PORNOPRŮMYSL: VÝVOJ, EKONOMIKA, SPOLEČNOST Zejména Na Modelu Fungování V USA

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PORNOPRŮMYSL: VÝVOJ, EKONOMIKA, SPOLEČNOST Zejména Na Modelu Fungování V USA MASARYKOVA UNIVERZITA FILOZOFICKÁ FAKULTA ÚSTAV HUDEBNÍ VĚDY MANAGEMENT V KULTUŘE Kristýna Čechovská Magisterská diplomová práce PORNOPRŮMYSL: VÝVOJ, EKONOMIKA, SPOLEČNOST zejména na modelu fungování v USA Vedoucí práce: PhDr. Petr Macek, Ph.D. 2011 Chtěla bych poděkovat vedoucímu práce panu doktorovi Petru Mackovi za čas, rady a pomoc a Davidu Grossovi za zprostředkování důleţitých kontaktů. Za čas, informace a moţnost nahlédnout do fungování pornoprůmyslu patří můj velký dík producentovi Paulu Skyovi. 22 Prohlašuji, ţe jsem diplomovou práci vytvořila samostatně za pouţití uvedených pramenů a literatury. V Brně 2011 Kristýna Čechovská 33 OBSAH Úvod .....................................................................................................5 I. Pornografie, technologie, právo, cenzura ..............................8 I.1. Na počátku byla pornografie ................................................ 9 I.1.1. Pornografie a obscenita ........................................................11 I.1.2. Porno na přelomu století ...............................................12 I.1.3. Nová média pro distribuci pornografie .............................15 I.1.4. Zrod pornoprůmyslu ........................................................ 18 I.2. Pornoprůmysl ................................................................. 25 I.2.1. Internetová éra ................................................................. 29 II. Pornografie, pornoprůmysl a mainstream ............................. 34 II.1. Pornoprůmysl mainstreamu ...............................................34 II.2. Mainstreaming pornoprůmyslu ...............................................36 II.3. Pornografie a sociologie ........................................................39 II.3.1. Motivace pracovníků ........................................................39 II.3.2. Pornografie ve společnosti ...............................................42 II.4. Pornografie v kontrastu k bezpečnému sexu .....................43 III. Pornoprůmysl .......................................................................... 47 III.1. Pornoprůmysl v číslech ........................................................49 III.1.1. Podíl pornoprůmyslu a jeho produktů na trhu .....................50 III.1.2. Pornografie v mainstreamových distribučních společnostech ...59 III.1.3. Platy pornotaletů ................................................................. 62 III.1.4. Pornoprůmysl a porušování autorských práv .....................63 III.2. Pornospolečnosti ................................................................. 67 III.2.1. Rozdělení pornospolečností ............................................... 67 III.2.2. Ţeny v pornoprůmyslu ........................................................ 69 III.2.3. Rebranding pornoprůmyslu ............................................... 70 III.2.4. Community standards a marketingové strategie pornoprůmyslu. 73 Závěr ........................................................................................... 76 Resumé ........................................................................................... 79 Seznam použité literatury a pramenů .............................................. .81 44 ÚVOD Pornoprůmysl vyuţívá sexuálně explicitních materiálů jako hlavního zdroje svých miliardových zisků. Termín pornografie pokrývá všechny sexuálně laděné produkty, jejichţ primárním účelem je fyzicky uspokojit konzumenta. Protoţe přesná definice pornografie neexistuje, jakékoli další vymezení pornografických materiálů se zakládá na subjektivním názoru jednotlivců. Pojmy jako mravnost nebo obscénnost, které se často s pornografií dávají do kontextu, nemají univerzální pouţití a měly by spíše slouţit k orientačnímu začlenění pornografie mezi projevy sexuality, produkty jejího přirozeného průběhu a současně i umělecké artefakty. Kvůli historickému vývoji sexuálně explicitních materiálů a naší představě o morálním jednání má pojem pornografie do značné míry pejorativní charakter. To je dáno rovněţ vznikem pojmu z 18. století, který měl popisovat tajné explicitní nálezy z antické doby. Pornografií se od té doby označovalo vše, co jen naznačovalo sexuální akt, projevy a vzrušení. S vývojem pojmu procházely i samotné pornografické materiály proměnou, závislou na technologickém vývoji, ale také na cenzurních opatřeních státních orgánů, podpořených anti-pornografickým hnutím. Aţ v 70. letech 20. století v USA, kde se teprve pornoprůmysl v dnešním slova smyslu začíná formovat, dochází k vymezení obscénnosti, která pornografii staví na pomezí zákonnosti a ilegality, v závislosti na tzv. community standards. Právě podle tzv. Miller Test se dnešní pornoprůmysl řídí a přizpůsobuje