fade. Only the crinkling of that something important is candy wrappers remains when a happening. It is something worthy blanket of hush falls on the room. of your attention. You’ve planned Your sense of excitement and ahead to be there at a certain time. expectation rises, when suddenly You’ve gone to a special location. your ears are flooded with the You’re eating particular food— sound of a magnificent fanfare popcorn—a signifier of fun to and your eyes are drawn forward you. Your eyes, ears, mouth, even to the bright colors exploding on your body (in padded reclined the giant screen. A wave of relief seating) are all involved in a total washes over you and you settle in, experience. Now compare that to relaxing your mind. You know that sitting in a lecture hall. Which is for the next two hours, you are free. more memorable? Free to watch, enjoy, cry, or hold on to the edge of your seat, traversing Even in Western-style churches the spectrum of emotions as the where lecture-style presentations story unfolds, the actors, sets, and are common, the arts are present. storyline engrossing your mind and There are colorful banners and heart at will. greenery on stage, windows bursting with color, and people dressed Sound familiar? It is the cinema— in suits. All of these are artistic the arts at work. If you are a expressions that communicate westerner, this is a familiar value to audiences and signify experience—one with high a message worth remembering. 80 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Erica Logan

The combination of familiar the village square with dancing, sights, sounds, tastes, smells, and singing, elaborate costumes, and touch—multiple stimuli happening roasted meat. A holistic message in expected ways—penetrate is better understood when it deeper into long-term memory. In seamlessly connects the heart, his article on the seven disciplines mind, and body simultaneously of orality, Dr. Charles Madinger in familiar ways. We listen more says it like this, “The arts penetrate closely, think more deeply, and the deepest recesses of the mind, allow the familiar heart expressions challenge or affirm the values of the of communication, native to our heart, and promote behavior that culture, to tell us how to be. might never be realized without the power of these emotive mediums.” The arts are a vital form of (Madinger, 2010, 208—209). communication, particularly between humanity and God. There is, however, a crucial Every person, regardless of race, distinction to be made. The general ethnicity, or gender should have a power that creative expression clear path toward not only hearing has to connect emotion, intellect, about God but communing with and action is universal, but the him. Ron Man and other worship power of a specific art form to theologians speak of worship as a communicate a specific message in cycle of revelation and response: varying communities is not (in this all that we are, responding to all case, a community may be defined that God is. by age, urban development, race, or gender, as well as the nations Biblical worship is not a time, a and people groups of whom we place, or a particular form, but typically think). Going to a movie a matter of the heart. It is when theater might evoke excitement and the praise in our hearts journey wonderment in one cultural setting. outward through our hands, our It might even be a wonderful bridge mouth, or our feet, that it then for telling the story. takes on a form. Everyone’s forms exist within a culture that shapes But in a different cultural and guides it. It is this package community, it might end up of expression, containing within being an oddity that is difficult it the precious cargo of our to replicate. It might be that the deepest reasons for living, that enduring things are shared in is the arts—the singing-dancing- The Arts: Effectively Packaging the Gospel for Oral Audiences 81 wailing-storytelling-painting- expressions, we are paving the way carving-cooking-beading-weaving- for biblical koinonia—intimate hennaing package of expression participation with the fellowship from God’s people. These of Christ. expressions give worshipers a voice to speak. In a recent article, Dr. Solomon Aryeetey, founder of Pioneers Wycliffe missionaries Jack and Africa, boldly pleads with the Jo Popjes spent 22 years studying Western Church to allow the the Canela language in Brazil Majority World to co-create with and translating the scriptures them. He says: into the Canela language, but they were having difficulty Contrary to what is widely understanding the Canela music. believed in many evangelical SIL ethnomusicologist Tom circles, and even in many Avery came to help make sense great centers of theological of the complicated music system. and missiological thought, the After the idea of scripture songs end result of all missionary was introduced to the Canela work is not the planting of Christians, they began improving churches. Neither is it even and making additions to Tom’s the establishment of church- suggestions. planting movements.

In time, the Canela were using over The final product is a Bride for half of their Bible study times to a Bridegroom. A Bride without sing the new Canela hymns. With spot or wrinkle, a Bride which tears in his eyes, one Canela man is an amalgamation of every told Jack, “You gave us the book identifiable segment of the in which God speaks to us, but worldwide Body of Believers in the your friend Tom gave us songs in Lord Jesus. Each segment is given which we speak to Him” (Popjes the space and the opportunity to 2006, 148). Amazingly, until that bring its God-ordained unique point in time, the Canela Christians contribution to the table. And felt they were only having a one- every segment, out of a deep sense way conversation with God. The of the beauty and ingenuity of our Canela songs gave them a voice God, wholeheartedly celebrates to talk back to him. By respecting and embraces this wonderful and empowering these symbolic diversity. (170) 82 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Erica Logan

