Protecting Arctic Biodiversity

MAGAZINE Roaming room 10 No. 2 Fishing for the unknown 12 2014 THE CIRCLE Phenomenal flyers in decline 17

PROTECTING ARCTIC BIODIVERSITY

PUBLISHED BY THE WWF GLOBAL ARCTIC PROGRAMME THE CIRCLE 2.2014

ARCTIC BIODIVERSITY

Contents EDITORIAL A new beginning for nature conservation in the Arctic 3 IN BRIEF 4 MARYANN FIDEL Traditional ecological knowledge 6 COURTNEY PRICE Managing harvests 9 EARL EVANS Roaming room 10 JØRGEN S. CHRISTIANSEN Fishing for the unknown 12 CONNIE LOVEJOY, MARY THALER Big concerns about little life forms 14 ERIC HOBERG Providing context in a changing world 15 EVGENY SYROECHKOVSKIY Phenomenal flyers in serious decline 17 MARK MARISSINK Putting a price on biodiversity 20 THE PICTURE 24

The Circle is published quar- Publisher: Editor in Chief: Clive Tesar, COVER: Beluga whale, terly by the WWF Global Arctic WWF Global Arctic Programme [email protected] White Sea, Russia. Programme. Reproduction and 8th floor, 275 Slater St., Ottawa, Editor: Becky Rynor, [email protected] Photo: Franco Banfi quotation with appropriate credit ON, Canada K1P 5H9. . are encouraged. Articles by non- Tel: +1 613-232-8706 Design and production: ABOVE: Eider. affiliated sources do not neces- Fax: +1 613-232-4181 Film & Form/Ketill Berger, Photo: Uri Golman, Visit Greenland. sarily reflect the views or policies [email protected] of WWF. Send change of address Internet: www.panda.org/arctic and subscription queries to the Printed by St. Joseph Communications address on the right. We reserve ISSN 2073-980X = The Circle the right to edit letters for publication, and assume no responsibil- Date of publication: ity for unsolicited material. Mar., 2014. Thank you for your interest in The n WWF thanks the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna work- Circle. Many of our subscribers ing group for its help in creating this edition of The Circle, and have moved to an e-version. To particularly thanks Courtney Price for her assistance. receive an electronic copy in your email instead of a paper copy, please write to us at 2 The Circle 2.2014 [email protected] and help us reduce our costs and footprint. EDITORIAL

A new beginning for nature conservation in the Arctic

NO MATTER how often I travel to the Arctic, I am struck by takes us into that often ignored world of parasites, the vast array of species that thrive in what appears to be those “elegant animals” which help explain, predict and a harsh, unforgiving and uninviting place to call home. document catastrophic climate shift. Yet polar bears, caribou and reindeer, Arctic fox, seals, A major challenge to Arctic biodiversity in the past sharks and whales are all uniquely equipped to live in was overharvesting, and sustainable management of the Arctic. But there are other species that appear to living resources continues to be an important tool in be less rugged, even delicate: the ethereal sea butterfly; sustaining biodiversity. Courtney Price tells us numerous the millions of migratory birds that breed in the Arctic overharvesting issues have been alleviated through then fly to every continent on earth; the tiny plants, successful co-management programs. lichens, fungal and microbial species that define Arctic You will also read about the need for including biodiversity. traditional ecological knowledge if we are to fully Then there are the Indigenous Peoples who live, work, comprehend climate change, its impacts, and create hunt and daily demonstrate the relationship between relevant, effective policy. In addition, there is a thought- humans and the more than provoking analysis 21,000 species in the polar of the economics of region. THE ARCTIC BIODIVERSITY AS- biodiversity. Should Last year the Arctic Council’s we be putting a working group on Conservation SESSMENT SYNTHESIZES THE dollar value on of Arctic Flora and Fauna STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF BIO- Arctic biodiversity? (CAFF) published its most To safeguard comprehensive analysis to LOGICAL DIVERSITY IN THE ARC- Arctic biodiversity date of status and trends in TIC. IT IDENTIFIES THE POPULA- and the services biodiversity. we receive from TION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION TOM BARRY is the The Arctic Biodiversity it, three spatial Executive Secretary Assessment synthesizes the OF ARCTIC SPECIES AND ECO- levels of stressors for the Conservation of state of knowledge of biological must be addressed: SYSTEMS, AND – WHERE POS- Arctic Flora and Fauna diversity in the Arctic. It global stressors (CAFF), the biodiversity identifies the population size SIBLE – PRESENTS PROJECTIONS such as climate working group of the and distribution of Arctic species change and long- Arctic Council. and ecosystems, and – where range transport possible – presents projections into the future. Over 250 of contaminants by air and sea water; scientists contributed. The Summary for Policy Makers regional over-exploitation, range expansion of boreal identifies nine key findings and 17 recommendations that and invasive alien species; and more ‘localized’ stressors were endorsed by the Ministers of the Arctic Council, May such as mineral extraction, oil development and ship 2013. accidents. This edition of The Circle reflects on those key findings The challenge now is to turn recommendations into and recommendations. Climate change, and increased concrete actions. The results and implementation of development which climate change may enable, are Arctic Biodiversity Assessment recommendations identified as the most serious pressures on biodiversity will be discussed at the Arctic Biodiversity Congress, now and into the future. Dec. 2-4 in Trondheim, Norway. This unique meeting Earl Evans reports on the need for protecting the range will allow a dialogue among environmental groups, of migratory species such as the Beverly and Qamanirjuaq industry representatives, government policy makers and Caribou herd. Biologist and biogeographer Eric Hoberg Indigenous people on key actions.

The Circle 2.2014 3 IN BRIEF

development, and military is also encouraging the coastal exercises are all contribut- states to take similar actions ing to a barrage of noise on fishing in Arctic waters buffeting ocean life. This that are under their jurisdic- cacophony is hard on ceta- tion. The US, acting on the ceans that use sound for advice of local fishing inter- essential communication. We ests, has already voluntarily are particularly concerned placed a moratorium on fish- about the impacts of sound in ing in previously ice-covered previously quiet oceans, such waters off Alaska pending bet- as the Arctic.” ter scientific information on

