Gender Equality, Gender Relations and the Position of Women in Suriname a Situation Analysis

Gender Equality, Gender Relations and the Position of Women in Suriname A Situation Analysis

Final report submitted to the National Bureau Gender Policy

Paramaribo February 2011 Marieke Heemskerk & Ine Apapoe

Table of contents

Table of contents ...... 1

List of Abbreviations ...... 8

Summary ...... 15

1. Introduction ...... 21

2. Background ...... 23 2.1 Suriname ...... 23 2.2 Gender ...... 24 2.3 The Suriname government and gender ...... 25 2.4 The National Bureau for Gender Policy ...... 25 2.5 Involvement of boys and men in gender equality ...... 26 2.6 Gender equality and boys and men in Suriname ...... 27

3. Methods ...... 28 3.1 The assignment ...... 28 3.2 The research team ...... 28 3.3. Data collection and reporting ...... 28 3.4 Assumptions ...... 29 3.5 Challenges and limitations ...... 29

4 Power & Decision-making ...... 31 4.1 Political Administrative Representation ...... 31 4.2 Women in Political Administrative Bodies ...... 32 4.2.1 Increasing the number of women in political administrative bodies ...... 32 4.2.2 Women representatives in the National Assembly ...... 33 4.3 Women in Government ...... 35 4.4 Women in Government Service ...... 36 4.4.1 Civil Servants ...... 36 4.4.2 District government ...... 36 4.4.3 Highest Authorities of State ...... 37 4.4.4 The Court of Justice ...... 38 4.4.4 International representation ...... 38 1

4.5 Leadership & Decision Making ...... 40 4.6 Constraining factors ...... 41

5 Education ...... 44 5.1 Education general ...... 44 5.1.1. Education For All ...... 44 5.1.2. The Suriname Educational System ...... 45 5.1.3. Government expenditures on education ...... 46 5.2. Literacy and educational achievement ...... 47 5.2.1 Literacy ...... 47 5.2.2 Educational levels ...... 48 5.2.3 Adult education...... 48 5.3. Early Child Development ...... 50 5.4. Girls and Boys in Primary School ...... 53 5.5 Repeating and drop-out ...... 57 5.6 The Boys Problem ...... 59 5.6.1. Secondary Education Junior level (VOJ) ...... 59 5.6.2. Continued Education at a Senior Level (VOS) ...... 60 5.7 Education on the interior ...... 64 5.8. Study facilities ...... 65 5.8.1. Pupil Teacher ratio ...... 65 5.8.2. Gender in het curriculum ...... 67 5.8.3. Study allowances ...... 69 5.9. Government educational policy and gender ...... 72

6. Institutional mechanisms for the improvement of the position of women .... 74 6.1 Government policy with regard to gender ...... 74 6.1.1 Ministry of Domestic Affairs ...... 75 6.1.2 National Bureau Gender policy (NBG) ...... 75 6.1.3 Integral Gender Action Plan (IGAP) ...... 75 6.1.4 Commission Gender Regulation (CG) ...... 77 6.1.5 Institutional strengthening NBG ...... 78 6.1.6 Gender Focal Points (GFPs) ...... 79

6.1.7 EC/UN Partnership on Gender Equality for Development and Peace ...... 80 6.1.8 Gender Database System (GDS) ...... 81 6.2 NGO’s ...... 81 6.2.1 Foundation Man Mit man ...... 81 6.2.2 Women Rights Centre, training...... 82 6.2.3 Platform of NGOs for Women, Gender and Development ...... 82 6.2.4 Women Parliament Forum (Vrouwen Parlement Forum) ...... 82 6.3 Institute for Women, gender and Development Studies (IWGDS) ...... 82 6.4 Instruments for the improvement of the position of women ...... 83 6.4.1 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) ...... 84 6.4.2 The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women (Treaty of “Belem do Para”) ...... 85 6.4.3 Other treaties ...... 86 6.5 Developments concerning gender ...... 87 6.6 Collecting gender segregated data ...... 78

7. Media ...... 79 7.1 Media Council ...... 79 7.2 Media in Suriname ...... 80 7.2.1 Television stations ...... 81 7.2.2 Newspapers ...... 82 7.2.3 Radio stations ...... 82 7.3 Gender and the Suriname media ...... 83

8. Domestic Violence ...... 84 8.1 Act Fighting Domestic Violence ...... 85 8.1.1 Femicide ...... 89 8.1.2 Sexual Harassment ...... 90 8.1.3 Sexual harassment at the workplace ...... 91 8.1.4 Violence committed by the State ...... 92 8.2 Domestic Violence Policy ...... 92 8.2.1 The Government and Domestic Violence ...... 92 8.3 Policy on Domestic Violence ...... 94

8.4 Approach on Domestic Violence ...... 95 8.4.1 Police Corps Suriname ...... 95 8.4.2 Domestic Violence Training for KPS ...... 96 8.4.3 Youth Department; Transit Centre OPA DOELI ...... 98 8.4.4 The court ...... 101 8.4.5 Bureau Victim Support ...... 102 8.4.6 Shelter for victims of domestic violence ...... 102 8.4.7 Foundation Stop Violence ...... 102 8.4.8 Women's Rights Centre ...... 103 8.4.9 Foundation Ilse-Henar Hewitt ...... 103 8.4.10 STICRIS ...... 104 8.4.11 Education and Domestic Violence, Basic life skills ...... 104 8.5 Domestic violence in the Interior ...... 105 8.6 Data collection Domestic Violence ...... 105

9. Trafficking ...... 107 9.1. Forms of trafficking ...... 107 9.2 Trafficking in practice ...... 108 9.2.1. Stages of Trafficking ...... 108 9.3 Palermo Convention on human trafficking ...... 109 9.4 Suriname and trafficking ...... 110 9.4.1 Trafficking rankings concerning Suriname ...... 110 9.4.2 National legislation ...... 111 9.4.3. National plan to combat trafficking ...... 111 9.5 International and regional cooperation ...... 113 9.6 Achievements Tip Unit concerning Human Trafficking ...... 114

10. Poverty ...... 116 10.1 National vision on poverty ...... 116 10.2 International measurement of poverty ...... 118 10.3 Poverty Index ...... 119 10.4 Gender-related development index (GDI) ...... 120 10.5 Measuring Poverty in Suriname ...... 120

10.6 Policy on Poverty and Gender ...... 121 10.6.1 Women in the MOP ...... 121 10.6.2 Specific measures regarding Poverty reduction ...... 121 10.7 Social security provisions ...... 122 10.7.1 General old age benefits (AOV) ...... 123 10.7.2 General Child Benefits (AKB) ...... 123 10.7.3 Welfare Benefits ...... 125 10.7.4 Free medical care (VGH) ...... 126 10.8 School clothing & subsidies to children's homes ...... 128 10.9 A closer look at Social Benefits ...... 129 10.10 Additional aid ...... 130 10.11 Malnutrition ...... 130

11. Economy ...... 132 11.1 Overview of the Suriname Economy ...... 132 11.2 Consumer Price Index (CPI)...... 134 11.3 Economic situation of men and women ...... 134 11.4 Economic situation of men and women in the interior ...... 134 11.5 Labour market ...... 135 11.5.1 Positions of women on the labour market ...... 135 11.6 Employed population ...... 136 11.7 Job-seekers and placement ...... 138 11.8 Unemployment ...... 139 11.9 Income ...... 141 11.10 Access to credit ...... 141 11.11 Child day care ...... 142

12 Natural Environment ...... 143 12.1 Logging ...... 143 12.2 Mining ...... 144 12.2.1 Large-scale mining ...... 145 12.2.2 Small-scale mining ...... 146 12.2.3 Mercury pollution ...... 146

12.2.4 Water pollution ...... 148 12.3 National Action Plans ...... 148 12.4 The flood of 2006 ...... 149

13 Health ...... 151 13.1 Health general...... 151 13.1.1. Public expenditures on health ...... 151 13.1.2. Health Insurance ...... 152 13.1.3 Main problems in health care ...... 153 13.2 Birth, Life Expectancies, and Death ...... 153 13.2.1. Sex ratio ...... 153 13.2.2. Life expectancies and death ...... 154 13.2.3. Causes of death ...... 156 13.2.4 Suicide ...... 157 13.3 Important diseases, prevention and treatment ...... 158 13.3.1. Vaccination ...... 158 13.3.2. Diarrhoea ...... 159 13.3.3. Malaria ...... 160 13.3.4. Tuberculoses ...... 162 13.4 Sexual and reproductive health ...... 163 13.4.1. Maternal mortality ...... 163 13.4.2 Fertility rate ...... 165 13.4.3. Teen pregnancy ...... 168 13.4.4. Contraceptive prevalence ...... 171 13.4.5. Family planning ...... 175 13.4.6. Abortions ...... 177 13.4.7. Maternity leave ...... 180 13.5 HIV/AIDS ...... 181 13.5.1. HIV Prevalence ...... 181 13.5.2. Knowledge about HIV/AIDS ...... 184 13.5.3. HIV/AIDS at the work place ...... 185 13.5.4. HIV/AIDS policy and prevention ...... 185

14 Conclusions ...... 187

15 Recommendations ...... 190 15.1 Policy and activities of the government and NGOs ...... 190 15.2 Research and data collection and registration ...... 193

16. Sources ...... 196 16.1 Literature ...... 196 16.2 Websites ...... 202 Annex 1 List of consulted persons and organizations ...... 203 Annex 2 Number of VOS-students by Sex, Academic year 2007-8 ...... 207 Annex 3. ADEKUS Students 2009–2010 ...... 208 Annex 4. Number of Adult students by school, class, sex and average age, 2009-2010 ...... 209 Annex 5 Media Companies ...... 210 Annex 6 Social map victim support Domestic Violence ...... 211 Annex 7 Responsible ministries in collaborative covenant Domestic Violence ...... 213 Annex 8 Law on Human Trafficking, 6 April 2006 ...... 214 Annex 9 Results from the TIP unit and its operations (2005-2007) ...... 218 Annex 10 Constitution of Suriname: Articles 26, 27 & 28 ...... 221 Annex 11 List of Figures ...... 223 Annex 12 List of Tables ...... 225

List of Abbreviations ABC Ampie‘s Broadcasting Corporation ABOP Algemene Bevrijdings- en Ontwikkelings Partij (Party for Liberty and Development) ABS Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek (General Bureau of Statistics) ADEK Anton de Kom Universiteit (Anton de Kom University) ADEKUS Anton de Kom Universiteit van Suriname (Anton de Kom University of Suriname) AHKCO Academie voor Hoger Kunst en Cultuur Onderwijs (Academy for Higher Arts and Culture Education) AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome AKB Algemene Kinderbijslag (General Child Benefits) ALCOA ALuminum Company Of America AMTO Avond Middelbaar Technisch Onderwijs (Evening Middle Technical Education) AOV Algemene Oudedags Voorziening (General Old-Age Pensions) API Annual Parasite Incidence ARV Anti-Retrovirale ASER Age Specific Enrolment Ratio AVROS Algemene Vereniging Radio Omroep Suriname (General Society Radio Broadcasting Suriname) ATM Ministerie van Arbeid, Technologische Ontwikkeling en Milieu (Ministry of Labour, Technological Development, and Environment) ATV Algemene Televisie Verzorging (General Television Provision) AUSV Algemene Uitbetaling Sociale Voorzieningen (General Payment Social Benefits) AZV Algemene Ziektekosten Verzekering (General Health Insurance) BEP Broederschap in Eenheid Partij (Brotherhood in Unity Party) BEIP Basic Education Improvement Project BIZA Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken (Ministry of Domestic Affairs) BLS Basic Life Skills BOG Bureau Openbare Gezondheidszorg (Bureau public Health care) BOS Bureau Onderwijs en Studiefaciliteiten (Bureau Education and Study Facilities) BuFaZ Bureau Familierechtelijke Zaken (Bureay Family Legal Affairs) BUZA Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) CARICOM Caribbean Community (and Common Market) CBB Centrale Begrotings Boekhouding (Central Budgetary Account) CBB Centraal Bureau Burgerzaken (Central Bureau Civil Affairs) CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CCPAP Common Country Program Action Plan CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women CELOS Centrum voor Landbouw Onderzoek in Suriname (Centrum for Agricultural Research in Suriname) CEO Chief Executive Officers CG Commissie Genderregelgeving (Commission Gender Regulation) COVAB Centrale opleiding voor Verpleegkundigen en beoefenaren van Aanverwante Beroepen (Central college for Nursing and Related Professions) CPI Centrale Penitentiaire Inrichting (Central Penitentiary Institution) CPS Contraceptive Prevalence Survey CSW Commerciële sekswerker (Commercial Sex Worker) DA‘91 Democratisch Alternatief (Democratic Alternative) DC District Commissaris (District Commissioner) DCIV Dienst Criminele Informatie Verzorging (Service Criminal Information Provision) DNA De Nationale Assemblee (The National Assemblee) DR Districtsraad (District Council) EBG Evangelische Broedergemeenschap (Evangelical Brotherhood) EBO Eenvoudig Beroeps Onderwijs (Elementary Professional Education) EFA Education For All EOV Elementair Onderwijs Voor Volwassenen (Elementary Education for Adults) ETO Eenvoudig Technisch Onderwijs (Elementary Technical Education) ETS Eenvoudige Technische School (Elementary Technical School) ENO Eenvoudig Nijverheidsonderwijs (Elementary Industrial Education) FISO Functie Informatiesysteem Overheid (Function informtion System Government) FMZ Forensisch Maatschappelijke Zorg (Forensic Social Care) FTW Faculteit Technologische Wetenschappen (Faculty Technological Sciences) GK Gezondheidskaart (Health Card) GDI Gender Development Index GDP Gross Domestic Product GER Gross Enrolment Rate GFR General Fertility Rate GLO Gewoon Lager Onderwijs (General Elementary School) GNP Gross National Product GPI Gender Parity Index

GFP Gender Focal Point GRR Gross Reproduction Rate HALE Gezonde Levensverwachting bij Geboorte (Healthy Life Expectancy) HAVO Hoger Algemeen Vormend Onderwijs (Higher General Formative Education) HBO Hoger Beroeps Onderwijs (Higher Professional Education) HDI Human Development Index HG Huiselijk Geweld (Domestic Violence) Hg Kwik (Mercury) HI Handel en Industrie, Ministerie van (Ministry of Trade and Industry) HIV Human immunodeficiency virus HKV Houtkap vergunning (Logging License) HPI-I Human Poverty Index HPP Haemorrhagia Postpartum Ibid. Ibidem (Latin): as previously mentioned; from the same source. This term is used in footnotes and literature references to indicate that information was derived from the same source as the previously mentioned source (scientific use). ICCDR International Convenant on Civil and Political Rights ICT Information and communication technologies ICRW International Centre for Research on Woman ICPD International Conference on Population and Development IDOS Instituut voor Demografisch Onderzoek in Suriname (Institute for Demographic Research in Suriname ICESUR International Convenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights IGAP Integral Gender Action Plan IGSR Institute for Graduate Studies and Research IMEAO Instituut voor Middelbaar Economisch en Administratief Onderwijs (Institute for Mid-level Economic and Administrative Education) IMWO Instituut voor Maatschappij Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (Institute for Social Science Research) IOL Instituut voor de Opleiding van Leraren (Institute for the Training of Teachers) IOM International Organization of Migration IWGDS Institute for Women, Gender and Development Studies IOOV Interdepartementaal Overleg Orgaan Vrouwenzaken (Inter-Departmental Consultory Body Women‘s Affairs) JKB Justitiële Kinderbescherming (Legal Child Protection) JOG Jeugd Opvoeding Gesticht (Youth Edication Institution) KPS Korps Politie Suriname (Police Corps Suriname)