He boldly goes on to say: their poverty” (1999, 112). Many well-meaning individuals have God is supremely glorified when used missional strategies that we [the Majority world] too unwittingly disrespect the receivers celebrate what he has done in and contribute to their spiritual us! It is not yours [the Western poverty by leaving buried the rich Church] to dictate what product treasure stores of unique and we bring to the table. That skillful talents embedded within the remains a sacred transaction fabric of a culture. They are never between God and us.... unearthed, examined, and brought into God’s light as new, redeemed The Holy Spirit has been creations. Instead, a reliance upon cultivating eternity in our hearts the missionary to dictate new long before your missionaries creations is perpetuated, leaving came to us. And God knows we a wake of half-hearted Christian are eternally grateful to these expressions because the forms are gallant heroes, many of whom only half understood and unable literally laid down their lives for to penetrate into the social fabric Jesus and for his gospel.... We of everyday life. owe them a debt of gratitude that only eternity can repay! To use storytelling as an example, These men died not so that the Dr. Hartnell was having little Western mindset may prevail success using literacy-based over the globe. They died so that materials with the Digo in Kenya, Christ may receive glory out of so his team developed an entire the tribes and nations of the series of Bible stories based on earth, as each brings out of their a well-known chronological own treasure stores their unique approach. The stories helped, praise and their particular brand but the Digo audience continued of worship. This is at the heart to have difficulty remembering of the principle called koinonia. the storylines. So Dr. Hartnell (2012, 172) began to follow the traditional Digo stories to find out what Bryant Myers speaks along the significant features were that similar lines in his book on made them so popular. He found transformational development differences in length, repetition among the poor, saying, “When through song, and other various we usurp their story, we add to linguistic features. The Arts: Effectively Packaging the Gospel for Oral Audiences 83

Eventually, he teamed a They weren’t happy with this at traditional Digo storyteller with first. They even said, “Just tell us a local pastor, and together they what to do.” But within a week’s produced the story of Noah using time, the Urarina Christians the traditional features. After had not only a song to offer, but an extensive survey comparing dancing, beading, weaving, and the two story styles with local symbolic cultural stories. My groups, he was overwhelmed team’s original ideas were similar, with the positive responses to but instead of the ideas coming the contextualized story style and from our mouths, they came from is now redoing all of the Bible the Urarina’s own conversations stories they originally produced with God and contained within 20 years ago into the traditional them unique cultural symbolism Digo storytelling style. rich with meaning. The process empowered the Urarina with the I will admit, this process feels understanding that they were fully risky and can take a lot more time. capable of developing the life of Honoring fellow believers in their the church in their community. It journey with God means taking is imperative that we approach new the control out of our hands and believers with a servant’s heart and placing it in theirs. It then requires create space for them to respond to us to step back and trust the Holy him in their own ways. Spirit to speak and commune with his disciples. So how do we do it? What if we don’t understand the artistic While working with the Urarina culture of the community? What in Peru, I was faced with the about syncretism? How do we potential reality of a culture that begin to sort these issues? Yes, had no music and little creative there are dangers and pitfalls to expression. At least that is what be avoided and the process takes they said. We were stumped. My careful consideration and time. team was sorely tempted to step But we do not need to be an arts in with suggestions for new art specialist to be an advocate for forms for their worship, but we koinonia. It starts with genuine decided to encourage them to interest in the expressions pray and seek God for what within a community and why they could offer to him from they do them. In essence, it their culture. starts with questions. 84 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Erica Logan

• Ask your friends and neighbors • Every new creation needs to be about their creativity. How and evaluated in a naturally gracious why do they do what they do? way for accurate representation • Engage a local artisan by of scripture and acceptance by taking lessons. Local artisans the community. are often a repository of culture and history in the This takes time and patience. But the community. results can be reproducible, deeply • Encourage a Bible study on the impacting, and eternal. A wonderful biblical meaning of worship. It and in-depth resource available to can set the foundation within inspire and guide us through the a church community to look process is James Krabill’s Worship beyond the prescribed ways and Mission for the Global Church they may have adopted in their and its companion, Creating Local worship. Arts Together. • Above all, empower the local leaders (both in and out of Taking all of these concepts into the church, both official and consideration, it now becomes unofficial) to think through possible to imagine Mark 12:30- their communities’ issues and 31: a koinonia community where how local arts might address “all cultures are using all of their some of them naturally. If gifts to worship, obey, and enjoy they are Christians, encourage God with all of their heart, soul, them to pray and seek God for mind, and strength” (Schrag 2013, specific ideas. xv). Praise be to God. The Arts: Effectively Packaging the Gospel for Oral Audiences 85

References Aryeetey, Solomon. 2013. “Sebi Tafratse (With All Due Respects): A Word to the West from the Rest." Evangelical Missions Quarterly 42(2): 166-174.

Krabill, James R., Frank Fortunato, Brian Schrag, Paul Neeley, and Robin Harris. Ethnodoxology Handbook: Worship and Mission for the Global Church. Pasadena: William Cary Library, 2012.

Madinger, Charles. ‘Coming To Terms With Orality.’ Missiology 38, no. 2 (2010): 201—213.

Myers, Bryant L. 1999. Walking With The Poor: Principles and Practices of Transformational Development. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1999.

Popjes, Jack. 2006. "Now We Can Speak to God - In Song." All the World Is Singing. Ed. Frank Fortunato, et al . Tyrone: Authentic.