Photo: Tim Green Photo: Tim The report finds there are fish stocks there. methods of both quietening Animals see power lines the oceans, and reducing the impacts of noise on whales. Reindeer get as glowing, flashing bands See the report at: http:// awsassets.panda.org/down- fluorescent POWER LINES are seen Avoiding power lines can loads/ocean_noise_report_ as glowing and flashing interfere with migration web.pdf bands across the sky by routes, breeding grounds antlers many animals, research and grazing for animals HERDERS ARE HOPING to stem has revealed. The discov- and birds. Arctic states the road deaths of thousands ery suggests pylons and Scientists knew many of roaming reindeer in the wires stretching across creatures avoid power lines wilds of Finland by giving the many landscapes are hav- but couldn’t figure out why move toward rangifers a a glowing antler ing a worldwide impact on since they are not impass- makeover. wildlife according to Dr able physical barriers. high seas fishing Anne Ollila of the Finnish Nicolas Tyler, an ecologist Now, a new understanding Reindeer Herder’s Associa- at the Arctic University of of just how many species agreement tion says the antlers of 20 Norway. can see the ultraviolet light reindeer have been painted “The loss and fragmen- – invisible to humans – has REPRESENTATIVES of the five with various fluorescent dyes tation of habitat by infra- revealed the major visual Arctic coastal states (Rus- to see how the animals react structure is the principle impact of the power lines. sia, Norway, United States, and whether the paints are global threat to biodi- “It was a big surprise but Denmark, and Canada) have resistant to the harsh Arctic versity,” he says. “Roads we now think the major- agreed to pursue an agree- climate. have always got particular ity of animals can see UV ment to manage fisheries in The Associated Press attention but this will push light,” said Professor Glen the part of the Arctic Ocean reports that if successful, power lines right up the list Jeffery, a vision expert at beyond national jurisdiction. animals with the glow-in- of offenders.” University College London. No commercial fishing is tak- the-dark antlers will be free ing place there now because to roam Lapland – a vast, the area is still covered with deserted area in northern ties finding mates and food ice for most of the year. It is Finland where herders tend Noise chills and drive whales away from also uncertain how productive to some 200,000 reindeer. prime habitat. the area might be for a fishery. Ollila says reflectors and whale romance “We’re finding evidence of To regulate fishing in the reflective tape have proven increasing levels of noise in area, the states must persuade unsuccessful because the A NEW REPORT from WWF all of our oceans” says Aimee non-Arctic countries to be reindeer manage to tear them says increasingly noisy Leslie, Global Cetacean and part of any agreement govern- off, while road signs warning oceans are creating a range of Marine Turtle Manager for ing the area, as it is beyond drivers of roaming reindeer problems for whales. Noisier WWF. “Large ship traffic, the jurisdiction of the Arctic often are stolen by tourists as oceans can create difficul- offshore oil exploration and coastal states involved. WWF souvenirs.

4 The Circle 2.2014 IN BRIEF Cat parasite found in Beluga deemed Insurers weigh in on Arctic shipping rules infectious

SCIENTISTS at the University of British Columbia in Can- ada have found for the first time an infectious form of the cat parasite Toxoplasma gondii in western Arctic Beluga. The team is urging caution for Inuit people who THE RECENT announcement International Maritime Organiza- structure, challenging com- eat whale meat. that insurer Lloyds of London tion, a United Nations agency munication environments, a “Belugas are an integral is adopting its own Arctic ship- that specializes in shipping. The lack of reliable ice and iceberg part of Inuit culture and folk- ping guidelines highlights trou- process of negotiating the code data and the ability to predict lore, and a major staple of bling gaps in shipping regula- is nearly complete, but the cur- the presence of old-ice inclu- the traditional diet. Hunters tions, says Lars Erik Mangset, rent draft of the Code does not sions in first-year sea ice are and community members are Climate and Sustainable Indus- adequately address the risks not addressed by the Polar very concerned about food tries Advisor for WWF-Norway. of Arctic shipping, raising con- Code, even though they provide The Polar Code sets rules for cerns from WWF and the insur- significant risks to ships and safety and security,” says ships operating in polar waters. ers that assume those risks. thus to their insurers,” Mangset Stephen Raverty from UBC’s It is being developed by the “Factors like a lack of infra- says. Marine Mammal Research Photo: by Mads Pihl Unit. The findings were present- tious blindness in humans. change and what the melting late 1980s, and has acceler- ed at the 2014 Annual meet- It can be fatal to fetuses and ice caps mean for Canada’s ated rapidly since 2005,” the ing of the American Associa- to people and animals with future economy and environ- memo says. tion for the Advancement of compromised immune sys- ment. David Burgess, research Science. The scientists warn tems. The data were obtained scientist and glaciologist with that the “big thaw” occurring through Natural Resources Natural Resources Canada, in the Arctic is allowing nev- Canada’s Climate Change explained that since 2005 er-before-seen movement of Ice Caps melting Geoscience Program, which there has been a persistent pathogens between the Arctic monitors annual glacier mass high-pressure system over and the lower latitudes. fluctuations and sea level Greenland, which has acted “Ice is a major eco- Faster, data show changes at sites across the to draw in more warm air barrier for pathogens,” says GLACIER MONITORING con- Canadian High Arctic. from southerly latitudes and Michael Grigg, a molecular ducted by the federal gov- Canada’s federal govern- contributed to a warming parasitologist with the U.S. ernment in Canada’s High ment maintains glacier moni- High Arctic. National Institutes of Health. Arctic shows the shrinking toring sites in the Canadian The main consequence of “What we’re seeing with the of ice caps that started in the High Arctic for four ice caps: shrinking Arctic ice caps is big thaw is the liberation of late 1980s “has accelerated Devon, Meighen, Melville increasing sea levels which pathogens gaining access to rapidly since 2005” and is and Agassiz. can impact Canadian coast- vulnerable new hosts and part of a “strongly negative “Glacier monitoring con- lines depending on their wreaking havoc.” trend,” according to internal ducted by the Earth Sciences resiliency to erosion and Toxoplasmosis, also government documents. Sector in Canada’s High inundation. known as kitty litter disease, The data raise a number Arctic indicates that shrink- is the leading cause of infec- of questions about climate ing of ice caps started in the

The Circle 2.2014 5 ENHANCING SCIENCE Traditional ecological knowledge In a rapidly changing Arctic, traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is essential to understanding climate change, its impacts and in creating relevant, effective policy. MARY- ANN FIDEL says TEK contributes unique information that can’t be replicated by instrument data and often incorporates beliefs and values.

ARCTIC PEOPLES have thrived in this harsh environment for millennia by OUR UNDERSTANDING acquiring a vast wealth of knowledge about the land, waters and species of the OF BOWHEAD POPULA- far north. This traditional knowledge TIONS WAS ENHANCED is increasingly recognized as critical to understanding and conserving Arctic BECAUSE TRADITIONAL biodiversity. Traditional ecological knowledge may be integrated with mod- ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE ern scientific data, or used separately to build a better foundation of the best GUIDED THE SCIENCE available knowledge used to inform decision making. Obser- vations about the changing environ- In 1978 the International Whaling ment are frequently Commission banned the hunting of accompanied by bowhead whales by Alaskan Inuit based information about on a population survey from near-shore MARYANN FIDEL is the effects on well-being observations. This decision was made CONAS Project Man- and contribute local without meaningful tribal involvement. ager at the Aleut Inter- information that Residents living in the area had long national Association, a enhances under- understood that bowheads are capable permanent participant standing of the of traveling great distances under the of the Arctic Council. environment. TEK ice, and often migrate far off-shore, but can also be used to no one had asked for their input when ensure management designing the survey even though the strategies are culturally appropriate and resulting decision affected very deeply relevant to those most affected, which held cultural practices. After some increases our collective ability to accom- conflict, survey methods were altered plish management goals. to reflect Inuit knowledge of bowhead Culturally appropriate management whales. The repeat survey found four strategies are more likely to preserve times as many whales as was originally biodiversity and support Indigenous estimated. Hunting was reinstated, tra- ways of life. This is illustrated by two ditional practices were sustained and historic examples. our understanding of bowhead popula-

