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Provided for Non-Commercial Research and Educational Use Only. Not for Reproduction Or Distribution Or Commercial Use Provided for non-commercial research and educational use only. Not for reproduction or distribution or commercial use This article was originally published in the Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, Second Edition, published by Elsevier, and the attached copy is provided by Elsevier for the author's benefit and for the benefit of the author's institution, for non- commercial research and educational use including without limitation use in instruction at your institution, sending it to specific colleagues who you know, and providing a copy to your institution’s administrator. All other uses, reproduction and distribution, including without limitation commercial reprints, selling or licensing copies or access, or posting on open internet sites, your personal or institution’s website or repository, are prohibited. For exceptions, permission may be sought for such use through Elsevier's permissions site at: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissionusematerial Gabas N (2006), Tupian Languages. In: Keith Brown, (Editor-in-Chief) Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, Second Edition, volume 13, pp. 146-150. Oxford: Elsevier. 146 Tunisia: Language Situation lectures, literature, and political speeches. Modern continuing in government ministries and educational Standard Arabic (MSA) is more commonly employed institutions, French also remains firmly established. yet less formal than Classical Arabic. Tunisian Other languages in Tunisia include English, Ger- Arabic, sharing features with Maghrebi Arabic also man, and Italian. For the foreseeable future French spoken in Morocco, Algeria, and Libya, forms with will remain the dominant second language; however, MSA a diglossia and occupies a lower standard than there is an ongoing struggle between the spread of both Classical Arabic and MSA. Educated Arabic is English and the continued use of French in Tunisia. another linguistic variety developing from the compe- The argument put forward by certain educators, jour- tition between Tunisian Arabic and MSA. Finally, nalists, and businesspeople in Tunisia and elsewhere French Arabic represents a mixture of French and in the Maghreb is that while French provides a win- Arabic. dow to the outside world, English opens a larger door. Tunisian Berber speakers account for less than 1% Discussion concerning modernization and privatiza- of the population. Berbers are found in six small tion often leads to questions about language policy villages in the south of Tunisia: Chenini, Douiret, and planning decisions. German and Italian are Guellala, Tamezret, Taoujout, and Zrawa. Berbers additional languages commonly taught and used in also continue to migrate back and forth between Tunisia because of trade and tourism. their villages and larger cities in Tunisia and France. While Arabization will carry on within domains of Unlike the Berber varieties in Morocco and Algeria, Tunisian society, socio-economic cooperation with Tunisian Berber is facing obsolescence because of European Union countries indicates that Tunisia will widespread Arabic and French bilingualism as well continue to encourage multilingualism as a tool for as its relegation to use only among family and friends. development. French, of course, remains the second language of Tunisia due to the establishment of the country as a See also: Arabic; Berber. French protectorate from 1912 to 1956 and the continued political, economic, and cultural ties that have existed since independence. While the curricu- Bibliography lum in basic education has been Arabized, French is Battenburg J D (1997). ‘English versus French: Language taught from the third year. In secondary school, rivalry in Tunisia.’ World Englishes 16(2), 281–290. French is the language of math and science instruc- Battenburg J D (1999). ‘The gradual death of the Berber tion, while Modern Standard Arabic is used to teach language in Tunisia.’ International Journal of the Sociol- the humanities. In practice, varieties of Arabic reflect- ogy of Language 137, 151–165. ing the diglossic continuum and French are common- Daoud M (2001). ‘The language situation in Tunisia.’ ly used in Tunisian education. While Arabization is Current Issues in Language Planning 2(1), 1–52. Tupian Languages N Gabas Jr, Bele´ m, Brazil branches – Arike´m, Monde´, Purubora´, Ramara´ma, ß 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. and Tuparı´ – and of a few dialects (Amondawa, Karipuna, and Uru-eu-wau-wau) of the Kawahı´b cluster of the Tupı´-Guaranı´ branch. The Tupı´ familyAuthor's is one of the largest families ofPersonal lan- Nine branches of theCopy Tupı´ family are shown in guages of South America. It contains 10 branches, Table 1, together with the languages that belong to with a variety of languages in each branch. The first each branch. Classification of the tenth branch of the comprehensive classification of the Tupian languages Tupı´ family, Tupı´-Guaranı´, is shown separately, in was by Rodrigues (1964), and further improvements Table 2, because of its complexity; the Tupı´-Guaranı´ of his classification were made by Cabral (1996, branch has the largest number of languages of the 1997), Gabas (2000), Rodrigues and Cabral (2002), Tupı´ family (almost 50 languages, arranged in several Rodrigues and Dietrich (1997), and Rodrigues subgroupings), and several of its members are spoken (1966, 1980, 1985a, 1997). It is generally accepted in countries other than Brazil. In Table 1, languages that the point of origin of Tupian groups is the on the same line separated by a slash correspond state of Rondoˆ nia, in the northwest part of Brazil. to dialects of the same language; languages within Rondoˆ nia is still the homeland of five Tupian parentheses correspond to alternate names for that Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (2006), vol. 13, pp. 146–150 Tupian Languages 147 Table 1 Classification of nine branches of the Tupi family all languages of the Monde´ branch; and Karitia´na, of Branch Language Population the Arike´m branch). Furthermore, nearly half of the Tupian branches have languages with either a true Awetı´ Awetı´ 100 tone system (the Munduruku´ and Monde´ branches Arike´ m Arike´ m Extinct and possibly the Tuparı´ and Juru´ na branches) or a Karitia´ na 170 Juru´ na Juru´ na 210 pitch-accent system (Arike´m and Ramara´ma Xipa´ ya 15 (two speakers) branches). Stress in Tupian languages is predictable, Mawe´ Mawe´ (or Satere´ ) 5800 occurring generally in the last syllable of words. Tupi- Monde´ Arua´ /Cinta-Larga/Gavia˜ o/ 36/640/360/250 an languages also have a syllable structure that typical- Zoro´ ly does not allow consonant codas word-internally, Monde´ (Salama˜ y) 3 (semi-speakers) Suruı´ 580 with the exception of the glottal stop and the glottal Munduruku´ Munduruku´ 3000 fricative. Thus, patterns of consonant-vowel-conso- Kurua´ ya 10 nant (CVC) and vowel-consonant (VC) occur exclu- Purubora´ Purubora´ 20 (two semi- sively word-finally. speakers) From the point of view of morphology, Tupian Ramara´ ma Karo (Arara) 170 Tuparı´ Ayuru´ 40 languages are agglutinative and isolating. Only a Akuntsu 7 few linguistic categories are marked by affixes – for Makura´ p 130 instance, pronominal prefixes, two or three valence- Meke´ ns (Sakirabiat) 70 changing prefixes (causative, comitative causative, Tuparı´ 200 and detransitivizer or passivizer), modal markers (usually indicative and gerund), and diminutive/ augmentative markers. Categories such as number, language. In Table 2, language clusters are indicated gender, tense, and aspect are syntactically marked by by italics. These correspond roughly to dialects of the particles. same language. The population numbers given in both Word classes are well established and easily distin- tables, except where indicated, correspond to the guishable from each other on morphological and/or actual number of speakers of the language. syntactic/semantic bases. Typical word classes are Of the 10 branches of the Tupı´ family, the Tupı´- nouns (including pronouns), verbs (transitive, intran- Guaranı´ branch is the one mostly studied. Languages sitive and, sometimes, uninflected verbs), postposi- of this branch have a higher degree of lexical and tions, and particles. Adjectives occur in only a few morphological similarities to each other when com- branches (Arike´m, Ramara´ma, and Monde´). In all pared to languages of other branches. Internal classi- other branches, a descriptive verb fulfills the function fication of the Tupı´ family is currently in the early of ‘attributes’ and ‘properties.’ Core cases, with the stages, but what is known about languages outside possible exception of Tup´ı-Guaranian languages, the Tup´ı-Guaranı´ branch allows a few generalizations are not morphologically marked. Oblique case mark- to be made about Tupian languages as a whole. Larg- ing is conveyed by postpositions, in postpositional er genetic relations between Proto-Tup´ı and other phrases. Usually, four or five cases are marked (abla- families of languages, especially Macro-Jeˆ and tive, allative, dative, instrumental, locative), although Karı´b, have been proposed by Greenberg (1987) and languages such as Karo have a larger system; Karo Rodrigues (1985b, 1999, 2000) (see Macro-Jeˆ; Cari- has 12 different postpositions that are used to mark ban Languages). the ablative, abessive, adessive, allative, comitative, dative, dispersive, inessive, instrumental, locative, General Properties of Tupian Languages similative, and circumjective cases. Author's PersonalNouns, with the exception Copy of those for elements of From the
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