Schrag, Brian. 2013. Creating Local Arts Together: A Manual to Help Communities Reach Their Kingdom Goals. Ed. James R. Krabill. Pasadena. CA: William Carey Library. 86 Media: The Mortar that Holds It Together 87 Media: The Mortar that Holds It Together The ION Audio Scripture Engagement Task Force1 David Swarr and Lori Koch2 s one of the seven disciplines oral learner, to have access to Aof orality recognized by Dr. the Word of God in their own Charles Madinger’s holistic model, heart language and in a media media plays a significant role in format they understand. both encompassing the truths of the other recognized disciplines— The Declaration issues an urgent culture, language, literacy, social call to make “the entire Word of networks, memory, and the arts— God available to every person who and delivering the message to those can hear.” waiting to hear it. Media forms that are thoughtfully and intentionally This Declaration, combined with produced and distributed can what has been learned and proven enhance and ensure quality about the value of different media scripture exposure, learning, forms and approaches, should be and engagement by capitalizing thought through when considering on these strengths: accuracy and how to effectively minister to completeness, reproducibility, oral peoples. Let’s consider the scalability, accessibility, and following five topics. sustainability. 1. Accuracy and completeness. In 2011, the International Orality Much of the Christian media Network endorsed “A Declaration content currently available is on Making Disciples of the World’s a verbatim reproduction or Oral Learners through Audio careful restating of scripture or Scripture Engagement” (with Bible stories translated by well- “audio” encompassing audio- trained and highly-committed visual forms of scripture as well). individuals. Once the message The Declaration states, is captured accurately in a media form, it can become as We believe that the foundation authoritative a source for truth of discipleship is the shaping as a print Bible over centuries of by, and obedience to, the Word use. When the media content is a of God. We believe it is the full New Testament or full Bible, it inalienable right and privilege becomes an accurate and complete of every person, including every presentation of biblical truth for 88 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Swarr and Koch

the oral learner. An additional elderly woman in a Quechua advantage is that it becomes an village high in the Peruvian unchangeable and exhaustive Andes received an audio New source for oral learners to refer Testament in her language. She back to time and time again. had never been to school and could not read, and although a In southwest Ethiopia, a storying long-time churchgoer, she never methodology was employed felt confident in her ability to to communicate the gospel to tell others about Jesus. With an unreached people group. the audio Bible, she gained the During the following decades, confidence to approach people some 26,000 people became and invite them to listen. She Christians. Once the Gospels now describes herself as an had been translated, recorded, evangelist, learning more about and distributed among these the gospel each time she listens. believers using an intentional engagement strategy, the 3. Scalability. Any number of feedback was astounding. With a people can be equipped with an more complete understanding of appropriate media device and scripture, the people discovered content. Certainly, experience deeper truths about the Christian has shown that the best walk. For example, they had been engagement of the scripture unaware that having multiple content happens in a context of sexual partners was inconsistent intentionality, accountability, with scripture. Armed with this and group interaction. Often, knowledge, they changed their this process can benefit from behavior accordingly and built appropriate training from an on the foundation of the truth external source. But whether or they understood. not such training is available, there exists an enormous 2. Reproducibility. Once the missionary task force of non- message is crafted and produced, reading believers who can be copies can be disseminated via equipped with a media tool a wide array of devices and and empowered to go out and digital means, independent become effective evangelists and of the skills, training, and missionaries among their own giftedness of the individuals people. Although seemingly conveying the message. An simple, it’s effective and it works. Media: The Mortar that Holds It Together 89

4. Accessibility. With mobile Road” for delivering the gospel phones increasingly ubiquitous message almost instantly to and the digital footprint ever nearly every country on earth. expanding, it is becoming easier and less costly to provide both 5. Sustainability. When the devices and media content to apostles first set out on foot a wide audience, even those in to spread the news of Jesus remote locations. A ministry Christ, the speed and breadth engaged in providing audio at which the message could scripture on physical formats be disseminated were limited alone estimates to have reached by human, financial, and some 50 million individuals technological resources. Early worldwide over the course of scribes of the printed scripture 37 years of outreach. Yet within could not have imagined the just three years of digital Gutenberg Press and what a delivery, the same organization revolution this would represent can count more than 100 for spreading the gospel. million unique users of audio- Gutenberg himself could not visual scripture content through have imagined the vast array an array of digital outlets, of media and delivery systems including web streaming, we enjoy today to deliver the download, smartphone apps, same message efficiently and podcast, and Internet radio. inexpensively. Even with these Even more strikingly, this advances, few involved in digital content is being accessed modern missions would dispute from rural areas of China, as the tremendous value of one-on- well as from cities and remote one, face-to-face evangelization areas within the Middle East, and discipleship. regions where it can be risky for mission workers to reach into But Jesus himself recognized and perilous for the locals who there is a great harvest, just may be seen with them. few workers to bring it all in. Media plays an important role Just as the network of Roman in providing an increasingly roads served as a means for sustainable model for delivering spreading the gospel in the the gospel message (whether first century AD, the Internet combined with or separate serves as a modern-day “Roman from intentional human 90 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Swarr and Koch

interaction) in the appropriate access to modern mass media languages and formats to such as radio and television, reach oral learners. Today’s and with the advancement of economic reality is making it technology, others will become more necessary and affordable increasingly ubiquitous. for people living in even the Christians need to leverage all remotest and economically possible avenues at our disposal. disadvantaged corners of the Personal experience is the most world to own some type of powerful motivator for change. mobile phone or device. Cell Mass media, through the use phone manufacturers are of realistic, vibrant, concrete, producing affordable, solar- and credible stories, exert powered feature phones for use extraordinary influence because in these contexts. An estimated they transport people into the 5.5 billion people worldwide role of participant. The viewer/ are mobile phone users. An listener lowers his or her defenses intentional focus on providing and allows the program/story to biblical content compatible work on his or her thoughts in with today’s mobile devices is much the same way as he or she a sustainable model for today might experience the world for and for the future. him or herself.