KTPI Kaum Tani Persatuan Indonesia LISP Low Income Shelter Program LBGO Lager Beroepsgericht Onderwijs (Lower Vocational Education) LBO Lager Beroeps Onderwijs (Lower Vocational Education) LNO Lager Nijverheids Onderwijs (Lower Industrial Education) LTS Lager Technische School (Lower Technical School) LTO Lager Technisch Onderwijs (Lower Technical Education) LOBO Lerarenopleiding voor Beroepsonderwijs (Teachers‘ College for Professional Education) LVV Landbouw, Veeteelt en Visserij, Ministerie van (Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, and Fishing) MBO Middelbaar Beroeps Onderwijs (Mid-Level Vocational Education) MBS Middag Basisschool (Afternoon Elementary School) MDG Millennium Development Goal MICS Multiple indicator Cluster Survey Min. JusPol Ministerie van Justitie en Politie (Ministry of Justice and Police) MINOV Ministerie van Onderwijs en Volksontwikkeling (Ministry of Education) MOP Meerjaren Ontwikkelingsplan (Multiple Year Development Plan MULO Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs (Extended Elementary Education) MZ Medische Zending, Primary Health Care Suriname (Medical Mission) NATIN Natuur Technisch Instituut (Nature Technical Institute) NAP Nationaal AIDS Programma (National AIDS Programme) NBG Nationaal Bureau Genderbeleid (National Bureau Gender Policy) NCCR Nationaal Coördinatie Centrum Rampenbeheersing (National Coordination Centrer Disaster Management) NCV Nationaal Centrum voor de Vrouw (National Center for the Woman) NDP Nationale Democratische Partij (National Democratic Party) NER Net Enrolment Rate NGO Non Governmental Organisation NH Natuurlijke Hulpbronnen, Ministry of (Natural Resources) NHIS National Health Information System NIR Net Intake Rate NPS Nationale Partij Suriname (National Party Suriname) NSP National Strategic Plan for a multi-sectoral approach to HIV/AIDS NSS Network Star Suriname NVB Nationale Vrouwen Beweging (National Women‘s Movement) NZCS Nationale Zoologische Collectie Suriname (National Zoological Collection Suriname) OAS Organisation of American States OM Openbaar Ministerie (Public Prosecutor)

OP-CEDAW Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women ORS Oral Rehydration Solid ORT Oral Rehydration Treatment PCS Psychiatric Centre Suriname OS Openbare School (Public School) Pers. Com. Personal Communication PID Penitentiary Institution Duisburg PIH Penitentiary Institution Hazard PIH Pregnancy Induced Hypertension PL Pertjajah Luhur PLOS Planning en Ontwikkelingssamenwerking (Planning and Development, Ministry of) PPP Purchasing Power Parity PTC Poly Technisch College PTR Pupil Teacher Ratio PVF Politiek Vleugel van de Federatie van Agrariers en landarbeiders (Political Wing of the Federation of Farmers and Farm laborers) Rapar (RP) Radio Paramaribo RGM Rosebel Goldmines NV RK Rooms Katholiek (Roman Catholic) RKBO Rooms Katholiek Bijzonder Onderwijs (Roman Catholic Special Education) RO Regionale Ontwikkeling (Regional Development, Ministry of) RR Ressortraad (Resort Council) RVM Raad van Ministers (Council of Ministers) SAO Stichting Arbeidsmobilisatie en Ontwikkeling (Foundation Labor Mobilisation and Development) SB Staatsbesluit (State Decree) SBB Stichting Bosbeheer en Bostoezicht (Foundation Forest Management and Forest Surveillance) SBC Suriname Business Coalition against HIV and AIDS SO Speciaal Onderwijs (Special Education) SOV Secundair Onderwijs Voor Volwassenen (Secundary Education for Adults) SOZAVO Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Volkshuisvesting (Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing) SPA Surinaamse Partij van de Arbeid (Suriname Labour Party) SPS Stichting Planbureau Suriname (Foundation Planning Bureau Suriname) SR Sex Ratio

SRD Suriname Dollar SRH Sexual and Reproductive Health SSN Suriname Social Safety Net STICRIS Stichting Vrouwen in Crisis Situatie (Foundation Women in Crisis Situations) STVS Surinaamse Televisie Stichting (Suriname Television Foundation) SURALCO Suriname Aluminium Company SVJ Surinaamse Vereniging van Journalisten (Suriname Society of Journalists) SZF Staats Ziekenfonds (State Health Insurance) TBC Tuberculose TBS Ter Beschikking Stelling (Under Guardianship of the State) TCT Transport, Communicatie en Toerisme (Transportation, Communication, and Tourism, Ministry of) TFR Total Fertility Rate TIP Trafficking Information Point UNDP United Nations Development Program UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNHR United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNICEF United Nations International Children's Fund UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women UPM Uitkering Personen met een Handicap (Benefit for Disabled Persons) USD United States Dollar VEOV Voorbereidend Elementair Onderwijs Voor Volwassenen (Preporatory Elementary Education for Adults) VG Volksgezondheid (Health, Ministry of) VGH Vrije Geneeskundige Hulp (Free Health Care) VHP Vooruitstrevende Hervormings Partij (Progressive Reform Party) UN United Nations UN-Eclac United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean VOJ Voortgezet Onderwijs op Junioren niveau (Continued Education Junior Level) VOS Voortgezet Onderwijs op Senioren niveau (Continued Education Senior Level) VPF Vrouwen Parlement Forum (Women‘s Parliament Forum) VSO Voortgezet Speciaal Onderwijs (Continued Special Education) VVV Volksalliantie Voor Vooruitgang (Popular Alliance for Progress) VWMKO Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk en Middelbaar Kweekschool Onderwijs (Preporatory Scientific and Mid-Level Teacher‘s College)

VWO Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk Onderwijs (Preparatory Scientific Education) WBG Women Business Group WFFC World Fit For Children WHO World Health Organisation WRC Women Rights Center

Summary This report presents a situation analysis of gender relations and gender equity in Suriname. Promoting gender equality is one of the goals of Suriname‘s Multiple Year Development plan, one of the Millennium Development Goals, and inherent to various conventions ratified by Suriname. The presented data constitute a basis for evidence based gender policy, as described in the Integral Gender Action Plan 2006-2010. The research was commissioned by the National Bureau Gender policy (NBG) of the Ministry of Domestic Affairs (BIZA). In addition to support with respect to content, the NBG also gave logistic and technical assistance. Financial support was provided by the Government of Suriname and the EC/UN Partnership on Gender Equality for development and Peace in Suriname (EC, UNIFEM, and ITC-ILO).

Power and decision making Since 1948, when universal suffrage was introduced, all women and men over the age of 18 are allowed to actively and passively participate in the Public, Free, and Secret elections in Suriname. In 1967 the first woman was elected in the States. Even though the number of women in political organs has been increasing since 1996, their numbers remain small. Only a quarter of the members of the National Assembly, Resort councils, District councils, and parliament are female (2005-2010). A mere 15.7 percent of Ministers is a woman. Three female district commissioners (out of 11) serve in the district governments. Since 2002 the number of women in the higher state bodies (i.e. High Court, State Council and the Auditor‘s Office) has increased to 50.7% of the number of functionaries in 2010. Also the number of Suriname women in diplomatic positions has increased; at the moment 57.3 percent of the Suriname diplomatic representation is female. The Women Parliament Forum (VPF) provides trainings and lobbies to increase the number of women in (higher) political positions.

Although the number of women in leadership positions has increased, women continue to constitute a minority in higher functions and hence are not optimally involved in decision- making. Intervening factors include a desire to dedicate oneself to caring for the family; a lack of self confidence; a lack of suitable child care facilities; pressure from the social environment; and barriers within companies and institutions. Neither the government nor political parties have specific policies to elevate the number of women in political positions.

Education For the law boys and girls have equal access to education; at all levels and in all directions. Eighty-eight percent of women and 92.7 percent of men (>=15 yr) are literate (1999-2007). Men are, on average, somewhat higher educated than women but differences are small.

An analysis of the participation of girls and boys in the educational process shows that disproportionate numbers of boys leave the system as the level of education rises. At pre-school attendance of boys and girls is about equal (86 % of 4-year olds; resp. 89 % and 87 % of five-

15 year old boys and girls). The gender parity index for primary education is 92.6 (girls to boys). The larger number of boys can be explained by the fact that boys more often double a class and hence spend more years in elementary school. In the higher classes of elementary school the share of boys is dropping, especially after grade five. This trend continues at the VOJ and VOS levels, with gender parity indices of respectively 1.1 and 1.7 (girls to boys). At the tertiary level 1 only /3 (34.8%) of students is male. On the other hand, more men than women are teaching as the level of education increases. The high drop-out rate among boys calls for more research and policy intervention. For girls, teen pregnancy is an important reason for premature termination of the educational track, thus lowering the chances on a well-paying job.

In past years text books have been revised to become more gender neutral. In addition, school directors and teachers have been trained in gender sensitivity in the context of the transformation to 11-years basic education. Through the Basic Life Skills (BLS) program, gender related subject matters are integrated into the existing curriculum. Almost twice as many women as men receive a MINOV study allowance (academic year 2008-2009).

Institutional mechanisms Suriname has ratified two gender related treaties: the CEDAW treaty (1979; ratified by Suriname in 1993) and the treaty of Belem do Para, officially named the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Eradication, and Punishment of Violence against Women (1994; ratified in 2002). The Suriname government has also committed itself to execution of the Declaration of Beijing, where gender mainstreaming is central. In addition, Suriname has signed treaties and conventions of the United Nations, the Inter-American System, the CARICOM, and environmental meetings, which not specifically focus on gender but do incorporate the intention to eliminate the discrimination of women.

The ministry of BIZA is through its working arm, the NBG responsible for execution of gender policy. Gender focal points at the various Ministries (Gender Management System) assist in this matter. The task of the Commission Gender Regulation is to evaluate the Suriname Legal and regulatory framework in terms of gender equity conform the international treaties ratified by Suriname.

NGOs such as VPF, Foundation Man Mit Man, the National Women’s Movement (NVB), and the Platform of NGOs for women, gender and development, play a central role in data collection and in the execution of programs aimed at the promotion of gender equality.

Media The media has an important function in breaching gender stereotypes and promoting gender awareness in society. Suriname does not have a media council that watches the portrayal of gender stereotypes. Neither is there an organisation that promotes of gender awareness among media workers. The Media Council for Child Rights (since 1999) watches the broadcasting of

16 women unfriendly commercials and TV programs. Two thirds of employees of media companies (68.5%) are men. A large share of women in these companies performs administrative jobs, while most news reporters (journalists, presenters) are men. Only 28.6 percent of staff members are women. Due to gender inequality in media functions news and other information are largely presented from a male perspective. There is much room for improvement in the areas of gender equality within media companies and gender neutrality of particularly TV programmes.

Domestic Violence

In 2008, ¾ (74.4%) of victims of domestic violence was a woman (Ntotaal=1757). The new Law Fighting Domestic Violence (20 June 2009) is of particular significance in reducing domestic violence. This law will help protect victims of domestic violence, yet because request forms have not yet been developed the law cannot be fully implemented. The new law ―Offences against Morality‖ (Misdrijven tegen Zeden) (29 July 2009) has, among others, made sexual intimidation in public places and sexual abuse punishable. Perpetrators of indecency offences are mostly men (99.1%) while the victims are more often women and girls (94.7% of cases). The Commission Gender Regulation of the Ministry of Domestic Affairs works in collaboration with the Foundation Ilse Henar-Hewitt (IHH) on the development of a concept law ―Sexual molest on the work floor‖.

The Ministry of Justice and Police deals with domestic violence by means of the police and various departments and civil institutions such as the Bureau woman and child policy (vrouw en kinderbeleid), the Public Prosecutor, the Bureau legal regulation (wetgeving), and the Bureau victim support (slachtofferhulp). Six Ministries signed a letter of intent for collaboration (5 May 2008). The government works in close collaboration with NGOs such as the Women Rights Centre (WRC), Foundation IHH, and Foundation Stop Geweld. There are no guidelines for dealing with domestic violence for the police, legal officers, social workers and other stakeholders. An acting protocol is being developed though. Foundation Stop Geweld and the WRC have delivered trainings to these interest groups. A newly built government shelter (2010) and a shelter of the NGO STICRIS provide a safe haven and support to female victims of domestic violence and their children.

The increased number of complaints about domestic violence that have been filed possibly indicates rising consciousness among victims. Because the police database does not register cases domestic violence by type, certain international indicators cannot be compiled.

Human Trafficking In 2006 Suriname ratified the Palermo treaty against cross-border organized crime, including the attached protocols about among others human trafficking. In that same year Suriname implemented regulatory measures in the area of Human Trafficking. The working group Trafficking Information Point (TIP) has developed a manual for the police and immigration authorities with guidelines on how to interview victims of human trafficking (2004). As a result

17 of these and other measures, Suriname has moved to tier 2 with regard to its policy on human trafficking.

The TIP has initiated collaborations with NGOs, with the International Organization of Migration, and with neighbouring countries. This unit combats human trafficking and smuggle through tracking, prosecution, protection (with the Foundation against Human Trafficking), support, and prevention (information and awareness activities). Of the various forms of human trafficking, prostitution and forced labour are most common in Suriname. Since its establishment in 2005, TIP has traced at least 21 of such cases, typically resulting in the arrest and prosecution of the perpetrators. Between 2007 and 2009, 93 victims were set free.

Poverty There are no recent figures on the numbers of people and households that are living below absolute national or international poverty lines. Moreover, existing figures are not specified by sex. The various UNDP indices place Suriname among the middle-income countries. In 1999/2000, the share of the urban population living below the poverty line was estimated on 59.2%. This estimate was made on the basis of income and consumption data. More than 27% of dwellings does not have a flush toilet with a septic tank, and 9% does not have running water in the home. Due to a severe shortage of affordable housing, 12% of households consist of more than one family. Due to a lack of longitudinal data it is difficult to detect whether poverty has increased or decreased in recent years.

In its MOP, the Government communicates its intention to combat poverty by increasing the economic and physical independence of women. Yet current programs for poverty alleviation do not pay much attention to gender. Most recipients of social welfare benefits are women. For child benefits the share of female recipients is even 94 percent. Due to its negligible value (~1 USD/month), however, this allowance does not contribute to poverty alleviation.

Economy In 2004-2008, the macro-economic development of Suriname was reasonable to good. In March 2010, the Women‘s Business Group (WBG) will as a Micro Finance Institute extend loans and related ‗finance education‘ and ‗core business development‘ trainings. Among registered job seekers the majority is female (69.7%). Many women work in administrative jobs and in lower service and commercial jobs. Meanwhile men form a majority in leadership positions and among the higher and middle level technicians and professionals. Among youth (15-24 yr) 74.4% of the workforce consists of men. In de age group 25-64 years relatively more women have entered the work force, though men still constitute about 60% of the labour force. Seventy-one percent of unemployed are women.

In order to combat unemployment, the government has initiated various projects including: the project Social Investment Fund (SIF); Project vocational education for women; Projects to

18 increase the economic participation and resilience of women; and credit programs for entrepreneurs. In 2009 the Labour Market program started. Child care occurs both at home (family or nanny) and at day care centres. In the interior many communities are largely self- sufficient. Integration in de money economy is changing gender relations, though many women continue to economically depend on men.

Environment Gold mining and logging threaten the access of interior populations to natural resources. Women are disproportionally affected because they traditionally carry the main responsibility for agricultural production, and have least access to cash income to compensate for reducing harvests. Small-scale gold mining also pollutes creek and rivers, so that Maroon women in East Suriname now have to paddle long distances in order to obtain clean water for drinking and other household uses. Mercury contamination as a result of gold mining causes health risks to the entire population, but women in their reproductive ages and children are particularly vulnerable. On the other hand, small-scale gold mining and particularly the surrounding service sector provide an income to many women and men in the interior.

Neither the Climate Change Action Plan (Min. ATM) nor the (draft) National Disaster Plan (National Coordination Centre Disaster Management) takes gender (in)equality into account. Also impact analyses of the flooding of May 2006 did not differentiate impacts by sex. It is likely, however, that the flooding of agricultural plots has most severely affected women because they carry traditionally the main responsibility for agricultural production. The NCCR emphasizes that in practice, such as in the distribution of emergency parcels, the specific needs of vulnerable groups such as elderly, children, and women, are being considered.

