Academic Journal of 2015, 6, 531-543 Technology Review article

Review of mercury pollution in Suriname

Paul E. Ouboter National Zoological Collection/Center for Environmental Research, Anton de Kom Universiteit van Suriname

Abstract Since the 1980’th small-scale gold mining is on the increase in Suriname. Most mining occurs in the eastern part of the country. In the small-scale gold mining the gold is usually amalgamated to mercury. An estimated 1 kg of mercury enters the environment for every kg of gold extracted, which means at least 10,000 kg of mercury released annually in the atmosphere and the aquatic environment of Suriname. In the aquatic environment bacteria may transform mercury into the extremely poisonous methyl mercury, which bio- accumulates in the food chain. As a result predatory fish will usually have high levels of methyl mercury in their tissues. Mercury poisoning causes many defects in animals and neurological health problems in humans. This review gives an overview of mercury pollution results for the aquatic environment, in the atmosphere and in humans in communities in the interior. Mercury pollution is not limited to the gold mining areas, because mercury is transported by water and wind to downstream and downwind areas. As a result predatory fish in most of central and western Suriname show high mercury levels as well. A possible explanation for the mechanism of polluting of undisturbed areas is given. Many communities in the interior show increased levels of mercury. Of four villages tested along the Saramacca River, the most upstream community, also upstream of any gold mining, showed the highest mercury levels. Villages with easy access to the capital, show lower mercury pollution because people are less dependent on local fish as a protein source. Mercury pollution also occurs in in the vicinity of gold shops. An overview of the gaps in our knowledge of mercury pollution in Suriname is presented.

Keywords: Mercury, gold mining, Suriname

A history of gold mining in Suriname A first gold rush occurred in Suriname although small-scale mining increased to the between 1870 and 1910 (De Vletter & end of this period (De Vletter & Hakstege Hakstege 1998). This gold rush was of a 1998). The extent of the use of mercury in limited extend and the gold production those times is unknown. remained small (highest annual production A second gold rush started in the 1980’th 1,200 kg; Bosma et al . 1973). However, for and continues till the present. It started those times the production was important with the finding of a large gold deposit at enough to build the only railroad in the Serra Pelada in Brazil in 1980. From there country, connecting the capital Paramaribo to the gold rush spread to all neighboring the mining areas in the south. The mining countries (Veiga 1997). methods used were mostly mechanical,

Correspondence to: Paul E. Ouboter, National Zoological Collection/ Center for Environmental Research, Anton de Kom Universiteit, Leysweg 86. E-mail: [email protected]

Available on-line July 4th , 2015

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In Suriname the start of the gold rush IamGold operations, a Canadian company. At coincided with a deteriorating economic the end of 2012 an agreement between the situation after the military coup in 1980. In Suriname government and the US based 1986 a civil war started and continued till Newmont was reached for a second large-scale 1992. This war was mostly fought in the east gold operation at Merian Creek in the east of of Suriname, but the unrest occasionally Suriname. Since the exploration and spread to the west following the road to environmental impact phase have already been Apoera. It caused the government to loose accomplished, it is likely that mining will start complete control over the interior, favoring the soon. The government of Suriname also development of illegal gold mining. announced the creation of a state-owned gold mine in the near future. Large-scale gold The gold mining concentrates on the mining companies usually do not use mercury geological area where gold is most likely to be for amalgamation, but work with cyanide. found, the Greenstone Belt. The greenstone is comprised of metamorphic rocks (De Vletter Mercury in the environment et al., 1988). This belt continues from the Mercury has a complex cycle in the extreme southeastern point of Suriname to the environment (fig. 1). Most environmental northeast and north central part of Suriname problems caused by mercury (as far as we (dark green area in fig. 2). know), occur in the aquatic environment. The mercury in streams and lakes may have In land-based operations the creek bottom and entered directly through the addition of shore sediments are made into a sludge using mercury by gold miners. However, indirect high-pressure water power. This sludge is and other sources are responsible for high pumped into a sluice box, where the gold is mercury levels as well. During the mining amalgamated to mercury and recovered process the soil is disturbed causing the between mats with spines. Usually the sludge additional release of mercury that is a small, is drained to the creek without the use of a natural component of the soil (Roulet et al ., tailing pond to have the sediment settle. River- 1998). Mercury in the atmosphere may be based operations use a suction dredge to get to deposited on the earth’s surface again by wet the gold-containing bottom sediment. Also or dry depositing (Morel et al ., 1998). Also the here a sluice box with mercury is used to deposited mercury will finally, directly or recover the gold. indirectly, end up in the aquatic environment.

