Textile, and Cloth Are Synonyms for Materials Consisting of Natural Or Artificial Fibers

Home , Beta cloth, Bicast leather, Boiled leather, Naugahyde, Otti Berger, Persian weave

Under the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 no persons are required to respond to a collection of information unless it displays a valid OMB control number. PTO Form 1960 (Rev 10/2011) OMB No. 0651-0050 (Exp 09/20/2020) Request for Reconsideration after Final Action

The table below presents the data as entered.

Input Field Entered SERIAL 79223653 NUMBER LAW OFFICE LAW OFFICE 111 ASSIGNED MARK SECTION

MARK FILE NAME https://tmng-al.uspto.gov/resting2/api/img/79223653/large

LITERAL ERMENEGILDO ZEGNA PELLE TESSUTA ELEMENT

STANDARD NO CHARACTERS

USPTO- GENERATED NO IMAGE

COLOR(S) CLAIMED Color is not claimed as a feature of the mark. (If applicable) EVIDENCE SECTION

EVIDENCE FILE NAME(S)

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DESCRIPTION OF A written request for reconsideration, along with 20 exhibits EVIDENCE FILE ADDITIONAL STATEMENTS SECTION

TRANSLATION The English translation of PELLE TESSUTA in the mark is WOVEN LEATHER. SIGNATURE SECTION

RESPONSE /jrf/ SIGNATURE

SIGNATORY'S Joel R. Feldman NAME

SIGNATORY'S Attorney of record, GA bar member POSITION

SIGNATORY'S 678-553-4778 PHONE NUMBER

DATE SIGNED 02/08/2019

AUTHORIZED YES SIGNATORY

CONCURRENT APPEAL NOTICE YES FILED FILING INFORMATION SECTION

SUBMIT DATE Fri Feb 08 17:25:06 EST 2019 USPTO/RFR-XXX.XXX.XX.XX-2 0190208172506188971-79223 653-620a81888d939c415679a TEAS STAMP 04cd8f5e44ceb9598fc77af3d 7a0466d7d8169d71e3a-N/A-N /A-20190208172055154619

Request for Reconsideration after Final Action To the Commissioner for Trademarks:

Application serial no. 79223653 ERMENEGILDO ZEGNA PELLE TESSUTA (Stylized and/or with Design, see https://tmng- al.uspto.gov/resting2/api/img/79223653/large) has been amended as follows:

EVIDENCE Evidence in the nature of A written request for reconsideration, along with 20 exhibits has been attached. Original PDF file: evi_1982101522-20190208172055154619_._Request_for_Reconsideration_for_79223653__EZ_PELLE_TESSUTA_.pdf Converted PDF file(s) ( 11 pages) Evidence-1 Evidence-2 Evidence-3 Evidence-4 Evidence-5 Evidence-6 Evidence-7 Evidence-8 Evidence-9 Evidence-10 Evidence-11 Original PDF file: evi_1982101522-20190208172055154619_._Exhibits_1-20.pdf Converted PDF file(s) ( 72 pages) Evidence-1 Evidence-2 Evidence-3 Evidence-4 Evidence-5 Evidence-6 Evidence-7 Evidence-8 Evidence-9 Evidence-10 Evidence-11 Evidence-12 Evidence-13 Evidence-14 Evidence-15 Evidence-16 Evidence-17 Evidence-18 Evidence-19 Evidence-20 Evidence-21 Evidence-22 Evidence-23 Evidence-24 Evidence-25 Evidence-26 Evidence-27 Evidence-28 Evidence-29 Evidence-30 Evidence-31 Evidence-32 Evidence-33 Evidence-34 Evidence-35 Evidence-36 Evidence-37 Evidence-38 Evidence-39 Evidence-40 Evidence-41 Evidence-42 Evidence-43 Evidence-44 Evidence-45 Evidence-46 Evidence-47 Evidence-48 Evidence-49 Evidence-50 Evidence-51 Evidence-52 Evidence-53 Evidence-54 Evidence-55 Evidence-56 Evidence-57 Evidence-58 Evidence-59 Evidence-60 Evidence-61 Evidence-62 Evidence-63 Evidence-64 Evidence-65 Evidence-66 Evidence-67 Evidence-68 Evidence-69 Evidence-70 Evidence-71 Evidence-72

ADDITIONAL STATEMENTS Translation The English translation of PELLE TESSUTA in the mark is WOVEN LEATHER.

SIGNATURE(S) Request for Reconsideration Signature Signature: /jrf/ Date: 02/08/2019 Signatory's Name: Joel R. Feldman Signatory's Position: Attorney of record, GA bar member

Signatory's Phone Number: 678-553-4778

The signatory has confirmed that he/she is an attorney who is a member in good standing of the bar of the highest court of a U.S. state, which includes the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and other federal territories and possessions; and he/she is currently the owner's/holder's attorney or an associate thereof; and to the best of his/her knowledge, if prior to his/her appointment another U.S. attorney or a Canadian attorney/agent not currently associated with his/her company/firm previously represented the owner/holder in this matter: (1) the owner/holder has filed or is concurrently filing a signed revocation of or substitute power of attorney with the USPTO; (2) the USPTO has granted the request of the prior representative to withdraw; (3) the owner/holder has filed a power of attorney appointing him/her in this matter; or (4) the owner's/holder's appointed U.S. attorney or Canadian attorney/agent has filed a power of attorney appointing him/her as an associate attorney in this matter.

The applicant is filing a Notice of Appeal in conjunction with this Request for Reconsideration.

Serial Number: 79223653 Internet Transmission Date: Fri Feb 08 17:25:06 EST 2019 TEAS Stamp: USPTO/RFR-XXX.XXX.XX.XX-2019020817250618 8971-79223653-620a81888d939c415679a04cd8 f5e44ceb9598fc77af3d7a0466d7d8169d71e3a- N/A-N/A-20190208172055154619 OFFICE ACTION RESPONSE

Applicant Consitex S.A. ("Consitex") reviewed Trademark Examining Attorney Jonathan

R. Falk's final office action dated August 8, 2018 (the "Final Action").

The translation requirement has been addressed using the online TEAS form.

DISCLAIMER REQUIREMENT

In the Final Action, the Trademark Examining Attorney states, in support of his conclusion that PELLE TESSUTA "merely describes an ingredient, quality, characteristic, function, feature, purpose, or use of applicant's goods and/or services" that "[t]he attached evidence from Neiman Marcus, applicant's website, and Haute Living shows the applicant's goods are made from woven leather." The following are salient clippings from the evidence:

Ermenegildo Zegna Pelle Tessuta Woven Leather Business Tote Bag, Alpaca/Tobacco (Brown) Free Shipping+ Free Returns Online Inquiries: NMF18_N4P7H I Store Inquiries #2156552 • Ermenegildo Zegna busmess tote bag in smooth and woven calfskin l eather with silvertone hardware. • Pelle Tessuta is a precious fabric obtained by using extremely thin strips of leather in place of fabric yarns. • Rolled tote handles with rings. • Detachable, adjustable leather shoulder strap. • Zip-top closure. • Interior: herringbone lining; center zip compartment. padded laptop sleeve, zip and slip pockets. • 11.4"H x 15"W x 2.3"0 . • Made in Italy.

PELLE TESSUTATM is an innovative and unique leather fabric created and developed exclusively by Ermenegildo Zegna. Extremely thin nappa leather yams are masterly wo\·en on a loom replicating the traditional method of weaving ...

- 1 - Pelle Tessuta ™ Triple sttch Sneaker

Building on over 100 years of quality construction in the Alpine foothills near Biella, Italy, Zegna has revolutionized a new fabrication from nappa leather. Weaving the thin leather strands on the brand's traditional looms has created a pliable and super soft leather "fabric" perfect for loafers, belts, bags and wallets. A stand out from the inventive collection is the slip-on sneaker. The woven leather elevates the casual footwear from standard errand running shoe to outfit focal point. And paired with a Zegna jacket and dark denim, the Pelle Tessuta sneaker takes that extra style step.

I. PELLE TESSUTA is not mer·ely desc.-iptive of the applied-fo1· goods and service and, as a i·esult, the T1·adema1·k Examining Attorney should withdraw his disclaime1· i·equirement.

Consitex and the Trademark Examining Attorney appear to agree that the does not dispute that the PELLE TESSUTA™ -branded goods shown in the Trademark Examining

Attorney's evidence are composed of leather. Nevertheless, they are not composed of "woven" leather because leather is not fabricated through a weaving process. Accordingly, while

Consitex will consent to a disclaimer of "PELLE," and welcomes the opportunity to do so in a follow-up office action, for the reasons discussed below, because the term "woven" is inapposite to leather, a disclaimer of "TESSUTA " is not appropriate and Consitex respectfolly requests that the Trademark Examining Attorney withdraw this requirement.

- 2 - How leather is "made"

Leather is defined as "animal skin dressed for use." See Exhibit 1. As shown in Exhibit

2, animal skin or cattle hide becomes commercially-usable leather through a process of tanning and crusting. In other words, leather is processed then cut down into its desired size and shape; it is not composed by blending small raw ingredients (fibers) into a larger material.

How fabdc is "made"

Fabric, textile, and cloth are synonyms for materials consisting of natural or artificial fibers. See Exhibit 3. While leather starts as a fully-composed material, fabric starts as tiny small fibers that must be processed into a fully-composed material. See Exhibit 3. There are roughly 38 types of textile fibers. See Exhibit 4.

One of the processes through which a small fiber can become fully-composed material is weaving. See Exhibit 5. This is, in fact, the predominant method of joining fibers to make fabric. See Exhibit 5.

In essence, the process of weaving makes "something out of nothing." To that end, many of the non-textile definitions of fabric (underlying structure, structural plan or style of construction, the arrangement of physical components in relation to each other) are derived from the concept of the assembly of cloth from individual fibers, a process inapposite to leather, which is naturally assembled without any process. See Exhibit 6.

Leather and fabric a1·e mutually exclusive

Genuine leather is not a subset or type of fabric, and fabric is not a type or subset of genuine leather. Accordingly, someone that is genuine leather cannot be fabric and something that is fabric cannot be genuine leather. This distinction is most apparent through the Nice

Classification system, which has a distinct class for leather goods (International Class 18) and

- 3 - fabrics (International Class 24), and confinned by a listing of the types of textile fibers. See

Exhibits 4 and 7.

The technical meanings of "woven" and "weaving"

"Weave" is primarily defined as (i) to form (cloth) by interlacing strands (as in yarn), (ii) to interlace (threads) into cloth, and (iii) to make (something, such as a basket) by intertwining.