Madinger cites three choices of This method, called “vicarious media delivery: mass, collective, modeling,” is the primary and small. While each choice has technique driving large-scale its advantages, the ideal choice is change efforts around the likely a mix of these three, with world. Scientific studies have each complementing the other to shown that exposing people increase kingdom impact. Below are to believable models affects strategies to demonstrate how the not only their thoughts and strengths of each can be deployed emotions, but also their for maximum effectiveness. behavior. For example, in 1993, Radio Tanzania aired a radio 1. Mass media. The mass media are drama aimed to educate listeners an integral part of our lives and on HIV/AIDS transmission. The society, influencing and shaping show described the escapades of our opinions and values. Even a flamboyant truck driver who remote oral societies tend to have engaged in risky behavior. As a Media: The Mortar that Holds It Together 91

result of this program, 25% of experience through watching the people in the broadcast area the video was the catalyst for reported having modified their repentance and change. behavior to avoid HIV infection. 3. Small media. Life is done in 2. Collective media. Using media to a group, and this is especially educate and influence groups in true among oral learners. Small a more focused and intentional group interaction remains the way can be an effective way gold standard for impactful to deliver the message. For scripture engagement and life example, JESUS film showings transformation. Along with are a well-known and proven audio-visual scripture tools, method for presenting the good results have been observed gospel to large groups. Adding using an obedience-based to the effectiveness of such a discipleship method which methodology would be the essentially seeks to answer addition of small media to this question: What does this follow up such a presentation. passage/story/teaching from scripture ask or require of me In Peru, an indigenous as a follower of Jesus? mission worker was teaching a workshop among his own For example, Samuel Buya has people. Afterward, he showed never read a book, but he leads the attendees a video about a Bible study of more than alcoholism. One of the 60 people in his East African children in the group started rural village. A farmer by to cry, saying “That’s my dad! trade, Samuel received an audio That’s my dad!” He explained Bible in his language and now his father was exactly like the gathers with his neighbors to man in the movie. And like the hear God’s word almost every family in the movie, his family evening. Samuel himself has cried and suffered as a result of listened through the Gospel the father’s actions. With his accounts several times and now alcoholism exposed, the boy’s understands his life is a gift father cried and repented, from Jesus. He says others are now having understood the learning the same as they listen. effect of his behavior on his The people of his village had a son. This family’s vicarious reputation for violence, even to 92 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Swarr and Koch

the point of killing, but Samuel sets, whether recorded or presented and his neighbors have seen a themselves, and eventually present difference since they started the audio New Testament when listening to scripture two years appropriate. Whether this was done ago. They have learned to live in churches or small groups, the in peace with their neighbors pastors reported a very favorable and family. response, with many baptisms and conversions. There is no one-size-fits-all media approach for maximum effectiveness. Access to and engagement with An intentional combination of scripture is critical in Christian human interaction, appropriate ministry among all peoples, content, and media methods should including oral learners. Whether be considered for the particular in the form of Bible storying, a context. In northern India, such a scripture-based video, or an audio combination of content and methods recording of formally-translated was used to great effect to minister scripture, effective ministry to eight unreached people groups in to oral people groups is not a the area. Pastors and leaders were question of either/or but of both/ first trained in storying methodology. several. Quality, biblically-based Story sets were crafted in the eight approaches provide the building languages and then recorded. The blocks for coming to faith in Christ heart language story sets were placed in oral cultures. But, like building on an audio listening device along blocks stacked without mortar, you with an audio New Testament in the cannot go very high without them language of wider communication. becoming unstable.

Then, the pastors and leaders began A solid oral strategy includes a using a combination of their own presentation mindful of all seven of training as storytellers, as well as the the disciplines cited by Madinger, recorded content on the players, to captured in appropriate media minister in their communities and formats to promote accuracy, the surrounding areas. It is worth reproducibility, scalability, noting that most of the people accessibility, and sustainability. were non-literate and generally In this way, media can provide the unfamiliar with Christianity due to stability needed to build a long- their geographical remoteness. They lasting, growing body of believers would usually start with the story in oral cultures. Media: The Mortar that Holds It Together 93

