This here thing: Specifying Morphemes an3, nai1, and mai2 in Tai Khamti Reference-point Constructions by Douglas Inglis A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Linguistics University of Alberta ©Douglas Inglis, 2014 Abstract There are three facets to this dissertation—a descriptive analysis of the minority language Tai Khamti, a grammaticalization account of three basic morphemes in the language, and a theoretical account of how the three morphemes, and their extensions, are motivated by a conceptual reference-point schema. The Tai Khamti language has approximately 15,000 speakers and is spread across northern Myanmar and northeast India. A linguistic description of their language is a priority as the people work together for education and development for the next generation. The descriptive analysis in this dissertation is a portion of an overall language development project for Khamti, initiated in 2005. As a portion of this description, the target morphemes an3 ‘thing’, nai1 ‘this’, and mai2 ‘here’ are basic morphemes that extend in grammatical function to over 35 constructions in the nominal system. The constructions feature a nominal juxtaposition between a head noun and what I analyze as a conoun: [NOUN] [CONOUN]. The noun is a bare head noun and the conoun is comprised of one of the target morphemes. The basic grammaticalization pathways observed in the analysis are well-recognized constructions in the literature, with several Khamti-specific extensions. In a reference grammar, these constructions would be described under discrete section headings, but to do this here would result in the loss of a helpful generalization. All of the extensions form reference-point constructions, which impose an embedded, relational structure, [NOUN [CONOUN]], on the juxtaposition template. In this asymmetrical conceptual relationship, the head noun is construed as a reference point and the conoun is construed as an embedded target. Moreover, the ii three morphemes an3, nai1, and mai2, as part of the target, are realized at a conceptual level as specifiers. These three specifiers identify the target entity and point to a reference head noun, resulting in a coherent composite conception. Because all of the grammaticalized constructions are also analyzed as conceptual reference-point constructions, I posit the overarching reference-point schema as a single motivation which forms the underpinning of the grammaticalization processes involved. The reference-point analysis assumes a cognitive linguistic framework with a symbolic basis to grammar. More specifically, the theoretical notion of Cognitive Reference Point, first introduced in Cognitive Grammar and expanded upon in a variety of subsequent studies, is used for the Tai Khamti reference-point analysis. iii Preface This thesis is an original work by Douglas Maxton Inglis. The research project, of which this thesis is a part, received research ethics approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board, Project Name “Documenting endangered languages: A community-based approach among the Tai Khamti”, ID: Pro00010356_CLS5, Januray 27, 2014. iv For Connie v Acknowledgements I came to the University of Alberta to specifically study under Dr. Sally Rice and Dr. John Newman, students of Dr. Ronald Langacker. I want to expressly thank Sally Rice, my supervisor, who has provided an example of academic excellence. Her love of science and people—a great combination, in my opinion—is evidenced in the amount of time she has pored over my drafts and interacted with me at length over perplexing aspects of the analysis. The interest she divests in her student’s lives, both personal and academic, and her wholehearted dedication to the languages we bring her way is an encouragement for me to do the same with my own students some day. I also want to thank John Newman for his direction and encouragement on several papers that I have written while studying at the university, along with some helpful revision of this dissertation. He is understated as a person, which makes his comments, feedback, and encouragement all the more significant to me. I thank the other members of my committee, Dr. Antti Arppe, Dr. Gregory Forth, and Dr. Diessel Holger for the time they have taken to read my dissertation and offer insights from their respective fields of expertise. I especially want to highlight the work that Diessel Holger has presented over the years on demonstratives. His 1999 reference work on demonstratives has stood the test of time for me and my research on Tai Khamti demonstratives. The Linguistics Department at the University of Alberta has provided the perfect environment in which to solve linguistic conundrums that have been nagging me for years in the field. I thank the entire department, especially other key faculty members—Dr. Harold Baayen, Dr. David Beck, and Dr. Ben Tucker—as well as my fellow students who are engaged in such diverse and intriguing topics in corpus and cognitive linguistics. Furthermore, I thank my Tai Khamti colleagues and friends who have spent much of their day teaching me their language, providing excellent texts, and explaining these texts with such helpful cultural detail. Foremost among them are Mann Han and Lwin Lwin Maw. I hope to see their time and effort rewarded with practical language materials for their ongoing needs as a speech community. vi My family is a great encouragement, especially during these years of study. My father passed away during my time at the University of Alberta. He has always been a source of strength for me and a model of courage and loyalty. I miss him. And finally, I thank my wife, Connie, for the initial editing of my drafts, but much more significantly, for the home that she furnishes with love and artistic expression. vii Table of Contents List of Tables ............................................................................................................. xii List of Figures........................................................................................................... xiii List of Abbreviations................................................................................................. xvi List of Grammaticalized Morphemes with Sources ................................................xviii List of Sources with Grammaticalized Morphemes ..................................................xix Chapter One Introduction........................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research overview and background...................................................................1 1.2 Statement of the problem................................................................................... 7 1.3 Theoretical framework and assumptions..........................................................11 1.3.1 Basic Linguistic Theory........................................................................... 11 1.3.2 Grammaticalization.................................................................................. 14 1.3.3 Cognitive Grammar..................................................................................16 1.4 Methodology and organization of the study.....................................................22 Chapter Two The Tai Khamti and their language.....................................................24 2.1 Ethnographic setting........................................................................................ 24 2.2 Language family and linguistic context........................................................... 29 2.3 Previous studies on Tai Khamti........................................................................31 2.4 Grammatical features of Khamti...................................................................... 34 2.4.1 Phonology................................................................................................ 35 2.4.2 Morphology (nouns, classifiers, pronouns, predicate adjectives, verbs)..37 2.4.3 Syntax...................................................................................................... 47 Chapter Three The general noun an3 ‘thing’ ............................................................ 52 3.1 Theoretical preliminaries to the description of an3..........................................52 3.2 The lexical all-purpose noun an3...................................................................... 57 3.3 An3 as conoun in a numeral classifier construction [CLF].................................62 3.4 An3 as conoun in an indefinite determiner construction [CLF]..........................66 3.5 An3 as conoun in a demonstrative possessive construction [DEM.POSS]...........67 3.6 An3 as conoun in attributive constructions....................................................... 70 3.6.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 70 viii 3.6.2 Predicate adjective nominal with an3 [ADJ].............................................71 3.6.3 Clausal nominal with an3 [REL]............................................................... 74 3.7 The role of an3 in equative constructions......................................................... 79 3.8 A summary of the functions of an3................................................................... 81 Chapter Four The proximal demonstrative nai1 ‘this’ .............................................. 87 4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................