Social Linguistics and Literacies: Gee provides further proof of Ideology in Discourses. James literacy's ties to social behaviour. Paul Gee. Bristol, PA: The Pal- He also acknowledges that the mer Press, 1990. xxi + 203 pp. indivisible bonds linking language use and social interaction have serious consequences, especially Many people in "literate" societies, when literacy is deployed to wreak when asked to define literacy, al- injustice on individuals or groups. most always do so in terms of read- Like earlier "New Literacy" re- ing and writing abilities. This searchers, Gee exposes the covert narrow interpretation of literacy, an function of reductionist literacy offspring of reductionist psychol- paradigms, namely their justifica- ogy, has reigned supreme in many tion of educational practices that academic and educational contexts are party to social, economic, and for decades, greatly shaping political inequities. literacy theories and classroom Despite these similarities, practices. Within the past ten years, Social Linguistics and Literacies however, a large body of multidis- (henceforth, SL&L) departs from ciplinary research has begun to un- other "New Literacy Studies" in the dermine the authority of this specific theoretical and pedagogi- perspective by situating literacy in cal alternatives it proposes. Ac- larger social practices. cording to Gee, this volume Support for this emerging "...constitutes an overt theory of interdisciplinary perspective has literacy and socially-based linguis- grown, and an increasing emphasis tics" (Introduction: xx) that has been placed on the interplay counters traditional views and between language, educational frames literacy in terms of abilities practice, and societal features of to display various social identities. power and domination. A "cutting Just as actors need more than lines edge" exemplar of such work can to convincingly depict their charac- be found in a series of monographs, ters, Gee argues that all humans anthologies, and textbooks entitled engaged in any sort of social "Critical Perspectives on Literacy interaction must successfully in- and Education." Social Linguistics tegrate specific attitudes, beliefs, and Literacies: Ideology in Dis- behaviours, thoughts and uses of courses, the hook reviewed here, is language. Moreover, humans must the introduction to this collection. be able to combine these elements Firmly located within the paradigm in a myriad of ways in order to of "social" approaches to literacy, exhibit different social identities. or what Gee calls the "New Consequently, literacy as a mass Literacy Studies," this volume term gives way to literacies as a validates many previous research count term. findings and also makes some These ideas are thought- unique contributions. provoking and controversial, yet

Ilha do Desterro 29, 1993 pp 139-146 1 40 Reviews / Resenhas rife with implications for language Two, "Introduction to a Social education. Despite the wall of Linguistics -, and finishing with the denial erected by psychological close of part Three, "A Theory of reductionism, many academic re- Discourses". The visual metaphor searchers have grappled with these is that of a pyramid viewed from issues and even tried to offer the bottom up. The first part, educational solutions. SL&L takes covering the greatest range of on this dualistic function of issues, is akin to the base of this criticism and suggestions for pyramid. Moving upwards, the change. Other North American second part resembles the narrow- researchers attempting this task ing of the pyramid as the author include the "Critical Pedagogy" zeroes in on the particulars of devotees of Freire's emancipatory language. Part Three, the literacy philosophy (cf. McLaren, pyramid's apex, consists of Gee's 1989; Giroux, 1988). In the eyes of precise and straightforward theory practitioners, many of these re- of Discourses and literacies. Aural- searchers succeed as critics yet fail ly, one is reminded of a jazz score to be constructive. played live where different phases Gee may be an exception are evident, yet certain chords and here, too, given his efforts to sequences are repeated throughout maximize comprehension and min- the song. Major themes and issues imize frustration by avoiding ex- resonate throughout the three parts, cessive technical jargon, cryptic albeit at different tempos and in references, and abstract theorizing different keys, complementing the devoid of concrete examples. Gee's hierarchy of these parts. project is all the more distinctive The rationale for the volume because of the deftness with which as a whole is rare indeed as it stems he coherently synthesizes issues from a moral mandate to reconcep- from a diverse range of perspec- tualize language use, social tives, some of which include theories, and educational practices. literary criticism, formal linguistic The mandate draws its strength theory, poststructuralist social largely from a careful historical theory, comparative education, cul- analysis of literacy undertaken in tural anthropology, and critical Part One. This history, according to language studies. Gee, is a story of people's attempts The rhetorical layout of this to resolve literacy's fundamental volume gives it an unusual struc- contradiction: regardless of its ture. To appreciate its inherent oppressive or liberating capacities, logic, readers will need to focus on literacy cannot be immune to the the volume's three parts, not the sociopolitical influences of human seven chapters that go into these relations. Specifically, interpreta- parts. Impressionistically, at least tions, definitions, and expectations to this reviewer, the structuring of governing literacy are always these parts takes on both a visual subject to the vagaries of human and aural flavor when going from motives for solidarity and status. part One, "Background", to part Gee sees no easy resolution to Reviews I Resenhas 141 this contradiction, unlike those book, and the moral principle who seize upon solutions which rip concerned with their explication is literacy from its social and political one Gee dubs a "Conceptual origins. Gee claims that these are Principle Governing Human Dis- "facile" attempts spurred on by the course." parade of "myths" about literacy's Part One goes beyond the great potential for improving theoretical realm to provide con- political systems, social relations, temporary evidence