Health Annually slightly more boys than girls are born. Because the life expectancy of women (72.8) is higher than that of men (67.4) the sex ratio becomes more unequal as age increases. Infant mortality (27/1000) and child mortality (28-29/1000) stayed about the same in the past couple of years. More women than men attempt suicide, but more men die as a result of suicide. Nationally about 85 percent of girls and boys (<18 months) is immunized against measles. Also the figures of prevalence and treatment of diarrhoea for boys and girls are comparable. The number of malaria cases among children under five years of age has been reduced from 3393 in 2001 to 48 in 2008. In 2007 the malaria mortality rate was 5/100,000.

Maternal mortality dropped from 153/100.000 in 2000 to 77.2 in 2008. The chance that a woman is assisted by trained health workers during delivery is highest in the urban areas (94.8%) and lowest in the interior (71.4%). Especially in marginal neighbourhoods the number of teen pregnancies is high; between 30 and 40 percent of 15-19 year olds has been pregnant at least once. The government and NGOs (Stg Lobi, ProHealth) stimulate awareness of sexual and

19 reproductive health among youth. Particularly NGOs also involve boys in these efforts. In the coastal area half of the women in a relationship uses contraceptives, versus only 14.6 percent of women from the interior (15-49 year). Contraceptive use is often perceived as the woman‘s 1 responsibility, and almost /5 share of women has an unmet need for contraceptive. This finding may partly explain the large number of abortions (8,000-10,000/year). Communication about sexuality and family planning in partnership relations is insufficient.

Estimated HIV prevalence among young (15-24 year) men and women is respectively 2.7 and 1.4 percent. In 2007, 85 men and 57 women died of the consequences of HIV/AIDS AIDS. Knowledge of HIV/AIDS is reasonable, but discrimination of HIV+ people remains a problem. The national policy on HIV/AIDS is formulated in the ‗National Strategic Plan‘ (NSP) and coordinated by the National Aids Program (NAP). By means of the Prevention Mother To Child Transmission program pregnant women are being tested on HIV and, if found HIV+, counselled during and after their pregnancy.

Conclusions and Recommendations The authors conclude that in the past decade, progress has been made in various areas related to gender equality and the position of women. Ratification of several important conventions in the area of women‘s rights, legal modifications, and changes in domestic policy have contributed to these positive changes. Especially in the areas of domestic violence, human trafficking, and the participation of women in politics the position of women has improved.

The implementation of gender awareness and policy at the various ministries; the participation of boys in the educational system – especially at higher levels; sexual and reproductive health; and gender sensitive poverty alleviation continue to call for the attention of policy makers. The limited involvement of boys and men in gender policy and gender related activities hinders efforts aimed at improving gender equity.

With regard to gender policy, it is recommended to evaluate the current policy, to give the NBG more decision-making and executing power, and to more closely involve men. Better data registration and presentation at government ministries will benefit such policy. In the area of domestic violence there are several issues where improvement is direly needed, including care for victims and counselling of perpetrators. More research is needed to obtain better insights in, among others: the forces driving drop-out among boys; domestic violence; the gender dimension of poverty; and contraceptive prevalence and needs – also among men. Finally, research must be conducted on the attitudes of men towards gender relations and their role in gender policy. Equity of the sexes will remain a utopia as long as boys and men are not being listened to and involved in activities and policy measures aimed at the promotion of gender equality.

1.Introduction National governments and international development organizations are increasingly aware that promoting gender equity is not only desirable because of social concerns, but also because evidence suggests that it ―…strengthens countries‘ abilities to grow, to reduce poverty, and to govern effectively‖ (World Bank 2001) . Enhancing gender equality and improving the position of women in Suriname are therefore important issues in Suriname‘s government policy. The Multi-annual Development Plan (MOP) 2006-2011 presents gender as a crosscutting issue which concerns all sectors. It states that reaching a fair and just society requires that all development actors are convinced of the necessity of gender analyses of all policy programs, projects and plans. Moreover, policy interventions should promote gender equality.

The development and implementation of powerful and evidence-based gender policy is also relevant in the context of Suriname‘s progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The 2005 MDG baseline report for Suriname identifies several gender-related issues that warrant attention. These issues include the comparatively low secondary education attendance of boys (see Chapter 5, Education), the under-representation of women in top-ranking positions (see Chapter 4, Power and Decision-making), and the disproportionally high unemployment rate among women (see Chapter 11, Economy). Reliable and current data are indispensible to the identification of priority areas for policy interventions and to the design of policy measures aimed at reducing gender inequalities. This report presents such data.

The objective of the present report is to provide policy makers and other stakeholders with a realist and up-to-date overview of existing gender relations and the position of women in Suriname, by means of statistical and qualitative data. The data have been subjected to an intersectional analysis whereby important changes have been identified and -where possible- explained. The analysis provides guidelines for the design, implementation, and monitoring of policy initiatives aimed at enhancing gender equity, in line with the Integral Gender Action Plan (IGAP) 2006-2010. In addition, the data and the complementary analysis may be used by policy makers and NGOs to address data gaps; identify equality gaps; and to report on gender related issues to national and international institutions or mechanisms. Furthermore, the report may reveal priority areas for research on gender related topics in Suriname.

The assignment comes forth out of a collaborative agreement between the Government of Suriname and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) for the year 2008- 2009. This ―EC/UN Partnership on Gender Equality for development and Peace in Suriname‖; a collaborative program of the European Commission, UNIFEM, and the International Training Centre of the International Labour organization, co-finances this study.

The following pages will first provide background information about Suriname, Suriname gender policy, and the role of boys and men herein. Next we describe the methods used for data collection and analysis. The presentation of numeric data and the related analyses in subsequent

21 chapters mirrors the different focus areas of the Framework that was developed by the National Bureau Gender Policy to guide this study (Framework Gender Equality, Gender Relations and the Position of Women in Suriname, A Situation Analysis). These focus areas are:

. Power and decision making (Ch. 4);

. Education (Ch. 5);

. Institutional mechanisms for improvement of the position of women (Ch. 6);

. Media (Ch. 7);

. Domestic and other forms of violence (Ch. 8);

. Human trafficking (Ch. 9).

. Poverty (Ch. 10)

. Economy (Ch. 11)

. Environment (Ch. 12), and

. Health (Ch. 13)

Bulky data are presented in the Annexes.

2. Background

2.1 Suriname

The Republic of Suriname (land mass: 163,820 km2) is located Figure 2.1 Suriname in on the Northern tip of South America, north of Brazil between latin America. Guyana and the French Department of La Guyane (also named French Guiana). Suriname has a small (492.829 people) yet culturally diverse population (ABS 2005). The national language is Dutch but more than 16 other languages are spoken, including Sranantongo (the national lingua franca) and languages specific to the various ethnic groups.

The largest share of the population lives in the coastal area, mainly in the capital city of Paramaribo. The southern 85 percent of the country is covered with dense tropical rainforest and is home to tribal groups of Indigenous peoples and Maroons.

Mining is the pillar of Suriname‘s economy in development. More than 50 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is obtained through the export of minerals; mainly bauxite and alumina but also oil and gold (IMF 2007). Suriname‘s per capita Gross National Income is US$ 5,791 (ABS 2009). This figure includes estimated incomes from activities in the country‘s extensive informal sector, such as small-scale gold mining, street trade, remittances, subsistence agriculture, and commercial sex work. Informal labour offers many women a household income or a necessary financial addition to a regular wage. Working in the informal sector is attractive because of the flexible hours and possibility to work (partly) from the home, which facilitate combining this form of labour with the care for children and household chores.

Even though Suriname is situated on the Latin-American continent, the country is in its culture and trade network more closely related to the Caribbean area. As in many Caribbean countries, a significant share of households is female-headed. In 2008, a woman was the head of one third of households (32.9%, N=29,058) (ABS 2009). For long, researchers have labelled households headed by women (whether or not single) as dysfunctional; according to the Western norm. Nowadays, more sociologists perceive this kind of family as one of many possible family structures. Recent research in a marginal neighbourhood in Paramaribo has found that children from female-headed households –regardless of the presence of a man- are not more vulnerable and not more likely to display anti-social behaviour than other children (Waalring 2009). The presence of female kin (aunts, grandmother) can provide a stable family structure and compensate for the absence of a father. 23

2.2 Gender Men and women are different. However, gender is not about the visible biological differences, but about the social and cultural differences between men and women. In the past years, the term gender has been defined by various institutions, organizations and authors. It is clear that gender is about the different roles of men and women in society. According to Moser (1993), gender is about the relationship between men and women and the way this relationship is socially defined.

In the 70‘s, awareness grew that in comparison to men, women were less involved in development processes. This awareness stimulated the arising of different development theories and ideologies, including ―Women in Development‖ (WID). The underlying thought of WID is that women are a valuable source of economic contribution to development (Moser 1993:2). In the 80‘s, the WID approach to development was replaced by ―Gender and Development‖ (GAD). This school of thought posed that women were in a disadvantaged position en were not able to fully participate in and profit from development initiatives. With the declaration of the UN ―decennium of women‖ in 1975, a worldwide campaign started to respect women‘s rights as human rights.

In response to the upsurge of these new ideologies and actions, women entered the international agenda and different conferences were organized around the theme ―women‖. The first two conferences were held in Mexico (1975) and Copenhagen (1980). These were followed by conferences in Nairobi (1985) and Beijing (1995). In Nairobi, an important document was formulated: ―Forward Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women in the year 2000 (Poeran 2010:22). This document constituted the basis for further actions, such as the design of national policies for gender equity. In Beijing the measures of Nairobi were evaluate and a new Action platform was formulated. This action programme identifies strategic goals and guidelines for action in 12 priority action domains.

Stimulated by the abovementioned women‘s conferences, governments worldwide have committed themselves to providing equal opportunities to women. These intentions also became part of the Millennium Development Goals, which were accepted by all UN member states. In line with the women‘s conferences, the promotion of gender equity was launched as a policy strategy ―gender mainstreaming‖. In 1998, the Council of Europe (1998) defined gender mainstreaming as follows:

Gender mainstreaming is the (re) organization, improvement , development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender perspective is incorporated in the total policy, on all levels, in every phase and by all actors involved in this policy process.

2.3 The Suriname government and gender In Suriname the government has committed itself to execute the policy measures named in the Beijing Declaration and its Concluding Document, in which gender mainstreaming is central. Also on a regional level Suriname has committed itself to gender mainstreaming by supporting the action programmes from the Organisation of American States (OAS), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the UN Economic Commission for Latin America (UN-ELCAC) ( Malmberg 2001:1).

In its Multiple Years Development Plan (MOP) 2006-2011, the government presents gender as a cross-cutting issue that transcends sectors. Through its working arm, the National Bureau Gender Policy (NBG), the Ministry of Domestic Affairs is responsible for executing gender policy in Suriname. Its task description with regard to women (SB 1991 no.58, article 7) poses that the Ministry is to facilitate:

. the participation of women in the development process of Suriname

. a balanced emancipatory women‘s policy that respects typical Suriname characteristics

The annual plan 1998 states that ―gender policy aimed at the equal participation of men and women in development will be executed‖.

Following up on the ―National Mechanism‖ model, which was proposed by the United Nations, the NBG has been created to effectively and efficiently execute gender policy1. In addition to the NBG, also the Gender Management System is part of this National Mechanism. The Beijing Platform for Action (Fourth Conference on Women, 1995) proposed that this national institute;

. Is positioned on the highest level within the government, under the direct supervision of a minister . Contains institutional mechanisms or processes that facilitate decentralized planning, execution and monitoring, in order to enhance collaboration with NGO‘s and organisations within society . Has sufficient financial resources and professional capacity . Has an ability to influence policy development.

2.4 The National Bureau for Gender Policy In 1981, the Minister of Social Affairs and Housing, who back then was responsible for the national policy on women (1981-1986), founded the National Bureau for Women (NVB). In 1986, the responsibility for women‘s affairs was transferred to the Ministry of Domestic Affairs, District Governance, and People‘s Mobilization. Subsequently the NVB was replaced by the

1 MOP 1999-2003,. Zie taakstelling in IGAP II 25

National Center for Women (NCV). In 1992 an Interdepartmental Consultation Organism Women‘s affairs (IOOV) was established, and the Ministry appointed a policy advisor on Women‘s issues. The current government office that safeguards and provides policy advice on gender issues, the National Bureau Gender policy (NBG), was founded in 1997, and officially opened on 22 January 1998. The activities of this bureau are described in further detail in chapter six.

2.5 Involvement of boys and men in gender equality The role that boys and men could play in gender equality is often underestimated. For this reason, the UN held, in 2005, a conference with the theme: ―The role of boys and men in achieving gender equality‖. Mr. Carl Breeveld from the foundation ―Man Mit man‖ attended this conference.

According to Breeveld, men are in many ways marginalized in the Suriname society2. Attention is focussed on women and girls, but men and boys also need protection and guidance. Due to the disadvantaged social position of men, family life is suboptimal in many families; prisons are full of men; and the number of HIV infections is growing. The latter is illustrated by a phrase in a report by the International Centre for Research on Woman (ICRW) and the Instituto Promundo:

― with an increasing gender equality movement... the possibility [exists] that next generations of young men will grow up in an environment where respect and combined responsibility are the norm‖3.

From March 29 to April 3, 2009, a worldwide symposium was held in Rio de Janeiro on the participation of boys and men in gender mainstreaming. Speakers at the symposium argued, among others, that the involvement of men in promoting gender equality is one of the most effective ways to improve the health of both men and women. The Rio symposium has led to the development of an action plan, an action platform, and a call to undertake activities to involve boys and men in programs aimed at achieving more gender equality. These action points4 are consistent with, and emphasize the importance of adhering to the various earlier plans and programs, including:

. the international conference for population and development (1994) . the action program of the world summit on social development (1995) . the Beijing Platform for action (1995) . the 26th special session of the General Meeting of the UN on HIV/AIDS(2001) . the UN commission on the status of women (48th session in 2004)

2 Pers. Com dhr. Carl Breeveld of Stichting Man mit Man. Dhr. Breeveld has attended this conference 3 Engaging Men and boys to achieve gender Equality: how can we build what we learned, 2007

4 See annex 4, The Rio Declaration. 26

Through ratification the UN-conventions and other international agreements, policy makers in various countries have committed themselves to the development, implementation and monitoring of actions that involve men in the struggle for more gender equality. These outspoken promises of government leaders support nongovernmental organizations in demanding rapid implementation of this policy.

2.6 Gender equality and boys and men in Suriname While the government has not undertaken many activities to engage boys and men in gender policy, the foundation Man mit‘ Man does work for the wellbeing of this group. The projects of this organization also involve women and girls. The organization laments the absence of structural collaboration between organizations that focus on women and gender equity. In the past Man mit‘ Man has worked together with women‘s organizations and the government. Projects that have been executed in collaboration with other organizations and institutions include:

 Stuka Doro, gi Opo doro, with the Ministry of Domestic Affairs. The aim of this project was to convince boys and girls of the importance of continued education.

 Boys to men, financed by UNFPA for boys in the ages 10-14 years. During this project 400 boys from Paramaribo and Wanica districts were trained in basic skills, during six sessions.

 Project Domestic Violence Law (Wetgeving Huiselijk Geweld), together with the National Women‘s Movement (NVB).

 Training on domestic violence and counseling, together foundation Stop Geweld tegen Vrouwen

 Training, with the Women Rights Centre

Man Mit man focuses on improvement of the societal position of men. The foundation executes projects and programs for men so that they can take their place and fulfill their role within the family. The foundation works from the premise that men need to be trained in basic skills in order to function better in different areas. Dr. Breeveld, chairman of the foundation, is of the opinion that men have an important role to play in the process of improving gender equity. This opinion is in line with the points of action de the Rio Declaration.

3. Methods

3.1 The assignment In September 2009, the Ministry of Domestic Affairs commissioned the assignment to conduct a situation analysis on ―Gender Equality, Gender Relations and the Position of Women in Suriname‖ to the consulting team Heemskerk/Apapoe.