6 The Circle 2.2014 Walrus hauled out on a gravel beach on Qayassiq (Round Island), Alaska.

tions was enhanced because traditional ecological knowledge guided the science. Qayassiq (or Round Island) is a jewel in Bristol Bay, Alaska with one of the largest and most consistently used walrus haul-outs. Evidence of human use here dates back at least 3,000 years. In fact, the Yup’ik word Qayas- siq means ‘place to go in a kayak’. In 1960, Qayassiq and surrounding islands were designated as the Walrus Islands State Game Sanctuary. A few years later, as residents were returning from a successful walrus hunt on Qayas- siq, they were charged with poaching. They said they had no knowledge of the new regulations, and certainly weren’t consulted in the formation of the Game Sanctuary. “Our elders started asking us younger people about it,” one resident said. “They never did understand why they couldn’t go out there any more. That island was the place they went to hunt.” The community lamented the loss of this important hunting area, with some hunting at more distant haul-outs, or resorting to hunting walrus at sea, which one elder called, “hunting by acci- dent.” “This is just not true hunting,” he said. “Many times the kill is not even retrieved” because many walrus shot at sea sink out of reach of the hunter. In a challenge to the state’s attempt to restrict their hunting rights, an elderly couple harvested walrus in plain view of biologists at Qayassiq in the early 90s. It was a bold act that provided the impetus for discussions with the management authority. By 1995, the Cooperative Agreement Governing Subsistence Wal- rus Hunting on Qayassiq was signed creating one of the first co-managed hunts in Alaska. Two decades later, there appears to be satisfaction with this agreement: it incorporates traditional knowledge of walrus; involves hunters who provide biological samples to scientists; reflects the traditional timing of the fall hunt; and allows sufficient num-

The Circle 2.2014 7 Photo: USFWS Photo ber of walrus to be harvested for community use. The agreement also makes CAFF space for a cultural tradition enhancing human connectedness to walrus, which is an inspiring force in the conservation of species. By incorporating traditional values into co-management, wildlife managers were able to decrease the Managing harvests amount of walrus wasted through hunt- Until the second half of the 20th century, overharvest ing at sea and reduce conflict in maintaining healthy walrus populations. was the primary threat to a number of Arctic mammals, In addition to co-management agree- birds and fishes. Some, such as the Steller’s sea cow, dis- ments, many scientific research pro- appeared altogether while others retreated to ever more grams are underway that document traditional ecological knowledge. The Com- remote locations. COURTNEY PRICE says a range of conserva- munity Observation Network for Adap- tion and management actions have helped manage harvest tation and Security (CONAS), funded to the point that many populations are recovering. How- by the National Science Foundation, is an evolution of the long-standing Ber- ever, pressures on others persist. ing Sea Sub-Network. CONAS partners with Indigenous communities bordering the Bering Sea in Alaska and Russia to EVEN THOUGH overharvest has his- knowledge exists to develop effective co-produce useful data products such torically been one of the most common conservation measures and to build as subsistence-use maps. The maps are pressures on Arctic wildlife, it is also support for those actions. In most areas, created from interviews conducted by the most manageable. The threat of hunting and fishing are regulated, at community members with community overharvest has been greatly reduced least for species of conservation con- members and are being used, for exam- in the Arctic for many species such cern. Indeed, the pressure from over- ple, to inform decisions regarding ship- as bowhead whale, muskox, common harvest has been largely removed as a ping activity in the Bering Strait. These eider, some fish stocks and many migra- major conservation concern for most efforts also serve to communicate tradi- tory birds in part because sufficient species due to improved management tional knowledge to decision makers to develop effective, culturally appropriate management strategies, as well as Red knot breeding in high Arctic tundra during snow-storm in improve our understanding of changes Great Arctic Reserve, Russia. occurring at the local level. CONAS is also exploring the development of early warning systems for communities on the ground, to anticipate undesired changes long before they happen.

Arctic Biodiversity Assessment: Report for Policy Makers Recommendation 14 n Recognize the value of traditional ecological knowledge and work to further integrate it into the assessment, planning and management of Arctic biodiversity. This includes involving Arctic peoples and their knowledge in the survey, monitoring and analysis of Arctic biodiversity. Photo: Peter Prokosch, http://www.grida.no

8 The Circle 2.2014 and conservation actions such as short- ened seasons, regulated takes, improved reserve networks, better reporting, joint management and limitations to harvest technology. Continued and improved data collection is vital to achieve and maintain these results. These actions are based on greater understanding of the potential for harm to species and ecosystems, better regulation and enforcement, and in many cases greater engagement with Arctic peoples. The incorporation of traditional values, practices and knowledge can help improve both management and enforcement. Local community observations and data collection are both key to affecting changes in management regimes. There are many documented examples of Arctic peoples describ- ing the changes they witness related to climate change, diminishing sea ice and especially to harvested wildlife spe- Greenland Photo:Visit cies. There is a pressing need for more Musk ox, Greenland. (Opening Doors to Native Knowledge), community-based monitoring that can whereby local people and local authority detect change, interpret and integrate staff are directly involved in data collec- results, and lead to prompt decision- tion, interpretation and resource man- making. This will help tackle environ- agement. mental challenges at operational levels THE INCORPORATION OF The increased of resource management. need for informa- Greenland’s effort to increase com- TRADITIONAL VALUES, tion and the neces- munity-based monitoring to inform sity of promoting management is one of the success sto- PRACTICES AND KNOWL- locally relevant COURTNEY PRICE ries that are becoming more common in knowledge and works with the Conser- the Arctic. In addition to other existing EDGE CAN HELP IMPROVE management vation of Arctic Flora local monitoring efforts, the Greenlan- actions suggest that BOTH MANAGEMENT & Fauna (CAFF) sec- dic government is piloting a natural there are substan- retariat which recently resource monitoring system called tial prospects in the AND ENFORCEMENT. published the Arctic Piniakkanik sumiiffinni nalunaarsuineq coming decades for Biodiversity Assess- more community- ment based monitoring About the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) around the Arctic. This will also con- n CAFF is the biodiversity working group of the Arctic Council and consists of National tribute to effective local conservation Representatives assigned by each of the eight Arctic Council Member States, repre- actions. sentatives of Indigenous Peoples’ organizations that are Permanent Participants to the Overharvest remains a high concern Council, and Arctic Council observer countries and organizations. CAFF´s mandate is for many migratory species once they to address the conservation of Arctic biodiversity, and to communicate its findings to the leave the Arctic to follow their migra- governments and residents of the Arctic, helping to promote practices which ensure the tion routes south. The Eskimo curlew is sustainability of the Arctic’s living resources. thought to be extinct as a result of hunting on its migration areas. The critically