in support of and even individual intellectual the moral basis behind Gee's "overt abilities. What has sustained these theory of literacy." Shirley Brice- myths so far, especially in educa- Heath's Ways with Words is a tion both in North America and seminal example of this current abroad, are "scientific" distinctions work. Heath's work stresses the between oral and literate cultures socially situated nature of literacy (see for example Goody, 1977; practices, advocating not a singular Ong, 1982; and Havelock, 1963) literacy of the mind, but multiple Beneath the fanfare and "facts," literacies of the various social however, lurks a darker side where milieus. Heath's now-classic study literacy's capacity to oppress is has served as both a "New Literacy very real to those labelled "il- Studies" attack on the "oral- literate" or "functionally literate." literate" distinction as well as an By confronting this con- insightful glimpse into the connec- tradiction, Gee discloses many tions between home-based lan- unpleasant moments in literacy's guage practices and one's later history that continually reappear. success or failure at school. Their eradication is the goal behind Because of its clarity and the "moral basis" of Gee's efforts. relevance, Heath's study is useful Because terms like literacy are for illustrating the major issues in often implicated in the larger social this volume. inequities of "literate" societies, For those not familiar with the author claims that any attempt this research, Heath conducted an to designate "human" in the ethnography of the home-based honorific sense must render the interactions existing in three dif- how's and why's behind their use ferent Carolina Piedmont com- of these terms as overtly as munities: 1) Trackton, a black possible. He adds that such an working class community; 2) endeavour should be the primary Roadville, a white working class, function of education given that (in strongly Fundamentalist com- "literate" societies) one's level of munity; and 3) the mainstream academic success often strongly middle-class residents of Main- corresponds to one's social and town. The outstanding element in economic standing later in life. The Heath's study was her comparison generalizations and reasons we of language practices in these employ to make sense of concepts homes with those of the school. like social relations and language Hcr findings vividly depict use are called ideologies in this how schools can function to 142 Reviews / Resenhas

marginalize "non-mainstream" assumed to be. Much of what populations even at the level of insures conformity to the norms of seemingly insignificant talk. The some groups and not others is the Piedmont schools mirrored many perpetual need Gee claims we all of the language practices, including have for status and solidarity with reading and writing behaviours, others. found in the mainstream homes. The teachers in Heath 's study This large overlap in early home- could be described as having and school-based language prac- cultural models often at odds with tices ensured that mainstream the non-mainstream pupils. Certain children were granted more imme- ideologies, like those coloring the diate access to educational benefits teachers' interpretations of literate like higher grades. The verbal and versus non-literate behaviour, nonverbal behaviours found in the wove themselves into these homes of Roadville and Trackton models, accentuating the differen- children, on the other hand, dif- ces between mainstream teacher fered or conflicted with those and non-mainstream student. A expected in school. By endorsing final division was probably created views of "correct" and "incorrect" by the fact that Roadville, Trackton behaviours in their interactions and Maintown students did not with these students, the Piedmont seek to establish solidarity with the teachers (like many across North same groups, nor did their notions America) viewed their linguistic of status always mesh. Unfor- and non-linguistic deviations quite tunately, these discrepancies were negatively. viewed by teachers in an asocial The microgenetic details at light and were often confused with which tacit theories insinuate "intelligence", "aptitude," and themselves into places like the "literacy skills." Piedmont schools are dealt with Heath found, however, that it more explicitly in part Two of was not by virtue of innate SL&L. The connections Gee draws intellectual abilities that between language use and social mainstream pupils were better able allegiances enables one to see that to "read and write correctly." The teachers in Heath's study arc not -head start" for them came before entirely to blame for schooling because many of the misunderstanding Roadville and behaviours and attitudes that would Trackton students. Instead, Gee be expected later by their teachers argues, individuals, like these were already taking place within teachers, ascribe certain meanings the family environment. Moreover, to socially contested terms the attitudes developed early on (e.g."literacy") on the basis of the with respect to these behaviours cultural models favored by those would prove to be those deemed social groups to which they belong. "good" and "successful" by future These cultural models are teachers. prototypical "models" of how Storybook reading is a case in people, objects, and events are point. While Roadville and Main- Reviews / Resenhas 1 43 town children were read to by their involved in language variation, nor parents, Maintown children were did they realize how those factors encouraged to say, do, and believe could impact language at every in ways that teachers would level of use. Because their cultural applaud in the classroom. Taking models and practices did not characters, scenes, and events in a parallel those of their teachers, story and discussing them in other Tracton and Roadville students contexts was a common feature of were denied academic success, mainstream parent-child discus- became "losers" in the educational sions. The strong Fundamentalist lottery, and consequently found attitudes of Roadville often dis- themselves increasingly isolated couraged this sort of decontextual- from dominant, mainstream in- ized treatment of printed matter. stitutions. When this ability to suspend the Part Three of SLBEL repre- authority of the text became sents a culmination of the major important in