The Geological and Mining Survey of Mercury may occur in the environment in Suriname (GMD) estimated in 2000 that several forms (fig. 1). In the aquatic 25,000-35,000 gold miners were active in the environment it occurs mostly as metallic interior, producing 10,000-20,000 kg of gold mercury or Hg 0 (Jackson, 1998). Part of it may annually (resp. Mol et al . 2001; Veiga 1997). be bound to sediment particles, especially to Since 2000 the number of gold miners and the the clayish fraction. Bacteria may transform annual production of gold will only have anorganic mercury to organic mercury or increased. Veiga (1997) estimated that for methyl mercury (Morel et al . 1998). every kilogram of gold, a kilogram of mercury Especially at the anoxic bottom sediment- is used. This means a minimum of 10,000 water interface methylation takes place kilograms of mercury lost in the environment (Jackson, 1998). Methyl mercury is the most every year. From this amount an estimated poisonous form of mercury, and the form that 45% is lost in the water and 55% goes to the bio-accumulates in the food chain (Morel et atmosphere (Pfeiffer & Lacerda 1988). al ., 1998). Aquatic predators in particular are prone to high mercury levels in their tissues. Since the 1990’th international gold mining Mercury usually has a neuro-toxicological companies started to show interest in effect. In fish of temperate regions it is known Suriname. In 2004 the first large-scale gold to cause adverse impacts on behavior, gonadal mining operation started mining in the Gros- development, production of sex hormones and Rosebel area. This company changed reproduction (Scheuhammer et al .2007). ownership several times and is now part of the

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Methyl mercury is extremely toxic for birds hormonal and reproductive changes have been and mammals: behavioral, neurochemical, shown (Scheuhammer et al . 2007).

Figure1. Mercury cycling and transport via atmosphere and water.

Research on mercury pollution in Suriname surpassing international norms, but high levels The increasing extent of the small-scale gold in two species of predatory fish, well above mining operations and the uncontrolled use of the WHO norm of 0.5 µg/g muscle tissue mercury have caused concern in the (Quik & Ouboter, 2000). This project was Surinamese society for many years. To finalized by a workshop on mercury pollution investigate the possible pollution of air, water, due to the small-scale gold mining. During this soil, biota and the human population, several workshop the main criticism from government research projects have been executed. officials and gold miners on the conclusions of this research project, was that researchers Mercury in the aquatic environment blame high mercury levels on gold miners Pollack et al. (1998) reported some initial without knowing anything about mercury figures on mercury levels in water, sediment, levels occurring in the environment naturally. fish and the human population, which This initiated a research project on background indicated elevated levels in most levels of mercury and the effect of compartments of the environment. atmospheric transportation of mercury in Western Suriname. Ouboter et al. (2003) As far as the government of Suriname was reported elevated levels of mercury in many interested in zoning the economic activities in sites in Western Suriname and high levels in the country, they usually did not take into bottom sediments and fish tissue in the Lucie account activities that can have a detrimental River (see fig. 2 and 3). Generally elevated effect on each other. The right shore of the levels of mercury were explained by Lower Commewijne River was reserved for atmospheric transportation of mercury by the aquaculture, but despite this, gold mining Northeastern Trade Wind, while the much concessions were issued at the Upper higher levels in the Lucie River were Commewijne River. Quik and Ouboter started explained by possible high background levels a survey of mercury pollution of water, bottom in two geological formations that form the sediment and fish of the Commewijne River in drainage area of this river (Curuni and 1998. The results show elevated mercury Falawatra’Formations). levels in water and sediment, usually not