The Circle 2.2014 9 endangered spoon-billed sandpiper faces extinction due to habitat loss and CARIBOU VS. MINING overharvest on its wintering areas in Southeast Asia. Overharvest is a factor in the drastic decline of the Siberian crane. Some birds, such as the red knot have declined in part because their food source (horseshoe crab) is overharvest- Roaming room ed, leaving less food available to them during migration. Greater engagement Migratory animals such as caribou and reindeer require amongst Arctic and non-Arctic actors is vast tracts of undisturbed land for calving grounds, graz- necessary to reduce stressors on Arctic ing and staging areas. EARL EVANS says protected areas in migratory species across their entire range. Canada’s Nunavut region are critical to the survival of Overharvest is but one threat to Arc- these herds. He spoke with editor Becky Rynor. tic wildlife, acting in combination with other stressors such as habitat loss and changing climate. A comprehensive NUNAVUT USED TO BE the last stronghold and integrated approach is needed to for caribou but it is now pretty pro- address the interconnected and complex mining. There was a lot of virgin terri- challenges facing biodiversity and to tory that caribou could go where there ensure informed policy decisions are was no disturbance, a place to have their taken in a changing Arctic. The threat calves. It was kind of like sacred ground. of overharvest has declined dramati- That’s no longer the case. Permits have cally in recent decades across the Arctic, been issued on the calving grounds and and working with harvesters has been there’s no place for them to go right now central to better conservation. Arctic where they have some sanctuary. We nations and peoples can achieve much have to look at historical ranges, not just more for biodiversity when they work current calving grounds, but the histori- together to ensure that unique environ- cal range of the caribou and implement ments and species exist for the benefit some kind of measures to protect these of future generations. lands for the caribou. For more information see “Stressors and their alleviation” and “Conservation How can protected areas be created? through community involvement” in the We have to look at the overall picture to Arctic Biodiversity Assessment. see how we can protect these areas. We EARL EVANS is a Metis hunter, trap- also need migration corridors for cari- per, teacher and Chair of the Beverly bou to pass through. That’s one of the and Qamanirjuaq Caribou Manage- ment Board in Fort Smith, Northwest Arctic Biodiversity Assessment: biggest obstacles. The diamond roads, Territories. Report for Policy Makers for example, represent a linear structure Recommendation 10 (a) that is a real impediment for caribou. n Improve circumpolar cooperation They’ll hit this road and they’ll follow in data gathering and assessment of it for miles because they don’t like to their calves safely up there. But over the populations and harvest and in the cross a linear structure. It impedes their past six years or so, even that is chang- development of improved harvest movements and could delay their migra- ing. The wolves and the grizzly bears are methods, planning, and manage- tion by a week or more. When calving is following them and the wolves are hav- ment. This includes improving the coming up that’s pretty critical. If they ing their pups there now and it’s raising use and integration of traditional get stuck somewhere, that could mean hell with the calves. One wolf can kill 10 ecological knowledge and science the loss of a lot of calves. But they see or 15 calves in one spot. in managing harvests and in improv- that diamond road and they change their We definitely need protected areas ing the development and use of migratory route. It’s very important that that are accessible. The caribou have community-based monitoring as an they travel to the calving grounds. They to be able to go to and from these areas important information source. leave predators like wolves and grizzly free of harassment and hunters, a pro- bears behind and they are able to have tected corridor where they can move

10 The Circle 2.2014 Caribou, Nunavut.

Photos: Rich Durant freely back and forth with no breaks in the jet lands there from Edmonton or it it. There has to be free movement where goes straight to Newfoundland. These they don’t have to cross obstacles like people don’t even touch the ground in roads or mining development. the Northwest Territories except at the mining site. So the territory itself is not Are there some industrial activities that benefitting from those people coming in are more tolerated by caribou, and to do this work. We’ve got to scale down some that are less tolerated? the mine so that all the people that are Some activities like uranium min- living in the Northwest Territories have ing in Saskatchewan are a pretty big employment and not have to go outside. issue. You’re hauling raw contaminents All of this is turning into temporary Diamond mine, Nose Lake, Nunavut. between mine sites and processing foreign workers coming in to these sites. plants and the material isn’t covered and We don’t need that scale of development how we have to create these corridors, the wind is blowing contaminants over in the north. We have to look after the implement them so that the animals can the landscape. Depending on the pre- people in the north and the animals so move freely, and look at the big picture vailing winds, it could be carried several we have to somehow strike that fine bal- to see what food is available to them. hundred miles and contaminate large ance and scale the operations down so Development is coming, but let’s place areas. No one has done any real studies that the benefits of these mines are for these mines or other industry strategi- on how much vegetation is affected by the people of the north. If we keep going cally in a way that won’t interfere with this kind of movement. A diamond mine at the current scale, the whole territory migratory routes, so that they can have is not as bad. The biggest problem with is going to be taken up by development access to their calving grounds. It’s very, a diamond mine is the several thousand and we’re not going to have the protec- very important. trucks that move in there every year to tion for the animals that we need. re-supply it. The actual diamond mine footprint is not that bad. It is an impedi- What hope do you have for the future of Arctic Biodiversity Assessment: ment but it’s not as bad as other devel- the Beverly and Qamanirjuaq herds Report for Policy Makers opment. If the scale of development continues at Recommendation 5 (b) this rate, the caribou are going to be in n Build upon existing networks of How do we balance the needs of north- serious peril, no matter what herd it is. terrestrial protected areas, rare or erners to have paying jobs while trying These caribou that once were migratory unique habitats, particularly produc- to protect the caribou? animals are eventually going to become tive areas such as large river deltas, We have to ensure that local people who sedentary animals because they aren’t biodiversity hotspots, and areas need and rely on the jobs have employ- going to have freedom of movement. with large aggregations of animals ment and can still pursue their tradition- That seems to be the case already with such as bird breeding colonies, seal al lifestyles. We suggest scaling down some of the herds north of the Baffin whelping areas, and caribou calving the development of the mines. A lot of Islands. No matter where they go, there grounds. these diamond mines in Yellowknife, is development all around them. Some-

The Circle 2.2014 11 FISHERIES Fishing for the unknown The Arctic seas are under tremendous pressure from climate change and expanding human activity of unprecedented scale. JØRGEN SCHOU CHRISTIANSEN says our biological understanding of Arctic marine fishes is virtually absent, and strict precautionary actions are imperative.