school, Roadville issues addressed thus far. To bring students would "fail." Trackton together these various elements, children, exposed to certain home- Gee presents a theory of literacies based ways not found in the other and Discourses. Views implicit in two communities, also encountered the previous two parts are made failure in school. The kinds of explicit in Gee's discussion of this language uses stressed by many theory's impact on educational Trackton residents, e.g. group practice. The explicitness negotiation of written texts and demonstrated here also functions at verbal dexterity in oral narratives, a philosophical level to fulfill the were diametrically opposed to what "Conceptual Principle Governing schools deemed "normal," espe- Ethical Human Discourse" of cially in the elementary school chapter one as Gee's "overt theory years. of literacy" represents the author's Even though people from all attempt to live by the tenets of his three communities spoke mutually professed morality. intelligible English, the functions, This theory of literacy is forms, meanings, and interpreta- rendered more meaningful by the tions tied to this language still discussion of Discourses preceding varied enough to lead to the kinds it. These "Discourses" represent a of differences in school behaviour means of forging the links between Heath documented. This variation variable social practices, cultural was not the result of a motivation- models, and ways of language use. al/developmental deficit affecting While operating under various residents only of Trackton and definitions in linguistics and Roadville. Unfortunately, those literacy research, Gee establishes a who had some control over educa- somewhat unique reconceptualiza- tion, itself a social "good" Gee tion of the term coupled with a would argue, thought otherwise. distinctive orthographical feature: These people were neither cog- the D in Discourses is always nizant of the very real social factors capitalized. 1 44 Reviews I Resenhas

In keeping with his moral and economic forces within the mandate, Gee explicitly defines Piedmont area, as with other areas Discourses in chapter six. Accord- across the world, are not amenable ing to him, a Discourse is "...a to egalitarianism of this sort. The socially accepted association mainstream children's primary among ways of using language, of Discourse enabled them to master thinking, feeling, believing, valu- more quickly the secondary Dis- ing, and of acting, that can be used courses prized by the schools, to identify oneself as a member of while the Roadville and Trackton a socially meaningful group or students found their own primary 'social network', or to signal (that Discourses sharply at odds with one is playing) a socially meaning- these privileged school-based Dis- ful *role'."(143). courses. The schools, via teachers' The different ways of think- grades and evaluations, marginal- ing, feeling, believing, valuing and ized these divergent ways of acting in the Mainstream, Tracton, saying-doing-valuing-believing, and Roadville homes in Heath's by labelling them as "inap- study represent three different propriate" or "wrong." primary Discourses while the Educators might well despair school-based combinations are at the thought of trying to challenge more public, secondary Discour- the social reproductionist tenden- ses. Gee adds that any socially cies of formal schooling. Neverthe- useful definition of literacy must less, Gee does offer an alternative incorporate these notions as well. that, although not easy, may pave Consequently, literacy is defined the way for truly different as well as: mastery of, or fluent control as "more just and humane" schools, over, secondary Discourses involv- teachers, students, and societies. ing print (153). Because literacy Educators have some agency in entails so much beyond an ability helping to bring about this change. to decode or produce printed Of course, what is often the easiest language, Gee argues that "involv- and least costly choice for many ing print" is really unnecessary; it educators is to follow in the is there to "...assuage the feelings footsteps of others without ques- of people committed...to reading tioning. However, Gee argues that and writing as decontextualized such behaviour is tantamount to and isolable skills" (153). endorsing a morally suspect way of The definition of literacy life. By keeping certain ideologies, offered in SL&L is not simply a cultural models, and attendant change of words. It represents a dominant Discourses tacit, one is fundamental shift in the charac- morally complicit with the con- terization of people and in the tinuation of many social inequities. capabilities they possess. Being Ripping literacy from its social "literate" is now something shared womb and blaming individual by the Trackton, Roadville and "victims" for the larger social Maintown students. Of course, the imbalances absolves the respon- influences of the social, political, sible institutions and individuals of Reviews / Resenhas 145 any guilt. literacy. The road less travelled, but Some may react negatively to one Gee urges all of us to take, is Gee's reconceptualizations of the one leading to Gee's morally- literacy and Discourses, criticizing based "discourse (read: Discourse) him for rendering these terms analysis." Heath 's ethnography is a meaningless. Gee counters this real world example of how to potential objection by pointing out analyze -critically and to render that Discourses will always ensure overt many of the tacit theories that not just "anything goes" with found in educational settings the the meanings or uses one attaches world over. Gee refuses to stop to linguistic forms. Our need for here, however, as laying bare the status or solidarity with certain morally suspect ideologies en- Discourses greatly figures into this demic to classrooms is only the system of checks and balances. beginning. Borrowing from Others, especially practitioners, Krashen's problematic distinction may criticize Gee for seeming more between learning and acquisition, invested in pointing out problems Gee argues that classrooms need to than in suggesting specific be environments where learning remedies that would affect class- and acquisition are allowed to room practices. flourish. However, this volume was Gee claims that we acquire not meant to present how-to much of our fluency in a Discourse formulae