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This led to an MSc project looking at mercury mercury pollution was carried out between levels in water, bottom sediment and fish 2003 and 2005 (Ouboter et al., 2007; Ouboter, tissue in the Falawatra Formation, and also 2007). The project included 23 localities in upstream and downstream of this formation. gold mining areas, 3 localities upstream of High mercury levels were found in all three gold mining activities and 8 localities areas, indicating that the geological formation downstream (included in figs. 2 and 3). Water, concerned was not the source of high mercury bottom sediment and fish tissue were sampled levels (Landburg, 2005). following strict protocols and were analyzed on total mercury. For the first time the In the mean time Mol et al. (2001), separately mercury analyses could be performed with a from Ouboter and co-workers, started a survey dedicated mercury analyzer in Suriname, in on mercury in fish in gold mining areas, west the NZCS/CMO laboratory. The results of this of gold mining areas and in the sea. Their project emphasize earlier findings: elevated to findings were in agreement with former data: high mercury levels in bottom sediments and elevated to high mercury levels in gold mining tissues of predatory fish in most gold mining areas, but also west of gold mining areas. The localities, as well as upstream. The highest highest levels were recorded for the levels were recorded for the Brokopondo Brokopondo Reservoir. Also in marine Reservoir. Mercury levels in the downstream predatory fish elevated levels of mercury were sections of the rivers were generally lower, found (Mol et al., 2001). although high mercury levels were found in the bottom sediments of Galibi (mouth Mol et al. (2001) looked at a limited number Marowijne River). of localities. A very extensive survey on

Figure 2 i. a. Average mercury levels found in sediments in different river systems in Suriname; Color codes: orange: Gold mining area (GMA); yellow: Upstream gold mining area (UGMA), brown: Downstream gold mining area (DGMA), blue: areas on the weather side of central west mountain range (PWS); black: areas on the lee side of central west mountain range, not draining the mountain range (PLS); green: West/South-west Suriname (WSW); pink: North West Suriname (NW).

b. Boxplot showing the distribution of mercury levels in sediment, measured in different areas. Codes for areas: 1= GMA; 2=DGMA; 3= UGMA; 4= Brokopondo Reservoir (BR); 5=WSW; 6=NW; 7=PLS; 8=PWS. i (Adapted from Ouboter et al., 2012, in Ambio 41(8). © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2012)

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Figure 3 ii . a. Average mercury levels found in This resulted in an extensive overview of piscivorous fishes in different river systems mercury pollution in aquatic ecosystems in in Suriname; Color codes: orange: Gold Suriname (Ouboter et al. , 2012). mining area (GMA); yellow: Upstream gold The publication summarizes the results found mining area (UGMA), brown: Downstream gold mining area (DGMA), blue: areas on so far (fig. 2 and 3; tab. 1), and explains the the weather side of central west mountain high mercury levels found in Western and range (PWS); black: areas on the lee side Central Suriname by the following: of central west mountain range, not draining the mountain range (PLS); green: 1. Atmospheric transportation of West/South-west Suriname (WSW); pink: mercury from the gold mining areas to North West Suriname (NW). the southwest by the northeastern trade winds; b. Boxplot showing the distribution of mercury levels in piscivorous fishes, measured in 2. Wet deposition of atmospheric different areas. Codes for areas: 1= GMA; mercury, with the highest amounts 2= Brokopondo Reservoir (BR); 3= UGMA; polluting streams draining mountain 4=PWS; 5=WSW; 6= DGMA; 7=PLS ranges with high precipitation;

In 2006 a study started focusing on mercury in 3. Mercury in pristine streams is freely available for methylation and bio- soil sediments on a much smaller scale: accumulation. In comparison, mercury several sites within one mining area (Arets et in mining areas is to a large extent al. , 2007). The results varied enormously, but bound to fine sediment particles and in general the highest mercury levels were therefore not freely available for bio- found at the sites of the sluice box. accumulation. After 2007 the team of Ouboter and co- workers continued measuring mercury levels all over the country during projects focused on other issues (EIA’s, RAP surveys, etc.). Their main question was to explain the high mercury levels in undisturbed and upstream areas.

ii (Adapted from Ouboter et al., 2012, in Ambio 41(8). © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2012)

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Table 1. Number of localities sampled, number of samples and average mercury level of water, bottom sediment, Piranha (Serrasalmus rhombeus ) and Aimara ( Hoplias aimara ) for various areas in Suriname; also US EPA Standard for Drinking Water, US EPA Standard for freshwater chronic exposure (US EPA, 1994), US EPA Wildlife Criterion for surface water, Canadian standard for sediment (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 1999) and European standard for human consumption of piscivorous fish (EC, 2002).