"Weave" is secondarily defined as (i) to produce by elaborately combining elements and (ii) to unite in a coherent whole. 1 See Exhibit 8. As confirmed by Wikipedia, weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets ofyarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. See Exhibit 9. Likewise, "woven" is defined as "past participle of weave" and "a woven fabric." See Exhibit 10.

Consitex's PELLE TESSUTATM prnducts a1·e not actually "woven"

As set forth above, Consitex' s PELLE TESS UTA TM products are composed of leather.

The primary definitions of weave and woven, (i) to form (cloth) by interlacing strands (as in yarn), (ii) to interlace (threads) into cloth, and (iii) to make (something, such as a basket) by intertwining, do not apply to Consitex' s PELLE TESS UTA TM products because the leather is

"formed" by mother nature, not by weaving, interlacing, or intertwining strands of fiber. Quite simply, "woven" is not a term that applies to creating leather or making it commercially usable.

As shown in the evidence the Trademark Examining Attorney has introduced, Consitex has created a process imitating the weaving of threads into fabric, not actually weaving threads into fabric. Just as Consitex has used "fabric" in a figurative and suggestive sense fo r thin strips

1 Even if one of these secondary definitions technically applied to Consitex's PELLE TESSUT A TM products, such a secondary definition would not rise to the level of merely describing an ingredient, quality, characteristic, function, feature, purpose, or use of Consitex's goods and, in that context, TESSUTA (translated to WOVEN) would be suggestive.

- 4 - of leather (by definition, leather is not fabric no matter how thinly sliced), Consitex has used

"woven" (and its Italian equivalent, "tessuta") in a figurative and suggestive sense for a leather composition resembling fabric:

• "Pelle Tessuta is a precious fabric obtained by using extremely thin strips of leather in place of fabric yams"

• "PELLE TESSUTA™ is an innovative and unique leatherfabric created and developed exclusively by Ermenegildo Zenga. Extremely thin nappa leather yarns are masterly woven on a loom replicating the traditional method of weaving ..."

Even the third-party evidence introduced by the Trademark Examining Attorney, an article from hauteliving.com, acknowledges that Consitex's super soft leather is "fabric," not fabric.

Consitex uses the terms "fabric" and "woven" as marketing devices to suggest a visual image in the minds of consumers, not literal product descriptions. As set forth below, this literal versus figurative distinction is dispositive on the threshold question of whether the translation of

PELLE TESSUTA is merely descriptive or suggestive.

Applicability of In re The Halal Shack Inc.

Consitex's position is strongly supported by the Board's recent decision in Jn re Th e

Halal Shack Inc., Serial No. 87633904 (Aug. 17, 2018) [not precedential]. In Halal Shack, the

Trademark Examining Attorney refosed registration of THE HALAL SHACK in Class 43 for restaurants under Trademark Act Section 2(e)(l) on the basis that shack is defined as "a simple, small building," and a belief that "there is a competitive need to the use of this te1111 in the restaurant industry." The applicant rebutted the Trademark Examining Attorney's evidence by arguing that its services were not literally provided in shacks, but rather had a rustic decor that resembles the appearance of a 'shack' in some aspects." (emphasis added)

The Board held that "Applicant's word mark, THE HALAL SHACK, taken as a whole, falls more on the suggestive than the descriptive side of the spectrum." The Board reasoned that

- 5 - the term SHACK is "more figurative than literal, more connotative than denotative, conveying the commercial impression of infomrnl ambiance."

The PELLE TESSUTA portion ofConsitex's applied-for mark is analogous to the THE

HALAL GUYS mark. Based on the evidence now of record, the translation of PELLE

TESSUTA- woven leather - is figurative (not literal) and connotative (not denotative), in conveying that Consitex's brand of leather is so soft and comfortable that it resembles fabric and not rugged leather. Likewise, just as the Board acknowledged the THE HALAL SHACK applicant's argument that "[a]llowing the Applicant to obtain a registration for its composite mark without disclaiming ' shack' will not prevent anyone from using 'shack' in a different composite mark for restaurant services," here, allowing Consitex to register the composite mark

PELLE TESSUTA without disclaiming "TESS UTA " will not prevent anyone from using

"woven" or "tessuta" in a different composite mark for any of the applied-for goods or services that are literally composed of materials created through a weaving process.

Based on the above, the Trademark Examining Attorney has mistakenly disregarded

Consitex's argument that the combination of the terms PELLE and TESSUTA (or LEATHER and WOVEN) is, by definition, incongruous. A mark comprising a combination of merely descriptive components is registrable ... if the composite has a bizarre or incongruous meaning as applied to the goods or services. See Jn re Colonial Stores Inc., 157 USPQ 382 (CCPA 1968);

Jn re Shutts, 217 USPQ 363 (TTAB 1983). Accordingly, Consitex respectfully requests that the

Trademark Examining Attorney withdraw his requirement that Consitex disclaim "PELLE

TESS UTA " within the applied-for mark and issue a new office action requesting the disclaimer of only "PELLE," to which Consitex consents.

- 6 - II. In the alternative, even if PELLE TESS UTA is merely descriptive of some of the applied-for goods in the application, it is not mernly descl'iptive of all of the applied-fo1· goods and se1·vices and the Trndema1·k Examining Attorney should withdraw his clisclaime1· i·equirement with respect to those goods and services.

Contingent consent to amendment of ID

If, after reconsideration, the Trademark Examining Attorney still believes that the PELLE

TESSUTA portion of the applied-for mark is still merely descriptive for some of the applied-for goods and services, Consitex consents to the limiting amendment of the ID in Classes 3, 12, 18,

20, 25, and 27 (hereinafter, the "Amended ID") as follows:

• Class 3 - Perfumes; eaux de Cologne; Cosmetics; Body lotions; After-shave lotions; Deodorants for personal use; Shaving preparations; Bath soaps; Shampoos; Shower gels

• Class 12 - Aircraft; golf cars; automobiles, namely, automotive vehicles; boats; bicycles; canoes; drone

• Class 18 - Umbrellas; knitted bags, not of precious metals; felt bags; wallets of precious metal

• Class 20 - Pillows; decorative boxes made of wood or plastics

• Class 25 - Rain hats; rain footwear; cashmere clothing, namely, pullovers, pants, shirts, jackets, coats, suits; woolen socks; bathing suits for men; coats made of cotton; fur coats and jackets; denim coats; fabric belts; fleece jackets; waterproof jackets; denim jackets; knit jackets; suede jackets; knitwear, namely, shirts, dresses, sweaters, underwear, scarves

• Class 2 7 - Borders as wall decorations in the form of wall coverings not of textile; carpet; wall covers being wallpaper not of textile; wall coverings, other than those of textile materials

Evidence of reco1·d with respect to the Amended ID

It is the Trademark Examining Attorney's burden to show, primafacie, that a term is merely descriptive of an applicant's goods or services. Jn re Gyulay, 3 USPQ2d 1009, 1010

(Fed. Cir. 1987); Jn re Accelerate s.a.l., 101 USPQ2d 2047, 2052 (TTAB 2012). Merely descriptive means, at a minimum, that the applied-for mark describes one significant attribute,

- 7 - function, or property of the goods. See Jn re Gyulay, 3 USPQ2d at 1010; Jn re H U D.D.L.E. ,

216 USPQ 358 (TTAB 1982); Jn re MBAssociates, 180 USPQ 338 (TTAB 1973).

Of note, a mark may be descriptive for some goods, but not for others. See Jn re John F.

Kennedy Ctr. For Pe1forming Arts, 196 USPQ 393, 395 (TTAB 1977) ("While the registrations cited by the applicant are not determinative of the issue of descriptiveness of the mark in the case before us, they support the well-known and accepted principle that while a term may be arbitrary or even suggestive as applied to some goods, it may nevertheless have a merely descriptive significance as to other goods"). As discussed below, this rule is especially important with respect to the instant application and the Amended ID, because "pelle tessuta" and "woven leather" have no descriptive significance with respect to these particular goods and services.

Rather, the term "pelle tessuta" suggests the classic and enduring quality of leather coupled with the durability and ruggedness of woven materials and is registrable as a source-identifying mark for these goods and services.

There is no evidence of record related to any of the goods or services within the

Amended ID. Even assuming, arguendo, that an ordinary American purchase would likely stop and translate PELLE TESSUTA to "woven leather," and even assuming, arguendo, that "woven leather" merely describes a material composition for some types of goods, the Trademark

Examining Attorney has not introduced any evidence that "woven leather" merely describes a material composition related to any of the remaining goods or services in the Amended ID.

Therefore, the Trademark Examining Attorney has not met his duty to establish a p rima facie case for requiring the disclaimer of PELLE TESS UTA for the Amended ID on the basis of

Section 2( e)(1 ), and the disclaimer requirement should be withdrawn.

Even if, hypothetically, one or more of the goods within the Amended ID had a leather

- 8 - embellishment or accent, such an embellishment or accent would be completely non-sequitur to the function of the good. For example, a decorative leather tassel would not, in any way, affect the way that perfume, shampoo, umbrellas, or waterproof jackets are used. Accordingly, "woven leather" cannot be a significant feature or function of any of the goods or services in the

Amended ID, as required under the Federal Circuit's and Board's interpretation of Section

2(e)(l). See, e.g. , Jn re Ashley O 'Rourke, Serial No. 77093617 (December 2, 2009) [not precedential] ("[W]e conclude the examining attorney has not established that the term

VINTAGE PINK immediately describes, without conj ecture or speculation, a significant feature or function of applicant's identified clothing and jewelry"); Jn re Well Living Lab Inc., 122

USPQ2d 1777, 1779 (TTAB 2017) ("A term need not immediately convey an idea of each and every specific feature of the goods or services in order to be considered merely descriptive; it is enough if it describes on significant attribute, function, or property of them") (emphasis added).

Therefore, Section 2(e)(l) does not apply to the goods within the Amended ID, and the

Trademark Examining Attorney's disclaimer requirement with respect to the entire term should be withdrawn.