THE NEWLY RELEASED report on Arctic biodiversity presents the first comprehensive assessment of about 635 marine fish species across the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas (AOAS). The most important outcome of this exercise is that we have finally structured our ignorance and identified some of our knowledge gaps. In short, our biological understanding of Arctic marine fishes is practically absent. Scientific uncertainty is difficult to broadcast and hard to sell, but it is nonetheless essential as it calls for strict precautionary approaches towards Arctic JØRGEN S. CHRISTIAN- resources. A few years ago, The daubed shanny Leptoclinus maculatus (Fries, 1838) – a little studied bycatch SEN is a professor of species in arctic industrial fisheries. fish ecology at the Arc- headlines in the Photo: Arve Lynghammar. tic University of Norway, media gave the Tromsø, Norway, and misleading impres- ing resources in hitherto pristine parts false from a biological standpoint. With- guest professor at Åbo sion of Arctic fishes of the Arctic seas. in the AOAS, industrial fisheries target Akademi University, being overexploited. about 60 species of which only three Turku, Finland. Subsistence fisher- BAN BOTTOM TRAWLING ON (5%) are Arctic: the codfishes polar cod ies along the Arctic THE ARCTIC SHELVES (Boreogadus saida) and navaga (Elegi- coasts have been Among the 635 AOAS fishes, only 60 nus nawaga), and the Arctic flounder going on for centu- (fewer than 10%) are classified as being (Liopsetta glacialis). ries and the reconstructed catch records true Arctic. The remaining fishes belong Databases covering the Arctic Ocean for a range of fishes such as whitefishes to sub-arctic and southerly seas. The and adjacent seas hold a wealth of valu- (Coregonidae) and salmonids (Salmoni- widely used phrase “Arctic fisheries” is able information for the commercial dae) accumulated to about 950 thou- species. But it is also a fact that data on sand tonnes in 57 years (1950-2006). non-target fishes are notoriously poor – This is absolutely minuscule compared BOTTOM TRAWLS ARE BY bycatch species are either misidentified with, for example, annual landings of or lumped into categories of little bio- more than 1 million tonnes from a single FAR THE MOST USED AND logical meaning. This is particularly true stock of herring (Clupea harengus) in MOST DESTRUCTIVE GEAR for cartilaginous fishes such as sharks the Northeast Atlantic. What is most and skates, and species-rich fish fami- disturbing, though, is the emerging full IN GROUNDFISH FISHERIES lies such as sculpins (Cottidae), snail- scale exploitation of petroleum and liv- fishes (Liparidae) and eelpouts (Zoar-

12 The Circle 2.2014 Arctic fisheries cidae). So, to keep up a precautionary view: better to be data deficient (“we Number of marine fish species in Arctic haven’t got a clue!”) than misinformed Ocean and adjacent seas harvested (“our databases may show…”). by industrial fisheries. In light of ocean warming, targeted Bering Sea fishes spread rapidly into yet unfished Arctic gateways USA parts of the arctic seas and marine top- Chukchi predators, in the shape of industrial fish- Arctic seas Sea CANADA Beaufort ing fleets, obviously follow. For example, East Sea Siberian Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) is now Sea Canadian common on the arctic shelves around Arctic Arctic Hudson Bay Archipelago Svalbard archipelago at latitude 80°N. Complex Central Laptev Basin Sea Bottom trawls are by far the most used 30 RUSSIA and most destructive gear in groundfish Bafﬁn Bay Kara fisheries. The vast majority of Arctic Sea 25 fishes live at or near the bottom and do Coastal West GREENLAND Greenland Greenland not migrate. Therefore, they are particu- Sea Barents Coastal Sea larly vulnerable to conventional bottom 20 East Greenland trawling as they are lost to bycatch and Norwegia Sea White destroyed seabeds. Although of no direct Sea commercial value, bycatch species make 15 arctic ecosystems work by feeding sea- NORWAY birds and marine mammals – wildlife that forms the livelihood of Arctic peoples. Number of fish species* 10 In contrast to the Southern Ocean, the Arctic is neither an outpost nor a frontier 5 but homeland to Arctic peoples. They are the first to feel the pressures of climate change, big business and reckless actions ex from some environmental activists. Sea Sea Sea Bay Sea Sea Sea Basin Sea Sea Sea Sea Bafﬁn ComplGreenlandGreenlandWhite Kara The detection of valid species and Bering Barents ArchipelagoBeaufortChukchi LaptevSiberian Norwegian Bay East Greenland Central West Arctic East Hudson Arctic how they work in context of ecosystems CoastalCoastal is at the heart of biodiversity assess- Canadian ments based on scientific credibility and *Note that the same species may be harvested in more than one region Adapted from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12395/full legitimate conservation and management actions based on societal values. and rigor of science. Traditional eco- Several Arctic fishes are controversial logical knowledge may provide valuable Arctic Biodiversity Assessment: and difficult to identify and basic ques- information to science on species distri- Report for Policy Makers tions remain unanswered: how do fishes bution and abundance, shifts in biologi- Recommendation 10 (c) interact as prey and predator; how do cal events and changes in species occur- n Support efforts to plan and man- they grow and reproduce; how old do rences and habitats. On the other hand, age commercial fisheries in inter- they get and how do they cope with heat science may give useful advice on pollut- national waters under common and pollutants? ant loads in wildlife and forecast poten- international objectives that ensure We clearly need to integrate tradi- tial consequences of climate change. long-term sustainability of species tional/community knowledge held by Science needs traditional knowledge and and ecosystems. Encourage precau- Arctic peoples and the natural sciences traditional knowledge needs science. In tionary, science-based management for legitimate conservation and manage- the end, we all fall victim to failed con- of fisheries in areas beyond national ment actions. This is indeed a huge, but servation and management policies. jurisdiction in accordance with inter- not unsolvable, task. It must be based on Read more on this in a recent Open national law to ensure the long-term mutual respect for the perception and Access paper in Global Change Biol- sustainability of species and ecosys- rights of Arctic peoples to wildlife and ogy (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ tems. habitat, and the methodological needs doi/10.1111/gcb.12395/full).

The Circle 2.2014 13 MICRO-ORGANISMS Big concerns about little life forms While not visible to the naked eye, single-celled micro-organisms are the most numerous life forms on the planet. They form complex communities even in habitats that appear devoid of life, occurring in Arctic waters, soils and sediments. Some microbes may have global distributions, while others appear to be found only in the Arctic which means genetic diversity could be lost in the event of major climate change. As sea-ice retreat and thawing permafrost transform Arctic environments, MARY THALER and CONNIE LOVEJOY warn that changes in microbial communities could affect many basic ecosystem functions, with repercussions for larger life-forms.

