The ‘Jewish Councils’ of Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis By: Laurien Vastenhout A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Faculty of Arts and Humanities Department of History September 2019 The ‘Jewish Councils’ of Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis Submitted for D.Phil examination Laurien Vastenhout University of Sheffield This thesis investigates the form and function of the Jewish representative organisations of western Europe during the Nazi occupation from a comparative perspective: the Dutch Joodsche Raad voor Amsterdam (JR), the Belgian Association des Juifs en Belgique (AJB) and the French Union Générale des Israélites de France (UGIF). It is the first study in which the three organisations are fully compared and contrasted. The aim in doing so is to move away from the inherently moral approach that has been taken towards their study. Methodologically, this thesis extends beyond individual national contexts within which these organisations have been scrutinised as isolated examples. Instead, it highlights their transnational nature, and shows that it is impossible to assess these Jewish organisations without understanding the broader western European context in which they were forced to operate. Three themes are investigated: the organisations’ socio-historical foundations, their organisational structures and their connection to illegal networks. First, the thesis looks at those men who went on to become chairmen of the JR, the AJB and the UGIF between 1941 and 1943/1944. It examines how their status in the prewar Jewish communities affected their wartime position and the nature of their leadership. This, in turn, had an impact on the extent to which they were accepted by Jewish communities. Second, the thesis shows that the history of how the Jewish organisations’ were established as well as ways in which they functioned, means that the Germans did not have a clear plan about what the remit of these organisations was supposed to be. As a result, the organisations’ leaders relied strongly upon ad hoc decisions. Third, the thesis reflects upon the various ways in which the organisations were used as cloaks for clandestine activities and also highlights the participation of some of the central board members in these activities. It argues that the Jewish organisations facilitated clandestine activities and that these would not have been possible without their existence. The assessment of these themes contributes to a more inclusive perspective, in which the function of the JR, the AJB and the UGIF is considered within the broader themes of Jewish representation and the nature of the National-Socialist regime. !ii Acknowledgements I am very grateful to the University of Sheffield and the White Rose College of Arts and Humanities (WroCAH) whose generosity provided the resources that made this thesis possible. This work was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Councils (grant number AH/L503848/1) through the WRoCAH. I also wish to thank the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany, which awarded me the Saul Kagan Fellowship in Advanced Shoah Study. Their generous financial support made the completion of this thesis possible and the feedback I received from other Fellows, alumni, and affiliated faculty during the annual Kagan Fellow summer workshops greatly helped me in refining my arguments. It is with great pleasure and with gratitude that I look back on those stimulating weeks in Jerusalem and Washington and on the friendships I built there. The Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds’ Young Talent Award, together with Fellowships from the European Holocaust Research Institute (EHRI), Yad Vashem and WRoCAH meant that I was able to visit a number of archives in the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Israel. I am greatly indebted to these institutions for their support. Bob Moore has been the most helpful and supportive supervisor I could have hoped for. I am sincerely grateful for his encouragement and guidance. He offered invaluable advice and I was able to make use of his extensive network of scholars, archivists and others working in the field of Holocaust studies. His calmness and practical approach to historical research and writing was everything I needed. Daniel Lee has been an excellent co-supervisor, whose extensive knowledge of and zeal for Vichy France have been nothing if not inspiring. During the final stages of my research, his words were an invaluable source of much-needed encouragement. I am particularly indebted to the many individuals who guided me through the archives and who made my numerous trips abroad so valuable and so pleasant. At the Yad Vashem research centre in Israel, the aid of Eliot Nidam was especially useful. The staff of the Mémorial de la Shoah and the Archives Nationales in Paris were patient and helpful in showing me how to navigate through their collections. In Belgium, the archivists of the Centre for Historical Research and Documentation on War and Society (CEGESOMA), Documentatie Oorlogsslachtoffers (DOS), Krijgsauditoraat Brussel and the Algemeen Rijksarchief (ARA) were endlessly supportive. A few individuals went above and beyond the call of duty in sharing their archival knowledge and expertise. In particular, my gratitude is owed to Laurence Schram and Dorien Styven, who quickly !iii responded to my requests and generously led me through the extensive archives of the Belgian Jewish Association at Kazerne Dossin in Malines. Ariel Sion’s kind welcome to the Mémorial de la Shoah, combined with her insurmountable knowledge of the library’s collection, made my stay in Paris enormously memorable. I am grateful to Karen Taieb and Veerle van den Daelen for their time and generous assistance at the Mémorial de la Shoah and CEGESOMA archives during my EHRI fellowship. To the staff of the Nationaal Archief (NA) in the Netherlands, I extend my heartfelt thanks. The access they gave me to the CABR documents of postwar (honour) trials was immensely helpful. The NIOD Institute of War, Holocaust and Genocidestudies in Amsterdam, where I spent hundreds of hours in the archives and reading room, became my second home. I am extremely thankful for the ongoing support and interest of its staff members, in particular Hubert Berkhout who repeatedly aided me in my search for missing documents. To Erik Somers and René Kok, who made my time at the NIOD office particularly cheerful, I am hugely grateful, not least for asking me to take part in their important (photography) projects. Their confidence and support have been truly remarkable. I owe a great debt to the large number of scholars who were willing to share their ideas with me during my work for this thesis. I would like to thank Jean-Marc Dreyfus, Jean Laloum, Michel Laffitte and Jacques Sémelin for their time and consideration whilst I was doing research in France. During my stay in Belgium, feedback from Rudi van Doorslaer, Nico Wouters, Lieven Saerens and others guided me through the very early stages of this project. I am furthermore very grateful for the support and advice of Richard Cohen and Dan Michman, whose work has always been a source of inspiration to me. Martin Conway’s insightful comments stimulated me to rethink my research within the broader context of the nature of the National-Socialist regime. Vicki Caron not only shared her thoughts on my work, but also kindly sent me one of her earlier articles on the UGIF. In addition, I am greatly indebted to the extraordinary individuals at Ohio State University. Their reflections on the transnational perspectives of my work were of immense help. In particular, I would like to thank Melvin Barnes, Christopher Kinley and Julie Powell for reading my chapters and offering advice on matters of style. The encouragement of the various scholars who were present during the Kagan Summer Institute workshops, including Karel Berkhoff, Steven Katz, David Silberklang and Dalia Ofer, gave me the confidence to continue my work. The observations of Robin Buller and Caroline Cormier were particularly helpful in the last stages of this project. I want to thank Yonathan Barzilay for introducing me to Mirjam Bolle-Levie, an amazing and inspiring woman who generously invited me to her house in Jerusalem several times. The ways in !iv which she shared with me her memories of working for the Dutch Jewish Council, paired with her kindness, courage and strength, have left an indelible impact on me. Finally, I want to thank my dear family and friends whose unrelenting support has been invaluable. They were always there with words of encouragement and a listening ear. Above all, I am intensely grateful to my beloved partner for his unconditional love, understanding and faith in me. There are no words to describe the incredible journey we have shared. !v Unless otherwise indicated, all translations from French, Dutch and German (including both primary and secondary sources) are my own. !vi Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii List of Abbreviations x Introduction 1 ‘Jewish Councils’ in Europe: a historiographical overview 7 The development of historiography on the JR: the Netherlands 9 The development of historiography on the AJB: Belgium 15 The development of historiography on the UGIF: France 19 Methodology and structure: a thematic approach 26 Terminology 32 Sources 33 Chapter 1: The Councils’ Socio-Historical Foundations 37 1.1 The pre-1940 structures of the Jewish communities 39 Traditional organisation