The National Bureau Gender policy (NBG) was given the responsibility to facilitate, assist, and coordinate the research project. Towards this end, the NBG provided the consultant with access to documents from its own (digital and paper) collection; assisted with expert advice concerning juridical questions; and placed two academically trained employees to the consultant‘s disposal to help with data collection.

During the first project phase (data collection), the consultant met twice with the Minister of Domestic Affairs. During these meetings the Minister emphasized the importance of the current study for national policy making and reporting to international agencies.

3.2 The research team The research team consisted of Dr. Marieke Heemskerk (anthropologist) and Drs. Ine Apapoe (public administrator). The team was assisted by two young researchers for the collection of specialized information.

3.3. Data collection and reporting Data collection took place between November 2009 and March 2010. For the collection of statistical materials the team used:

. Studies from the General Bureau of Statistics (Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek), . Year books from the Ministry of Education and Development (MINOV), . Research reports that have been written under the auspices of Ministries (e.g. ―Jongeren en Gezondheid‖ (Youth and Health) from ProHealth for the Ministry of Health), . Unpublished data from the various ministries (on paper and by e-mail), . Data and survey reports such as the MICS 2006, ICPD+10, etc. . Unpublished data from NGOs and semi government institutions such as the Medical Mission PHS (Medische Zending -MZ) (on paper and by e-mail), . Web sites of international organizations such as the World Health Organization, UNDP, UNESCO, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) . Newspaper articles

The literature list contains a complete list with consulted sources, including books, papers, and web sites.

Background data, qualitative information, and analytical insights were obtained through interviews with key persons and existing studies. A list with consulted persons and institutions appears in ANNEX 1. For access to the various ministries, we relied on the Gender Focal Points (GFPs) and the NBG.

Before submission of the final report the preliminary data were presented to the NBG, various governmental departments, NGOs, gender experts, and other interested persons by means of a draft report, a presentation (15 March2010) and a workshop (11 March 2010). Comments on and questions about the data and their analyses data have been processed in the final report.

3.4 Assumptions In data collection and analysis, the following assumptions were made:

1. Government workers from the various Ministries and representatives of NGO‘s and other organizations have provided complete data to the best of their abilities. If certain data were not provided we will assume that these data are not collected or available in Suriname.

2. The stakeholders mentioned under (1) have provided, to their knowledge, reliable and accurate information (written and oral) and have not intended to mislead the consultant.

3. Data that are presented by the Suriname government in various yearbooks and reports provide a better approximation of reality than data from international organizations (e.g. World Bank, UNDP, WHO) that are available from their websites. For that reason Suriname data have priority. Data from international organizations have only been used in cases where there were no Suriname figures.

3.5 Challenges and limitations Few ministries offer access to their data in a simple and straightforward manner. Typically raw data are filed with different persons in dispersed offices in government offices. These raw data are often not yet analyzed or processed. It takes quite some time and effort from employees to research databases and file cabinets to present the requested data. Few ministries have an informative and recent web site with data and reports. .

Certain data that had been requested could not be delivered because they do not exist due to the way of registration. For example, the Central Information Collection Service (DCIC) of the Ministry of Justice and Police is responsible for the collection of data on Domestic Violence. However, in registering domestic violence, the type of violence is not recorded. Hence in the

29 statistics it is not possible to distinguish between intimate partner violence (violence between (ex-)partners who may or may not be married or live together) and violence between, for example, brothers or parents and children. Another example is the documentation of infant and child mortality, which does not register sex.

Finally, we have been confronted with questions that call for more in-depth study. An example is the question about factors that affect or hinder women‘s access to high-level positions, and about the factors that allow individuals to overcome such barriers. Other issues that are poorly documented are abortions and data about the fathers of (unborn) children of teenage mothers. In our recommendations we list various areas that call for more qualitative and quantitative research.

4 Power & Decision-making

4.1 Political Administrative Representation In Suriname General, free and secret elections are being held every five years. During these elections, members of the representative‘s organs (parliament, districts and jurisdiction councils) are elected. The elections have undergone many changes in a relative short period. In 1948, universal suffrage for adults, men and women, was adopted in Suriname, which was then a colony of the Netherlands.

The census suffrage (1865-1936) and the census – and capacity suffrage (1936-1948) were the precursors. These counted only for a small group of persons with a certain status and specific level of income (Sedney, J, 1997). When introducing suffrage in 1948, the Dutch government originally only arranged for suffrage for men, reflecting the majority opinion in the States of Suriname. Sedney (1997) states it as follows:

"The proposal of the Dutch government contains: immediate introduction of universal suffrage for men and leave it up to the governments of the Western territory concerned under which conditions suffrage of women might be adopted. An amendment by Mrs.Tendeloo enabled the adoption of female and male suffrage, and was accepted with 57 votes in favour of, and 19 votes against, the proposal‖

With the acceptance of the universal suffrage (1948) it was possible for women to both actively participate in the elections and be elected (Election regulation SB 1987 no 62 valid text SB 1996 no 15).

As a colony of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Suriname gained self-government in 1954. This implied that Surinamese citizens had the occasion to choose their own representatives by elections. Even though women had a right to passive suffrage, the first woman, who was elected in 1967, was Ms, I. J. A. Richaards (NPS) 19 years after the establishment of the States of Suriname. It was only in 1973 that another woman was elected. In 1977 yet another woman was chosen in Parliament. In subsequent governments, the number of women elected for the Parliament varies between 3 and 5 members. From 1996 on, the number of elected women shows a rising trend. In that year, Indra Dwajalapersad was chosen as the first chairwoman of Parliament

4.2 Women in Political Administrative Bodies

According to statements by the Surinamese government to the CEDAW Committee (Sedney, J., 1997:21) the increase in the number of women parliamentarians since the 1996 elections is a direct result of the increase in female candidates. The report indicates that even though through the years consistently more women are represented in the political administrative organization, the number of women in these bodies remains minimal.

The reasons listed are:

1. Women are responsible for the reproductive functions in the family 2. Lack of childcare during the day, afternoon and evening 3. Lack of specific policies and programs of government and political parties to increase the number of women in political governing bodies (Sedney J, 1997)

The report shows that nominations to public positions (high organs of the state) as well as diplomatic functions are often political appointments. Hence women from the political parties should be nominated for these positions. However, when the number of women belonging to political organizations is limited, their representation in these bodies will also be minimal.

4.2.1 Increasing the number of women in political administrative bodies

The Women's Parliament Forum (VPF) aims to raise society's awareness of the relationship between politics and gender, in order to increase the representation of women in political governing bodies. To achieve the above mentioned, the organization performed training programs on capacity building for women and called on the political parties to elect more women in office, at both national and regional levels. During the elections of 2005 this organization lobbied strongly to convince voters to cast a preference vote on female candidates (Guicherit 2005:5).

Table 4.1 depicts the composition of organs of people‘s delegates in the period 1996 to 2010. The table shows the number of women currently in parliament compared to the year 1996. Their number has increased by 15%.

Table 4.1: Composition of Parliament between 1996 and 2010

DNA* DR** RR*** Period M V Tot % V M V Tot % V M V Tot % V 1996-2000 43 8 51 10% 98 7 105 7% 537 134 671 20% 2000-2005 41 10 51 20% ------2005-2010 38 13 51 25% 80 26 106 24.5% 509 225 736 30.7%

Source: Data collected from the election results in 2000 & 2005 * DNA-The National Assembly ** *** DR-RR-Resort District Council

4.2.2 Women representatives in the National Assembly

In the 2005-2010 parliament most elected members were men, namely 38 men versus 13 women (see Table 4.2). In the year 2005, 23 political parties participated in the elections. Five parties participated on their own account and 18 parties joined one of the 5 combinations. The National Democratic Party (NDP) won the most seats (15) as an individual party. A total of 28 seats went to the so-called New Front+ combination, which is composed of Democratic Alternative (DA 91), National Party Suriname (NPS), United Reformed Party (VHP) and the A-Combination (Brotherhood in Unity Party (BEP), Seeka and ABOP), Suriname Labour Party (SPA) and Pertjaja Luhur (PL). Despite the death of a parliamentarian and the expulsion of another member (Dési Bouterse) from parliament, the composition of the parliament during the 2005-2010 reign remained unchanged. The two departing male parliamentarians had male successors.

Figure 4.1 displays the parliamentarians by percentage, gender and political party. The chart shows that of the 11 political parties represented in parliament, six parties have women parliamentarians for the term 2005-2010. The NDP has the most (4) female parliamentarians (26.7%), followed by the NPS with three female representatives (37.5%). The SPA and the VVV apparently have a high percentage of women in Parliament. Respectively 50% to 40%. In absolute figures, one of the two seats of the SPA goes to a woman and two of the VVV‘s five seats are occupied by women.

Table 4.2: Composition of DNA to Political Parties & sex

Name Political Party M V Total National Democratic Party (NDP) 11 4 15 National Party of Suriname (NPS) 5 3 8 United Reformed Party (VHP) 5 1 6 Pertjaja Luhur (PL) 4 2 6 VVV 3 2 5 Brotherhood of Unity Party (BEP) 3 0 3 ABOP 2 0 2 Suriname Labour Party (SPA) 1 1 2 PVF 2 0 2 Democratic Alternative '91 (DA'91) 1 0 1 KTPI 1 0 1 Total DNA-members 38 13 51

Figure 4.1: Percentage of women in the national assembly by Political Party

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% Women 40% Men 30%

nationalassembly 20%

% male and female in theinand female male % 10% 0% BEP VVV PL SPA NDP VHP ABOP NPS DA’91 PVF KTPI

Political party

4.3 Women in Government

Up until 1980, no woman was part of successive governments. Women first made their appearance in the cabinet after the military coup of 1980, when two women were appointed as deputy Ministers in the first cabinet Chin A Chen. This number was reduced to one ministerial post for a woman in the successive Cabinet (1980-1982). Within 3 months after assuming office, she was replaced by a man. It would be no sooner than 1988 before another woman was granted a ministerial post.

Figure 4.2. Composition of the Governments since 1987

20 18 16 14 12 10 Men 8 Women 6 4 2 0

Number Number ofgovernment representatives 1988- 1990- 1991- 1996- 2000- 2005- 1990)* 1991 1996 2000 2005 2010 Governmental term

The number of women in the Surinamese government has always been very low. Nevertheless, since 1988 there is a slight increase in the number of female government representatives. An exception is the government term 1991-1996, when no women were in government. Figure 4.2 shows the composition of governments from 1987 onwards. In the government term 1988-1990 there were 16 men and 1 woman in the government (5.8% women). The three posts as junior ministers in the cabinet were all held by men. The number of women in the 2005-2010 government increased with 3 female ministers to 15.7%. (See Figure 4.2)

4.4 Women in Government Service

4.4.1 Civil Servants

The Suriname government is elected every five years. The government administration is composed of officials, also called public servants, who are not elected. Regardless of the party that is in power, public servants are supposed to cooperate and be loyal to the government.

Figure 4.3 Public Servants by sex in 2003 and in 2009 (November)

40000 211 3382 35000 30000 18522 25000 17623 Unknown 20000 Women Men 15000 10000 Numbercivilofservants 17518 17290 5000 0 2003 2009 Year

In 2003, the number of public servants was 36,251 and in June 2009 that number had risen to 39,862, an increase of 3611 servants. It is not clear how many women and men are public servants. Data from the ABS show that in November 2009, 38,295 public servants received a salary. Of these people, 46 percent were women and of 8.8 percent the sex was unknown. Forty- five percent of the public servants were men (Selected Gender Statistics 2009:47).

4.4.2 District government

Suriname has 10 districts that cover 11 administrative regions, namely Paramaribo North- East and Paramaribo South - West, Nickerie, Coronie, Saramacca, Commewijne, Marowijne, Sipaliwini, Brokopondo, Para and Wanica. At the head of each district is a District Commissioner (DC), who is represented in the regional bodies. The DC, also named mayor, is directly responsible for managing the district. In Table 4.3, the DCs are listed by gender. The listing shows that out of 11 district commissioners three (3) are women; in the administrative areas Paramaribo Southwest, Saramacca and Coronie. In the government period 2000-2005 there was only one female DC. For the governmental period 2005-2010, their number had increased to three.

Table 4.3. Overview of District Commissioners by sex District / administrative area M V Total Paramaribo Northeast 1 0 1 Paramaribo South 0 1 1 Nickerie 1 0 1 Coronie 0 1 1 Saramacca 0 1 1 Commewijne 1 0 1 Marowijne 1 0 1 Sipaliwini 1 0 1 Brokopondo 1 0 1 Para 1 0 1 Wanica 1 0 1 Total 8 3 11

4.4.3 Highest Authorities of State The highest authorities of state are: the Court of Justice, the State Council and the Audit office. Table 4.4 shows the composition of these bodies by sex.

Table 4.4 Composition of the highest Authorities of state

201 2002 0 Organ M F tot M F Tot State council (Staatraad) 16 1 17 12 1 13 Chamber of Accounts (Rekenkamer) 3 2 5 6 21 27 Central main polling station (Centraal Hoofdstembureau) 5 4 9 7 6 13 Independent electoral college (Onafhankelijk Kiesbureau) 0 0 0 8 6 14 Source: 3de Cedaw report & research information

4.4.4 The Court of Justice In the period 2000-2007 the Court of Justice had only one (1) female Judge, as compared to ten (10) men (Figure 4.4). Exceptions were the years 2004 and 2007, when the Court counted 11 men and only one woman. In 2008 more women were appointed as Judge. In that year, the Court counted 10 male and 5 female Judges. In 2009 the number of female Judges doubled. At present, the court counts 10 male and 10 female Judges. It may be observed that in the period 2000-2009, the number of male Judges remained stable at 10, with the exception of 2004 and 2007, when 11 male Judges were part of the Court of Justice. On the basis of the available data we cannot explain this trend.

Figure 4.4 Number of judges by sex, 2000-2009

8 Man 6 Woman

4 Numberpersonsof 2

0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

4.4.4 International representation

To elevate the number of women in diplomatic bodies, the United Nations launched the 50/50 campaign in June 2000. The aim of this campaign was to increase the number of women within the diplomatic framework. Through positive discrimination women were to be appointed to diplomatic posts. In 2001, the President, the Ministers of Domestic - and Foreign Affairs put their signatures to support this campaign. It pledged the Surinamese government to nominate more women to diplomatic posts.

The number of Surinamese women in diplomatic posts has indeed grown. In 2001, Suriname had 16 representatives and 10 embassies abroad. One of these functions was a permanent representative to the OAS, four at consulates and one had a permanent representation at the United Nations. In 2001 the first female ambassador was appointed and 3 women were consuls. In this period, two women were representatives of Suriname to the OAS and the United Nations. Between 1998 and 2002 the number of women diplomats increased from 5 to 15. Because of

38 mutations in this period there were nine male and two female ambassadors in 2002, and three male and one female consul.

Table 4.5: Composition of the International Diplomatic representation Suriname

Country / City Type of Representation Men Women Total

Amsterdam Consulate 2 4 6 The Hague Embassy 3 7 10 Brussels Embassy 2 5 7 New York Permanent Representative 3 3 6 Washington Embassy 3 2 5 Miami Consulate 3 2 5 Cayenne Consulate 2 4 6 Curacao Consulate 0 2 2 Brazil Embassy 3 4 7 Havana Embassy 1 0 1 Beijing Embassy 2 1 3 Caracas Embassy 2 2 4 Trinidad & Tobago Embassy 2 2 4 Guyana Embassy 1 3 4 India Embassy 1 1 2 South Africa Embassy 1 0 1 Indonesia Embassy 1 1 2 Total 32 43 75

* Based on data obtained from Ministry of Foreign Affairs

* *The ambassador in Den Haag, Ms. Joella-Sewnundun, has cancelled her function in beginning of 2010 and has returned to Suriname. She is replaced by embassy Council member Ms. Pardi

Note. This table was created based on the number of people sent out by Suriname. Employees with a contract and locally recruited staff are not included in this table.

Anno 2010, 17 diplomatic services represent Suriname abroad. These are 12 embassies, four consulates and one permanent representation in New York. There are a total of 75 diplomats

39 abroad (see table 4.5), of which 43 (57.3%) are female and 32 (42.7%) men. Seven women are in charge of the diplomatic post, five in embassies and two in consulates. The number of women who occupy the position of ambassador and consul has increased from three to seven in the period 2000-2005.