Number Bottom Water Serrasalmus rhombeus Hoplias aimara Area of sediment localities Average Average Average Average Average Average n n n n Hg (µg/L) Hg (µg/g) size (cm) Hg ( µg/g) size (cm) Hg (µg/g)

Gold mining (GMA) 9 40 0.07±0.09 69 0.22±0.09 30 25.6 0.42±0.20 58 52.8 0.46±0.23 Brokopondo Reservoir (BR) 6 12 0.38±0.37 17 0.21±0.06 36 29.2 1.38±0.59 16 49.7 0.43±0.29 Downstream gold mining (DGMA) 9 35 0.06±0.06 50 0.13±0.08 9 24.2 0.23±0.13 Upstream gold mining (UGMA) 4 12 0.11±0.09 18 0.20±0.05 30 15.4 0.25±0.21 35 47.5 0.43±0.24 Upper Coppename Basin (PWS) 5 6 0.10±0.07 8 0.20±0.06 25 33.8 0.86±0.42 13 53.3 0.66±0.29 Western Suriname (WSW) 11 6 0.10±0.15 6 0.14±0.05 20 30.2 0.75±0.44 24 50.7 0.65±0.17 Northwestern Suriname (NW) 6 6 0.38±0.50 12 0.07±0.03 Predicted low level (PLS) 3 22 0.04±0.02 42 0.21±0.05 30 31.4 0.51±0.19 4 70.0 0.74±0.25 International standards 0.2 0.012 0.17 0.50 0.50 0.00091

Another question touched in this publication is were analyzed and showed that mercury levels if the mercury is of an anthropogenic or decreased with depth, suggesting an natural origin. Soil cores from floodplain anthropogenic source (Ouboter et al. , 2012; sediments (Kabalebo and Saramacca Rivers) also Fig. 4).

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Figure. 4. Mercury levels in floodplain sediment samples from the Kabalebo, Nickerie, Coppename and Saramacca Rivers. The Saramacca River has gold mining activities upstream, both other rivers not. Numbered localities are in the downstream section of the rivers. Soil depth is in cm.

Between October 2012 and March 2013 an population. Also de Kom et al. (1998) showed MSc project was carried out at NZCS/CMO by that small-scale gold miners had elevated S. Scholte to obtain more data on mercury in levels of mercury in their urine. floodplain sediments, focusing on the Nickerie and Coppename Rivers draining undisturbed A much more alarming publication came from areas and the Saramacca River draining gold Cordier et al. (1998), who reported that in mining areas. The results confirm the result some Wayana villages along the Lawa River found earlier for other floodplains: the soil up to 79% of the children had hair mercury layers at the surface had higher mercury levels levels above the NOAEL level of 10 µg/g. than deeper layers, indicating an These results were confirmed again in 2001 by anthropogenic source for the mercury Fréry et al. for other Wayana villages in the pollution (fig. 4, numbered localities). Very same area. strange are the much higher mercury levels in Coppename River floodplain soils, because During the 2003-2005 surveys of Ouboter & this cannot be explained by the theory co-workers a study on mercury pollution of explaining high mercury levels in fish in local communities along the Saramacca River pristine areas. was included, looking at the gold mining village Njoeng Jacobkondre and the upstream Mercury in the human population village of Poesoegroenoe. In both villages Pollack et al. (1998) also measured workers in several households were followed regarding the gold mining and community members their daily diet and hairs were sampled for from communities in the vicinity of gold mercury analysis. Despite several flaws in the mining areas. Both groups showed elevated methods used, the results showed that elevated levels of mercury contamination. In 2005/2006 levels of mercury occurred in both Peplow & Augustine (2007) re-measured the populations, and that levels were even slightly population of and confirmed higher in the upstream village Poesoegroenoe slightly elevated levels of mercury in this (Ouboter et.a.; 2007) (fig.5)

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Figure 5. Hair mercury levels in four villages along the Saramacca River and in

In 2010 and 2011 a dietary and mercury On request of a foundation from the village of survey was carried out to compare the Maroon Brownsweg, a mercury, dietary and neuro- village of Kwakoegron with the Amerindian psychological survey was carried out here village of Pikin Saron, both downstream of the (Ouboter & Landburg, 2010). Most people gold mining area of the Saramacca River. Also (approx.. 95%) seemed to get their proteins environmental measurements were performed. mostly from other sources then fish from the This project was carried out in cooperation Brokopondo Reservoir (chicken, fish brought with Tulane University. In both villages most in from Paramaribo). Of 172 particants, only 2 people ate fish regularly, and these fish were persons were above the NOAEL level of 10 often predatory species. Of the fish caught in µg/g (fig. 5). During the same project the area 75% was above the WHO norm for additional fish surveys were carried out in the human consumption. All hair samples lake, including all fish species caught. This analyzed were at or above the EPA reference provided a clear picture of the impact of the dose for hair mercury concentration of 1.0 trophic level of the fish on mercury µg/g, but below the NOAEL value of 10 µg/g contamination (fig. 6). (e.g. Hawkins et al. , 2011, 2014)(fig. 5).