MICRO-ORGANISMS are at the base of photosynthesis. The microbial food web retreat over the year. Along the shallow aquatic food webs. The best studied are is so efficient at recycling carbon and shelves, the ice community is released phytoplankton that are responsible for energy within itself that only a fraction of suddenly into the water column when nearly all photo- its biomass is ever consumed by animals. the ice melts and continues to feed ben- synthesis in oceans Nevertheless in the Arctic Ocean, for thic invertebrates – organisms that live and lakes. Less well example, this fraction is enough to sup- in or on the bottom sediments of oceans known are microbes port all the zooplankton, and, ultimately, – and fish. However, as sea-ice retreats that eat other free- fish, birds, and marine mammals. earlier in the season across the Arctic, CONNIE LOVEJOY is a living single-celled The Arctic Ocean is ice-covered for the microbial community does not have professor at Laval Uni- organisms or take much of the year, and a specialized com- time to develop and this pulse of food for versity in Quebec. She up organic mate- munity of micro-organisms lives within benthic organisms may disappear. has been working on rial. The distinction brine channels and attached to the bot- Another consequence of ice break-up aquatic microbes in the between these types tom of sea-ice. These microorganisms is increased light for photosynthesis, and high Arctic for the past of microbes is not provide food for small crustaceans and production of biomass in spring. Multi- 15 years. as clear-cut as it is even fish, whose life cycles are timed cellular animals appear to synchronize for terrestrial plants to the rhythm of sea ice expansion and their life cycles to take advantage of this and animals. Many spring bloom, but this synchronicity may groups are able to do be disrupted with early spring blooms. both. These micro- AS SEA-ICE RETREATS Micro-organisms in freshwater organisms interact environments are also affected by cli- MARY THALER has a to form complex EARLIER IN THE SEASON mate change. For example, thawing PhD in Oceanography microbial food webs, permafrost creates new ponds that are at Laval University. which include pro- ACROSS THE ARCTIC, colonized by microbes including some After five field missions tists, Bacteria and THE MICROBIAL COM- in the Arctic, she wrote Archaea. Archaea her dissertation on the and some Bacteria MUNITY DOES NOT HAVE n The Arctic is home to more than diversity of heterotroph- can use sources of 21,000 species of often highly cold- ic microbes in the Arctic carbon and other TIME TO DEVELOP AND adapted mammals, birds, fish, inver- Ocean. nutrients that are tebrates, plants and fungi (including otherwise inac- THIS PULSE OF FOOD lichens) – together with large num- cessible to larger FOR BENTHIC ORGAN- bers of undescribed endoparasites organisms. Other and microbes. Bacteria and Archaea use chemical reac- ISMS MAY DISAPPEAR. Arctic Biodiversity Assessment 2013 tions to take up carbon dioxide without

14 The Circle 2.2014 PARASITES Archaea that convert ancient carbon formerly stored in the frozen soil to methane, a powerful greenhouse gas. Some bacteria in these ponds are able to use the methane for energy and thus prevent its release into the atmosphere. Providing context These methane-using bacteria (methanotrophs) need oxygen produced by photosynthesizers in multi-species microbial mats that grow on the sedi- in a changing world ments in well-established ponds. In new, rapidly formed ponds where conditions Parasites are among the most common organisms on the are not favourable for mats to form, planet. They represent 40-50% of all animals on Earth the methanotrophs cannot grow and a potentially powerful feedback loop for and inhabit animal and plant hosts from the equatorial climate change may be created by meth- regions, to the poles and the ocean depths. As ERIC HOBERG ane release into the atmosphere. tells us, we explore the world of parasites because these Micro-organisms are incredibly diverse. In order to understand the fate elegant animals can predict how people, food resources of carbon in food webs, and how this and wildlife will be affected by unprecedented environ- will be affected by climate change, it’s mental shifts such as climate change. important to know what species are present. Before we can ask ourselves how the community is changing, we first need to PARASITES TIE communities together. ask what is normal. New techniques have They tell stories about critical connec- made it possible to analyze and compare tions established by a history of evolu- many samples at a time, but the Arctic is tion and ecology such as food habits, already in a state of flux, and their abil- foraging behavior and interactions ity to reproduce rapidly allows microbial among host species. Parasites reveal communities to respond to environ- patterns of geographic distribution for mental change at near-instantaneous host populations, species, ecosystems speed. Already we find ourselves playing and regional faunas that constitute catch-up to describe microbial communi- the biosphere. These often cryptic ties before this unique environment is organisms tell us about range shifts, changed forever. geographic colonization, climate varia- tion, and episodic shifts in climate over the past 3 million years. This parasitic Arctic Biodiversity Assessment: history has determined the patterns of Report for Policy Makers diversity in the world around us includ- Recommendation 13 ing all that we observe today in high n Increase and focus inventory, long- latitude ecosystems. term monitoring and research efforts to Vertebrate and invertebrate animals address key gaps in scientific knowl- support complex assemblages of mac- edge identified in this assessment to roparasites (worms and arthropods) Strobila and multiple segments of better facilitate the development and and microparasites (protozoans, fungi, Arostrilepis tenuicirrosa, a tapeworm in implementation of conservation and bacteria and viruses) that collectively a red backed vole (Myodes rutilus) from management strategies. Areas of inhabit every part of their hosts. More along the Omolon River in northeastern particular concern identified through than 100 years of field-based explora- Siberia. the ABA include components critical to tions across arctic and subarctic lati- ecosystem functions including impor- tudes of North America and Eurasia remarkable meter-long lung nematode tant characteristics of invertebrates, estimate that more than 7100 species of (roundworm) of muskoxen in tundra microbes, parasites and pathogens. worms infect fishes, amphibians, birds systems of the central Canadian Arctic, and mammals. These range from the Umingmakstrongylus, described for

The Circle 2.2014 15 with parasitic infections and disease for people, food resources and wildlife species. Parasites have subtle to severe effects on individual hosts or on host populations that may cascade through ecosystems. Parasitic diseases influence sustainability for species and populations of invertebrates, fishes, birds and mammals, secondarily affecting food security, quality and availability for people. Further, some parasites of animals can infect and cause disease in people (termed zoonoses) and are a primary issue for food safety, security, sustainability and human health especially where access to ‘country foods’ is of concern at northern latitudes for people maintaining a strong reliance on Chewing lice of the genus Quadraceps characteristic of alcid seabirds across the wildlife species. North Pacific and Bering Sea. We lack baseline and long-term data to establish trends for parasite biodiversity even for the best known the first time only in 1994, to the nearly transmission and persistence within Arctic host species. Understanding microscopic flukes (flatworms) that and across foodwebs, parasite diversity parasite diversity relies on a synergy. inhabit intestines of shorebirds and sea demonstrates important evolutionary Field-based inventories with local tra- ducks around the polar basin of the Arc- and ecological principles, revealing hid- ditional knowledge, archival specimens, tic Ocean. Parasites den aspects of the structure of our bio- and data resources must be linked to are integral parts of sphere in space and time. Though hum- modeling efforts in exploring the dis- a global puzzle that ble and often poorly known, parasites tribution of organisms and disease in can help us under- tell us about general responses in the space and time. Baselines emerging stand why the world biosphere to perturbation and the role from these synergistic activities will be DR. ERIC P. HOBERG is looks as it does. of shifting ranges and biological inva- essential tools for assessing environ- Chief Curator and Zool- Parasites are sions, providing a pathway to recognize mental change. This is a critical need ogist at the US National not simply indica- and anticipate outcomes of broadening because the occurrence of particular Parasite Collection, tors of disease and disturbance especially in a regime of parasite species and faunas is predicted among the largest debilitated hosts. accelerated climate and environmental to change under accelerating climate archives of specimens They also denote change. warming in northern systems. We can and information docu- stability and con- Parasites help us document and predict with confidence that changes menting global parasite nectivity among the understand the impacts associated in geographic ranges and switching of biodiversity. intricate mosaic of parasites among host species and within myriad species of ecosystems with attendant emergence invertebrates and of disease are consequences of climate vertebrates that are the cornerstones of WE EXPLORE THE WORLD and environmental perturbation in high robust ecosystems from landscape to latitude systems. These responses will regional scales. The broad geographic OF PARASITES BECAUSE lead to breakdowns in mechanisms for and biological occurrence of these ecological isolation related to where diverse parasite faunas indicates general THESE ELEGANT ANIMALS and how host animals spend time in the health and resilience in marine, fresh- TELL US ABOUT OUR environment. For example, alteration in water and terrestrial environments. the timing and extent of migration, and Dependent on historically conserva- PLACE IN THE BIOSPHERE developing mismatches in the arrival tive and predictable connections for time for shorebirds and waterfowl and