If we look at the UN measures in the field of participation of women, it shows that Suriname scores above the goal of 50% (50/50 campaign). We have more women in the diplomatic corps then men. Of the 17 foreign diplomatic posts, only 7 women are in the leading position. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is not collecting data of the number of Surinamese people who have a job at international organisations.

Figure 4.5: Overview of the management of external representation by gender

14 Permanent Representative 12 Consul

10 Ambassador 8

No diplomates abroad diplomates No 4

0 Men Women Men Women

2000-2005 2005-2010

4.5 Leadership & Decision Making

The presented tables show that as compared to men, women do not have as many leading/senior positions. Even though more women are appointed in leading positions, their number is still too small to speak of an equal sharing of leadership roles between men and women. As a result, women are not equally involved in decision-making. In Suriname, there is no body that ensures a balance of the sexes in managerial positions.

There are no actions taken by the government to promote women in decision making and managerial positions. According to sources of the Ministry of Internal Affairs more women than

40 men have been employed in recent years (see 4.4). It is not clear whether these women have been appointed leadership positions. Given the trend, in absolute numbers and relative terms, that women are increasingly following advanced education (see chapter 5), one would expect the number of female officials in senior positions to increase. However, due to their reproductive and caring responsibilities it is more difficult for women than for men to accept high positions that include long hours and travel away from home. In the grand majority of families, women continue to carry the responsibility for domestic chores and the daily care for children and needy family members such as elderly parents. If the government is serious in its intention to increase the number of female officials in senior positions, it must facilitate women in the areas of child care and working schedules.

As previously mentioned there are no special government projects or measures taken to promote the entry of women in leadership and decision making processes. Non Governmental Organizations (NGO's) do undertake actions though. In particular the Women Parliament Forum (VPF) consciously works towards the appointment of more women in political and administrative functions. Among their activities has been a campaign with the slogans ―Consciously Choose, Vote for a Woman" and "Women and Men for a better Suriname.

4.6 Constraining factors There are factors that obstruct women and men in striving to leadership and decision-making positions in Suriname. To date, no multi-sectoral research has been conducted to expose the constraining factors for women and men and hence it is difficult to say what these factors are. After all, priorities and motivations to reach leadership and decision-making positions differ for every woman or man, and constraining factors may be different in different sectors.

During the workshop that was held as part of this research project (11 March 2010), participants noted that in the past in Suriname, parents paid more attention to boys. Back then the opinion was that men should be able to obtain a good job to take care of their family. In recent years, due to the worldwide attention paid to gender, girls and women are increasingly stimulated to study. Nevertheless, even though more girls are attending higher education these days and women have surpassed men among university students, few women are obtaining leadership positions. In the workshop, the following explanations were provided for the relatively low number of women in top-positions in the government and the private sector:

 Often women themselves chose for delaying their carrier because of the care for (small) children. Top functions require a lot of travel and long, irregular working hours, which are not easily combined with the care for a (young) family.  The direct environment of women plays a role. Understanding and support from the partner, family, and friends is crucial  Women often do not have sufficient self-confidence.

The sociological Masters study of the ‗glass ceiling‘, which was conducted in 2010, comes to similar conclusions (Schuurman, pers. com. 18 March 2010). Often women themselves do not have the ambition to be in the highest function. For women who do have top-functions, the support of a partner who can, for example, get the children from school, is very important. None of the women in this study felt excluded or constrained because of her sex in her way to the top. The only factor that seemed to benefit men is professional networking, which is traditionally a male domain and crucial for carrier growth.

The carrier women in the mentioned study were of the opinion that women are as able as men to get to the top, as long as the woman is motivated. (ibid.). More research among women in different sectors and functions is needed to explore whether the glass ceiling indeed does not exist in Suriname.

Workshop participants expressed that promoting gender equity in decision-making processes requires that:

 The caring function of mothers changes, by raising young children gender conscious from an early age on, and by involving men and boys from a young age in reproductive tasks.  Women take and demand good opportunities and positions, instead of waiting until these are offered to them.  Women‘s self-confidence grows through support of one another.  Women become conscious that they can do a lot, and learn to appreciate their strengths and power Internationally constraining factors are subdivided in: factors on individual level, institutional level, and other factors (Table 4.6).

Table 4.6 Individual, institutional, and other constraints to achieving leadership and decision-making positions

Individual level Institutional level Other factors

Lack of self-confidence. A Lack of affirmative action Gender-blind policies have a number of participants stated that (temporary special measures). negative impact on promoting women feel limited by Discrimination, lack of gender equality and limit internalized gender stereotypes institutional quotas, policies and opportunities for women to and lack the confidence to see programmes for attracting women take decision-making and themselves as leaders. leaders are systematic leadership positions. impediments in institutions. Costs. The high costs of keeping Rules, codes of conducts, up to date in the modern world Lack of leadership training and organizational cultures of and having access to information mentoring. A lack of specific public institutions, courts and and communication technologies management training, skills the private sector are mostly and networks for leadership training, professional set up by men, with the positions. As a potential leader, a development, decision- making assumption that men will be woman needs to have access to skills and mentorship the main actors and will work services, such as telephone lines, programmes, prevent women with other men. fax, Internet connection, and from being seen as effective transportation. Lack of access is leaders. Gender-based discrimination at an impediment, particularly for many levels prevents women women in developing countries. Sexual harassment. Within the from getting senior positions workplace discrimination and traditionally held by men. In sexual harassment are challenges. addition, women who Sexual harassment is a major experience discrimination barrier to leadership positions. based on race, caste and social class face even greater The role of human resources obstacles. departments in facilitating women’s leadership. Human In countries with large youth resources departments are largely populations women may face failing to promote gender equality discrimination based on age in senior decision-making and appearance. positions.

Sources: (1) Women in Leadership roles, 2007. (Online discussion report); (2) Workshop about gender, education, and women in leadership positions. Paramaribo 11, March 2010

5 Education The surest way to keep a people down is to educate the men and neglect the women. If you educate a man, you simply educate an individual, but if you educate a woman you educate a family.

Dr. J.E. Kwegyir Aggrey, visionary Ghanaian Educator (1875-1927)

There are many reasons to pay special attention to the education of girls. In a recent report about the education of girls in the 21st century, the World Bank poses: ―Educating girls and women is critical to economic development. Research conducted in a variety of countries and regions has established that educating girls in one of the most cost-effective ways of spurring development. Female education … positively correlates with increased economic productivity, more robust Labour markets, higher earnings, and improved societal health and well-being.‖ (Tembon and Fort eds. 2008).

Access to good quality education for girls and boys is a proven means to stimulate gender equality. Whereas in many African and Arabic countries girls are disadvantaged in their access to education, the Caribbean region has, by contrast, a ―boys problem‖. Before we discuss this phenomenon more in depth, we start with a short description of government expenditures on education and data on literacy. Next, presentation of the numbers of male and female students demonstrates that, as the educational level increases, boys slowly yet consistently disappear from the educational system. In section 5.8 we discuss access to educational facilities. We conclude the chapter with a brief discussion of the government policy with regards to gender equality in education.

5.1 Education general The Constitution of the Republic of Suriname states (Art. 39): 1. The state recognizes and guarantees the rights of all citizens to education and offers equal opportunities in education. 2. In executing educational policy, it is the duty of the state to: a. Guarantee obligatory and free general basic education, and b. Guarantee durable education and eliminate illiteracy‖.

5.1.1. Education For All In the Constitution of Suriname, it is explicitly written that all citizens must have equal opportunities in education. That is, by law, women must get equal chances to access education, at all levels and in all subject areas or specialties.

In her approach to education, the Ministry of Health focuses on the Education for All (EFA) goals, which have been approved of during the World Education Forum in Dakar, April 2000. Suriname has signed for the optimal realisation of these goals by the year 2015 (MINOV 2009)5.

The six EFA Goals

1 Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children

2 Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to, and complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality.

3 Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes

4 Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.

5 Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls‘ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.

6 Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.

Source: Dakar Framework for Action. UNESCO website. http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/dakfram_eng.shtml

These goals are comparable to those of the World Fit For Children declaration.

5.1.2. The Suriname Educational System Traditionally, Suriname recognizes four educational levels: Regular Elementary Education (Gewoon Lager Onderwijs-GLO), Secondary Education Junior Level (Voortgezet Onderwijs op Junioren Niveau-VOJ), Secondary Education Senior Level (Voortgezet Onderwijs op Senioren Niveau -VOS; before known as VWMKO), and Tertiary Education (MINOV 2009). The GLO (elementary school) incorporates both pre-school for 4 and 5 year olds (Kleuter A and B) and primary education (school years 1-6). In figure 5.1 the different school types within these four

5 Zie EFA Development Index op de UNESCO website: http://www.unesco.org/en/efareport/resources/statistics/efa- development-index/ 45 levels are displayed schematically. In subsequent sections, notably in section 5.3, we will refer to the educational system shown in this illustration.

Figure 5.1. The Suriname Educational system

4 Pre-school (Kleuter A and B ) Elementary school

5 (Gewoon lager Onderwijs

6 (SO) Primary school (Gewoon Lager Onderwijs) 7 GLO) 8

9 Education 10

Speciaal Speciaal Education Compulsory Compulsory 12 13 MULO LBGO LTS/ LNO ETS ETO EBO VSO Secondary school - junior 14 level (Voortgezet LTO 15 Onderwijs Junioren -VOJ) 16 Secondary school - senior 17 VWO HAVO NATIN/ IMEAO Ped. Ac. Ped. Ac level (Voortgezet 18 AMTO GLO KO 19 HBO (IOL, Onderwijs Senioren-VOS) 20 ADEK COVAB, JTV, Tertiairy Education . AHKCO, PTC, ( Hoger Onderwijs) . LOBO, et al.) . Source: Adapted from Klein, Rosa (2007) en MINOV (2009)

5.1.3. Government expenditures on education A recent study on the public budget for education in Suriname shows that public expenditures on education in the past years were between 13 and 18 percent of the entire government budget6. In 2009, the government spent 291 million SRD (USD 104 million) on education7, which represents 11.5 percent of total government expenditures (Ministry of Finance 2010, data tables 2009; Table 5.1).

It is difficult to distil how much money is spent on the different educational levels because neither budget lines on the Central Budgetary Account (Centrale Begrotings Boekhouding-CBB) of the Ministry of Education (MINOV) nor figures from the Ministry of Finance are specified by educational level. Hence the table of realized government expenditures for 2009 shows that 174 million SRD was spent on salaries (~ USD 62.3 million) in that year, but not what (kind of)

6 Klein, Rosa. 2007. The Education Budget in Suriname 2004-2007. Child Friendly Budget Analysis: A Tool to Measure Results for Children and Enhance Transparency. MA in Public Policy. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University 7 Only considering expenditures by the Directorate Education of the Ministry of Education and Popular Development (MINOV). 46 schools received these salaries (Ministry of Finance, Table government expenditures). Budgetary data show that 75 to 90 percent of the total public budget for education is spent on salaries of teachers and support staff (period 2004-2007). Similarly about 90 percent of the subsidies for Special Education (RK, EBG) goes to salaries.

Table 5.1 Expenditures on education as a percentage of the total government budget SRD 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Expenditures on education * 1 million 202 191 265 345 291 SRD (% of government budget) (17.3%) (13.3%) (14.4%) (15.9%)a (11.5%) a Proposed percentage Source: Klein, R. 2007 and Ministry of Finance, table government expenditures 2009

5.2. Literacy and educational achievement

5.2.1 Literacy

―Literacy is a human right, a tool of personal empowerment and a means for social and human development. Educational opportunities depend on literacy. Literacy is at the heart of basic education for all, and essential for eradicating poverty, reducing child mortality, curbing population growth, achieving gender equality and ensuring sustainable development, peace and democracy. There are good reasons why literacy is at the core of Education for All (EFA).‖ source: UNESCO web site. http://www.unesco.org/en/literacy/literacy- important/ The Education for All goal to reduce illiteracy by half by 2015 is the general UNESCO goal for the Decennium. In comparison with global figures, literacy in Suriname is high and inequalities between women and men are small (UNESCO web site, http://www.unesco.org/en/literacy/). The UNDP Human Development Report 2009 reports that in the period 1999-2007, on average 88.1 percent of women and 92.7 percent of men (15 yr and older)8 were literate. When only youth is concerned (15-24 years), 96% of men and 95% of women are literate (period 2000– 2007) (UNICEF 20099). These figures suggest that the present generation of young women is reducing the gender gap in literacy rates.

Adult literacy rate: females as a % of males, 2000–2007: 95%

While there is little difference between the sexes, there are huge geographic differences in literacy. On a national level, on average 88.1% of the population of 6 years and older is literate

8 UNDP Human Development Report: http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf 9 UNICEF Education Statistics. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/suriname.html 47

(ABS 200510). Literacy is lowest in the vast interior district of Sipaliwini, where only 47.6 percent of the population in the ages six and older can read and write. In Coronie (93.6% literate), Paramaribo (93.1%), and Wanica (91.4%) the grand majority of people can read and write (ABS 2005: 63-64). On a national level, 13,188 men and 19,866 women are illiterate11.

5.2.2 Educational levels Data about the educational levels of men and women show that men are on average slightly higher educated than women, but differences are very small (Table 5.2). More women than men have never been to school (resp. 9.1% vs. 5.5%; 5 yr and older), while more men than women attend or have attended LBO or MBO schools. The shares of men and women who attend or have attended VOS, HBO, or University are about equal.

In table 5.2 it is important to note that the figures indicate the highest grade in formal education attended by the person, until the academic year prior to the population census (2002/3), regardless of whether the person obtained a degree or diploma. This means that the category ‗university‘ not only includes people who completed university but also persons who are still in university or who dropped out before completion of the degree.

The General Bureau for Statistics (ABS) does not collect data on what share of the population has successfully completed a certain educational level. Also, within the university level no further distinctions are made according to subject area. Hence it is not possible to determine what share of women and men has obtained a degree in medicine, in law, or as a civil engineer. Also the total number of years that a person has been in school is not recorded.

5.2.3 Adult education

The government promotes literacy and basic education for those who had limited access to educational opportunities at a younger age. These activities do not specifically target women but are open to any adult. Women do constitute the majority among participants (Figure 5.2; Annex 4).

10 ABS, 2005. Zevende Algemene Volks- en Woningtelling in Suriname. Landelijke resultaten Volume I. Demografische en Sociale karakteristieken. Suriname in Cijfers no. 213-2005/02. 11 Bureau volwassen educatie en alfabetisering, pers. com. 15 januari 2009, data from ABS 2005 48

Table 5.2 Highest attended educational level in the population aged 5 and older, by sex

Highest attended educational Men Women Unknown Total level N % N % N % % No education 12,225 5.5% 20,022 9.1% 1 0.3% 7.3% Preschool 7,415 3.3% 7,142 3.3% 1 0.3% 3.3% Special education 1,520 0.7% 1,084 0.5% 1 0.3% 0.6% GLO (Elementary school) 78,867 35.6% 72,256 33.0% 18 5.5% 34.3 % LBO 7,100 3,2% 3,354 1.5% 4 1.2% 2.4% VOJ (ULO/MULO, MULO, 64,107 28.9% 63,272 29.1% 12 3.7% 29.0 LBGO) % MBO (IMEAO, NATIN, AMTO) 12,837 5.8% 7,671 3.5% 8 2.4% 4.7% Teachers college 1,865 0.8% 11,275 5.1% 0 0% 3.0% VOS (VWO, HAVO) 7,631 3.4% 7,848 3.6% 1 0.3% 3.5% HBO 3,185 1.4% 4,048 1.8% 0 0% 1.6% University 5,145 2.3% 4,615 2.1% 3 0.9% 2.2% Don‘t know 10,056 4.5% 6,720 3.1% 0 0% 3.8% No answer 9,660 4.4% 9,298 4.2% 279 85.1 4.4% % Total 221,61 100% 219,05 100% 328 100 100% 3 1 % Source: ABS, 2005. Zevende Algemene Volks- en Woningtelling in Suriname. Landelijke resultaten Volume II.