Prior· Registrntions in Class 3

With respect specifically to the Class 3 goods within the Amended ID, the USPTO has issued the following registrations of relevance to the question of whether "leather" is descriptive of various Class 3 Goods:

Reg. No. Ma1·k Goods Exhibit 1941490 toilet soaps, beauty creams; namely, face 11 Nuovapelle creams, ("new leather") body creams, eye creams and hand creams, body care and beauty products; namely, beauty masks, antiwrinkle creams 2464989 LEATHERWOOD bath gel, hair conditioner, hair shampoo, 12 shampoo conditioners, skin moisturizer, skin

- 9 - soap, and deodorant soap for institutional use 13289134 CUIR Perfume 13 AMETHY STE ("leather amethyste") 3663612 LEATHERSTOCK Bath and shower gels and salts not for medical 14 purposes; Incense sticks; Oils for perfumes and scents; Perfume oils; Perfumed soaps; Perfumes, aftershaves and colognes; Perfumes, eau de colognes and aftershaves; Perfuming sachets; Scented body spray 4120932 ENGLISH After-shave; After-shave liquid; Aftershave 15 LEATHER cologne; Bar soap; Body deodorants; Cologne; Deodorant for personal use; Deodorants and antiperspirants for personal use; Eau de colognes; Perfumed soaps; Skin lotion; Soaps for personal use 4330042 CUIR CANNAGE Perfumery 16 ("leather canework") 4519812 CUIRBLANC Perfumes, eau de Cologne and toilet water 17 ("white leather") 5132911 NAKED UNDER Cosmetics 18 LEATHER 5148281 TOM FORD Fragrances for personal use; Non-medicated skin 19 OMBRE LEATHER care preparations 16 5305567 GOLD LEATHER Perfume, eau de toilette; gels, salts for the bath 20 and the shower not for medical purpose; toilet soaps, body deodorants; cosmetics, namely, creams, milks, lotions, gels and powders for the face, the body and the hands; cosmetic products, namely, non-medicated sun care preparations; make-up preparations; shampoos; gels, sprays, mousses and balms for the hair styling and hair care; hair lacquers; hair colouring and hair decolorant preparations; permanent waving and curling preparations; essential oils for personal use

Logic dictates if the tenn "leather" or "pelle" is not merely descriptive for these Class 3 goods, then the composite term "woven leather" or "pelle tessuta" cannot be merely descriptive for the Class 3 goods. Therefore, Consitex specifically requests that the Trademark Examining

Attorney withdraw his disclaimer requirement issued against the Class 3 goods, as amended.

- 10 - CONCLUSION

Consitex respectfully requests that the Trademark Examining Attorney withdraw his requirement that Consitex disclaim "PELLE TESSUTA" within the applied-for mark and issue a new office action requesting the disclaimer of only "PELLE," to which Consitex consents. In the alternative, Consitex respectfully requests that the Trademark Examining Attorney accept the

Amended ID for the application and withdraw the disclaimer requirement with respect to the goods and services, as amended (or, in the alternative, Classes 3, 12, 18, 20, 25, and 27). Finally, notwithstanding the Trademark Examining Attorney's issuance of a final action, Consitex respectfully requests the Trademark Examining Attorney's issuance of a further office action if there are any remaining issues with respect to either Consitex's principal argument or its argument in the alternative.

- 11 - Exhibit 1 2/8/2019 Leather I Definition of Leather by Merriam-Webster

leather noun leath ·er I \ ·le-t_bar \

Definition of leather (Entry 1 of 2)

1 : animal skin dressed for use

2 : the flap of the ear of a dog - see DOG ILLUSTRATION

3 : something wholly or partly made of leather

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/leather 1/1 Exhibit 2 2/7/2019 Leather - Wikipedia

WIKIPEDIA Leather

Leather is a natm al dmable and flexible material created by tanning animal rawhides and skins. The most common raw material is cattle hide. It can be produced at manufactming scales ranging from aitisan to modern industrial scale.

Leather is used to make a variety of articles, including footwear, automobile seats, clothing, bags, book bindings, fashion accessories, and furnitme. It is produced in a v.ricle variety of types and styles and decorated by a v.ricle range of techniques. The earliest record ofleather artifacts dates back to 2200 BC.

Contents

Production processes Tanning methods Grades From other animals A variety of leather products and Environmental impact leather-working tools Carbon footprint Water footprint Disposal Chemicals used in tanning Role of enzymes Preservation and conditioning In modern culture Religious sensitivities Alternatives References Further reading

Production processes

The leather manufacturing process is divided into three fundamental subprocesses: preparat01y stages, tanning, and crusting. A further subprocess, finishing, can be added into the leather process sequence, but not all leathers receive finishing.

The preparatory stages are when the hide is prepared for tanning. Preparatory stages may include: soaking, unhairing, liming, cleliming, bating, bleaching, and pickling.

Tanning is a process that stabilizes the proteins, particularly collagen, of the raw hide to increase the thermal, chemical and microbiological stability of the hides and skins, making it suitable for a v.ride variety of encl applications. The principal difference between raw and tanned hides is that raw hides dry out to form a hard, inflexible material that, when rewettecl, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather 1/8 2/7/2019 Leather - Wikipedia will putrefy, while tanned material dries to a flexible form that does not become putrid when rewetted.

Many tanning methods and materials exist. The typical process sees tanners load the hides into a drum and immerse them in a tank that contains the tanning "liquor". The hides soak while the drum slowly rotates about its axis, and the tanning liquor slowly penetrates through the full thickness of the hide. Once the process achieves even penetration, workers slowly raise the liquor's pH in a process called basification, which fixes the tanning material to the Drying of leather in East Timor leather. The more tanning material fixed, the higher the leather's hydrothermal stability and shrinkage temperature resistance.

Crusting is a process that thins and lubricates leather. It often includes a coloring operation. Chemicals added during crusting must be fixed in place. Crusting culminates with a d1ying and softening operation, and may include splitting, shaving, dyeing, whitening or other methods.

For some leathers, tanners apply a surface coating, called "finishing". Finishing operations can include oiling, brushing, buffing, coating, polishing, embossing, glazing, or tumbling, among others. Leather tanning in Fes, Morocco Leather can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This currying process after tanning supplements the natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. Frequent oiling of leather, with mink oil, neatsfoot oil, or a similar material keeps it supple and improves

its lifespan dramatically.[1]

Tanning methods Tanning processes largely differ in which chemicals are used in the tanning liquor. Some common types include: Tanned leather in Marrakech • Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannins extracted from vegetable matter, such as tree bark prepared in bark mills. It is the oldest known method. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of materials and the color of the skin. The color tan derives its name from the appearance of undyed vegetable-tanned leather. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water; it tends to discolor, and if left to soak and then dry, it shrinks and becomes harder. This is a feature of oak-bark-tanned leather that is exploited in traditional shoemaking. In hot water, it shrinks drastically and partly congeals, becoming rigid and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, or in boiled wax or similar substances. Historically, it was occasionally used as armor after hardening, and it has also been used fOrbOok binding. -- • Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and other chromium salts . It is also known as "wet blue" for the pale blue color of the undyed leather. The chrome tanning method usually takes approximately one day to complete, making it best suited for large-scale industrial use. This is the most common method in modern use. It is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. However, there are environmental concerns with this tanning method, as chromium is a heavy metal. • Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds. It is referred to as "wet white" due to its pale cream color. It is the main type of "chrome-free" leather, often seen in shoes for infants and automobiles. Formaldehyde has been used for tanning in the past; it is being phased out due to danger to workers and sensitivity of many people to formaldehyde.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather 2/8 217/2019 Leather - Wikipedia • Chamois leather is a form of aldehyde tanning that produces a porous and highly water-absorbent leather. Chamois leather is made using marine oils (traditionally cod oil) that oxidize to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather. • Brain tanned leathers are made by a labor-intensive process that uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle, and buffalo. They are known for their exceptional softness and washability. • Alum leather is transformed using aluminium salts mixed with a variety of binders and protein sources, such as flour and egg yolk. Alum leather is not actually tanned; rather the process is called "tawing", and the resulting material reverts to rawhide if soaked in water long enough to remove the alum salts.

Grades

In general, leather is produced in the following grades:

• Top-grain leather includes the outer layer of the hide, known as the grain, which features finer, more densely packed fibers, resulting in strength and durability. Depending on thickness, it may also contain some of the more fibrous under layer, known as the cerium. Types of top-grain leather include:

• Full-grain leather contains the entire grain layer, without any removal of the surface. Rather than wearing out, it develops a patina during its useful lifetime. It is usually considered the highest quality leather. Furniture and footwear are often made from full-grain leather. Full-grain leather is typically finished with an aniline dye. Russia leather is a form of full-grain leather. -- --- • Corrected grain leather has the surface subjected to finishing treatments to create a more uniform appearance. This usually involves buffing or sanding away flaws in the grain, then dyeing and embossing the surface. • Nu buck is top-grain leather that has been sanded or buffed on the grain side to give a slight nap of short protein fibers, producing a velvet-like surface. • Split leather is created from the cerium left once the top-grain has been separated from the hide, known as the drop split. In thicker hides, the drop split can be further split into a middle split and a flesh split. Splits are often used to create suede. Split leather can also have a polyurethane or vinyl layer applied to the surface and embossed to give it the appearance of a grain, known as bicast leather, which is slightly stiffer than top-grain leather but has a more consistent texture. • Patent leather is leather that has been given a high-gloss finish by the addition of a coating. Inventor Seth Boyden developed the first mass-production process, using a linseed oil-based lacquer, in Newark, New Jersey, in 1818. Modern versions usually have a plastic coating, similar to bicast leather. • Bonded leather, also called reconstituted leather, is a material that uses leather scraps that are shredded and bonded together with polyurethane or latex onto a fiber mesh. The amount of leather fibers in the mix varies from 10% to 90%, affecting the properties of the product.121

From other animals

Today, most leather is made of cattle hides, which constitute about 65% of all leather produced. Other animals that are used include sheep, about 13%, goats, about 11%, and pigs, about 10%. Obtaining accurate figures from around the world is difficult, especially for areas where the skin may be eaten.[3][4] Other animals mentioned below only constitute a fraction of a percent of total leather production.

Horse hides are used to make particularly durable leathers. Shell cordovan is a horse leather made not from the outer skin but an under layer found only in Phone cases in ostrich leather equine species called the shell. It is prized for its mirror-like finish and anti creasing properties.

Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparel. Deerskin is widely used in work gloves and indoor shoes.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather 3/8 2/7/2019 Leather - Wikipedia Reptilian skins, such as alligator, crocodile, and snake, are noted for their distinct patterns that reflect the scales of their species. This has led to hunting and farming of these species in part for their skins.

Kangaroo leather is used to make items that must be strong and flexible. It is the material most commonly used in bullwhips. Some motorcyclists favor kangaroo leather for motorcycle leathers because of its light weight and abrasion resistance.rsl Kangaroo leather is also used for falcomy jesses, soccer footwear,[61 and boxing speed bags.[71

Although originally raised for their feathers in the 19th centmy, ostriches are now more popular for both meat and leather.[81 Ostrich leather has a characteristic "goose bump" look because of the large follicles where the feathers grew. Different processes produce different finishes for many applications, including upholstery, footwear, automotive products, accessories, and clothing.