16 The Circle 2.2014 CONNECTED TO THE WORLD

OCCURRENCE OF PAR- TICULAR PARASITE SPE- CIES AND FAUNAS IS Phenomenal flyers PREDICTED TO CHANGE UNDER ACCELERATING in serious decline CLIMATE WARMING IN For those who have experienced nine months of frigid NORTHERN SYSTEMS weather surrounded by an unrelieved white landscape and covered by polar night, there is no need to explain what it means to hear the first distant call of geese or the first song of a snow bunting on the roof of your ice-bound hut. These the availability of seasonally defined are signals of spring and the promise of a flourishing sum- food resources such as aquatic insects mer. But those sounds are becoming less common as Arc- may drive substantial changes in the distribution of some parasites. Further, tic birds are in decline. EVGENY SYROECHKOVSKIY explains northward expansion of fishes and why so many of these amazing migratory birds are not mammals, respectively, tracking habitat making it back from southern countries. changes are predicted to result in new zones of contact for aquatic and terrestrial faunas and shifts in the distribution THE ARCTIC is seasonally populated by crucial part of the ecosystem. But birds of parasites. All these factors influence roughly 200 species of birds. These are declining faster than any other spe- how parasites circulate in the environ- are very special birds, many of them cies in the Arctic due to climate change, ment, and their possible impacts rela- charismatic and phenomenally adapted harvest and development pressures and tive to free-ranging species and down- to life in the far north. They are argu- other threats encountered during long stream in determining environmental ably the most visible Arctic wildlife in global migrations. and food-based exposures for northern summer months and a crucial source There are several “truly Arctic” groups people. Each is a facet essential for of protein for subsistence hunters. Arc- of birds – geese, eiders, divers, wad- predicting future shifts in ecosystem tic birds also hold important cultural ers (shorebirds) and the cliff-nesting structure over time, allowing us to adapt value for Indigenous peoples and are a Alcides with their colorful breeding in ways that mitigate or prevent disease outbreaks among human and wildlife populations. Major global bird migration routes to the Arctic

East Atlantic

Mediterranean Central Asia Mississippi Black Sea India West n The common eider is dependent Atlantic

East Asia Ahlenius, UNEP/GRID-Arendal Map: Hugo on benthic organisms in shallow Pacific Australasia marine waters for food throughout West Asia Africa the year, making them a potential indicator of the health of marine coastal environments. Arctic Biodiversity Assessment 2013

The Circle 2.2014 17 Photo: USFWS Photo: Peter Prokosch, www.grida.no The Arctic Tern has the longest world seasonal migration – travelling from Arctic to A flock of migrating shearwaters fills the sky at Unimak Pass on the Alaska Antarctic waters and back. Maritime National Wildlife Refuge.

plumages. Arctic birds also have the has to rapidly adapt from incubating a most phenomenal migration systems in clutch of eggs on permafrost in freezing YYellowellow Sea, Sea, the the flyway ﬂyway hub hub the world. For most migratory birds, the weather, then migrating to 40 degrees Arctic is only warm Celsius, sun with no shade and not a Alaska Russian enough for 2-3 drop of fresh water on the Australian or Federation months. The rest of African coasts. The Bar-tailed Godwit Mongolia their life is constant flies non-stop from the Alaska Penin- Japan Paciﬁc Ocean travel, interrupted sula to New Zealand across the Pacific China Yellow Sea DR. EVGENY SYROE- by no more than Ocean, a migration not to be believed if CHKOVSKIY is an Arctic 6-7 weeks in far not proven by satellite tracking. India ornithologist and bird southern areas and Both sides of the Bering Strait are conservationist with then northward particularly rich in Arctic bird species. the Russian Institute migration again. But this is also the area of particularly The Arctic Tern has serious threats to migrating birds. Dur- for Nature Conserva- Indian Ocean tion. He leads the the longest world ing their annual travels, Arctic migrants Australia BirdsRussia project on seasonal migration, flying along Asian coasts have to visit New Zealand Spoon-billed Sandpiper travelling across the most densely populated countries Source: Van de Kam, J., Invisible connections, 2008. conservation the globe from with the most quickly-developing econ- Map: Riccardo Pravettoni, UNEP/GRID-Arendal coastal spits in the omies where conservation issues are Arctic Ocean to Ant- often not the highest priority on nation- Spoon-billed Sandpiper has lost over 90 arctic waters and al development agendas. The result is per cent of its numbers with only 100 back. Waders are probably even more a 70 per cent decline in Arctic Geese in pairs left and still declining. Formerly remarkable migrants, covering up to the second half of the twentieth cen- common Red and Great Knots, Bar- 12,000 km/year one way, straight line. tury and only a few thousand remain- tailed Godwits, Grey-tailed Tattler and This small bird of only 30-100 grams ing Siberian Cranes. The charismatic many others are facing extinction within

18 The Circle 2.2014 A flock of migrating shearwaters fills the sky at Unimak Pass on the Alaska The Spoon-billed Sandpiper has only 100 pairs left and is still declining Maritime National Wildlife Refuge.

decades, while serious declines are also launched a project that focuses outside YYellowellow Sea, Sea, the the flyway ﬂyway hub hub taking place among various duck spe- THE MAIN THREATS TO the Arctic. The Arctic Migratory Bird cies, raptors and passerines. Initiative (AMBI) will bring together Alaska The main threats to Arctic birds are ARCTIC BIRDS ARE HABI- circumpolar countries and Arctic Coun- Russian Federation habitat transformation, hunting/trap- TAT TRANSFORMATION, cil observers such as Singapore, China, ping, pollution, and depletion of food Japan, European countries and others Mongolia Japan resources. Often illegal huge-scale HUNTING/TRAPPING, to take serious steps towards decreas- Paciﬁc Ocean unsustainable bird harvests on the ing the pressure on Arctic birds outside China Yellow Sea coasts and wetlands of tropical coun- POLLUTION, AND DEPLE- of the Arctic. We hope other partners tries take millions of birds every year will join this work to give Arctic birds a India through mist-netting and other forms of TION OF FOOD RESOURCES better chance for survival into the 21st trapping and poisoning. century. Fifty per cent of the wetlands and intertidal areas of the Yellow Sea – the simply no habitat left. Indian Ocean biggest bottleneck for migrating Arc- The declining numbers are not yet Australia tic birds – is already gone. About half fully recognized by the general public New Zealand of what is left is slated to be drained or conservationists. The challenge is Source: Van de Kam, J., Arctic Biodiversity Assessment: Invisible connections, 2008. over the next 20 years. The East Asian enormous. We urgently need to bring Report for Policy Makers intertidal is shrinking faster than the countries in each flyway to one table to Recommendation 8 tropical forests. Yet, there are no plans agree on actions which will influence n Reduce stressors on migratory spe- to create a network of reserves in key their consumptive behaviors and reduce cies range-wide, including habitat deg- sites in intertidal China and many other their development plans. radation and overharvesting on Asian countries. Pollution is increasing, For the first time in history, the Con- wintering and staging areas and along food resources needed for migration are servation of Arctic Flora and Fauna flyways and other migration routes.. depleting and for many birds, there is working group of the Arctic Council has

The Circle 2.2014 19 Humpback whale, Jacobshavn Icefjord Photo: Julie Skotte,Visit Greenland. Photo: Julie Skotte,Visit

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES ARE THE BENEFITS THAT PEOPLE RECEIVE FROM NATURE.