The educational structure of adult education includes different levels:  Literacy (learn how to read and write)  Preparatory Elementary School for Adults (Voorbereidend Elementair Onderwijs Voor Volwassenen-VEOV] (1st + 2th grade)

 Elementary School for Adults (Elementair Onderwijs Voor Volwassenen -EOV): EOV 3 (3rd grade), EOV 2 (4th grade), EOV 1 (5th grade)  Secondary Education for Adults (Secundair Onderwijs Voor Volwassenen-SOV; 6th grade) Each phase takes a year, after which each successful participant receives a certificate.

Figure 5.2. Men and women following adult education, academic year 2008-2009

Afternoon school (Rankin) Women Afternoon elementary school II (Martin Plet) Men

Afternoon elementary schoolschool (Latour)

Bigi Suma Skoro (Para)

Bigi sma skoro Frigiterestraat

Evening bigisma skoro/polanen

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 Number of students

* Complete numbers of students per class with the average ages are presented in Annex V Source: MINOV unpublished data

The different adult education projects of MINOV are: Project Polanenschool; Project Albina; Project Nickerie; Project Brokopondo; Project Ellen; Project Tamanredjo; and Project Santodorp. The ages of the pupils vary between 18 and 71 years (registration year 2009- 2010), and women dominate on all projects. For example, the project Albina counts in the alpha phase 2009-2010 one man and 18 women.

In the year 2008 at least six adult education institutes were active: Bigisma skoro, Afternoon Elementary School (MBS en MBS- Martin Plet), Evening GLO (AMEC), Stg. Bigisma Skoro, R.P Bigi Suma Skoro (Figure 5.2).

5.3. Early Child Development

World Fit for Children goal 39(a): Expand and improve comprehensive early childhood care and education, for boys and girls, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children. Source: A World Fit For Children resolution. URL: http://www.childinfo.org/files/worldfit_resolution.pdf

Following pre-school in a stimulating educational environment that offers equal opportunities is important to prepare children for school, and one of the ―World Fit for Children‖ (WFFC) goals12. In Suriname, the majority of children do attend some form of pre-school prior to entering

12UNICEF 2008. Child info. Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women.. http://www.childinfo.org/world_fit.html (website visited 24-11-2009) 50 primary school at the age of 5 or 6. The MICS 2006 reports that 90.1 percent of girls and 86.4 percent of boys in grade 1e (group 3) of elementary school has attended some form of regular education (ABS et al. 2009). In 2006, in surveyed households (N=5,746) throughout Suriname more than half of pre-schoolers (48-59 months; 58.3%) and 17.8% of toddlers (36-47 months) attended school. The difference between the share of boys (37%) and girls (39.7%) in de ages 3 to 5 years (36-59 months) attending pre-school is virtually nil (ABS et al. 200913: 128).

In Suriname, the regular educational program (see figure 5.1) starts with pre-school, at the age of three or four. At that age children are not yet obliged to attend school and especially in the interior, this entry to basic education is often not available. The Ministry of Education (MINOV) registered for the educational year 2007-2008 17,467 pre-schoolers (Kleuter A: 8440, Kleuter B: 9027) (Table 5.2). These data are not available by gender, but given de MICS 2006 data we do not expect large differences between the numbers of boys and girls who are attending pre-school. MINOV does not register toddlers who are attending a nursery or play-group (peuterschool)

Age Specific Enrolment Ratio (ASER)= Percentage of the population of a specified age enrolled, irrespective of the level of education (UNESCO 2009, http://www.uis.unesco.org/i_pages/indspec/tecspe_aser.htm)

An important indicator for participation in education is the ASER (see above). For the academic year 2006-7, the ASER for preschool (Kleuter Onderwijs) was 86 percent of the four-year old boys and girls (that is, exact equal participation), and respectively 89 percent and 87 percent of five years old boys and girls (Table 5.3). These figures suggest that in Suriname, just over one tenth of 4- and 5-year olds is not attending pre-school.

Differences between the different regions are large (Figure 5.3). In urban areas, half of the children in the mentioned age group attend pre-school (49.4%) in a certain year and in the capital city of Paramaribo even 53.1 percent. In the coastal rural areas 29.5 percent of three to five years olds attend school, and in the interior only 7.3 percent. The low number of pre-school pupils in the huge district of Sipaliwini registered with MINOV, also suggests that children of pre-school age in this district are disadvantaged in their access to education (Table 5.3).

The mother‘s educational level significantly affects whether or not a child attends pre-school (figure 5.3). A child from a higher educated mother is more than six times (6.3) more likely to attend pre-school than a child from a mother who has not been to school. We have to comment that the effect of the mother‘s education cannot be isolated from the fact that higher educated women are relatively more likely to live in the urban areas. Many women from Sipaliwini

13 General Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation and Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing, 2009. Suriname Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2006. Final Report. Paramaribo, Suriname 51 district, who on average have enjoyed few years of education, cannot send their child to preschool because there is none in their community.

Figure 5.3 Differences in the percentages of toddlers and pre-schoolers who are attending pre-school by district and educational level of the mother.

Paramaribo Nickerie, Coronie, and Saramacca Wanica and Para

District Commewijne and Marowijne Brokopondo and Sipaliwini

Tertiary education Secundary school Elementary school

No school

Mother's Mother's education

0 20 40 60 80 % children in the ages 36-59 months who attended pre-school (2006)

Source: ABS et al. 2009 (MICS 2006)

Tabel 5.3. Number of pre-school pupils by district Year KLA KLB Total District Brokopondo 299 386 685 Commewijne 492 530 1022 Coronie 40 69 109 Marowijne 330 404 734 Nickerie 545 435 980 Para 495 479 974 Paramaribo 3725 3990 7715 Saramacca 247 304 551 Sipaliwini 451 509 960 Wanica 1816 1921 3737 Total 8440 9027 17467 Source: MINOV 2009: 19

5.4. Girls and Boys in Primary School ―World Fit for Children” goal 5: Educate Every Child. All boys and girls must have access to and complete primary education that is free, compulsory, and of good quality as a cornerstone of an inclusive basic education. Gender disparities in primary and secondary education must be eliminated. Source: A World Fit for Children resolution. URL: http://www.childinfo.org/files/worldfit_resolution.pdf

NIR (Net Intake Rate) = the number of newly registered pupils in the first year of primary school with the official age for the first school year (=6 years), expressed as a percentage of the population of that age.

Suriname has compulsory education from age 7 to age 12, but children are going to elementary school from the age of six. An important indicator for access to elementary school is the NIR or Net Intake Rate. In the academic year 2007-2008, the NIR for men was 96 percent, and for women 95 percent (MINOV 2009; Table 5.5). In other words, 5 percent of 6-year old girls were not enrolled in grade one in that year. A number of these girls are probably girls who turned 7 before the end of December 2007, and hence were enrolled in grade 2. In addition, a small number of 6-year olds were not at all enrolled in school. Countries such as Suriname, which have committed themselves to the EFA goals (see above) aim for a NIR of 100%. Like with all educational indicators the NIR for the interior, especially in the district of Sipaliwini, is far below the urban figure. The MICS 2006 reports that at the time of the survey (2002), one out of every three 6-year olds was not going to school.

Furthermore, the MICS 2006 finds a positive correlation between education of the mother and the chance that a 6-year old child is attending elementary school. It is, however, difficult to draw a direct causal link because different intervening variables affect this relation. As compared to women from Paramaribo, women in the district of Sipaliwini have relatively more often little or no education, but also other factors in this district cause delays in school attendance. Sipaliwini residents are, for example, on average less wealthy than people from the urban zones (which may lower their ability to pay the school fee and school materials) and some live so far from an elementary school that the children cannot live at home while attending school (e.g. Wanaka, Alalapadu).

In the academic year 2007-2008, a total of 69,604 children attended primary education (Annex 2). Forty-eight percent (33,587) of them were girls.

Table 5.4. Age Specific Enrolment Ratio 2006-2007 and 2007-2008

ASER Pre-school (Kleuter Onderwijs) 2006-2007 2007-2008 Age Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 4 86 % 86 % 86 % 86 % 86 % 86 % 5 89 % 87 % 88 % 88 % 90 % 89 % ASER Elementary school (Gewoon Lager Onderwijs) 6 100 % 99 % 99 % 97 % 96 % 96 % 7 102* % 102 % 102 % 92 % 94 % 93% 8 101 % 100 % 101 % 93 % 93 % 93 % 9 92 % 93 % 93 % 93 % 92 % 93 % 10 96 % 99 % 97 % 88 % 90 % 89 % 11 92 % 93 % 93 % 86 % 90 % 88 % 12 62 % 57 % 59 % 68 % 62 % 65 % 13 46 % 38 % 42 % 51 % 42 % 47 % 14 29 % 20 % 24 % 27 % 18 % 23 % 15 12 % 9 % 10 % 13 % 9 % 11 % 16 5 % 3 % 4 % 4 % 3 % 4 % *Percentages over 100% may be caused by a wrong entry of the birth date or because children who are not registered with CBB are attending school.

―GER (Gross Enrolment Rate)= Total enrolment in a specific level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the official school- age population corresponding to the same level of education in give school- year.‖(UNESCO Institute for Statistics 200914) A high GER (above 100%) suggests a high level of participation in the educational system, regardless of whether pupils are of the official school-age for that type of education (6-11 for primary school)

The abovementioned findings are in line with the Gross Enrolment Rate (GER). In the academic year 2007-2008, the primary school GER was 117 for men and 115 for women. These figures indicate that a high share of elementary school children are older than 11 years of age and have doubled one or more classes.

Suriname offers special education to youth who temporarily or permanently need specific support. These cases include students with a mental or physical disability, with serious behavioural or emotional problems, or with learning disabilities. Elementary school children

14 UNESCO Institute for Statistics. URL: http://www.uis.unesco.org/i_pages/indspec/tecspe_ger.htm 54 with specific needs can attend Special Education for primary school (SO). In the academic year 2007-2008, 818 school children attended special education; mostly boys (N=591, 72%).

Table 5.5. Educational indicators primary school* Indicator Girls Boys Source Net intake Rate (NIR) GLO 95% 96% MINOV 2009 Age Specific Enrolment Ratio (ASER) pre-school 5-year 90% 88% MINOV olds (―hoge freubel‖) 2009 ASER 1st grade GLO 96% 97% MINOV Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) GLO 115 117 MINOV 2009 Net Enrolment Rate (NER) 93 91 MINOV Gross Survival Rate (ultimately reaching grade 5) 96.6 91.1 MICS 2006 Gender Parity Index (GPI) primary school 1.02*** MINOV 2009 Gender Parity Index Secondary Education 1.2*** MICS 2006 Net primary school completion rate 53% 39.1% MICS *Data from MINOV (2009) for academic year 2007-8, unless stated differently **MICS 2006: 134 *** Girls to boys ratio

The overrepresentation of boys in special education is not unique to Suriname but can also be observed in other countries. Explanations for this phenomenon are diverse. Some educational experts blame sex-specific norms that are passed on during early child socialization, which teach boys to be independent and self-reliant. Others point at the feminization of the educational system; most teachers are women and therefore ‗typical‘ boys behaviour is more rapidly characterized as deviant. We will get back to possible explanations for the poor adaptation of boys to the regular educational system in section 5.5.

―Primary school NER (Net Enrolment Rate) = Enrolment of the official age- group for a given level of education (6-11 years) expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population‖ (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 200915)

An important indicator for Suriname‘s progress towards the EFA goals and the MDGs is the Net Enrolment Rate (NER). Suriname‘s primary school NER for the academic year 2007-8 was 91 for boys and 93 for girls (Table 5.6), which means that an estimated nine percent of boys and seven percent of girls in the ages 6-11 years did not attend primary school. It is possible that a

15 http://www.uis.unesco.org/i_pages/indspec/tecspe_ner.htm 55

small share of these children was already attending VOJ education. For the largest share, however, this group consist of children from the interior who live in villages where there is no (optimally functioning) school nearby. The rate for 2007-8 worsened as compared to the previous year. The NER for academic year 2006-7 was 95 for men and women (MDG report 2010).

Table 5.6. Educational indicators 2000-2008 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Net Intake Rate GLO (%) 94 94 94 92 93 91 93 95 92 NIR GLO; Men (%) 95 95 95 91 92 91 92 95 91 NIR GLO; Women (%) 93 93 93 93 92 90 92 95 93 Share of pupils who start in 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 45 46 grade 1, who reach grade 6 of elementary school Literacy 15-44 yr, men and 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 women Gender parity GLO; number of 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 girls relative to number of boys Gender parity VOJ; number of 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 girls relative to number of boys Gender parity tertiary level 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 education; number of girls relative to number of boys Number of literate women 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 relative to literate men, 15-24 yr* * The percentage of literate men is slightly higher than the percentage of literate women. Source: MDG rapport 2010

Based on the NER for 2007-2008 reported by MINOV, Suriname‘s Gender Parity Index (GPI) for primary education can be determined at 1.02. The MICS 2006 finds a similar GPI for GLO education (1.0) at a national level, but a slightly lower value (0.9) for interior districts. The relatively lower primary school attendance of Maroon and Indigenous girls as compared to boys from the interior may be related to the young age at which these girls often get married and have children. Millennium Development Goal 3. Promote gender equality and empower women Target 3.A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015 Indicator Name: Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education Source: Millennium Development Goals Indicators, home page. URL: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Metadata.aspx?IndicatorId=9

Gender Parity Index (GPI)=ratio girls to boys in education, considering the correct school age. A GPI of 1 means that girls and boys equally attend education. A GPI of more than 1 means that in comparison with boys of the same age, relatively larger numbers of girls attend school (Figure 5.6).

Graduation Rate=Percent of students who graduated Survival Rate = Percentage of students who reach the final (6th) year of elementary school within the indicated time period.

5.5 Repeating and drop-out Less than half of the GLO students who start in grade one in a certain year succeed in reaching grade six without repeating at least one class. More precisely; the (Net) Survival Rate for primary school (GLO) is 46 percent (academic year 2007-8; MINOV 2009). The MICS 2006 report provides similar figures. This report mentions that only 39.1 percent of boys and 53 percent of girls‘ complete elementary school at or before reaching age twelve. The number of schoolchildren from the interior (Sipaliwini and Brokopondo districts) who succeed in doing so is no more than 6.5 percent. In line with this finding, the mentioned districts have the highest numbers of repeaters at GLO level (27% in Sipaliwini; 25% in Brokopondo) (MINOV 2009; figures for 2007-8).

Also in the districts of Commewijne (14% repeaters), Paramaribo (15%), en Nickerie (15%), which have the lowest rates of repeaters, the number of pupils who stay down a class is unacceptably high. MINOV reports that in all classes and across levels, more boys than girls are repeaters, but does not present concrete figures to support this assessment.

At a national level the Graduation Rate16 for primary school is 78 percent. About 70 percent of exam candidates (6the graders) go on to VOJ (academic year 2007-8). In the academic year 2007- 8, the districts of Brokopondo, Sipaliwini, and Coronie had the lowest graduation rates. Consistent with other educational indicators, children from higher educated mothers and children from relatively wealthier families are doing better at school (MICS 2006).

Drop-out is a serious problem in the Suriname educational system, but MINOV does not have figures about the numbers of boys and girls who leave the educational system prior to obtaining a (advanced) diploma or degree. The national drop-out percentage for the 6th grade of elementary

16 Geslaagd wil zeggen dat een leerling in aanmerking komt voor een getuigschrift 57 school is estimated at 13 percent (MINOV Jaarboek Onderwijsindicatoren 2009). Drop-out rates are highest in the interior districts of Sipaliwini and Brokopondo (especially in grades 1 and 6).

UNICEF estimates the Gross Survival Rate, or the share of school children who ultimately reach grade six, regardless of their age, for the period 2000-2007 at 80 percent (http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/suriname.html). The MICS presents a much higher Gross Survival Rate, which is measured as the share of children who start in grade one, who ultimately reach grade five: 91.1 percent of boys and 96.6 percent of girls. This difference may partly be due to the fact that the MICS looks at children who each grade five, while UNICEF focuses on reaching the sixth and final grade of primary school.