In Thailand, stingray leather is used in wallets and belts. Stingray leather is tough and durable. The leather is often dyed black and covered with tiny round bumps in the natural pattern of the back iidge of an animal. These bumps are then usually dyed white to highlight the decoration. Stingray rawhide is also used as grips on Chinese swords, Scottish basket hilted swords, and Japanese katanas. Stingray leather is also used for high abrasion areas in motorcycle racing leathers (especially in gloves, where its high abrasion resistance helps prevent wear through in the event of an accident.)

Environmental impact

Leather produces some environmental impact, most notably due to:

• The carbon footprint of cattle rearing • Use of chemicals in the tanning process (e.g., chromium, formic acid, mercury and solvents) • Air pollution due to the transformation process (hydrogen sulfide during dehairing and ammonia during deliming, solvent vapors)

Carbon footprint

One estimate of the carbon footprint of leather goods is 0.51 kg of C02 equivalent per £1 of output at 2010 retail prices, or

0.71 kg C02 eq per £1 of output at 2010 industry prices.[9]

Water footprint One ton of hide or skin generally produces 20 to 80 m3 of waste water, including chromium levels of 100-400 mg/ I, sulfide levels of 200-800 mg/I, high levels of fat and other solid wastes, and notable pathogen contamination. Producers often add pesticides to protect hides during transp01t. With solid wastes representing up to 70% of the wet weight of the original hides, the tanning process represents a considerable strain on water treatment installations.r10l

Disposal Leather biodegrades slowly-taking 25 to 40 years to decompose.r11l However, vinyl and petrochemical-derived materials take 500 or more years to decompose.r12 l

Chemicals used in tanning Tanning is especially polluting in countries where environmental regulations are lax, such as in India, the world's third largest producer and exporter of leather. To give an example of an efficient pollution prevention system, chromium loads per produced tonne are generally abated from 8 kg to 1.5 kg. VOC emissions are typically reduced from 30 kg/t to 2 kg/t in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather 4/8 2/7/2019 Leather - Wikipedia a properly managed facility. A review of the total pollution load decrease achievable according to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization[13l posts precise data on the abatement achievable through industrially proven low-waste advanced methods, while noting, "even though the chrome pollution load can be decreased by 94% on introducing advanced technologies, the minimum residual load 0.15 kg/t raw hide can still cause difficulties when using landfills and composting sludge from wastewater treatment on account of the regulations currently in force in some countries."

In Kanpur, the self-proclaimed "Leather City of World"-with 10,000 tanneries as of 2011 and a city of three million on the banks of the Ganges-pollution levels were so high, that despite an indust1y crisis, the pollution control board decided to shut down 49 high-polluting tanneries out of 404 in July 2009.[14] In 2003 for instance, the main tanneries' effluent disposal unit was clumping 22 tonnes of chromium-laden solid waste per clay in the open.[15l

In the Hazaribagh neighborhood of Dhaka in Bangladesh, chemicals from tanneries end up in Dhaka's main river. Besides the environmental damage, the health of both local factmy workers and the end consumer is also negatively affected.[161 After approximately 15 years of ignoring high court rulings, the government shut down more than 100 tanneries the weekend of 8 Rajasthani-style leather jooti, Jaipur, April 2017 in the neighborhoocl.[17] India

The higher cost associated with the treatment of effluents than to untreated effluent discharging leads to illegal dumping to save on costs. For instance, in Croatia in 2001, proper pollution abatement cost US$70-100 per ton of raw hides processed against $43/t for irresponsible behavior.[18l In November 2009, one of Uganda's main leather making companies was caught directly dumping waste water into a wetland adjacent to Lake Victoria.[19]

Role of enzymes

Enzymes like proteases, lipases, and amylases have an important role in the soaking, dehairing, degreasing, and bating operations of leather manufacturing. Proteases are the most commonly used enzymes in leather production. The enzyme must not damage or dissolve collagen or keratin, but should hydrolyze casein, elastin, albumin, globulin-like proteins, and nonstructural proteins that are not essential for leather making. This process is called bating.[201

Lipases are used in the degreasing operation to hydrolyze fat pmticles embedded in the skin.[211

Amylases are used to soften skin, to bring out the grain, and to impait strength and flexibility to the skin. These enzymes are rarely used.

Preservation and conditioning

The natural fibers of leather break clov.'11 with the passage of time. Acidic leathers are particularly vulnerable to reel rot, which causes powdering of the surface and a change in consistency. Damage from red rot is aggravated by high temperatures and relative humidities. Although it is chemically irreversible, treatments can add handling strength and prevent disintegration of red rotted leather.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather 5/8 2/7/2019 Leather - Wikipedia Exposure to long periods of low relative humidities (below 40%) can cause leather to become desiccated, irreversibly changing the fibrous structure of the leather. Chemical damage can also occur from exposure to environmental factors, including ultraviolet light, ozone, acid from sulfurous and nitrous pollutants in the air, or through a chemical action following any treatment with tallow or oil compounds. Both oxidation and chemical damage occur faster at higher temperatures.

Various treatments are available such as conditioners. Saddle soap is used for cleaning, conditioning, and softening leather. Leather shoes are \l\ri.dely conditioned with shoe polish.[22l

In modern culture

Due to its excellent resistance to abrasion and wind, leather found a use in rugged occupations. The enduring image of a cowboy in leather chaps gave way to the leather-jacketed and leather-helmeted aviator. When motorcycles were invented, some riders took to wearing heavy leather jackets to protect from road rash and \/\rind blast; some also wear chaps or full leather pants to protect the lower body.

Leather's flexibility allows it to be formed and shaped into balls and protective gear. Subsequently, many sp01t s use equipment made from leather, such as baseball gloves and the ball used in American football.

Leather fetishism is the name popularly used to describe a fetishistic attraction to people wearing leather, or in certain cases, to the garments themselves.

Many rock groups (particularly heavy metal and punk groups in the 1980s) are well known for wearing leather clothing. Extreme metal bands (especially black metal bands) and Goth rock groups have extensive leather clothing. Leather has become less common in the punk community over the last three decades, as there is opposition to the use of leather from punks who support animal rights.

Many cars and trucks come with optional or standard leather or "leather faced" seating.

Religious sensitivities

In countries with significant populations of individuals observing religions which place restrictions on material choices, leather vendors typically clarify the kinds of leather in their products. For example, leather shoes bear a label that identifies the animal from which the leather came. This helps a Muslim not accidentally purchase pigskin, and a Hindu avoid cattle. Many vegetarian Hindus do not use any kind of leather. Such taboos increase the demand for religiously neutral leathers such as ostrich and deer.

Judaism forbids the comfort of wearing leather shoes on Yorn Kippur, Tisha B'Av, and during mourning.[2 3] Also, see Teffilin and Torah Scroll.

Jainism prohibits the use ofleather, since it is obtained by killing animals.

Alternatives

Many artificial leather substitutes have been developed, usually involving polyurethane or vinyl coatings applied to a cloth backing. Many names and brands for such a1tificial leathers exist, including "pleather", a p01tmanteau of "plastic leather", and the brand name Naugahyde.[2 4]

References https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather 6/8 2/7/2019 Leather - Wikipedia

1. NI IR Board of Consultants (2011 ). Leather Processing & Tanning Tech nolog ~ Handbook (https://books.google.com/bo oks?id=hbKkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA324&dq=why+oil+leather&hl=en&sa=X&ved=OahUKEw isOe6_1f_SAhVITrwKHXp5B9 AQ6AEIJzAD#v=one p age&q=wh ~% 20oil%201eather&f=false) . NllR Project Consultancy Services. p. 323. ISBN 9788190568593. 2. Binggeli, Gorky (2013). Materials for Interior Environments (https://books.google.be/books?id=jSiRAAAAQBAJ&pg=S A9-PA119). John Wiley & Sons. p. 119. ISBN 9781118421604. 3. FAO (http://www.fao.org/economic/esUest-commodities/hides-skins/en/) 4. International Council of Tanners (http://www.leathercouncil.org/introtoleather.htm) 5. "FAQ" (http://www.dainese.com/row/en/faq.html). Dainese. Retrieved 7 February 2018. 6. "What type of Leather do I have?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121019195909/http:l/soccersupremacy.com/adidas cleat-review-adidas-profi-liga-cleat-review/). Soccer Cleats 101. Retrieved 27 July 2010. 7. "Speed Bag Parts" (http://www.speedbagcentral.com/ssp/speed bag_parts). Speed Bag Central. Retrieved 7 February 2018. 8. Henrylito Tacio,"Why You Should Raise Ostrich (http://www.sunstar.com.ph/davao/why-you-should-raise-ostrich)," Sun.Star 18 January 2010. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131224085758/http://www.sunstar.com.ph/dava o/why-you-should-raise-ostrich) 24 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine 9. Mike Berne rs-Lee, How Bad are Bananas: The Carbon Footprint of Everything (London: Profile, 2010), p. 201. 10. "Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook - Environmental Guidelines for Tanning and Leather Finishing" (http:// www.miga.org/documents/TanningandLeatherFinishing.pdf) (PDF). Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, World Bank Group. Retrieved 2 January 2010. 11. "Interesting Facts about Leather" (https:l/www.caltrend.com/interesting-facts-about-leather/). CalTrend. Retrieved 7 February 2018. 12. "Why Doesn't Plastic Biodegrade?" (https://www.livescience.com/33085-petroleum-derived-plastic-non-biodegradabl e.html). LIVESCIENCE. 2 March 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2018. 13. "The scope for decreasing pollution load in leather processing" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160205163846/http:l/w ww.elaw.org/system/files/L_scope.pdf) (PDF). United Nations Industrial Development Organization Regional Programme for Pollution Control in the Tanning Industry in South-East Asia. 9 August 2000. Retrieved 2 January 2010. 14. "How much time needed to check tanneries' waste" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/How-much-time-ne eded-to-check-tanneries-waste-HC-to-govUarticleshow/4 767069.cms) . Times of India. 11 July 2009. Archived (https:// web. archive. org/web/201 01205004609/http ://ti mesofi ndia. ind iati mes. com/city/kan pur/H ow-much-ti me-needed-to-chec k-tanneries-waste-HC-to-govUarticleshow/4767069.cms) from the original on 5 December 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2010. 15. "Kanpur: chromium disaster" (https://web.archive.org/web/20030822012606/http://www.cleanganga.com/articles/june 03/chromium.php). Clean Ganga - Campaign for a cleaner Ganga. June 2003. Archived from the original (http://www. cleanganga.com/articles/june03/chromium.php) on 22 August 2003. Retrieved 2 January 2010. 16. "Hazaribagh neighborhood of Dhaka poisoning staff, local villagers and planet" (https://web.archive.org/web/2017032 8091609/https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/ 10/08/bangladesh-tanneries-harm-workers-poison-communities) . Human Rights Watch. 8 October 2012. Archived from the original (https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/ 10/08/bangladesh-tannerie s-harm-workers-poison-communities) on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2016. 17. "Bangladesh cuts power to leather district after years of environmental violations" (https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rund ow n/bangladesh-cuts-power-leather-district-years-health-violations/). PBS NewsHour. Archived (https://web.archive.o rg/web/20170412075022/http ://www.p bs.org/newshour/ru ndown/bangladesh-cuts-power-leather-district-years-health violations/) from the original on 12 April 2017. Retrieved 11April2017. 18. "Introduction of Low Pollution Processes in Leather Production" (https:l/web.archive.org/web/20100119162932/http:I/ archive.rec.org/ecolinks/bestpractices/PDF/croatia_hdko.pdf) (PDF). Ecolinks. 2001. Archived from the original (htt p://archive.rec.org/ecolinks/bestpractices/PDF/croatia hdko.pdf) (PDF) on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2010.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather 718 2/7/2019 Leather - Wikipedia 19. "Uganda: leather factory faces closure over pollution" (http:!/allafrica.com/stories/200911050279.html). The Monitor. 5 November 2009. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110604160403/http:l/allafrica.com/stories/200911050279.ht !:!].!2 from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2010. 20. Heidemann, E. (1993). Fundamentals of Leather Manufacture. Eduard Raether KG. p. 211. ISBN 3-7929-0206-0. 21. Sienkiewicz, K. (1983). Physical Chemistry of Leather Making. Robert E. Krieger. p. 226. ISBN 0-89874-304-4. 22. "Maintain Lather Bag" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160603031055/https://www.larocco.co.uk/blogs/news/1 6062087 1-maintaining-your-lather-handbag). larocco. Archived from the original (https:l/www.larocco.co.uk/blogs/news/16062 0871-maintaining-your-lather-handbag) on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2016. 23. "Wearing Shoes - Mourning Observances of Shiva and Sheloshim" (http://www.chabad.org/library/article cdo/aid/281 605/jewish/Wearing-Shoes.htm). Chabad.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20091222161125/http://www.cha bad.org/library/article cdo/aid/281605/jewish/Wearing-Shoes.htm) from the original on 22 December 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009. 24. "Artificial Leather- An Eco-friendly Alternative Textile Material for leather" (https://web.archive.org/web/201510160043 31 /http://www.ctsti.cn/webtec/upload/2011 /7/4/20110704051836492.pdf) (PDF). 2011. Archived from the original (http s://drive.google.com/file/d/1 HTea3swWiQ9r1 sM1 auCw-hq35aGw-RxL/view?usp=sharing) on 16 October 2015.