1Rev. Theodore Asare, President, Theovision International Rev. Graydon Colville, International Director, Global Recordings Network John Creech, Eurasia Regional Manager, Faith Comes By Hearing Paul Hoekstra, Vice President, Talking Bibles International Lori Koch, Manager of International Programs, Faith Comes By Hearing Gerhard Marx, Senior Vice President, Davar Partners International Alex Mathew, CEO, Wycliffe India Rick McArthur, Vice President, Viña Association Dr. David Swarr, President and CEO, Davar Partners International 2David Swarr and Lori Koch are listed as they co-chaired this paper 94 “Mobilizing” the Story of His Glory 95 “Mobilizing” the Story of His Glory (Part 1) Keith Williams Keith Williams spent ten years serving as a church planter in Asia before launching Mobile Advance, a ministry of WEC International. Keith also serves on the steering team of the Mobile Ministry Forum (MMF).

y call to missions came through the village when I noticed Mpartly through the reading a group of young men gathered to of mission biographies. I was excitedly watch the small screen spellbound by Hudson Taylor’s held before them. Or maybe it was exploits and thrilled as I read the time the young man talking on Bruchko (Olson 2006) to see how his phone rode by me on his camel. God could use a young man much like myself to bring a jungle tribe I don’t know when I first noticed to himself. I was ready to set out, the change, but it really hit home assuming I would find myself with when I found out that my friends a trusty machete in hand, hacking were no longer setting up their my way through the jungle to bring tents where they could find water, God’s word to some tribe as yet but rather, where they could find untouched by humanity. mobile phone reception. People, who for thousands of years had While this was not to be, in time chosen their migratory routes I did find myself reaching out to on the basis of the availability a nomadic people who still lived of water and pasture, were now very much as Abraham did. These making those decisions based on men and women still slept in tents, how many signal bars they saw on cooked over dung-fueled fires, and their mobile phones! daily brought their livestock out to pasture in the wilderness. Fast forward a few years to the day I met Abu Mohammed at But there was a stirring that was my neighbor’s funeral. Abu happening. I’m not sure when I first Mohammed, as it turned out, noticed its presence. Perhaps it was fulfilled all the noble ideals of the first time I sat in a wedding or his people—he was generous funeral tent and saw hands reaching and brave, hospitable and an into robe pockets to pull out and accomplished hunter; he was a begin playing with a small, shiny man who still lived in the remote device. Perhaps it was on the walk parts of the wilderness just as his 96 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Keith Williams ancestors had for thousands of The pace of change has never been years before him. As the evening greater than it is today. While God wore on, Abu Mohammed took and his word blessedly will never the role of emcee, regaling us with change, we must have our eyes open poetry and stories—some true, to see the changes around us and a some less so. heart open to hear what God may be saying about how those changes At one point, however, Abu impact our ministries. We live in Mohammed stopped and reached exponential times. into his robe and pulled out a phone. With a couple deft strokes, The world’s population is growing he set the device into motion and exponentially. It took thousands allowed it to be passed down the of years to reach the first billion length of the tent from one viewer people on earth. Another billion to the next. When the phone were added in just 123 years, and reached me, I was astonished to a whopping five billion more souls find that this 40-something man’s- were added in the last 89 years man of his tribe had put together a alone (Population Curve n.d.). video of his hunting exploits—shots of him holding a gazelle by its antlers, others of him showing off his rifle, and so on. What was equally astonishing was the fact that he had even figured out how to add a local song in the background. This meshing of Human knowledge is expanding all that was ancient and noble in the exponentially. The widely-accepted people I was reaching out to with maxim is that the sum total of all the latest in modern technology human knowledge now doubles took my breath away. every two years. Backing that up, studies show the amount of global Our Changing World digital information created and It seems that much is growing shared between 2005 and 2020 will exponentially today. grow by a factor of 300 (IDC 2013, 1). “Mobilizing” the Story of His Glory 97