In 2009 only slightly over half of elementary school children from Sipaliwini district who had made the 6th grade exam were referred to MULO (26.0%), LBGO (28.2%), or LTO (0.6%) (MINOV 2009, unpublished data academic year 2008-9). The remaining pupils from that year had to repeat grade 6 (12.2%) or were given ―school advice‖ (33%), meaning that they were referred to secondary education not on basis of the exam results but because of their age. The share of school children who get ―school advice‖ is somewhat less extreme but remains above 10 in the interior districts of Brokopondo (12.8) and Marowijne (10.4%). In comparison, the number of school children who got ―school advice‖ in most other districts remained below 5 percent (MINOV 2009, unpublished data academic year 2008-9).

Figure 5.4. % girls in the total student population in the different grades of elementary school, for the academic years 2006-7 en 2008-9 0.56 0.54 2007-2008 0.52 2006-2007 0.5 0.48

% girls % 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.4 1 2 3 4 5 6 Primary school year

In the first three years of primary school, girls constitute only 46 to 47 percent of school children, yet in the 4th and 5th year more than 48 percent of pupils is female (Annex 1; Figure 5.3). In the 6th and final school year girls even dominate the student population (54.2%). This

58 trend is consistent in time and for almost all districts17. The ASER for primary school (GLO; Table 5.3) confirms the relatively larger drop out of boys at elementary level. As compared to boys, girls have a higher chance to finish school within six years, and boys of VOJ age (12-16) are relatively more often still in primary school (Table 5.3).

All educational indicators show that at elementary school, girls are doing better than boys (Table 5.4). In the subsequent section we see that this trend continues at secondary and tertiary levels. In the following pages we will discuss the ‗boys problem‘ more in depth.

5.6 The Boys Problem

5.6.1. Secondary Education Junior level (VOJ) Suriname has a total of 109 VOJ schools, of which the majority (58.7%) is in Paramaribo. The largest share of these schools is MULO (59) and LBGO (39). In addition, there are several ETS/ETO schools (2), LTS (7), and industrial (‗Nijverheids‘) schools (2). Other than one LTS in Nickerie, these latter schools are all situated in Paramaribo. Except for Coronie and Sipaliwini, all districts have a MULO. Brokopondo is the only district without LBGO.

Table 5.7. Number of VOJ students by sex, academic year 2008-2009 School type M V Unknown % girls Total Middle school (MULO) 7888 12237 15 60.8% 20140 Lower level vocational education (LBGO) 3892 4411 1 53.1% 8304 Technical Education 3483 313 653 8.2% 4449 Industrial education (nijverheid) 266 46 - 14.7% 312 Continued special education (VSO)* 97 90 - 48.1% 187 Total continued education at junior 669 52.2% 32723 level (VOJ) students 15626 17097 *Data for 2007-2008 Source: MINOV 2009, and MINOV unpublished data January 2010

In the academic year 2008-9, a total of 32,723 students followed secondary education at a junior level (VOJ; Table 5.6). Just over half of these students was a woman ( 52.2 %; MINOV 2009). With 20,140 students, the MULO18 was the largest VOJ school (2008-9). The MINOV does not

17 Jaarboek onderwijsindicatoren 2006-2007, MINOV Onderzoek en Planning 2008, tabel p. 12 18 The MULO offers a 4-year programme and is after the second year split in an A- and a B-stream. In addition to general education and personal development, the A-stream focuses on commerce-related subjects (e.g. accounting) and the B-stream on mathematics and physics. (Website TaalUniversum. http://taalunieversum.org/onderwijs/termen/term/574/) 59 register how many students follow the MULO A or MULO B stream19. In the academic year 2007/2008, 68 percent (N=789) of graduates for MULO A and 57.2 percent of graduates for MULO B (N=720) was a woman (ABS 2009)

Secondary level students who require special education can attend Continued Special Education (Voortgezet Speciaal Onderwijs) or Continued Particular Education (Voortgezet Buitengewoon Onderwijs) (VSO/VBO). Just like at primary school level, also at secondary level more boys than girls follow special education, but the difference is small.

The Gender Parity Index for VOJ level is 1.2 (MICS 2006). The discrepancy between girls and boys in secondary education is particularly large in the interior (1.9) and in poor households (1.4). This trend is possibly related to the fact that boys from the interior and marginalized urban neighbourhoods are often older when they finish elementary school and next reach an age at which earning some money for the household or personal expenditures seems more important.

5.6.2. Continued Education at a Senior Level (VOS) In 2008-2009, a total of 12,546 students took part in Secondary Education at Senior Level (Voortgezet Onderwijs op Senioren niveau-VOS; previously named Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk en Middelbaar Kweekschool Onderwijs -VWMKO). Sixty-four percent of them were women (ABS 2009; Figure 5.5).

Only at the three technical schools –the Evening Secondary Technical School (AMTO, Nickerie en Paramaribo) and Nature Technical Institute (Natuur Technisch Instituut-NATIN, Paramaribo) – men dominate the student body (81.5%). On all other VOS level schools women constitute a majority. Gender inequality is most extreme at the pedagogical institutes, where 95 percent of the student population is female. This unequal gender divide is reflected in the population of teachers, especially at the GLO and VOJ levels.

The relative number of men as compared to the number of women at school reduces further as educational level progresses to tertiary level. This type of education traditionally encompasses the Anton De Kom University of Suriname (ADEKUS), the Institute for the Education of Teachers (Instituut voor de Opleiding van Leraren-IOL), the Polytechnical College (PTC), Teachers College for Vocational Education (Lerarenopleiding voor Beroepsonderwijs -LOBO), and the Academy for Higher Arts and Culture Education (Akademie voor Hoger Kunst en Cultuur Onderwijs(AHKCO) (Figure 5.6). In addition, in recent years a number of internationally focused schools have started in Suriname, including the FHR Institute for Social Sciences, the Institute for Graduate Studies and Research (IGSR), College (Hogeschool) Inholland, and Boshuizen Trainingen and Consultancy. Only at the smaller technically oriented

19 MINOV Onderzoek en Planning, pers. com., 1 February 2010 60 schools such as L.O.B.O.20 (80.2% men) and the Polytechnical College (76.4% men) men constitute a majority.

Figure 5.5. Number of VOS students by sex, academic year 2008-9 *

4000 Women 3500 2372 Men 3000

2500

2000 1586 2040 646 1214 1500 Numberstudentsof 1649 1405 1000

500 779 695

0 160 HAVO IMEAO (MBO) VWO Teachers NATIN (MBO) College Type of secondary education at senior level (VOS)

* The full data table with further specification to school type is presented in ANNEX 2 Source: ABS 2009: 141

At university level only one third (34.4%) of students is male (faculties and transfer year). That is, twice as many women as men are studying at Suriname‘s one and only university (Table 5.7; Annex 3). Numbers of men and women in the different faculties are listed in Annex 3. The discrepancy between the sexes is highest in the different studies at the faculty of social sciences, particularly at the departments of Didactics (88.0% women) and Sociology (81.9% women). Within this faculty, men are slightly better represented in the directions of economics (71% women) and law (65.9% women).

20 LOBO offers a three-year evening programme, which educates students to be a teacher of agriculture, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, mathematics, and physics 61

Figure 5.6. Number of students in tertiary education, by sex, 2008-2009 4000 2514 3500 Vrouwen 3000 Mannen 2500

2000

1500 1427 1379

1000 Aantalstudenten 136 500 272 137 440 19 71 0 326 77 59 119 39 ADEK IOL PTC LOBO AHKCO FHR IGSR University Institute Type tertiair onderwijs

Source: ABS 2009:142 and the different schools. Data for the FHR Institute and IGSR regard academic year 2009- 2010.

Table 5.8. University Students 2009 – 2010 (Per 06 November 2009) Faculty M F TOTAL % Women Medical Sciences 147 188 335 56.1 Technological Sciences 455 430 885 48.6 Social Sciences 722 1930 2652 72.8 Total Faculties 1324 2548 3872 65.8 Bridge year 212 381 593 64.2 Total Faculties and Bridge year 1536 2929 4465 65.6 Source: ADEK Bureau Student affairs, 16.11.09

The Faculty of Technological Sciences (FTW) is the only faculty where men constitute a slight majority of the student body (51.4% men). Also at this faculty, more women than men are registered at four out of six departments (Agrarian production, Minerals production, Environmental sciences, and Infrastructure). Particularly in Environmental sciences, women form a large majority (84.7 %). With 83.5 percent men, mechanical engineering is an exception at ADEKUS. The Faculty of Medical Sciences has two departments: Medicine and Physiotherapy. At Medicine the numbers of men and women are almost equal (51.9% women), but the department of Physiotherapy is being dominated by women (81.3% women)

The Gender Parity Indices for the different educational levels demonstrate the drop out of boys and men with progression of the educational level (Figure 5.7). This trend is visible in the entire Caribbean region: boys are overrepresented among the drop-outs, repeaters, and pupils with learning disabilities. Educational experts from the Ministry of Education name different possible reasons for the relatively low presence of boys in the higher educational levels, including:  Boys more often enter the criminal circuit,  Boys more often use drugs,  From a young age, boys are allowed more freedom. They are more prone to start working and make some money. Parents just let them be if these boys choose not to continue school.  Girls are being kept tighter at home, and experience heavy parental pressure to graduate. They are pushed more strongly to reach a good position in society and are drilled to continue education.  Girls communicate with one another more often in Dutch and read more; boys are more likely to use the more macho Sranantongo to speak to one another.

Figure 5.6. Gender parity (ratio girls to boys) in education.

2.5 ratio females : males 2

1.5

0.5

Source: ABS 2009. * Data for 2007-2008, MINOV yearbook educational indicators (2009) **data van 2009-2010, ADEKUS student data base November 2009

Without thorough research, however, it is impossible to ascertain why boys are leaving the educational system prematurely. Such research should take place on four levels: (a) school, (b) family/household, (c) employers, and (d) the peer group (Hanoeman, educational expert MINOV, pers. com. December 2009). Studies from the US, where the same phenomenon is a matter of concern, suggest that boys learn better through hands-on learning and practical exercises. As the educational level increases, however, learning becomes more theoretical and academic, and less practical and playful (Cassell 2007). Pilot projects aimed at hands-on learning might enhance understanding of whether boys would do better in school with a different teaching approach.

For girls, teenage pregnancy is an important reason for drop-out. The Ministry of Health estimates the teenage pregnancy rate at 60/1000 in the age group 15-19 years (MDG rapport 2010; indicator 5.4). Teen pregnancy can dramatically affect the emotional, social, and personal development of a young woman. Especially when the pregnancy occurs outside of a formal (marital) relationship, the teenager may be punished or ostracized by her family. If the girl, out of fear for repercussions, decides to have an abortion, this may lead to health problems and emotional damage. For pregnant pupils or students pregnancy may mean that she loses a year in school or drops out all together. Drop outs have decreased chances to obtain a well-paid job. Hence they are more likely to become financially dependent on third persons, thus increasing their vulnerability to abuse within a relationship. Teenage boys who impregnated a girl or woman do not run the same risk and typically are spared altogether from any negative consequences.

Chapter 13 about ―Health‖ provides more information about teenage pregnancies. The mentioned chapter discusses, among others, the various government programs and NGO activities aimed at reducing teenage pregnancies.

5.7 Education on the interior Access to child friendly education in the interior is severely limited by:

 A shortage of schools; Many villages do not have a school and not all villages are within a one hour reach of a school.

 A lack of teachers willing to work in the interior; the absence of adequate housing for teachers and the rudimentary living conditions (no electricity, no drinking water) are, among others, debit to this problem.

 Teaching materials and lesson programs are seldom adapted to the daily lives and surroundings of Indigenous and Maroon children.

 Language barrier between children who only speak their tribal language and teachers who come from outside.

 The on average low educational level of parents in the interior.

During the interior war (1986-1992) much infrastructure in East Suriname was destroyed, including schools. Nowadays, almost twenty years later, several former teaching facilities remain in a dilapidated state and teachers have not returned to all locations, so that school-aged children in several locations have no access to education. Improvement of the quality of education in the interior and adaptation of the curricular activities to the lives of local children are indispensible to the development of Suriname and to reaching the Millennium Development Goals and the Education For All goals.

5.8. Study facilities

5.8.1. Pupil Teacher ratio

PTR (Pupil Teacher Ratio) = Average number of pupils (students) per teacher at a specific level of education in a given school year (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2009: 41)

The average number of school children per teacher for primary and pre-school in the different districts is presented in figure 5.8 (academic year 2007-2008). Both at a national level and per district the mean PTR (23) remains far below the legally allowed norm of 40 pupils per teacher. In some schools in Paramaribo and Wanica, however, classes with more than 40 school children do occur. The graph shows that the average number of school children per teacher is highest in these districts. The MINOV (2009) has found that as compared to school children in small classes, school children in large classes have a relatively larger chance to repeat a year.

In the academic year 2007-2008, primary schools incorporated a total of 4801 teachers, among whom 4479 (93.7%) women. Since 1991, the number of teachers at primary school level has been increasing. In 2007-8, it even increased by 31.8 percent in comparison with the previous academic year 2006-2007. The increase in the number of teachers is higher than the increase in the number of school children, meaning that the average number of pupils per teachers is slowly decreasing.

Figure 5.8 Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) in pre-school and primary school, per district, academic year 2007-2008 30 Primary school 25 Pre-school 20

Source: MINOV 2009. *ABS data for academic year 2008-2009 (VSO=Voortgezet Speciaal onderwijs)

In the academic year 2007-8 a Total of 2,273 VOJ teachers were active. Three-quarters of them (73.4%) are women (N=1668). At the ADEKUS, the ratio women-men among fulltime academics (teachers/professors) and researchers is exactly 1:1 (78 women & 78 Men) (Personeelszaken ADEKUS, pers. com. 1 October 2009). At scientific institutes, 38.4 percent of scientists and researchers is a woman (Table 5.9)

Table 5.9 Scientific and/or research personnel, by institute and sex 2008/9

2008- 2009

Institute Men (%) Women (%) Total

Institute for Graduate Studies & Research (IGSR) 6 1 7

Institute voor Social Sciences (IMWO) 1 3 4

National Zoological Centre Suriname (NZCS) 1 1 2

Centre for Agricultural Research in Suriname 3 4 7 (CELOS)

Total 8 5 13

Source: ABS Geselecteerde Genderstatistieken

The figures show that relatively more men become teachers as the educational level increases. This information is not translated into gender oriented policy measures or used for capacity building.

5.8.2. Gender in het curriculum

In the past years the text books for different subjects (e.g. history, nature education, and geography) have been reworked to become more gender neutral. It is no longer the case that girls are being portrayed with dolls and boys with cars. Also, the books no longer merely address persons as ‗he‘. The graphic designers are making a conscious effort to ensure that stereotypes that exist in society – not only with regard to gender but also in relation to ethnicity- are not being reinforced by the curriculum. Images now portray men and women from any ethnic group in any profession or activity.

The vision of MINOV is that all subject areas, also quantitative subjects and ICT, must be equally accessible to any student. This idea prominently featured during the revision of the curriculum. Girls and women have the same access to modern technology as men.

In the context of the Basic Education Improvement Project (BEIP) and the related introduction of 11-year primary education and renewal of the curriculum, MINOV is currently busy developing the ‗play-work‘-plan for the first two years. During this phase, equal developmental chances in any subject area (e.g. math, language, and nature education) for girls and boys will be emphasized. The child‘s personal capacities and interests will be central to learning, regardless of sex. Books that will be used within this play-work plan contain many pictures and particular concern is given to ensuring that there is no discrimination because of gender or ethnic background. Hence, the fact that more boys than girls choose for technical education is not a result of government policy or the Suriname Legal framework concerning education. These differences are being kept in place by traditional role patterns that are emphasized by parents and society at large.