Further reading

• Fisher, Nora. Rio Grande Textiles (Paperbound ed.). Museum of New Mexico Press. Introduction by Teresa Archuleta-Sagel. 196 pages with 125 black and white as well as colour plates. Fisher is Curator Emirta, Textiles & Costumes of the Museum of International Folk Art. • Good, Irene (2006). "Textiles as a Medium of Exchange in Third Millennium B.C.E. Western Asia". In Mair, Victor H. Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 191-214. ISBN 978-0-8248- 2884-4. • Arai, Masanao (Textile Industry Research Institute of Gunma). "From Kitsch to Art Moderne: Popular Textiles for Women in the First Half of Twentieth-Century Japan (http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1142& context=tsaconf)" (Archive (https://www.webcitation.org/6XYUtJ2As?url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewconten t.cgi?article%3D1142%26context%3Dtsaconf)). Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings. Textile Society of America, January 1, 1998.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Textile&oldid=880300966"

This page was last edited on 26 January 2019, at 17:37 (UTC).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile 919 Exhibit 4 2/8/2019 Types of textile fibers - list of textile fibers by its sources - Textile School

Natural Fibe1·s Manmade Fibers

Animal Fibers Plant Fibers

Hait· Secretion Seed Bast Leaf Natural Polymers Synthetic Polyme1·s

1. Alpaca 1. Byssus 1. Cotton 1. Banana 1. Abaca 1. Acetate 1. Acrylic 2. Angora 2. Silk 2. Coir 2. Flax/Linen 2. Pina 2. Bamboo 2. Kevlar 3. Camel 3. Kapok 3. Hemp 3. Raffia 3. Lyocell 3. Nomex 4. Cashmere 4. Jute 4. Sisal 4. Modal 4. Nylon 5. Wool 5. Kenaf 5. Rayon 5. Polyester 6. Chiengora 6. Ramie 6. Spandex 7. Llama 7. Sugarcane 8. Mohair 9. Qiviut 10. Vicuna 11. Yak

https://www.textileschool.com/2782/comprehensive-list-of-textile-fibers/ 1/1 Exhibit 5 2/8/2019 The Manufacturing Process of Fabric - Manufacturing Process of Fabric I HowStuffWorks

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The Manufacturing Process of Fabric

There are three basic steps required for fabric production. The first step in creating fabric is yarn production. Here, the raw materials that have been harvested and processed are transformed from raw fibers into yarn and threads. This is done by spinning the fibers. Spi1ming can be done by hand, but this process is quite tedious and time consuming. These days, the vast majority of spinning is done by spinning wheel. The fibers are drawn across the wheel, and as it spins, the fibers are collected on a cylindrical object called a bobbin. The bobbin holds the spun fibers, which are now connected into a long strand of thread or yarn. In the next step, the bobbins will be transferred to another machine, where the yarn will continue on its journey into fabric.

After the raw materials have been converted into yam, they're ready for the second step in the production process, which involves joining these individual threads together to form fabric. This process of joining the yarn together is called weaving. Weaving is done on a machine known as a loom and requires two sets of yam. The first set, called the warp set, is strung tautly across a metal frame. The second, called the weft, is connected to metal rods, with one thread per rod. The loom is controlled by a computer, which lets the weft know how the fabric should be woven.

https://home.howstuffworks.com/home-decor/decorating-styles-techniques/how-is-fabric-created2.htm 1/3 2/8/2019 The Manufacturing Process of Fabric - Manufacturing Process of Fabric I HowStuffWorks

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After the fabric has been woven, it's removed from the loom and is ready for the final step: processing. Fabric that's fresh off the loom is called greige, and it looks nothing like the crisp white sheets or clothing you're used to. It's discolored and full of impurities, seed particles and debris. Before it can be transformed into useful textiles, it must be cleaned. First, it's treated with bleach to purify the base color. Next, it's treated with a variety of chemicals and cleaners to remove oils, wax and other elements that are naturally occurring in most fibers. Finally, it's ready to be shipped out to clothing and textile manufacturers.

In addition to loom weaving, there are other methods for joining fabric, including knitting and crochet. While both are traditionally associated with wool materials, crochet is also common with lace production. Both are traditionally done by hand. Hand looms are also widely used throughout the world, and hand-woven textiles tend to be very popular with consumers.

FABRIC'S UGLIEST PATTERN SWEATSHOPS

Many of the fabric and garment producers throughout the world, most of them women and children, labor under extremely poor working conditions. Though treaties have been enacted to help reduce the presence of sweatshops and factories with similar problems, many countries have failed to https://home.howstuffworks.com/home-decor/decorating-styles-techniques/how-is-fabric-created2.htm 2/3 2/8/2019 The Manufacturing Process of Fabric - Manufacturing Process of Fabric I HowStuffWorks ratify them. The most successful changes have been brought by ontraged Westerners who can hri.J1g irnnrnved conditions PREY NEXT garnenng the attention ot the world media.

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Citation & Date I Reprint

https://home.howstuffworks.com/home-decor/decorating-styles-techniques/how-is-fabric-created2.htm 3/3 Exhibit 6 2/8/2019 Fabric I Definition of Fabric by Merriam-Webster

fabric noun fab·ric I \ 'fa-brik \

Definition of fabric

1 a : STRUCTURE, BUILDING

b : underlying structure : FRAMEWORK the fabric of society

2 : an act of constructing : ERECTION specifically: the construction and maintenance of a church building

3 a : structural plan or style of construction

b : TEXTURE, QUALITY -used chiefly of textiles

c : the arrangement of physical components (as of soil) in relation to each other

4 a : CLOTH sense 1a

b : a material that resembles cloth

5 : the appearance or pattern produced by the shapes and arrangement of the crystal grains in a rock

+ synonyms

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fabric 1/1 Exhibit 7 2/8/2019 TMEP

CLASS18

(Leather goods)

Leather and imitations of leather; animal skins and hides; luggage and carrying bags; umbrellas and parasols; walking sticks; whips, harness and saddlery; collars, leashes and clothing for animals.

Explanatory Note

Class 18 includes mainly leather, imitations of leather and certain goods made of those materials.

This Class includes, in particular:

luggage and carrying bags, for example, suitcases, trunks, travelling bags, sling bags for carrying infants, school bags; luggage tags; business card cases and pocket wallets; boxes and cases of leather or leatherboard.

This Class does not include, in particular:

walking sticks or canes for medical purposes (Cl. 1O) ; clothing, footwear and headgear of leatherfor humans (Cl. 25); bags and cases adapted to the product they are intended to contain, for example, bags adapted for laptops (Cl. 9); bags and cases for cameras and photographic equipment (Cl. 9), cases for musical instruments (Cl. 15), golf bags with or without wheels, bags especially designed for skis and surfboards (Cl. 28); certain goods made of leather, imitations of leather, animal skins and hides that are classified according to their function or purpose, for example, leather strops (Cl. 8), polishing leather (Cl. 21 ), chamois leatherfor cleaning (Cl. 21 ), leather belts for clothing (Cl. 25).

CLASS19

(Non-metallic building materials)

Building materials (non-metallic); non-metallic rigid pipes for building; asphalt, pitch and bitumen; non-metallic transportable buildings; monuments, not of metal.

Explanatory Note

Class 19 includes mainly non-metallic building materials.

This Class includes, in particular:

semi-worked woods (for example, beams, planks, panels); veneers; building glass (for example, floor slabs, glass tiles); glass granules for marking out roads; letter boxes of masonry.

This Class does not include, in particular:

cement preservatives and cement-waterproofing preparations (C l. 1); fireproofing preparations (Cl. 1) . CLASS 20

(Furniture and articles not otherwise classified)

Furniture, mirrors, picture frames; containers, not of metal, for storage or transport; unworked or semi-worked bone, horn, whalebone or mother-of-pearl; shells; meerschaum; yellow amber.