nor to appease tradition. when we are unconsciously ex- Its purpose has been to present a posed to ways of saying-doing- theory of literacy which em- believing-valuing in meaningful phasizes the fundamentally social settings. Learning is also essential, and political nature of language use as it involves the sort of critical, and the deeply moral obligation all morally just analysis of the of us have to explicate our theories ideologies within Discourses. That about language use, social rela- is, Gee maintains that learning tions, and social goods. In place of entails conscious attention to for- a programmatic outline for peda- mal properties of a Discourse, gogy, Gee has constructed an analyzing, and comparing them to opportunity space in which other Discourses. The only way to teachers and students can develop ever change a Discourse, and, by the literacies that will be most extension, inequitable social rela- liberating for them: literacies tions, is through developing learn- whose capacities for change can ing activities that allow for extend beyond the towers of liberating literacies where one academia and the walls of the develops a set of meta-features to classroom. critique, analyze, and alter a Constance A. Gergen dominant Discourse. Gee adds the University of Southern California proviso that acquisition, however partial. of a Discourse is needed before one can develop a liberating 1 46 Reviews / Rescnhas

References widespread only during the past Brice-Heath, S. 1982. Ways with half-century. More recent is the Words: Language, Life, and Work emergence over the past two to in Communities and Classrooms. three decades of composition Cambridge: Cambridge University studies as an academic discipline, Press. and even more recent is the aware- Giroux, H. 1988. Schooling and the ness that composition research and Struggle for Public Life. pedagogy must expand to meet the Minneapolis, MN: University of needs of the ESL population. As Minnesota Press. growing numbers of international Goody, J. 1977. The Domestication of students flood colleges and univer- the Savage Mind. Cambridge: sities in the English-speaking Cambridge University Press. world, and as English becomes in- Havelock, E. A. 1963. Preface to Plato. creasingly important as a world Cambridge, MA: Harvard language, ESL composition is a University Press. burgeoning field. Unfortunately, Krashen, S. 1985. The Input the inevitable result of such chang- Hypothesis: Issues and ing circumstances has been that Ll Implications. London: Longman theory, research, and pedagogy McLaren, P. 1989. Life in Schools: An have sometimes been uncritically Introduction to Critical Pedagogy applied to the ESL composition in the Foundations of Education. classroom. New York: Longman.. This volume represents one Ong, W. J. 1982. Orality and Literacy: of many current, ongoing attempts The Technologizing of the Word. to contribute to our understanding London: Methuen. of ESL composition. In its 13 chapters, which are grouped under the headings "Philosophical Un- derpinnings of Second Language Writing Instruction" and "Con- siderations for Writing Instruc- tion," a number of issues pertinent to second language composition are addressed. Several articles deal Second Language Writing: Re- with the important issue of teacher search Insights for the Classroom. response. For example, Chapter 4, Barbara Kroll, ed. Melbourne: "Coaching from the Margins: Cambridge University Press, Issues in Written Response, by 1990. 230 pp. Ilona Leki, and Chapter 10, "Feed- back on Compositions: Teacher and Student Verbal Reports", by The study of composition at the Andrew D. Cohen and Marilda C. post-secondary level is a relatively Cavalcanti, discuss students' views new practice which has become of, and teachers' goals for,

Ilha do Desterro 29, 1993 pp 146-152 Reviews / Resenhas 147 worthwhile feedback. As we well process approach is presented as know, the schism between teacher the only logical (and, of course, feedback and its intended results politically correct) approach to persists, and such a problem is writing instruction. Practitioners exacerbated when the teachers and relatively new to the field (those students are of different cultural who have been teaching, say, 10 and language backgrounds. Of years or less) may lack the equal importance is research on the historical background needed to implications of the currently understand the extent to which popular process approach for ESL behavioristic models of learning writing. Such issues are discussed still permeate ESL writing peda- in Ann M. Johns' "LI Composition gogy in the United States. Even Theories: Implications for those instructors trained in applied Developing Theories of L2 Corn- linguistics may not realize that an position," and Chapter 3, analog to the grossly outmoded, yet Alexandra Rose Krapels' "An pervasive, Audio-Lingual ap- Overview of Second Language proach to language learning has Writing Process Research." recently dominated the ESL com- There are few tasks which position field. Audio-Lingualism, continually challenge composition made popular in the late 1950s by instructors more than topic choice, the advent of the portable tape and having students from different recorder, is based on a stimulus- cultural and language backgrounds response model of learning which further complicates the issue. Joy has long been believed inap- Reid tackles this subject in Chapter propriate for language learning and 12, "Responding to Different Topic for the acquisition of rhetorical Types: A Quantitative Analysis patterns. Inexplicably, its traces from a Contrastive Rhetoric remain firmly entrenched in lan- Perspective." She investigates the guage teaching and writing peda- possibility of mismatch between gogy. students' acquisition of topic What makes Silva's chapter knowledge in their Ll and the somewhat less effective is his necessity of writing on such topics far-too-brief and almost patroniz- in English, the L2. Other topics of ingly comprehensive critique. He crucial importance to L2 composi- claims that there has recently been tion, such as L2 writing assessment a "merry-go-round" of approaches and the relationship between read- in which each candidate tends to be ing and writing, are also covered. limited in scope, "evangelically" The historical overview of promoted, "accepted uncritical- Chapter 1, "Second Language ly...rejected prematurely," only