Technological change is also revolutionary impact on the world ramping up exponentially. The in which we live. amazing technological progress of the last 150 years led John Ubiquity. According to the World Dyer, author of From the Garden Bank, only 4% of the Developing to the City, to speculate that World’s population had a mobile Abraham Lincoln would have felt connection in 2000, and yet 13 far more at home sitting in a tent years later, only 4% of the world’s with Abraham than in a home in population DO NOT have a mobile modern-day America (Dyer 2011, connection (the mobile-cellular 21). One needs only to see a toddler penetration rate in the Developing playing with a tablet to realize that World stands at 89%) (ITU 2013). this next generation is going to live A telling statistic is that people in with—and adapt to—technological India are more likely to be able to changes at a pace never seen before. use a mobile phone than a sanitary toilet (U.N. News Center 2010). Do you recall why the men of When we answer Jesus’ call to be Issachar were commended in his witnesses “to the ends of the the Bible? It was because they earth” (Acts 1:8), we shouldn’t be understood the times and knew surprised to find that mobile phones what Israel should do (1 Chron. are already in most of those places. 12:32). They knew God and searched out the happenings Mass media made personal. In of their world and combined addition to becoming the most the two to find the right way quickly-adopted technology in forward. Oh, that we might human history, the mobile phone be like them, and from a firm has become the most personal grounding in God’s word, truly media ever. In a survey conducted in understand what our exponential eight countries by Time magazine, times mean and what the Church 44% of respondents said that their should be about in them. mobile device was the first thing they saw in the morning and the The Mobile Revolution(s) last thing they saw at night before Looking more closely at the falling asleep (Time, 34). In fact, exponential change in technology, the average person looks at his we see that the mobile phone, or her phone 150 times a day which celebrated forty years since (200 times if it is a smartphone) its creation this year, is having a (Ahonen 2013). Beyond that, 98 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Keith Williams however, people seem to be almost distributors through built-in audio psychologically-attached to their recorders, cameras, video recording devices. They put on special covers capabilities, and Bluetooth phone- and choose custom ringtones in to-phone transmission. Not only order to make the device express does the mobile phone replicate who they are or aspire to be. the abilities of all the other media that preceded it, but with new Convergence. One of the reasons sensors and it always being on, it more people have a mobile phone provides many capabilities never than any other modern media dreamed possible. Look no further (see chart below) is that the than the myriad apps available for feature phones and smartphones smartphones to see how the mobile encapsulate the functions of all phone brings amazing capabilities the other media devices combined. into the pockets of hundreds of A Kyrgyz herder can listen to the millions of people. The WordLens radio, watch videos, play games, app, for instance, allows users to and access the Internet all via a mid- see a menu in a foreign language priced feature phone (smartphone automatically transform into one not required). Watch Teleuse@BOP written in their own language. profile: Chamara Pahalawattage (http://www.youtube. com/watch?v= je0L9quCleI or scan the QR code at the end of the articlei) to get a fuller sense of how important the converged capabilities of the mobile phone are (Tomi Ahonen Almanac 2013 and to those living at http://techcrunch.com/2012/0424/forrester-760m-tablets-in-use-by- the bottom of the 2016-apple-clear-leader-frames-also-enter-the-frame/) economic pyramid. Revolutionary results. This convergence of mobile penetration, Beyond simply consuming media, presence, and capabilities has led modern phones also enable users to some unexpected, revolutionary to become media producers and results. Studies have found that a “Mobilizing” the Story of His Glory 99

10% increase in mobile penetration enabled humanity. While the form in developing countries correlates of the technology may move beyond to a 0.8% increase in economic handheld devices into “super growth (Qiang and Rossotto 2009). watches” and augmented reality This has led some to say that the glasses, the key concept here is that mobile phone has made a greater from now on the vast majority of impact on development in Africa humanity will be able to connect to than all the foreign aid ever given one another and partake of media to the continent (All Africa 2009). almost whenever they want and wherever they are. This is an earth- Revolutionary advances in health shaking change and it suggests the care are being made in developing need for a paradigm shift in the countries through mobile way we approach world missions. innovations. These include low- cost microscopes/optical testing Mobile ministry takes advantage devices that can be attached to of this shift and provides a number camera phones, SMS/texting-based of unique benefits: health education campaigns, and mobile data collection. The last 1) Access to a very personal space. several years have made the mobile Mobile devices are an intensely device one of the most powerful personal part of an individual’s tools ever invented for bringing life. When that person allows down unpopular governments. The Christian media onto his or her pen may be more powerful than device, the message is that he or the sword, but the mobile device she is providing access to one may just be more powerful than of the most private and valued the tank. parts of his or her life.

The Church’s Call to Take up 2) Just-in-time media. When a the Mobile Phone missionary is at a store, on the If the vast majority of the world bus, or in some other common population is now equipped with situation, what is he or she most mobile phones, and if these devices likely to have with him or her? do indeed provide all the media Keys, a wallet, and a mobile capabilities that the previous mass phone. The person isn’t very likely media offered (and then some), to be carrying a DVD player, tape then we have entered a new era of player, or computer. If that mobile always connected/always media- phone has some Christian media 100 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Keith Williams

loaded on its memory card, or an personal evangelism with vivid outreach app, the missionary testimonies to the lifechanging is ready at a minute’s notice to power of the gospel.” find an appropriate story, song, or video clip, and share it with One of the thrilling things about the unreached person with mobile ministry is how it can whom he or she has struck up go viral. With most phones now a conversation. enabled with Bluetooth, media can be zapped from phone to 3) Reproducible ministry. A goal phone easily and at no cost. One of most missionaries is to foster experiment conducted by Purdue a ministry that can be re-created University found that a simple by the people they are reaching agriculture video installed out to without the need for on seven phones in a village in outside assistance. Because Nigeria spread to 118 people in mobile ministry uses tools that 50 villages after only one month. the least-reached already own, (Follow this link or the QR code it is eminently reproducible. at the end of the articleii to view the video about this experiment— 4) An approachable means of http://www.youtube.com/ widespread gospel seed-sowing. watch?v=y0Z4GtfHiX0.) In Recent studies have shown that a similar way, I was delighted a hallmark of successful church- to discover that one of the planting efforts is widespread biggest distributors of the gospel seed-sowing. This “mobilized” gospel materials ensures that as large a percent developed for our outreach of the population as possible turned out to be a Qur’anic have a chance to interact with teacher in another country. the gospel. In his seminal work on church planting movements, 5) A Guttenberg Press for the David Garrison, states that “in illiterate and impoverished Church Planting Movements, portion of the Church. hundreds and even thousands Martin Luther referred to the of individuals are hearing the Guttenberg Press as “God’s claims that Jesus Christ has on highest and extremist act of their lives. This sowing often grace, whereby the business of relies heavily upon mass media the Gospel is driven forward” evangelism, but it always includes (as cited in Misa 2004, 23). “Mobilizing” the Story of His Glory 101