Explanatory Note

https://tmep.uspto.gov/RDMS/TMEP/current#/result/TMEP-1400d1e32.html?q=leather&ccb=on&ncb=off&icb=off&fcb=off&ver=current&syn=adj&result. . 1/4 2/8/2019 TMEP Class 20 includes mainly furniture and parts therefor, as well as certain goods made of wood, cork, reed, cane, wicker, horn, bone, ivory, whalebone, shell, amber, mother-of-pearl, meerschaum and substitutes for all these materials, or of plastic.

This Class includes, in particular:

metal furniture, furniture for camping, gun racks, newspaper display stands; indoor window blinds and shades; bedding, for example, mattresses, bed bases, pillows; looking glasses, furniture and toilet mirrors; registration plates, not of metal; small items of non-metallic hardware, for example, bolts, screws, dowels, furniture casters, collars for fastening pipes; letter boxes, not of metal or masonry.

This Class does not include, in particular:

special furniture for laboratories (Cl. 9) or for medical use (Cl. 1O); outdoor blinds of metal (Cl. 6), not of metal and not of textile (Cl. 19), of textile (Cl. 22); bed linen, eiderdowns and sleeping bags (Cl. 24); certain mirrors for specific uses, for example, mirrors used in optical goods (Cl. 9), mirrors used in surgery or dentistry (Cl. 10), rearview mirrors (Cl. 12), sighting mirrors for guns (Cl. 13); certain goods made of wood, cork, reed, cane, wicker, horn, bone, ivory, whalebone, shell, amber, mother-of-pearl, meerschaum and substitutes for all these materials, or of plastic, that are classified according to their function or purpose, for example, beads for making jewellery (Cl. 14 ), wooden floor boards (Cl. 19), baskets for domestic use (Cl. 21 ), plastic cups (Cl. 21 ), reed mats (Cl. 27).

CLASS 21

(Housewares and glass)

Household or kitchen utensils and containers; cookware and tableware, except forks, knives and spoons; combs and sponges; brushes, except paintbrushes; brush-making materials; articles for cleaning purposes; unworked or semi-worked glass, except building glass; glassware, porcelain and earthenware.

Explanatory Note

Class 21 includes mainly small, hand-operated utensils and apparatus for household and kitchen use, as well as cosmetic and toilet utensils, glassware and certain goods made of porcelain, ceramic, earthenware, terra-cotta or glass.

This Class includes, in particular:

household and kitchen utensils, for example, fly swatters, clothes-pegs, mixing spoons, basting spoons and corkscrews, as well as serving utensils, for example, sugar tongs, ice tongs, pie servers and serving ladles; household, kitchen and cooking containers, for example, vases, bottles, piggy banks, pails, cocktail shakers, cooking pots and pans, and non-electric kettles and pressure cookers; small hand-operated kitchen apparatus for mincing, grinding, pressing or crushing, for example, garlic presses, nutcrackers, pestles and mortars; dish stands and decanter stands; cosmetic and toilet utensils, for example, electric and non-electric combs and toothbrushes, dental floss, foam toe separators for use in pedicures, powder puffs, fitted vanity cases; gardening articles, for example, gardening gloves, window-boxes, watering cans and nozzles for watering hose; indoor aquaria, terrariums and vivariums.

This Class does not include, in particular:

cleaning preparations (Cl. 3); containers for storage and transport of goods, of metal (Cl. 6), not of metal (Cl. 20); small apparatus for mincing, grinding, pressing or crushing, which are driven by electricity (Cl. 7);

https://tmep.uspto.gov/RDMS/TMEP/current#/result/TMEP-1400d1e32.html?q=leather&ccb=on&ncb=off&icb=off&fcb=off&ver=current&syn=adj&result. . 2/4 2/8/2019 TMEP razors and shaving apparatus, hair and nail clippers, electric and non-electric implements for manicure and pedicure, for example, manicure sets, emery boards, cuticle nippers (Cl. 8); table cutlery (Cl. 8) and hand-operated cutting tools for kitchen use, for example, vegetable shredders, pizza cutters, cheese slicers (Cl. 8); lice combs, tongue scrapers (Cl. 10); cooking utensils, electric (Cl. 11 ); toilet mirrors (Cl. 20); certain goods made of glass, porcelain and earthenware that are classified according to their function or purpose, for example, porcelain for dental prostheses (Cl. 5), spectacle lenses (Cl. 9), glass wool for insulation (Cl. 17), earthenware tiles (Cl. 19), building glass (Cl. 19), glass fibres for textile use (Cl. 22).

CLASS 22

(Cordage and fibers)

Ropes and string; nets; tents and tarpaulins; awnings of textile or synthetic materials; sails; sacks for the transport and storage of materials in bulk; padding, cushioning and stuffing materials, except of paper, cardboard, rubber or plastics; raw fibrous textile materials and substitutes therefor.

Explanatory Note

Class 22 includes mainly canvas and other materials for making sails, rope, padding, cushioning and stuffing materials and raw fibrous textile materials.

This Class includes, in particular:

cords and twines made of natural or artificial textile fibres, paper or plastics; fishing nets, hammocks, rope ladders; vehicle covers, not fitted; certain sacks and bags not otherwise classified by function or purpose, for example, bags for washing hosiery, body bags, mail bags; packaging bags of textile; animal fibres and raw textile fibres, for example, animal hair, cocoons, jute, raw or treated wool, raw silk.

This Class does not include, in particular:

metal ropes (Cl. 6); strings for musical instruments (Cl. 15) and for sports rackets (Cl. 28); padding and stuffing materials of paper or cardboard (Cl. 16), rubber or plastics (Cl. 17); certain nets and bags that are classified according to their function or purpose, for example, safety nets (Cl. 9), luggage nets for vehicles (Cl. 12), garment bags for travel (Cl. 18), hair nets (Cl. 26), golf bags (Cl. 28), nets for sports (Cl. 28); packaging bags, not of textile, which are classified according to the material of which they are made, for example, packaging bags of paper or plastics (Cl. 16), of rubber (Cl. 17), of leather (Cl. 18).

CLASS 23

(Yarns and threads)

Yarns and threads, for textile use.

CLASS 24

(Fabrics)

Textiles and substitutes for textiles; household linen; curtains of textile or plastic.

Explanatory Note

Class 24 includes mainly fabrics and fabric covers for household use.

This Class includes, in particular: https://tmep.uspto. gov/RDMS/TMEP/current#/result/TMEP-1400d1e32.html?q=leather&ccb=on&ncb=off&icb=off&fcb=off&ver=current&syn=adj&result. . 3/4 2/8/2019 TMEP household linen, for example, bedspreads, pillow shams, towels of textile; bed linen of paper; sleeping bags, sleeping bag liners; mosquito nets.

This Class does not include, in particular:

electrically heated blankets, for medical purposes (Cl. 10) and not for medical purposes (Cl. 11 ); table linen of paper (Cl. 16); asbestos safety curtains (Cl. 17), bamboo curtains and bead curtains for decoration (Cl. 20); horse blankets (Cl. 18); certain textiles and fabrics for specific uses, for example, fabrics for bookbinding (Cl. 16), insulating fabrics (Cl. 17), geotextiles (Cl. 19).

https://tmep.uspto.gov/RDMS/TMEP/current#/result/TMEP-1400d1e32.html?q=leather&ccb=on&ncb=off&icb=off&fcb=off&ver=current&syn=adj&result. . 4/4 Exhibit 8 2/8/2019 Weaving I Definition of Weaving by Merriam-Webster

weave verb (1) \ 'wev \ wove \ 'wov \ or weaved; woven \ 'we-van \or weaved; weaving

Definition of weave (Entry 1 of 3) transitive verb

1 a : to form (cloth) by interlacing strands (as of yarn) specifically: to make (cloth) on a loom by interlacing warp and filling threads

b : to interlace (threads) into cloth

c : to make (something, such as a basket) by intertwining

2 : SPIN sense 2 -used of spiders and insects

3 : to interlace especially to form a texture, fabric, or design

4 a : to produce by elaborately combining elements : CONTRIVE

b : to unite in a coherent whole

c : to introduce as an appropriate element : work in-usually used with in or into

5 : to direct (something, such as the body) in a winding or zigzag course especially to avoid obstacles

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/weaving 1/1 Exhibit 9 2/8/2019 Weaving - Wikipedia

WIKIPEDIA Weaving

Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling. (Weft is an old English word meaning "that which is woven"; compare leave and l~fi)al) The method in which these threads are inter-woven affects the characteristics of the cloth.[1l Cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band which meets this definition of cloth (warp threads with a weft thread winding between) can also be made using other methods, including tablet weaving, back strap loom, or other techniques without looms.[2 l

The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the weave. The majority of woven products are created with one of three basic Warp and weft in plain weaving weaves: plain weave, satin weave, or twill. Woven cloth can be plain (in one colour or a simple pattern), or can be woven in decorative or artistic design.

Contents

Process and terminology History Middle East and Africa The Americas East Asia Southeast Asia Medieval Europe Industrial Revolution The role of the weaver Hand loom weavers Power loom weavers A satin weave, common for silk, Craft Weavers each warp thread floats over 16 weft Bauhaus Weaving Workshop threads. Other cultures Weaving in the American Colonies (1500-1800) American Southwest Amazon cultures Computer science See also Notes References Bibliography External links https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving 1/ 13 2/8/2019 Weaving - Wikipedia

Process and terminology In general, weaving involves using a loom to interlace two sets of threads at right angles to each other: the warp which runs longitudinally and the weft (older woof) that crosses it. One warp thread is called an end and one weft thread is called a pick. The warp threads are held taut and in parallel to each other, typically in a loom. There are many types of looms.[3]

Weaving can be summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also called the primary motion of the loom.

• Shedding: where the warp threads (ends) are separated by raising or lowering heald frames (heddles) to form a clear space where the pick can pass --- • Picking: where the weft or pick is propelled across the loom by hand, an air-jet, a rapier or a shuttle. • Beating-up or battening: where the weft is pushed up against the fell of the cloth by the reed.l41 The warp is divided into two overlapping groups, or lines (most often adjacent threads belonging to the opposite group) that run in two planes, one above another, so the shuttle can be passed between them in a straight motion. Then, the upper group is lowered by the loom mechanism, and the lower group is raised (shedding), allowing to pass the shuttle in the opposite direction, also in a straight motion. Repeating these actions form a fabric mesh but without beating-up, the final distance between the adjacent wefts would be irregular and far too large.