pornografii tak, aby vyhovovala poţadavkům nejrůznějších skupin. Nicméně zde opět platí subjektivita vnímání, a proto je pornoprůmysl závislý na politické situaci a lobování názorových skupin (viz I. kapitola). I přes snahu anti-pornografického hnutí však můţeme sledovat jistý posun sexuálně explicitních materiálů z čistě soukromého ţivota na veřejnost. Mainstreaming pornografie, tedy její začleňování se do veřejného diskurzu, byl patrný jiţ v sexuálně revolučních 60. a pro pornografii důleţitých 70. letech. V současnosti nicméně zaţívá pornografie vzestup ve veřejném ţivotě, médiích a získává si pozornost filmu. Sexuálně ţádoucí tělo je prezentováno 55 jako vzor pro zábavní průmysl, Porn Stars jako hvězdy trochu jiného Hollywoodu. O propojování sexuálního a veřejného ţivota v návaznosti na pornoprůmysl pojednává kapitola II. Druhá kapitola práce se soustřeďuje na některé sociologické aspekty pornografie: motivace pracovníků pornoprůmyslu, hojně diskutované pozitivní a negativní externality pornografie a rizikovost práce v pornobyznysu. Na ekonomické ukazatele pornoprůmyslu se soustřeďuje poslední kapitola práce. Vymezuje jednotlivé kategorie pornoprůmyslu a na americkém příkladě usuzuje výnosnost tohoto odvětví, která je v posledních 15 let značně ovlivňována rozmachem internetu. Ke zvýšení zisků si pornospolečnosti rozdělují trhu, aby lépe pokryly vysokou poptávku a nové cílové skupiny, procházejí rebrandingem, vytvářejí nové marketingové strategie a zkoušejí hranice tolerance podle community standards. K analýze historie a vývoje pornografie a pornoprůmyslu mi poslouţila kniha Erica Schlossera Reefer Madness and Other Tales form the American Underground a Isabel Tang Pornografie, Tajné dějiny civilizace, která vychází z filmového dokumentu Pornography: A Secret History of Civilization. V druhé části práce, která se zaměřuje na postoj společnosti k sexuálně explicitním materiálům, mainstreaming pornografie a některé sociologické aspekty, mi byly nejvíce nápomocny studie shrnuté v knize Sex for Sale. Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry. Protoţe je však pornoprůmysl relativně novým hospodářským odvětvím, hlavní zdroje informací o jeho struktuře, vývoji a ekonomických ukazatelích představuje internet. Ekonomická část práce proto vychází z internetových článků časopisu AVN, z grafů a tabulek autora Jerryho Ropelata, zveřejněných na serveru TopTenREVIEWS. V návaznosti na bakalářskou práci Pornografie jako umění? (2008), v níţ jsem na historickém vývoji a konkrétních uměleckých formátech (především filmu) pornografické materiály hodnotila z hlediska uměleckých tendencí, představuj v této práci průmysl, který dnešní sexuálně explicitní materiály produkuje a distribuuje. Protoţe chápání pornografie jako 66 uměleckého projevu záleţí rovněţ na osobním přístupu, vymezuji se vůči čistě prvoplánové funkci pornografie (totiţ fyzicky uspokojit konzumenta) a na základě poznatků ze zmíněné bakalářské práce povaţuji pornografii za potenciálně uměleckou. Její uměleckost samozřejmě není absolutní; pouze nepatrné mnoţství všech sexuálně laděných materiálu produkovaných pornoprůmyslem má tyto ambice. Nicméně právě proto usuzuji, ţe si pornoprůmysl, a potaţmo i jeho produkty, zaslouţí pozornost i z jiného neţ konzumentského úhlu pohledu. Pornografie, ať uţ jako umění, nebo čistě spotřební produkt, můţe fungovat, pornoprůmysl jako jeden z největších odvětví na trhu je důkazem, ţe úspěšně. Diplomová práce se soustřeďuje především na západní chápání pornografie a pornoprůmyslu. Protoţe pornografický byznys představuje relativně velké odvětví, jehoţ ekonomický rozsah se dá celistvě jen těţko uchopit, cílem práce je popis pornoprůmyslu jako takového, zejména na vzorku fungování v USA. Zároveň se soustředí na legální formu sexuálních materiálů, proto například nezohledňuje dětskou pornografii. 77 I. PORNOGRAFIE, TECHNOLOGIE, PRÁVO, CENZURA „Wherever we stand in the pornographic debate (…) it reveals that we believe that images of sex have enormous power. Either for good or for bad“ (Pornography: A Secret History of Civilization 1999). Pornografie a pornoprůmysl. Tato dvě kontroverzní slova, která se postupem času stala součástí naší kultury, vyvolávají řadu protichůdných emocí - zájem, pobouření, potěchu, zlost, vzrušení, nenávist. Ačkoli dnes spolu neodmyslitelně souvisí a dají se mnohdy zaměnit jako synonyma, pornoprůmysl je jevem moderním, necelých 50 let starým, zatímco pornografie jako projev lidské sexuality existuje jiţ staletí. Termín pornografie pochází z 19. století, kdy se křesťanská Evropa rozhodla definovat explicitní materiály nalezené při vykopávkách v Pompejích a při následném zbudování tajných muzeí. Ačkoli měly pompejské artefakty v době svého vzniku jiný význam, neţ jaký jim puritánská společnost viktoriánské Anglie přisuzovala, pouţili k jejich popsání tehdejší vědci slovo sice
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