to Composition Instruction: Develop- be replaced by a new and equally ments, Issues and Directions in flawed approach (18). He categori- ESL", by Tony Silva, is especially cally denies consistency, depth, valuable in that many current ESL and progress in the development of composition teachers have been ESL composition pedagogy. Al- trained in an era in which the though he may have an arguable 1 48 Reviews I Resenhas point, he stops short of giving the of Gee 1991, which addresses this evidence necessary to argue it. issue extensively). Writing is Even though his "merry-go-round" viewed through the traditional argument is insufficiently sup- behavioral science paradigm in ported, Silva does provide some which all variables can be control- insightful solutions as well as a led and considered independently description of an ideal model for from one another, with the human relating theory, research and prac- factor ruled out. For example, in tice in ESL writing instruction. Chapter 5, Hamp-Lyons laments, Chapter 1 should indeed be com- and rightly so, that "It is a sad irony mended for its consciousness-rais- that in writing assessment research ing value. there is a real tendency for the Chapter 2 is arguably one of writer to be forgotten in the the more insightful chapters in the difficulties and controversies sur- volume. Johns discusses the rounding such issues as topic theoretical orientations driving choice, construct validity versus composition instruction today, del- reliability, and the like." Yet she ves into ideological issues, and goes on to state that "...there is at makes the excellent and often present no developed classification neglected point that it is impossible of writer variables separate from to teach composition—or do any- variables associated with the task, thing else, for that matter—without the reader, or the scoring proce- a theoretical orientation, however dure" (p. 76). She tacitly assumes, tacit (see Gergcn, this volume, for throughout the chapter, that there a discussion of Gee's views on tacit must he some way to remove theories). She favors teachers' "humanness" from the assessment articulating their theoretical stan- of writing—or, at least, isolate it ces in the classroom, because from other "separate" variables making the "rules" explicit is one such as the task and the reader. It step toward student empower- would seem impossible to separate ment—it makes teachers' views writer variables from such "other" and expectations clear to the variables because such variables students, which is a prerequisite for are inherently confounded. Re- fairness in the classroom. searchers such as Hamp-Lyons Other articles in Part I are might benefit from reflecting on the more problematic. In fact, I have paradoxes inherent in their re- one overarching and serious search orientation ]cf. Mishler criticism of a trend which appears (1986) for an extensive discussion in several chapters: the propensity of the problematic aspects of a of these authors—which seems to traditional behavioristic approach be a common orientation in the to social science research]. ESL writing field in general—to Similarly, as Hamp-Lyons consider writing as a set of skills sees the writer as separable from which can he isolated from any such variables as the task, other meaningful social context (see authors in the volume seem to see Gergen, this volume, for a review writing as separable from its Reviews / Resenhas 149 context and its socially situated constructs. In fact, many skills nature. For example, in Chapter 6, assumed necessary and/or suffi- "Reading-Writing Connections: cient for even minimal literacy Toward a Description for Second simply arc not. Moreover, the Language Learners," Joan Carson farther behind their classmates Eisterhold attempts to differentiate children are, the more they arc between "language skills" and subjected to increasingly decontex- "literacy skills." Here, Eisterhold tualized and meaningless "drill and risks appealing to the claim that kill" (Smith 1986), and conse- literacy can he reduced to an quently fall even farther behind. isolated set of skills, a claim which The basic fallacy guiding such many would find contentious. practice is the assumption that the First, there is evidence that the more successful children have cognitive "skills" often (wrongly) attained their level of proficiency associated with literacy in general through a mastery of skills. In fact, do not necessarily transfer across evidence suggests that their literacies in different languages knowledge is in fact often gained (Scribner and Cole 1981) and thus through more holistic learning via cannot be claimed inherent to a type of social apprenticeship to a literacy. Further, by overemphasiz- "club" as per Smith (1984), or a ing the cognitive dimension of Discourse as per Gee (1991), rather literacy, Eisterhold neglects its than systematic acquisition of social context (see Gergen, this discrete skills. volume, for a review of Gee's Problems of the type dis- theories of literacy vis-a-vis social cussed above arc even more context). pronounced in the second section Youmans (ms.) extensively of the volume. A major criticism of reviews arguments against the this second section is that the pervasive skills-based approach to authors tend to separate language literacy and its pedagogical im- from its socially situated nature plications. A major problem with within culture and to overem- this approach is that it incorrectly phasize the language issues. For predicts that mastery of these example, in Chapter 7, "Compos- "skills" leads to literacy (de Castel) ing in English: Effects of a First and Luke 1986; Ekwa II and Language on Writing in English as Shanker 1985). Smith makes the a Second Language," Alexander apt comment that "students arc Friedlander attempts to choose often taught and tested on one topics which would elicit decontextualized thing at a time, in knowledge acquired in either a predetermined sequence, in the Chinese or English, but does not false expectation that sooner or adequately consider the cultural later this will make them expert issues in which such topics are readers and writers" (1986:109). enmeshed. He asks one group of Such programs have resulted from students to write to a director of the well-intentioned but misguided international studies on Gingming, use of cognitive psychological a deeply-rooted traditional Chinese 