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Figure 6. Mercury levels in fish and shrimps of the Brokopondo Reservoir, organized in trophic groups.

Mohan et al. (2005) reported elevated levels of From the southern hemisphere continental air mercury in hair of mothers and their newborn was slightly higher in mercury level than children in ‘s Lands Hospital, Paramaribo. oceanic air. Müller et al. (2012) mainly Eighty percent of the children had higher attribute this difference to biomass burning, mercury levels than their mothers. Mothers and do not seem to consider small-scale gold from the suburbs of Paramaribo showed higher mining as a source. hair mercury levels than women living near the gold mining areas. Wip also did measurements on atmospheric mercury levels in and near gold shops in Mercury levels in the atmosphere Paramaribo and found medium to high levels Only few observations are available on in many areas. These observations were mercury levels in the atmosphere itself. A published in a comparison with similar team of the University of Bremen, together measurements in other South American with D. Wip of the Anton de Kom University countries (Cordy et al., 2013) and the world of Suriname carried out measurements in (Wip et al., 2013). Mercury levels were Nieuw Nickerie in 2007, comparing both comparable with other world cities, but oceanic and continental air (Müller et al., occurring spikes were much higher and longer 2012). Air coming from the northern ocean in duration, although not posing any health showed a slightly higher mercury risks. However measurements inside and concentration than from the southern nearby gold shops exceeded international hemisphere. minimal risk levels (Wip et al., 2013)

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Overview of research results In the gold mining areas levels are • Mercury levels are elevated almost often above the European Union everywhere in Suriname, except for standard. Extreme high levels were the Northwest: measured in Brokopondo Reservoir • Most water samples had a mercury where piranhas were sometimes six to level above global background levels seven times the norm for human of 0.006 µg L -1 consumption (on average two to three • (Ayres & Hellier, 1998), the US EPA times). Downstream of the gold standard for freshwater chronic mining area, levels were usually much exposure of 0.012 µg L -1 (US EPA, lower. Upstream of gold mining area, 1994) and the US EPA wildlife mercury values in piscivorous fish criterion of 0.00091 µg/L (US EPA, were generally below the norm, but in 1997). The highest level measured central and western Suriname levels (1.11 µg L -1 at the southern (upstream) were far above the norm. side of Brokopondo Reservoir) is still • High mercury levels in undisturbed below the EPA drinking water areas to the southwest of the gold standard of 2 µg L -1 (US EPA, 1994). mining areas are explained by the • Most sediment samples have a atmospheric transportation of mercury mercury level well above global by the northeastern Trade Winds, wet background levels of 0.01-0.05 µg g -1 depositing of mercury, especially in (Anderson, 1979). Only few samples, areas of high precipitation and the mostly from northwestern Suriname high bio-availability of mercury in were within global background levels. unpolluted streams Sediments in the gold mining area are • The analysis of sediment samples usually near or above the Canadian from floodplains showed an increase Interim Sediment Quality Guideline of mercury levels nearer to the for Protection of Aquatic Life surface. This indicates an (Canadian Council of Ministers of the anthropogenic source of the mercury. Environment, 1999) of 0.17 µg g -1 The highest levels were found in soil. The estuary of the Marowijne Coppename River floodplain soils. River (eastern border river) shows Research is continuing. relatively high levels at its mouth • In local communities that are easily (max. of 0.41 µg g -1). Surprisingly, accessible by road, protein intake is mercury levels of sediments in sites more varied and includes, apart from upstream of gold mining are all near local fish, chicken and fish imported or above the Canadian standard during from Paramaribo. Hair mercury levels the rainy season. Moreover in pristine in these communities are generally areas of central, western and southern above the EPA reference dose for hair Suriname, levels often exceed this mercury concentration of 1.0 µg/g, but standard (average 0.20 µg g -1, max. below the NOAEL of 10 µg/g. More 0.28 µg g -1). This is especially the case alarming data and rumors come from in the Upper Coppename Basin. Amerindian villages in the south. Levels in the most southwestern However, these data need localities are high as well. confirmation. Research is continuing. • Of the piscivores 41% had a mercury • Wip and co-workers showed that level above the European Union atmospheric mercury levels near gold standard for human consumption of shops in Paramaribo were very high 0.5 µg g -1 (EC, 2002) and 15% above and above international health norms the US EPA standard for human inside or in close vicinity of the shops. consumption of 1 µg g -1 (US EPA, 1992).