While the Gutenberg Press A Mobile Instead of a Machette was a milestone development While I never ended up with a for the spread of the gospel machete in hand getting the gospel among the literate and well-to- to a remote people, I did find that do, the mobile phone has given having a mobile has enabled me to the masses the opportunity to have a part in getting the gospel receive the Bible in oral form, as to many remote peoples. Farida, well as to record and share their for instance, fell in love with Jesus own testimonies, stories, and through the videos she saw on my songs in audio or video form. wife’s phone and asked where she could meet him. Saalim could never 6) New access to many millions of have brought a Bible into his army the unreached. An unfortunate barracks, but relied upon the Bible fact of the world we live in today is on his mobile phone to help him that less than fifteen percent of all grow in his faith. Basma, a woman Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims who had been widowed for five have a personal relationship with years, could well have been stoned a Christian (Johnson, et al. 2010). to death after it was found she was While nothing can ever replace pregnant. However, her fellow a personal relationship, radio, villagers had seen on a mobile Internet, and mobile ministry phone’s screen Jesus rebuking the provide a chance to initiate Pharisees and restoring the woman contact and, Lord willing, bring caught in adultery. Learning of about the first steps in creating Jesus through poetry and video on face-to-face relationships. That a mobile phone certainly played said, the Internet is used by only a large role in Basma’s coming to 2.7 billion people, while 4.3 billion faith in him. use mobile phones (Ahonen 2012). In other words, mobile In the second part of this series, I ministry opens the potential of will share ways you can implement connecting with 1.6 billion people mobile ministry in your outreach. who live beyond the reach of the In the meantime, if you would Internet. It is significant that like to learn more about mobile eighty-four percent of Internet ministry, visit the following sites: users are accessing it via either mobile devices alone or some http://www.mobileministryforum.org combination of mobiles and http://www.mobileadvance.org PCs (Ahonen 2012). http://www.mobileministrymagazine.org 102 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Keith Williams

References Ahonen, Tomi. 2012. “Latest Mobile Numbers for End of Year 2012 - This is getting humongous...” communities-dominate.blogs.com/brands/2012/12/latest- mobile-numbers-for-end-of-year-2012-this-is-getting-humongous.html

_____. 2013. “Around the World with Mobile Global Insights and Regional Relevance of Mobile Marketing.” www.slideshare.net/vivastream/around- the-world-with-mobile-global-insights-and-regional-relevance-of-mobile- marketing-20847876

All Africa. 2009. “Africa: Mobile Phones Achieve More Than Aid, Says Industry Chief.” allafrica.com/stories/200908040141.html?viewall=1

Dyer, John. 2011. From the Garden to the City: The Redeeming and Corrupting Power of Technology. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Press

Garrison, David. 1999. Church Planting Movements. simplechurchathome.com/ PDF&PowerPoint/ChurchPlantingMovements.pdf

Gibbs, Nancy. 2012. “Your Life Is Fully Mobile.” Time Magazine. http://techland. time.com/2012/08/16/your-life-is-fully-mobile/

International Data Corporation (IDC). 2012. “THE DIGITAL UNIVERSE IN 2020: Big Data, Bigger Digital Shadows, and Biggest Growth in the Far East.” www.emc.com/collateral/analyst-reports/idc-the- digital-universe-in-2020.pdf “Mobilizing” the Story of His Glory 103

International Telecommunications Union (ITU). 2013. “The World in 2013: ICT Facts and Figures.” www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ ICTFactsFigures2013.pdf

Johnson, Todd, David Barrett, and Peter Crossing. 2010. “Christianity 2010: A View from the New Atlas of Global Christianity.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research, January. http://www.internationalbulletin.org/system/ files/2010-01-ibmr.pdf

Misa, Thomas. 2004. Technology and Culture: From the Renaissance to the Present. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

Olson, Bruce. 2006. Bruchko. Lake Mary, FL: Charisma House.

Population Curve. n.d.. In Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/File:Population_curve.svg

Qiang, Christine Zhen-Wei; Rossotto, Carlo M. 2009. “Economic Impacts of Broadband.” In 2009 Information for Communications and Development: Extending Reach and Increasing Impact. siteresources.worldbank.org /EXTIC4D/ Resources/IC4D_Broadband_35_50.pdf

U.N. News Center. 2010. “Mobile Telephones More Common Than Toilets in India, UN Report Finds.” http://www.un.org/apps/news/story. asp?NewsID=34369&Cr=mdg&Cr1#.Ufb3km3kvJk

World Bank. 2012. “IC4D 2012: Maximizing Mobile” http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ EXTINFORMATIONANDCOMMUNICATIONANDTECHNOLOGIES/ 0,,contentMDK:23190786~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:282823, 00.html 104 Telling the Gospel Through Story 105 Telling the Gospel Through Story by Christine Dillon Reviewed by Tara Rye Reviewed by Dr. Tara Rye, the Dean of Women at Grace University in Omaha, NE. She is passionate about communicating the Word of God in a way people understand. She is a published author, an active speaker, and has served on short-term missions in several countries. She also uses biblical storying weekly at a homeless shelter and on the radio.