20 The Circle 2.2014 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Putting a price on biodiversity Those of us who have experienced encounters with some of the fasci- nating animals of the Arctic – narwhal, polar bear, ivory gull or some other Northern species – will not easily forget that moment. Or per- haps you have enjoyed a fine meal of reindeer, caribou, or whitefish. In that case, MARK MARISSINK says you have partaken of some of the many ecosystem services that Arctic biodiversity provides. But do we need to put a dollar value on the fruits of biodiversity, to protect it?

NATURE, BIODIVERSITY, has a value. It has a value the intrinsic value of biological diversity and because we can enjoy a walk in the forest or of the ecological, genetic, social, economic, sci- the view of a birds’ cliff or just by being there. entific, educational, cultural, recreational and Indeed this value has been recognized by almost aesthetic values of biological diversity and its every country in the world, as witnessed by the components”. very first lines of the UN Convention on Biologi- But in day-to-day decision making, nature cal Diversity which state we are “Conscious of is still often seen as a special interest for a few

The Circle 2.2014 21 people who like rare species, rather than something that is of importance to all of us. This is where the concept of ecosystem services comes into play. Ecosystem services are the benefits that people receive from nature. Some of those benefits, such as food, firewood and timber, are obvious and are also regularly traded in markets. Others, such as flood control through forests or wetlands, or pollination of orchards by insects, can be less visible and are often taken for granted. That means they are usually overlooked when decisions are made that have an impact on nature, and we may suddenly find ourselves without the flood control we have always relied upon. Ecosystem services are often MARK MARISSINK is divided into four with the Nature And categories: sup- Biodiversity Research porting, regulating, and Assessment unit, provisioning and under the Swedish cultural services. Environmental Protec- Supporting services tion Agency. are the basis for our Photo: USFWS survival on earth. Wild berries gathered at Innoko National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska make a colorful display. They include photosynthesis, soil formation, nitrogen services. In some cases, it is not too diffi- Many people object to the concept of cycling, and they lay the foundation for cult to valuate changes in ecosystem ser- ecosystem services, and especially to the other ecosystem services. Regulating vices; sometimes this can even be done the idea of putting a value (“a price”) services can be the pollination and flood in direct monetary terms, for instance on nature. They see it as too human- control of the previous example, but also changes in timber production when centred or disrespectful of nature’s own local and global climate regulation by trees have to be cut to build a road. More value. Traditional knowledge often takes vegetation. Provisioning services provide often, however, it is much more difficult a completely different view of life, and us with products from nature for use as and in many cases we will have to be also many environmentalists think it is food, building materials, and fuel. Final- content just to know that these values inappropriate to disregard the intrinsic ly, cultural services constitute a diverse exist, without exactly knowing how large value of nature in this way. Others see category that includes our enjoyment of they are. ecosystem services as the only way to nature, inspiration or the benefits to our make nature count in decision making. health. To date, the concept of ecosystem ser- By looking at nature through the con- MANY PEOPLE OBJECT vices has been studied to a limited extent cept of ecosystem services, the idea is in the Arctic, especially when compared that it will be easier to convince those TO THE CONCEPT OF with other regions of the earth. Stud- who do not believe that they are inter- ies of supporting and regulating ser- ested in nature that nature should be of ECOSYSTEM SERVICES vices are largely absent. Providing and interest to them. In order to make this AND ESPECIALLY TO cultural services have been studied in even clearer, it could be useful to actu- more depth, and the chapter on ecosys- ally put a value to those ecosystem ser- THE IDEA OF PUTTING tem services in the Arctic Biodiversity vices. In that case, benefits of a decision, Assessment describes examples of four for instance to build a new road, could “A PRICE” ON NATURE provisioning services – reindeer herd- be compared to its costs to ecosystem ing; commercial fisheries; commercial

22 The Circle 2.2014 ARCTIC BIODIVERSITY CONGRESS

TRONDHEIM, NORWAY, DEC. 2-4, 2014

ORGANIZED BY THE CONSERVATION OF ARCTIC FLORA AND FAUNA WORKING GROUP OF THE ARCTIC COUNCIL Wild berries gathered at Innoko National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska make a colorful display.

and subsistence hunting, gathering and small-scale fishing; and recreational and FIRST CALL FOR PROGRAM CONTENT sport hunting – and two cultural services – tourism and non-market values. The Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF), the biodiversity Working Since so much of the work on ecosystem Group of the Arctic Council, is seeking individuals and organizations to provide services has been done in very different presentations, organize sessions and submit posters that will encourage a dia- environments, ongoing studies, led by logue on Arctic biodiversity among scientists, indigenous peoples, policy makers, WWF, on how and where an assessment government officials, northerners and industry representatives at theArctic Biodi- of the ecosystem services provided by versity Congress. Arctic biodiversity can take place will be of great importance.

PLEASE SUBMIT PROPOSALS FOR SESSIONS, PRESENTATIONS OR POSTERS THAT ADDRESS AT LEAST ONE OF THE THREE THEMES BY Arctic Biodiversity Assessment: APRIL 30, 2014 Report for Policy Makers Recommendation 12 n Evaluate the range of services pro- Thank you for your interest in participating in and contributing to the Arctic Biodi- vided by Arctic biodiversity in order to versity Congress! determine the costs associated with biodiversity loss and the value of effec- Please contact [email protected] if you have any questions. tive conservation in order to assess change and support

The Circle 2.2014 23 Return WWF Global Arctic Programme 275 Slater Street, Suite 810, Ottawa ON, K1P 5H9, CANADA

THE PICTURE Hunted to extinction

THE GREAT AUK was a flightless bird that has been extinct since the mid-19th century. It was the only modern species stemming from the penguin family and was important to many Indigenous cultures symbolically and for food. Many Maritime Archaic peoples were buried with Auk bones. Agile in the water but clumsy on land,early European explorers saw the bird as a great convenience food and as fishing bait, which greatly reduced its numbers. Down from the Great Auk was also in high demand in Europe. The last two confirmed specimens were killed on Eldey, off the coast of Iceland on July 3, 1844. Great Auks mated for life nesting in extremely dense social colonies, laying one egg on bare rock with Birds of America both parents taking turns hatching the chick. Illustration: John James Audubon, Illustration: John James

Why we are here To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.