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Gaps in our knowledge on mercury pollution • What exactly happens with mercury in References a stream and a lake? What determines Anderson, A. 1979. Mercury in Soils. In: J.O. bio-availability? What determines Nriagu (ed.), The Biochemistry of Tertiary methylation rate? Volcanic Rocks in Parts of the Virginia • Is there a difference in sensitivity for City Quadrangle, pp. 70-112 Elsevier, mercury (accumulation) between Amsterdam. different ethnic groups? Arets, E.J.M.M., P.J. v.d. Meer, N.W. v.d. • What is the mercury pollution Brink, K. Tjon, V.P. Atmopawiro & P.E. situation of various isolated Ouboter, 2006. Assessment of the impacts communities in the interior in high- of gold mining on soil and vegetation in risk areas? , Suriname. • We know that Western Suriname is Alterra Report 1359, pp. 26. polluted by mercury through Ayres, D.C. & D.G. Hellier, 1998. Dictionary atmospheric transportation and of environmentally important chemicals. depositing. What effect has this Blackie Academic & Professional, London, downstream? 332 pp. • How can the high mercury levels in Bosma, W., A.G. Ho Len Fat & C.C. Welter, floodplain soils of the lower 1973. Minerals and mining in Suriname. Coppename River be explained Contributions to the Geology of Suriname • What is the impact of sediment from 3: 71-101. the Amazon River on mercury Canadian Council of Ministers of the pollution in the estuarine zone of Environment, 1999. Canadian sediment Suriname? quality guidelines for the protection of • What are the exact mercury sources in aquatic life: Mercury. In: Canadian Suriname? We expect that a large part environmental quality guidelines, 1999, of the atmospheric mercury is coming Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg. from the gold mining. What is the contribution of global mercury Cordier, S., C. Grasmick, M. Paquier- pollution, of mercury evasion from Passelaigue, L. Mandereau, J.P. Weber & M. Jouan, 1998. Mercury exposure in water surfaces, especially the Brokopondo Reservoir, and of the French Guiana: Levels and determinants. industry in Suriname? Arch. Environ. Health 53: 299-303. Cordy, P., M. Veiga, B. Crawford, O. Garcia, • Is it possible to model the risk of V. Gonzalez, D. Moraga, M. Roeser & D. mercury pollution for local Wip, 2013. Characterization, mapping and communities based on (recent) mitigation of mercury vapour emissions satellite images of turbidity of rivers? from artisanal mining gold shops. Environ. • What is the impact of mercury Res . 125: 82-91. pollution on (semi)aquatic wildlife De Kom, J.F.M, G.B. van der Voet & F.A. de populations? Wolff, 1998. Mercury exposure of Maroon workers in the small-scale gold mining in Acknowledgement Suriname. Environ. Res. 77: 91-97. I thank all the colleagues, technicians, students De Vletter, D.R., S.B. Kroonenberg, A.L. and friends that worked with me in the field Hakstege & R.L. Verwey, 1988. Geology and discussed the “mercury problem” with me. and Minerals. In: Suriname Planatlas. Some of these discussions helped organize my National Planning Office of Suriname, thoughts and initiated ideas presented in this Paramaribo/Organization of American paper. States, Washighton, DC. I also like to thank all the organizations that De Vletter, D.R. & A.L. Hakstege, 1998. The funded our mercury research, especially search for gold in Suriname. In: Th. E. WWF-Guianas and Tulane University. Wong, D.R. De Vletter, L. Krook, J.I.S.