Dillon, Christine. Telling the Gospel Through Story. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012, pp. 224. $15.00. Source ISBN-13: 978-0830837946

uthor Christine Dillon tone fool you, for this book should Aserves as a missionary for be used in the same way as a the Overseas Mission Fellowship textbook. Dillon walks the reader (OMF). She currently serves as a through the practical steps one church planter in Taiwan. Dillon's must take to allow God's story to book, Telling The Gospel Through flow in daily conversations and in Story provides a practitioner's classroom situations. She reminds dialogue on how to evangelize the reader "success is not method- in a way that will make hearers based" because "storytelling is an want more. art and not a science" (84, 64). Part of what grips the reader is If anyone understands that the the honesty with which Dillon power of story happens in a communicates her own trials in conversation, Dillon does! Dillon learning how to communicate converses with the reader as if the gospel effectively. Dillon they are sitting in the corner cafe openly shares her mistakes in together sipping tea. Though becoming a practitioner of the this book is filled with practical principles discussed: "Storying is guidance on how to shape a good discipling people to conversion" story, how to evangelize through and "evangelism should not be Bible storytelling, how to lead hurried" (12). She reminds the good Bible discussions, and how to reader that it is okay to leave a motivate others to use storytelling, hearer hanging with a mystery it does not read like a textbook. and that there will be times to say But do not let its conversational nothing at all. 106 Orality Journal, Volume 2, Number 2, 2013 Tara Rye

Dillon also artfully illustrates familiar with the Scriptures (119). how a Bible storyteller can use the discussion questions to match the Dillon removes the debate as to learning preference of the hearer. whether Bible storytelling is for Dillon shared the fear she felt only oral learners; the highly before sharing a Bible story to a literate with an oral preference are highly literate group of leaders that amongst us. So, instead of viewing were quite familiar with the Bible Bible storying for a certain group, story. She challenges the reader to the reader recognizes that all people "encourage highly literate groups to are challenged by this method of ask their own questions" to engage teaching. Dillon encourages the discussion about the passage, reader to find ways to motivate explaining that the key to successful others to become Bible storytellers. engagement happens with pushing Anyone seeking to communicate the discussion to "higher levels" the gospel will find this book when the participants are more practical, insightful and significant.

Miraculous Movements by Jerry Trousdale Reviewed by Tara Rye Trousdale, Jerry. Miraculous Movements: How Hundreds and Thousands of Muslims are Falling in Love with Jesus. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2012, pp. 273. $7.69. Kindle edition. Page Numbers Source ISBN: 141854728X. Publisher: Thomas Nelson (March 6, 2012). Amazon Digital Services, Inc. ASIN: B00759NKOM

uthor of Miraculous Miraculous Movements unfolds AMovements, Jerry Trousdale, an intentional method to reach understands the power of a great story. Muslims through the discovery of His experience with the pastorate, God in the Bible (p. 14 or d. 6%). church planting, and Christian Trousdale captures the reader as publishing provide a rich knowledge he retells countless stories of real and experiential base for the truths Muslim men and women coming that are weaved within the true stories to know Christ through the power shared about the movement of God of prayer, compassion, Bible stories among the Muslims through and questions. Be prepared to sit on Discovery Bible studies. the edge of your seat as you read Miraculous Movements 107 about all-night prayer gatherings, and obedient churches plant secret baptisms, and even the churches Trousdale explains, "If raising of the dead. Trousdale we want to emulate the model of reminds the reader that believers Jesus, we must learn to minister need to expect the unexpected in as He did, meeting human needs order to experience miraculous while also confronting the lost with favor from God. Believers need the truth of the gospel" (p. 89 or not fear Muslims, but see them as d. 42%). This prepares the way for a people group that needs to be sharing the gospel with a person discipled into salvation. of peace.

Trousdale points out Muslim For those who cannot experience leaders who have been interviewed international missions first hand, seek to restrict the translation of this book provides a literary the Qur'an because they want to experience that awakens the conceal that the Qur'an is filled with heart, mind, and spirit to want to contradictions and that it affirms experience international missions the special status of Isa al Masih— or at the very least experience Jesus the Messiah (p. 77 or d. 36%). mission mindedness where you In addition, the lack of assurance are living. For the one on the field of salvation disturbs Sheikhs and this book provides encouragement imams (p. 77 or d. 36%). Trousdale to remain faithful to the task. For challenges believers to reach the the one wondering how to reach heart of Muslims through prayer, their Muslim neighbor, it provides genuine friendship, and through simple, relational examples of open and honest conversation (p. others who internalized the Word 85 or d. 40%). Emphasizing that of God and poured it out in a story. obedient disciples make disciples A definite must read! 108

All professors are granted standing permission to reproduce any portion of this journal without securing prior permission. For archived editions:

Volume 1, Number 1, 2012 The Oral Reality: From Rural to Hi-Tech Communities

The Oral Reality: From Rural to Hi-Tech Communities Lovejoy • Terry • Stringer • LeFever • Evans • Stahl

Volume 2, Number 1, 2013 Scalable Experiments: Bible Translation, Church Planting, Disciple Making in the Digitoral Era www.orality.net

ISBN 962-7673-26-9