1 50 Reviews / Resenhas festival of ancestor worship, while been more insightful in Chapter 9, the other group is asked to write to "What Does Time Buy? ESL a director of a university foreign Student Performance on Home student office, giving advice on Versus Class Compositions," if she foreign student programs. Using had not been so heavily judgmental these two topics is monumentally of "good" versus "bad" writing. problematic as they are likely to Kroll continually uses phrases such evoke very different emotional as "...knowing what constitutes responses, to be more familiar to good writing," and "...the attributes some students than to others, and to of effective writing" (p. 152; raise politeness issues. It would emphasis added), without acknow- seem impossible to ask students to ledging that writing's "goodness" access knowledge acquired in one or "effectiveness" is not absolute; language versus another and not rather, it depends on the cultural access the complicated, accom- context in which it is produced. She panying cultural baggage at the vaguely defines "good" writing as same time. This problem, which that which exhibits "overall or- appears in several chapters, is ganizational success" (p. 142), and simply the result of repeated goes on to specify that such success attempts to measure writing as an entails criteria such as "remaining abstract skill, or set of skills, in on the focused topic throughout the isolation from socially meaningful essay (p. 144)." practices. Such criteria are considered A related criticism of the "good" because of their volume as a whole is that the prominence in the essayist style of cultural differences that students the white middle-class of the bring to the writing task are often United States. Because of the ignored or dismissed as negative privileged status of this group, such influences. For example, in Chap- standards are seen as absolute and ter 13, "Writing with Others' are thus expected of students from Words: Using Background Read- more marginal cultural back- ing Text in Academic Composi- grounds as well. However, it tions," Cherry Campbell discusses cannot be assumed that such ESL students' proficiency in in- criteria are necessary for "good" tegrating outside reading into writing in all cultures. For ex- essays with no consideration of ample, Gee (1991) analyzes stories different cultural norms for doing produced by African-American so. She does not, for example, schoolchildren which are often consider the vast cross-cultural judged "off topic" by Anglo differences in rhetorical patterns listeners precisely because they do which might affect students' as- not appear to remain "on the similation of outside material into focused topic." He asserts that their writing, though she does African-American listeners have imply that such study would be no problem following what he interesting. demonstrates to be the logical Similarly, Kroll might have structure of the narratives. It seems, Reviews I Resenhas 151 then, that Kroll should reconsider only article, however, that ends her choice of value-laden words, or abruptly—underdeveloped en- at least she should have attested to dings are a problem with nearly all their cultural relativity. Further, the chapters of the volume.) Kroll, like Campbell, might have Another article to be com- considered the possibility that the mended, as it advocates more influence of ESL students' ac- egalitarian relations between stu- quired, culturally based rhetorical dents and teachers, is Chapter 10. patterns on their writing is not Cohen and Cavalcanti's study is necessarily negative. Most ESL insightful and informative in that it writing teachers have certainly illuminates areas of match and come upon instances of eloquence mismatch between student expec- and uniqueness of expression in tations and teacher response and student writing which arise from suggests ways to increase the these very same cultural, rhetorical efficacy of teacher response. For differences which she implicitly example, the authors reveal that maligns. students are sometimes offended However, not all chapters of by teacher criticism of their essay Part 11 are plagued by such content and believe that teachers problems. For example, "The should confine their comments to Teaching of Topical Structure issues of form. Cohen and Caval- Analysis as a Revision Strategy for canti suggest that teachers articu- ESL Writers" by Ulla Connor and late agreements with students on Mary Farmer is informative in that feedback procedures. This is in line it offers a promising, linguistical ly- with Gee's (1991) position that, based heuristic for ESL writing like teachers' theoretical perspec- instruction. Students identify and tives (see discussion of Chapter 2, underline sentence topics, and then above), the "rules" of education, in draw a diagram which corresponds order not to be oppressive to to the structure of their essays in students, must be clearly and order to analyze cohesion. Many of explicitly articulated. us arc familiar with the recent Second Language Writing well-intentioned but failed at- has problematic aspects which tempts by ESL teachers to use make critical reading a must. But if transformational grammar in the one considers the caveats men- classroom, and it is refreshing to tioned here, and looks carefully at see an apparently reasonable way the studies' findings, the book can to integrate linguistics and com- be of great benefit, primarily as a position pedagogy. The one stimulus for future inquiry. Each criticism of this article is that the chapter opens up areas of study model is not presented in such a which are shown to be in need of way as to be interpreted and substantial further research. This actually used by teachers. Because newness, this initial exploration, this is a how-to article, the authors may be the reason that some of the should have given more specific studies are rough around the edges. how-to instructions. (This is not the Despite some questionable articles, 1 52 Reviews / Resenhas

the volume nevertheless addresses Reclaiming Pedagogy: The very interesting and valid questions Rhetoric of the Classroom. about L2 writing research and Patricia Donahue and Ellen certainly opens the door to some Quandahl. Carbondale and Ed- interesting investigations. wardsville: Southern Illinois Madeleine Youmans University Press, 1989. 179 University of Southern California pages.