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Zonneveld & A.J. Van Loon (eds.), The Review of Ecology and Systematics 29: history of earth sciences in Suriname , pp. 543-566. 311-349. Netherlands Institute of Applied Müller, D, D. Wip, T. Warneke, C.D. Holmes, Geoscience TNO/Royal Netherlands A. Dastoor & J. Notholt, 2012. Sources of Academy of Arts and Sciences, atmospheric mercury in the tropics: Amsterdam. continious observations at a coastal site in EC, 2002. EC Regulation (221/2002) Suriname. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12: 7391- amending Commission Regulation (EC) no. 7397. 466/2001 of 8 March 2001 setting Ouboter, P.E., 2007. Environmental impacts of maximum levels for certain contaminants in Small- and Medium- scale Gold Mining in foodstuffs . Suriname. In: Aragon, L.E. (ed.), Fréry, N, R. Maury-Brachet, E. Maillot, M. População e meio ambiente na Pan- Deheeger, B. de Merona & A. Boudou, Amazônia , pp. 169-178. UFPA NAEA, 2001. Gold-Mining Activities and Mercury Belem. Contamination of Native Amerindian Ouboter, P.E. & G. Landburg, 2010. Mercury Communities in French Guiana: Key Role Poisoning: a Threat to Brownsweg of Fish in Dietary Uptake. Environm. Villagers. WWF-Guianas, Paramaribo, 16 Health Persp. 109(5): 449-456. pp. Hawkins, W.B., M.Y. Lichtveld & P.E. Ouboter, P.E., J. Mol & J. Quik, 2003. De Ouboter, 2011. Environmental invloed van atmosferisch transport van Characterization of Potential Mercury kwik op het kwikgehalte in water en biota Contamination For Two Indigenous in rivieren van Suriname. Verslag aan Communities In Suriname, South Schure-Beyerinck-Popping Fonds. America. Poster Presentation at United Ouboter, P.E., G. Landburg, C. White, J. Mol, States Public Health Service (USPHS) F. v.d. Lugt & J. Quik, 2007. Final Scientific and Training Symposium, June Technical Report Mercury Pollution in the 2011, New Orleans, LA. Greenstone Belt. WWF-Guianas. Hawkins, W., P. Ouboter, and M. Paramaribo, pp. 42. Lichtveld. 2014 An assessment of mercury Ouboter, P.E., G. Landburg, J. Quik, J. Mol & exposure for two vulnerable communities F. V.d. Lugt, 2012. Mercury Levels in in Suriname, South America. West Indian Pristine and Gold Mining Impacted Aquatic Medical Journal, Suppl . Vol. 63 (Suppl 2), Ecosystems of Suriname, South America. 1-79. Ambio 41(8): 873-882. Jackso, L.J., 1998. Mercury in aquatic Pfeiffer, W.C. & L.D. Lacerda, 1988. Mercury ecosystems. In: Langston, W.J. & M.J. inputs into the Amazon region, Brazil. Bebianno (eds.), Metal Metabolism in Environmental Technology Letters 9: 325- Aquatic Environments , pp. 77-158. 330. Chapman & Hall, London. Pollack, H., J. de Kom, J. Quik & L. Zuilen, Landburg, G.A., 2005. Kwik in Aquatische 1998. Introducing retorts for abatement of Ecosystemen in Midden en West Suriname. mercury pollution in Suriname. Report to BSc thesis, FTeW. Organization of American States. HWO Mohan, S., M. Tiller, G. van der Voet & H. Consultants, Paramaribo. Kanhai, 2005. Mercury Exposure of Quik, J.A.M. & P.E. Ouboter (2000): Water Mothers and Newborns in Surinam: A Pilot Quality Monitoring in the Commewijne Study. Clin. Toxicol. 43: 101-104. Watershed, Suriname. WWF/CMO, Mol, J.H., J.S. Ramlal, C. Lietar & M. Verloo, Paramaribo, 18 pp. 2001. Mercury contamination in Roulet, M., M. Lucotte, R. Canuel, I Rheault, freshwater, estuarine and marine fishes in S. Tran, Y.G. De Freitos Gog, N. Farella, relation to small-scale gold mining in R. Souza do Vale, C.J. Sousa Passos & E. Suriname, South America. Environ. Res. A De Jesus da Silva, 1998. Distribution and 86: 183-197. partition of total mercury in waters of the Morel, F.M.M., A.M.L. Kraepiel & M. TapajosRiver Basin, Brazilian Amazon. Amyot, 1998. The chemical cycle and Sci. Total Environ. 213: 203-211. bioaccumulation of mercury. Annual Scheuhammer, A.M., M.W. Meyer, M.B. Sandheinrich & M.W. Murray, 2007.

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Acad J Sur 2015 (6), 531-543