The secondary motion of the loom are the:

• Let off Motion: where the warp is let off the warp beam at a regulated speed to make the filling even and of the required design • Take up Motion: Takes up the woven fabric in a regulated manner so that the density of filling is maintained The tertiary motions of the loom are the stop motions: to stop the loom in the event of a thread break. The two main stop motions are the

• warp stop motion • weft stop motion The principal parts of a loom are the frame, the warp-beam or weavers beam, the cloth-roll (apron bar), the heddles, and their mounting, the reed. The warp-beam is a wooden or metal cylinder on the back of the loom on which the warp is delivered. The threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the front of the loom where they are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye) in a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement of the heddles is controlled by "cams" which move up the heddles by means of a frame called a harness; in larger patterns the heddles are controlled by a dobby mechanism, where the healds are raised according to pegs inse1ted into a revolving drum. Where a complex design is required, the healds are raised by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Eve1y time the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening (shed) is made between the threads of warp, through which the pick is inse1ted. Traditionally the weft thread is inserted by a shuttle.[4][5]

On a conventional loom, the weft thread is carried on a pirn, in a shuttle that passes through the shecl. A handloom weaver could propel the shuttle by throwing it from side to side with the aid of a picking stick. The "picking·" on a power loom is done by rapidly hitting the shuttle from each side using an overpick or unde1pick mechanism controlled by cams 80-250 times a minute.[4] When a pirn is depleted, it is ejected from the shuttle and replaced with the next pirn held in a batte1y attached to the loom. Multiple shuttle boxes allow more than one shuttle to be used. Each can carry a different colour which allows banding across the loom. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving 2/ 13 2/8/2019 Weaving - Wikipedia The rapier-type weaving machines do not have shuttles, they propel the weft by means of small grippers or rapiers that pick up the filling thread and carry it halfway across the loom where another rapier picks it up and pulls it the rest of the way.[6] Some cany the filling yarns across the loom at rates in excess of 2,000 metres per minute. Manufacturers such as Picanol have reduced the mechanical adjustments to a minimum, and control all the functions through a computer with a graphical user interface. Other types use compressed air to insert the pick. They are all fast, versatile and quiet. [?]

The warp is sized in a starch mixture for smoother running. The loom warped (loomed or dressed) by passing the sized warp threads through two or more heddles attached to harnesses. The power weavers loom is warped by separate Weaving pattern cards used by workers. Most looms used for industrial purposes have a machine that ties new Skye Weavers, Isle of Skye, warps threads to the waste of previously used warps threads, while still on the Scotland loom, then an operator rolls the old and new threads back on the warp beam. The harnesses are controlled by cams,

The raising and lowering sequence of warp threads in various sequences gives - rise to many possible weave structures: I Ill I I 11111 I I

• plain weave: plain, and hopsacks, poplin, taffeta,l81 poult-de-soie, pibiones • I 1111 I I 1111 I and grosgrain. -··-··-I I 11111 ,I I 111111 I I • twill weave: these are described by weft float followed by warp float, arranged to give diagonal pattern. 2/1 twill, 3/3 twill, 1/2 twill. These are softer fabrics than plain weaves.,l91 • satin weave: satins and sateens,l101 ·-·,·-·· • I 11111 I I 11111 I • complex computer-generated interlacings. -··-··-I I 11111 I I 11111 I I • pile fabrics : such as velvets and velveteens [10J I 111111 I I 111111 I I Both warp and weft can be visible in the final product. By spacing the warp

more closely, it can completely cover the weft that binds it, giving a warp f aced A 3/1 twill weave, as used in denim textile such as repp weave.[8] Conversely, if the warp is spread out, the weft can -··-··- slide down and completely cover the warp, giving a weft faced textile, such as a tapest1y or a Kilim rug. There are a variety of loom styles for hand weaving and tapestry.[8]

History

There are some indications that weaving was already known in the Paleolithic era, as early as 27,000 years ago. An indistinct te>-1:ile impression has been found at the Dolni Vestonice site.l11l According to the find, the weavers of Upper Palaeolithic were manufacturing a variety of cordage types, produced plaited basketiy and sophisticated twined and plain woven cloth. The artifacts include imprints in clay and burned remnants of cloth.[12 l

The oldest known textiles found in the Americas are remnants of six finely woven textiles and cordage found in Guitarrero Cave, Peru. The weavings, made from plant fibres, are dated between 10100 and 9080 BCE.[13]

Middle East and Africa

The earliest known Neolithic textile production in the Old World is supported by a 2013 find of a piece of cloth woven from hemp, in burial F. 7 121 at the <;atalhoyiik sitel14l suggested to be from around 7000 B.C.[1sl[16 l Further finds come from the advanced civilisation preserved in the pile dwellings in Switzerland. Another extant fragment from the Neolithic https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving 3/ 13 2/8/2019 Weaving - Wikipedia was found in Fayum, at a site dated to about 5000 BCE.[17l This fragment is woven at about 12 threads by 9 threads per cm in a plain weave. Flax was the predominant fibre in Egypt at this time (3600 BCE) and continued popularity in the Nile Valley, though wool became the primaiy fibre used in other cultures around 2000 BCE.[bl Weaving was known in all the great civilisations, but no clear line of causality has been established. Early looms required two people to create the shed and one person to pass through the filling. Early looms wove a fixed length of cloth, but later ones allowed warp to be wound out as the fell progressed. The weavers were often children or slaves. Weaving became simpler when the warp was sized.

The Americas The Indigenous people of the Americas wove textiles of cotton throughout tropical and subtropical America and in the South American Andes of wool from camelids, primarily

domesticated llamas and alpacas. Cotton and the camelids were both domesticated by ,...... ~ ...... _ . ,.,.~.. about 4,000 BCE.[18l American weavers are "credited with independently inventing Weaving in ancient Egypt nearly every non-mechanized technique known today."[19J

In the Inca Empire of the Andes, women did most of the weaving using backstrap looms to make small pieces of cloth and vertical frame and single heddle looms for larger pieces.[20J Andean textile weavings were of practical, symbolic, religious, and ceremonial importance and used as currency, tribute, and as a determinant of social class and rank. Sixteenth-centmy Spanish colonists were impressed by both the quality and quantity of tell.1:iles produced by the Inca Empire.[21l Some of the techniques and designs are still in use in Weaving using the long cotton the 21st century.[2 2 l strands, typical for the Dogon culture of Mali The oldest-known weavings m North America come from the Windover Archaeological Site in Florida. Dating from 4900 to 6500 B.C. and made from plant fibres, the Windover hunter-gatherers produced "finely crafted" twined and plain weave textiles.[2 3J

East Asia The weaving of silk from silkworm cocoons has been known in China since about 3500 BCE. Silk that was intricately woven and dyed, showing a well developed craft, has been found in a Chinese tomb dating back to 2700 BCE. Example of weaving characteristic of Andean civi lizations Sericulture and silk weaving spread to Korea by 200 BCE, to Khotan by 50 CE, and to Japan by about 300 CE.

The pit-treadle loom may have originated in India though most authorities establish the invention in China.[2 4l Pedals were added to operate heddles. By the Middle Ages such devices also appeared in Persia, Sudan, Egypt and possibly the Arabian Peninsula, where "the operator sat v.rith his feet in a pit below a fairly low-slung loom." In 700 CE, horizontal looms and vertical looms could be found in many parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. In Africa, the rich dressed in cotton while the poorer wore wooJ.[25l By the 12th centmy it had come to Europe either from the Byzantium or Moorish Spain where the mechanism was raised higher above the ground on a more substantial frame.[2 5H26l

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving 4/ 13 2/8/2019 Weaving - Wikipedia Southeast Asia In the Philippines, numerous pre-colonial weaving traditions exist among different ethnic groups. They used various plant fibers, mainly abaca or banana, but also including tree cotton, buri palm (locally known as buntal) and other palms, various grasses (like amumuting and tikog), and barkcloth.[2 7J[28l The oldest evidence of weaving traditions are Neolithic stone tools used for preparing barkcloth found in archeological sites in Sagung Cave of southern Palawan and Arku Cave of Pefiablanca, Cagayan. The latter has been dated to around 1255-605 BCE.[2 9] T'na!ak cloth by T'boli dream weavers. Like most indigenous pre Medieval Europe colonial Filipino textiles, they were typically made from abaca fibers. The predominant fibre was wool, followed by linen and nettlecloth for the lower classes. Cotton was introduced to Sicily and Spain in the 9th centmy. When Sicily was captured by the Normans, they took the technology to Northern Italy and then the rest of Europe. Silk fabric production was reintroduced towards the encl of this period and the more sophisticated silk weaving techniques were applied to the other staples.[3oJ

The weaver worked at home and marketed his cloth at fairs.[3o] Warp-weighted looms were commonplace in Europe before the introduction of horizontal looms in the 10th and 11th centuries. Weaving became an urban craft and to regulate their trade, craftsmen applied to establish a guild. These initially were merchant guilds, but developed into separate trade guilds for each skill. The cloth merchant who was a member of a city's weavers guild was allowed to sell cloth; he acted as a middleman between the tradesmen weavers and the purchaser. The trade guilds controlled quality and the training needed before an artisan could call himself a weaver.[3oJ Weaver, Nlirnberg, c. 1425 By the 13th centmy, an organisational change took place, and a system of putting out was introduced. The cloth merchant purchased the wool and provided it to the weaver, who sold his produce back to the merchant. The merchant controlled the rates of pay and economically dominated the cloth indust1y .[3o] The merchants' prosperity is reflected in the wool towns of eastern England; Norwich, Bury St Edmunds and Lavenham being good examples. Wool was a political issue.[3i] The supply of thread has always limited the output of a weaver. About that time, the spindle method of spinning was replaced by the great wheel and soon after the treadle-driven spinning wheel. The loom remained the same but with the increased volume of thread it could be operated continuously.[ 3o l

The 14th century saw considerable flux in population. The 13th centmy had been a period of relative peace; Europe became overpopulated. Poor weather led to a series of poor harvests and starvation. There was great loss of life in the Hundred Years War. Then in 1346, Europe was struck with the Black Death and the population was reduced by up to a half. Arable land was labour-intensive and sufficient workers no longer could be found. Land prices dropped, and land was sold and put to sheep pasture. Traders from Florence and Bruges bought the wool, then sheep-owning landlords started to weave wool outside the jurisdiction of the city and trade guilds. The weavers started by working in their own homes then production was moved into purpose-built buildings. The working hours and the amount of work were regulated. The putting-out system had been replaced by a fact01y system.[3o]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving 5/ 13 2/8/2019 Weaving - Wikipedia The migration of the Huguenot Weavers, Calvinists fleeing from religious persecution in mainland Europe, to Britain around the time of 1685 challenged the English weavers of cotton, woollen and worsted cloth, who subsequently learned the Huguenots' superior techniques.[32 l

Industrial Revolution Before the Industrial Revolution, weaving was a manual craft and wool was the principal staple. In the great wool districts a form of factory system had been introduced but in the uplands weavers worked from home on a putting-out system. The wooden looms of that time might be broad or narrow; broad looms were those too wide for the weaver to pass the shuttle through the shed, so that the weaver needed an expensive assistant (often an apprentice). This ceased to be necessa1y after John Kay invented the flying shuttle in 1733. The shuttle and By 1892, most cotton weaving was the picking stick sped up the process ofweaving.[33] There was thus a shortage done in similar weaving sheds, of thread or a surplus of weaving capacity. The opening of the Bridgewater powered by steam. Canal in June 1761 allowed cotton to be brought into Manchester, an area rich in fast flowing streams that could be used to power machinery. Spinning was the first to be mechanised (spinning jenny, spinning mule), and this led to limitless thread for the weaver.