The book consists of twelve articles References written by an equal number of de Castell, S., A. Luke and K. Egan. authors and edited by Patricia 1986. Literacy, society and Donahue and Ellen Quandahl. The schooling. Cambridge: Cambridge articles discuss a rich variety of University Press. topics and thinkers (Kenneth de Castell, S. and A. Luke. 1986. On Burke, Derrida, Barthes, Freud, defining literacy. In S. de Castell et Bakhtin, Stanley Fish), always al (eds.). Literacy, society and with one eye on classroom practice schooling. Cambridge: Cambridge and the other on theory. As the University Press. 3-14. editors claim in the introduction, Ekwall, E. E. and J. L. Shanker. 1985. "the real subject here is a new wave Teaching reading in the elementary of composition research, encourag- school. Columbus, OH: Charles E. ing us to read classroom practice Merrill. through critical theory, and promis- Mishler, E. G. 1986. Research ing, moreover, a mutually enhanc- interviewing: Ideology in ing interaction of theory and discourses. London: The Falmer pedagogy." The idea, then, is to Press. "reclaim pedagogy as a theoretical Scribner, S. and M. Cole. 1981. The field of study, a critical practice," psychology of literacy. Cambridge: not in order to illustrate or justify Harvard University Press. classroom activities, not in order to Smith, F. 1984. Joining the literacy use only those aspects of a theory club. Porthsmouth, NH: that support what one already does, Heinemann. but in order to integrate theory and Smith, F. 1986. Insult to intelligence. practice so that one can affect the New York: Arbor House. other, and so that, instead of affirm- Youmans, M. 1991. Conflicts and ing what we already do, theory will discourses in an east LA. barrio: allow us to resee what we do. "To Implications for theories of resee what we do," write the literacy. Unpublished manuscript, editors, "is precisely the aim of the University of Southern California. interactive pedagogics in this volume." And these "interactive pedagogics" find their justification in the need to respond to "the

Ilha do Desterro 29, 1992 pp 152-155 Reviews / Resenhas 1 53 repressions engendered by the Maria Salvatori's "Pedagogy: process model, repressions that From the Periphery to the Center," come from the claiming revolution- Dennis Foster's "Interpretation and ary status for this model and from Betrayal: Talking with Authority," forgetting the significant and Randall Knopper's similarities between it and the "Deconstruction, Process, Writ- traditional model of product." The ing." contention is that process models Maria Salvatori develops her are frequently not only content argument for an interactive peda- blind but also unable to take gogy discussing two "scenes," one advantage of the notion that "we "framed" by a text-centered and the [and our students] are always other by a reader-centered peda- already within a historical context gogy. She discusses at length E.D. that shapes beliefs and practices." Hirsch's concept of cultural It follows that no text comes to be literacy, criticizing it as "a theory except through the knowledge the of reading that privileges and writer brings from the world he is counts on prior background infor- in, a knowledge that is not only his mation can ultimately stifle a but one that he already shares with reader's involvement in reflexivity his prospective readers. Therefore, during the reading act and unless we conceive of composition obliterate the understanding and pedagogy as blind to the social the practice of reading and writing contract from within which all of us as interrelated, self-reflexive, and necessarily operate, whether from reciprocally illuminating ac- temporary centers of power or from tivities." What Hirsh's and margins that reveal centers, unless Knight's readings seem to be we regard composition as a form of doing, according to the author, is to imposition rather than dialogue, sacralize the traditional myths of that is, unless we conceive of authority, leading readers/students composition pedagogy as to a veneration stance which makes authoritarian rather than interac- dialoguing with the text and tional, conformative rather than questioning the text impossible. generative, reproductive of con- Salvatori's final argument is that ventional wisdom rather than crea- these notions, once retheorized, tive, there is little chance that the will lead composition teachers and student's knowledge, ideas, ex- students to regard, for example, an periences, and dialects will be author's work "as the progressive respected since our very action perfecting of an intention, rather presupposes conservation. And than an intention perfected." How conservation can be a Narcissus exactly this differs from current who, as Caetano Veloso would say, process pedagogies is not made dislikes anything which is not a clear, and one finishes reading her mirror. article with the feeling that this These and other ideas are reader-response theory is nothing especially well illustrated in three but a heuristic which, though it may of the articles in the collection: stimulate creativity and question 1 54 Reviews / Resenhas

traditional notions, will remain writing because its version of "untranslatable" to daily classroom reading as a meaning-making practice. That, however, may process suits theories of writing as change if, as the author puts it, "we process." Unhappily, however, few bring pedagogy from the periphery traces of deconstructive activity, if to the center of our profession" and any, remain in a final text. The "learn to conceptualize [it] as more explanation seems to lie in that, as than teaching methods and teach- Hillis Miller puts it, post-struc- ing techniques." turalism is a theory of reading and In "Interpretation and not of writing. In other words, Betrayal," Dennis A. Foster points reading is analysis and writing is to the dilemma of critical writing composition. This notion tends to which demands that students must emphasize "the flux of ideas behind simultaneously respect authority writ ing"—a flux which, as a rule, is and resist it, leading to what he subdued by the necessary hierar- calls "a paradoxical blend of chizations of "acceptable" prose. conformity and independent What does Knopper have to say thought." His argument is that the about this? He believes that the only way to resist authority is to "basic maxims for saving readers first recognize it, so that interpreta- from difficulty, for easing their tion becomes a necessary step for passage through a text, for avoiding betrayal, that is, the violation of excessive demands on short-term "the sense of wholeness produced memory—that a writer 'orient' by the paradigm of rationality." To readers by providing a telling title illustrate the point, Foster con- and using headings, guide them by ceives and proposes assignments quickly presenting an overarching on specific texts, presented to the thesis, use topics sentences to students' in three different forms at subordinate paragraphs to the three different stages, starting with thesis and to encapsulate units of the students reading the text on its meaning, provide periodic sum- own terms, followed by a stage of maries that divide the argument resistance to the text's logic, and into graspable stages—all aspire to concluding with an assignment in a hierarchy and control that a which students become par- post-structuralist perspective ticipants in the meaning-making would consider delusory... or un- process. To clarify this process, fortunate. Foster develops a very illuminating What is there to replace these discussion of these assignments in hierarchizations? Knopper relation to Marabel Morgan's book presents some "thin" suggestions The Total Woman. for assignments, one by Sharon Randal Knopper's "Decon- Crowley (have students "write struction, Process, Writing" at- opaque prose once in a while"), the tempts to rescue deconstruction other by Gregory L. Ulmer, who from its heuristical status. He suggests that students engage in argues that deconstruction found "exercises in plagiarism and mis- its way into "our thinking about reading." Knopper seems to en- Reviews Resenhas 155 dorse such assignments, asking redo or undo what we see. Yet, whether there "might [not] be because we are not allowed into the benefits to a text that displays a chambers of some of these writer's process of discovery and theorists, we have to be content invention," since such a revelation with the fragments of their dis- would also bring to light the course and somehow patch these amount of repression involved in together and make sense of them. doctoring one's writing to suit a This is a notoriously difficult task, thesis. Should we have our students but surprisingly most authors of write like Derrida? The answer is a Reclaiming Pedagogy manage to "perhaps" rather than a "yes." One illuminate what goes on in our the one hand, Knopper seems to composition classes and suggest believe that to extend deconstruc- the possibility of change. tion into the classroom would Dilvo I. Ristoff "mean taking students' texts as Univ. Federal de Santa Catarina never finished;" on the other hand, such writing, with its "unspeakable syntax" and "unconventional units of coherence" (or lack of co- herence?) would threaten current essayistic practices and be strongly resisted. Yet, that is precisely what deconstruction thinks of itself as being: a means of resistance, subversion, demystifcation, redefi- nition, recontextualization, dcsacralizaton of authority. Its capacity to succeed, Knopper seems to be saying, is hardly an issue worth considering. To conclude: Reclaiming Pedagogy takes us then on a tour of the difficult land of critical theory, with privileged stops at some verbal castles where we are al- lowed to eavesdrop briefly at the chamber doors of Bahktin, Barthes, Derrida, and Stanley Fish. We hear what they say (we are not sure if what they are saying has anything to do with us), and because we are all teachers of writing who believe that students are too passive and incapable of questioning authority, we try to determine if these theories allow us to resee what we do and