Edmund Cartwright first proposed building a weaving machine that would function similar to recently developed cotton spinning mills in 1784, drawing scorn from critics who said the weaving process was too nuanced to automate.[34] He built a fact01y at Doncaster and obtained a series of patents beh-veen 1785 and 1792. In 1788, his brother Major John Cartwight built Revolution Mill at Retford (named for the centenary of the Glorious Revolution). In 1791, he licensed his loom to the Grimshaw brothers of Manchester, but their Knott Mill burnt down the following year (possibly a case of arson). Edmund Caitwight was granted a reward of £10,000 by Parliament for his efforts in 1809.[35] However, success in power-weaving also required improvements by others, including H. Horrocks of Stockport. Only during the two decades after about 1805, did power-weaving take hold. At that time there were 250,000 hand weavers in the UK.[36l Textile manufacture was one of the leading sectors in the British Industrial Revolution, but weaving was a comparatively late sector to be mechanised. The loom became semi-automatic in 1842 with Kenworthy and Bulloughs Lancashire Loom. The various innovations took weaving from a home-based artisan activity Oabour-intensive and man-powered) to steam driven factories process. A large metal manufacturing industry grew to produce the looms, firms such as Howard & Bullough of Accrington, and Tweedales and Smalley and Platt Brothers. Most power weaving took place in weaving sheds, in small towns circling Greater Manchester away from the cotton spinning area. The earlier combination mills where spinning and weaving took place in adjacent buildings became rarer. Wool and worsted weaving took place in West Yorkshire and particular Bradford, here there were large factories such as Lister's or Drummond's, where all the processes took place.[37l Both men and women with weaving skills emigrated, and took the knowledge to their new homes in New England, to places like Pawtucket and Lowell.

Woven 'grey cloth' was then sent to the finishers where it was bleached, dyed and printed. Natural dyes were originally used, with synthetic dyes coming in the second half of the 19th century. The need for these chemicals was an important factor in the development of the chemical indust1y.

The invention in France of the Jacquard loom in about 1803, enabled complicated patterned cloths to be woven, by using punched cards to determine which threads of coloured yarn should appear on the upper side of the cloth. The jacquard allowed individual control of each warp thread, row by row without repeating, so ve1y complex patterns were suddenly feasible. Samples exist showing calligraphy, and woven copies of engravings. Jacquards could be attached to handlooms or powerlooms. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving 6/ 13 2/8/2019 Weaving - Wikipedia The role of the weaver

A distinction can be made between the role and lifestyle and status of a handloom weaver, and that of the powerloom weaver and craft weaver. The perceived threat of the power loom led to disquiet and industrial unrest. Well known protests movements such as the Luddites and the Chartists had hand loom weavers amongst their leaders. In the early 19th century power weaving became viable. Richard Guest in 1823 made a comparison of the productivity of power and hand loom weavers:

A ve1y good Hand Weaver, a man twenty-five or thirty years of age, will weave two pieces of nine-eighths shirting per week, each twenty-four yards long, and containing one hundred and five shoots of weft in an inch, the reed of the cloth being a forty-four, Bolton count, and the warp and weft forty hanks to the pound, A Steam Loom Weaver, fifteen years of age, will in the same time weave seven similar pieces.[3S]

He then speculates about the wider economics of using powerloom weavers:

.. .it may very safely be said, that the work done in a Steam Fact01y containing two hundred Looms, would, if done by hand Weavers, find employment and suppott for a population of more than two thousand persons. [39]

Hand loom weavers Hand loom weavers were mainly men - due to the strength needed to batten.[4o] They worked from home sometimes in a well lit attic room. The women of the house would spin the thread they needed, and attend to finishing. Later women took to weaving, they obtained their thread from the spinning mill, and working as outworkers on a piecework contract. Over time competition from the power looms drove down the piece rate and they existed in increasing poverty.

Power loom weavers Power loom workers were usually girls and young women. They had the security of fixed hours, and except in times of hardship, such as in the cotton famine, regular income. They were paid a wage and a piece work bonus. Even when working in a combined mill, weavers stuck together and enjoyed a tight-knit community.[4i] The women usually minded the four machines and kept the looms oiled and clean. They were assisted by 'little tenters', children on a fixed wage who ran errands and did small tasks. They learnt the job of the weaver by watching.[4o] Often they would be half timers, canying a green card which teacher and overlookers would sign to say they had turned up at the mill in the morning and in the afternoon at the school.[42 l At fourteen or so they come full-time into the mill, and staited by sharing looms with an experienced worker where it was important to learn quickly as they would both be on piece work.[43] Serious problems with the loom were left to the tackler to sort out. He would inevitably be a man, as were usually the overlookers. The mill had its health and safety issues, there was a reason why the women tied their hair back with scarves. Inhaling cotton dust caused lung problems, and the noise was causing total hearing loss. Weavers would mee-maw[44][45] as normal conversation was impossible. Weavers used to 'kiss the shuttle', that is, suck thread though the eye of the shuttle. This left a foul taste in the mouth due to the oil, which was also carcinogenic.[46]

Craft Weavers

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving 7/ 13 2/8/2019 Weaving - Wikipedia Arts and Crafts was an international design philosophy that originated in England[47l and flourished between 1860 and 1910 (especially the second half of that period), continuing its influence until the 193os.[4S] Instigated by the artist and writer William Morris (1834-1896) during the 186os(47] and inspired by the writings of John Ruskin (1819-1900), it had its earliest and most complete development in the British Isles[4SJ but spread to Europe and North America.(49] It was largely a reaction against mechanisation and the philosophy advocated of traditional craftsmanship using simple forms and often medieval, romantic or folk styles of decoration. Hand weaving was highly regard and taken up as a decorative art.

Pedal powered loom used by Skye Bauhaus Weaving Workshop Weavers, Isle of Skye, Scotland In the 1920s the weaving workshop of the Bauhaus design school in Germany aimed to raise weaving, previously seen as a craft, to a fine art, and also to investigate the indust1ial requirements of modern weaving and fabrics.[5o] Under the direction of Gunta Stolz!, the workshop experimented with unorthodox materials, including cellophane, fiberglass, and metaJ. [5l] From expressionist tapestries to the development of soundproofing and light-reflective fab1ic, the workshop's innovative approach instigated a modernist the01y of weaving.[5 l] Former Bauhaus student and teacher Anni Albers published the seminal 2oth-centmy 2 text On Weaving in 1965.[5 ] Other notables from the Bauhaus weaving workshop include Otti Berger, Margaretha Reichardt, and Benita Otte.

Other cultures

Weaving in the American Colonies (1500-1800) Colonial America relied heavily on Great Britain for manufactured goods of all kinds. British policy was to encourage the production of raw materials in colonies and discourage manufacturing. The Wool Act 1699 restricted the export of colonial wool.[53][54] As a result, many people wove cloth from locally produced fibres. The colonists also used wool, cotton and flax (linen) for weaving, though hemp could be made into serviceable canvas and heavy cloth. They could get one cotton crop each year; until the invention of the cotton gin it was a labour-intensive process to separate the seeds from the fibres.

A plain weave was preferred as the added skill and time required to make more complex weaves kept them from common use. Sometimes designs were woven into the fabric but most were added after weaving using wood block prints or embroidery.

American Southwest Textile weaving, using cotton dyed with pigments, was a dominant craft among pre-contact tribes of the An1erican southwest, including various Pueblo peoples, the Zuni, and the Ute tribes. The first Spaniards to visit the region wrote about seeing Navajo blankets. With the introduction of Navajo-Churro sheep, the resulting woolen products have become ve1y well known. By the 18th centmy the Navajo had begun to import yarn with their favorite color, Bayeta red. Using an upright loom, the Navajos wove blankets worn as garments and then rugs after the 1880s for trade. Navajo traded for commercial wool, such as Germantown, imported from Pennsylvania. Under the influence of European-American settlers at trading posts, Navajos created new and distinct styles, including "Two Gray Hills" (predominantly black and white, with traditional patterns), "Teec Nos Pos" (colorful, with very extensive patterns), "Ganado" (founded by Don Lorenzo https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving 8/ 13 2/8/2019 Weaving - Wikipedia Hubbell), red dominated patterns with black and white, "Ciystal" (founded by J. B. Moore), Oriental and Persian styles (almost always with natural dyes), "Wide Ruins," "Chinlee," banded geometric patterns, "Klagetoh," diamond type patterns, "Red Mesa" and bold diamond patterns. Many of these patterns exhibit a fourfold symmetiy, which is thought to embody traditional ideas about harmony, or h6zh6.

Amazon cultures Among the indigenous people of the Amazon basin densely woven palm-bast mosquito netting, or tents, were utilized by the Panoans, Tupinamba, Western Tucano, Yameo, Zaparoans, and perhaps by the indigenous peoples of the central Huallaga River basin Weaving a traditional (Steward 1963:520). Aguaje palm-bast (Mauritia flexuosa, Mauritia minor, or swamp Navajo rug palm) and the frond spears of the Chambira palm (Astrocaiyum chambira, A.munbaca, A.tucuma, also known as Cumare or Tucum) have been used for centuries by the Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon to make cordage, net-bags hammocks, and to weave fabric. Among the Urarina, the production of woven palm-fiber goods is imbued with varying degrees of an aesthetic attitude, which draws its authentication from referencing the Urarina's primordial past. Urarina mythology attests to the centrality of weaving and its role in engendering Urarina society. The post-diluvial creation myth accords women's weaving knowledge a pivotal role in Urarina social reproduction. [55] Even though palm-fiber cloth is regularly removed from circulation through mortuary rites, Urarina palm-fiber wealth is neither completely inalienable, nor fungible since it is a fundamental medium for the expression of labor and exchange. The circulation of palm-fiber wealth stabilizes a host of social relationships, ranging from marriage and fictive kinship (compadrazco, spiritual compeership) to perpetuating relationships with the deceased. [56 l

Computer science

The Nvidia Parallel Thread Execution ISA derives some terminology (specifically the term Warp to refer to a group of concurrent processing threads) from historical weaving traditions.[57]