As integral part of the BEIP, teachers at all preschools and elementary schools will be trained in gender sensitivity. In the first phase all directors and sub-directors at the GLO and VOJ schools, as well as all heads of preschools, have been trained. They will transfer the information to their staff. This matter concerns all schools operating under the auspices of MINOV; private schools take their own measures.

With the introduction of the Basic Life Skills (BLS) program (see box 5.1) the curriculum will pay more attention to differences and relations between men and women. During the pilot phase of this project, running from 2007 to 2010, BLS training was provided to twenty schools nationwide. The participating schools were 11 elementary schools (grades 5-6) and nine middle

67 schools (VOJ level; MULO, LTS, LBGO; grades 1-2) in the districts Paramaribo, Para, Commewijne, Saramacca, Marowijne (Moengo), and Nickerie.

Box 5.1 The Basic Life Skills (BLS) Program

The origin of the current Basic life Skills (BLS) program is in the ‘90s, when participants at a CARICOM meeting concluded that youngsters in the Caribbean region are confronted with many problems in the areas of human and capital development. It was concluded that a holistic approach would be needed to tackle the problem (cognition- body-mind), and that this could be best achieved through the schools.

The Health and Family Life Education project started in the entire Caribbean region with the aim to teach youngsters basic skills to confront life challenges. In Suriname the program works under the name: Basic Life Skills. Based on a needs assessment it was decided that the program should focus on four themes:

1. Proper nutrition and physical exercise

2. Self-consciousness and personal relations

3. Sexuality and sexual behaviour

4. Responsible environmental management and protection

The program trains youngsters in various basic skills within these themes such as effective communication, assertively, dealing with stress, creative thinking, problem solving, critical thinking, and dealing with emotions. Acquiring these skills occurs in different, sequenced steps. The lessons are developed for grade 5 and 6 of elementary school and the first two grades of middle school. They focus on the daily lives of youngsters and offer space to the pupils to express their own ideas, opinions, and feelings about the different subject matters.

Gender differences and relations are an integral part of the BLS lessons. For example, several discussions and activities focus on ―I like to be a boy/girl‖, ―Why and how would you postpone a sexual relationship‖ and ―Beginning and maintaining (love)relations‖. Teachers‘ instructions explicitly state that boys and girls must exchange the different roles in debates and role plays. The program designers also have ensured that the language used is gender neutral.

In Marowijne and Nickerie districts, special BLS project units were established. In addition to monitoring the program and adjusting the lessons where needed, these units also conduct research on the particular problems among youngsters from the mentioned districts. The remaining districts do not have their own BLS units but are being evaluated from the central unit in Paramaribo.

The teaching package consists of 25 lessons per year. At this moment evaluation of the pilot phase has been completed and books for elementary school can be printed. The BLS program will ideally be introduced at all schools in 2010.

5.8.3. Study allowances

Through the Bureau Educational Information and Study Facilities (Bureau Onderwijsinformatie en Studiefaciliteiten-BOS), the Ministry of Education grants study allowances to Suriname students who study either in Suriname or abroad. These allowances are being granted at the senior secondary and tertiary educational levels.

In the academic year 2008-2009 a Total of 206 men and 444 women received a MINOV allowance for study at senior secondary level (VOS) in Suriname. With the exception of NATIN, women constitute a majority among MINOV grantees at all VOS schools (Figure 5.8). In 2009, these allowances consisted of 47 SRD (USD 16.79)/month. National VOS study allowances are gifts and do not need to be paid back. In the academic year 2008/9, study allowances at tertiary level, including the University, were 70 SRD (USD 25)/month. Forty percent of this amount must, in theory, be paid back. The remaining 60 percent must be compensated with Labour, meaning that upon completion of the degree, the person is obliged to work for some years in Suriname.

The total number of allowances that are being granted in a year depends on the budget destined by the Minister. In awarding allowances, the Ministry is concerned with equal access to education for women, among other s by looking at the family situation. Particular efforts are made to support, for example, single mothers and women with debts, so that they can continue education (BOS, Ms. Stjeward pers. com. 28 Nov 2009).

The study allowances are a welcome financial aid in paying for middle level continued education (VOS). The registration fee for these schools varies (e.g. NATIN fee is SRD 200/yr). The MINOV allowances are much too low, however, to cover the expenses of university education. The registration fee for ADEKUS is 650 SRD/yr at the Bachelors level. In addition, the student needs to pay for books, photocopying, writing materials, and (bus) transportation to campus. The inscription costs for a Masters level study are, depending on the Faculty and Department,

69 between 1,500 and 3,000 USD/yr. This fee exceeds the annual allowance by far, without even considering additional educational costs (books etc). In neither of these examples expenses for food and housing are considered. It is likely that study and added living expenses compose a barrier to enter university for low income students, particularly students with the care over children – who usually are women.

Figure 5.9 MINOV study allowances granted to students in Suriname

ADEK Medical sciences ADEK Technological sciences ADEK Social sciences Univ. transfer year IOL (Teachers college) Men AHKCO (College of liberal arts) BVF II* (Teachers college) Women

School type NATIN IMEAO LYCEUM/AMS/VWO HAVO Pedagogische opleidingen1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 Number of studenten receiving MINOV study allowance

Scholarships for students who want to study abroad via the MINOV programme are being granted by the host country. In the case of Cuba and China, the host country takes care of the costs for school, housing, and food. In addition, the student receives a small allowance (Cuba: 75 pesos (+ 3 USD)/month; China: + 100 USD/month). MINOV pays one return ticket and 100 USD/month to help cover living expenses. Mexico, which granted its last scholarships in 2005, pays for school, one return ticked, and 500 USD/month to cover housing and food. MINOV contributed an additional 100 USD/month.

In 2009 a Total of 72 Suriname students were studying abroad through MINOV; 22 men and 20 women in Cuba, 10 men and 11 women in China, and seven men and two women in Mexico. In that same year, ten men (3 China; 7 Cuba) and nine women (5 China; 4 Cuba) entered the grants programme (Figure 5.10).

In addition to the government, also different companies award fellowships and grants to students – often in the area where they work. This happens on their initiative and not on instigation of the government. In 2009, the large-scale gold mining company IAM Gold gave a fellowship to two

70 female high-school students to attend respectively the HAVO and LYCEUM in Paramaribo. Also in 2010 the fellowship recipients were two women. These fellowships consist of the expenses of boarding school (450 SRD/quarter), school fees, and pocket money for transportation and food (+ 350 SRD/month).

The fellowship system of Bauxite company Suralco L.L.C. consists of grants for studies in Suriname and abroad at different levels; from secondary education to the Masters level. The grants range from a study allowance to complete coverage of the study expenses. The company focuses on students from the communities where they work (Para, Marowijne, Kabalebo), but also includes students from other places in Suriname (Table 5.10). A share of the fellowships is awarded to children from employees. At present, 43 percent of the grantees are women.

Figure 5.10. Grants awarded to students abroad, 2005-2009

2006 2007

Cuba 2008 2009

2006 Vrouwen

2007 Mannen China 2008 2009

2005 Mexico

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Source: Bureau Onderwijs en Studiefaciliteiten (BOS), MINOV, unpubl. data, Jan 2010

Table 5.10 Number of students with a Suralco study allowance Kind of allowance Men Women Admitted per academic year 2008 - 2009 Men Women Local 37 29 1 3 Foreign 3 2 0 0 TOTAL 41 31 1 3

5.9. Government educational policy and gender

“A politician thinks about the next elections, an educational expert about the next generation.” Mr Hanoeman, Educational expert, Curriculum Development, MINOV, 2009.

The important pillars of the MINOV policy are: 1. Create a child friendly learning environment, 2. Improve the quality of pedagogic institutions and teachers‘ colleges, and 3. Create equality and equal chances in education. The MINOV does not have a formal gender policy. Nevertheless, from an equity perspective, Ministry staff members are concerned with providing equal educational opportunities to boys and girls, and to children from different districts. To date, no special measures have been taken to guarantee equal access to education for boys and girls. The Ministerial gender focal point should be promoting and developing such a policy.

In its 2010 MDG report, the government of Suriname voices the expectation to reach goal 2A, which states: Ensure that in 2015, 100% of children nationwide, boys and girls, are able to complete elementary education. The government expects that by 2015, 100% of children of elementary school age will be registered at a primary school (Indicator 2.1). With regard to reaching grade six (Indicator 2.2) the government indicates that it is working on this issue but that it will be an enormous challenge to reach gender equality and quality in education (2010 MDG report).

In order to increase the number of pupils who successfully complete elementary school it is essential to pay more attention to boys in the educational trajectory. MINOV is challenged with the task to develop research-driven and evidence-based policy to keep boys in the educational system and enhance their chances to obtain a diploma (see also MINOV Jaarboek Onderwijsindicatoren, afdeling Onderzoek en Planning 2009: 56). Already at the various teachers‘ colleges and pedagogic institutions attention should be paid to the prevention of drop- out, especially among boys. In this context it is important that the concepts of ―drop-out‖ and ―prematurely leaving the school system‖ are defined, and that all involved government departments and NGOs use the same definition.

Women‘s groups do not focus much on the promotion of girls‘ education, mostly because girls are doing relatively well in school. Different governmental and non-governmental organizations do execute programs to support vulnerable girls from poor neighbourhoods and teenage mothers in completing school (see Ch. Health). In addition, several NGO‘s are supporting improvements

72 of the education system and providing educational support to school children, regardless of sex (e.g. ACT, Stg. Projecten).

MINOV policy makers also should look into the possibilities to link the curriculum and study advice more closely to labour market demands. Also this issue asks for rigorous research to current and future needs on the labour market. The MINOV division of research and planning does not conduct research on these issues.

Another phenomenon that calls for research and a policy response is the relatively low share of highly educated women who reach top positions. We saw in this chapter that women dominate student populations at the higher educational levels. Yet we find these women only scantily back as directors, managers, en CEOs (Chief Executive Officers) in government or the private sector (see Chapter 1). As far as we could ascertain there has not been any national level research to establish whether highly educated women themselves to not aspire leadership positions (e.g. because they prefer spending time with their family) or whether they meet a glass ceiling when entering the power spectrum. Research among educated men and women can help understand these processes.

6. Institutional mechanisms for the improvement of the position of women

The report on the Fourth World Conference in Peking, 4-15 September 1995, states that virtually all member states have established national bodies to improve the position of women. One national body to improve the position of women is the government. The most important task of the government in this area is to mainstream gender equality in all governmental sectors.

6.1 Government policy with regard to gender In Suriname, the government has committed itself to execution of the Declaration of Beijing and the Concluding document, in which gender mainstreaming is central. Also on a regional level, Suriname has committed itself to gender mainstreaming by supporting the action plans of the Organisation of American States (OAS) and the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the action program of the UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UN-ECLAC) (Malmberg 2001:1).

In the MOP 2006-2011, the government declares that it considers gender as a cross-cutting issue that transcends all sectors. The NBG was created to enable the efficient and effective execution of gender policy, based on the UN-driven model named ―National Machinery‖. In addition to the NBG, the Gender Management System is also counted as part of this national mechanism. The conditions that were set for this national institute in the Beijing Platform for Action (Fourth Conference on Women, 1995) were:

 Positioning on the highest level within the government, under the responsibility of a Minister

 Involve NGOs and civil organizations by promoting institutional mechanisms or processes that facilitate planning, execution, and monitoring

 Have sufficient financial resources and professional capacity

 Be in a position to affect the development of government policy

In 1981, in an effort to shape government policy vis-à-vis women, the National Bureau for Women‘s Affairs (NVB) was established by the Minister of Social Affairs and Housing. In the years 1981-1986, this Minister was responsible for women‘s policy. In1986, this responsibility was transferred to the Ministry of Domestic Affairs, District Government, and Popular Mobilization. The NVB was replaced by the National Centre for the Woman (NCV). In 1992, the Interdepartmental Consultation Body Women‘s affairs (IOOV) was established and a staff member for women‘s affairs was appointed at this Ministry.

6.1.1 Ministry of Domestic Affairs The Ministry of Domestic Affairs has a leading role in the development, implementation, and communication of the national gender policy. This policy aims to contribute to equitable development of women and men, and the creation of equal chances for everyone. The year plan 1998 conveys that: ―continuous attention will be paid to gender policy focused on the equal participation of women and men in the development process.‖ Through its working arm, the NBG, the Ministry of Domestic Affairs is charged with execution of the gender policy in Suriname.

6.1.2 National Bureau Gender policy (NBG) In 1997, the NBG was established and this Bureau was officially opened on January 1998. Its task is to promote and monitor gender equality in Suriname. Before the establishment of the NBG, this department was named the National Centre for the Woman.

The mission of the NBG is to obtain a central position as national machinery in the field of gender policy, with as its goal to develop, coordinate, implement, and convey national gender policy. The ultimate objective of such a policy is to achieve equitable development that offers equal chances to women and men. In June 2001, the Ministry of Domestic Affairs presented to the Suriname government a Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan aimed at improving the position of women. The action points in this Action Plan have been integrated in the Integral Gender Action Plan 2000-2005 and later in the Integral Gender Action Plan 2006-2010.

6.1.3 Integral Gender Action Plan (IGAP) Beijing Platform for Action 1995 Strategic goal H.2.: Integrate a gender perspective in jurisdiction, government policy, programmes, and projects.

The IGAP is a policy plan that describes the gender policy of the Suriname government, which is being executed by the Ministry of domestic Affairs in collaboration with Governmental and non- Governmental organizations. The Gender Policy has been outlined in the IGAP 2000-2005 and 2006-2010. In order to monitor and advise on implementation of the IGAP 2006-2010, a monitoring group headed by Ms. M. Brunings-Stolz was established. The monitoring group consists of representatives from the ADEK University, the National Women‘s Movement, Platform NGOs Women and Development, the ministry of Health, the Ministry of Labour, Technological Development, and Environment, and the Ministry of Domestic Affairs. The monitoring group is not involved in project implementation.

IGAP 2000-2005

In formulating the IGAP 2000-2005, seven essential themes related to the position of women from the Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA 1995) were selected:

1. Violence against women

2. Women, poverty, and the economy

3. Involvement, decision-making and institutional mechanisms

4. Gender and the media

5. Human rights of women

6. Gender and education

7. Women and health

The participation of the government and NGOs in composition and implementation of the IGAP has allowed for a balanced national gender policy.

IGAP 2006-2010

Through critical self-evaluation of the IGAP 2000-2005, the ministry of Domestic Affairs has identified weaknesses in the Action Plan with the intention to resolve them. The evaluation reveals that internal and external factors have influenced implementation of the IGAP 2000- 2005.

The IGAP 2006-2010 is primarily based on the MDGs, the goals of the BPfA, and the goals of the Suriname national development policy as presented in the governmental declaration 2005- 2010 and the related Multiple Years Development Plan (MOP). The IGAP 2006-2010 calls for a systematic approach to strengthen the support base for gender policy. The IGAP 2006-2010 includes the following themes:

1. Institutional provisions 2. Poverty 3. Economy and labour market 4. Involvement and decision-making 5. Human rights 6. Domestic and sexual violence 7. Education and training 8. Health 9. Media 10. Environment

6.1.4 Commission Gender Regulation (CG) In May 2007, the Ministry of domestic Affairs installed the CG for a period of 6 months. In order to continue activities of the commission, its time has been extended several times. The CG consists of a Chairperson, ten members, nine replacement members, and a secretary. These members are representatives of Governmental and Non-governmental institutes,

The members of the CG are subdivided in three working groups; the working group ‗violence‘, the working group ‗CEDAW‘, and the working group ‗Women in decision-making‘. The tasks of this commission are to:

 Test whether the national legal system is in agreement with international treaties (i.e. CEDAW and Belem do Para).

 Suggest changes to legal clauses are considered discriminatory

 Present policy advice with regard to regulations that should be implemented.

 Creation of consultation bodies and/or initiate collaborations with relevant partners or stakeholders with comparable interests and working areas

Among the activities that have been executed by the CG are:

 Presentation of the status of human rights treaties in relation to the national legal framework by Mr. Rudge, teacher of international law at the ADEK University. The presentation was held in response to documents and discussions about the CEDAW, Belem do Para, and Child rights conventions as human rights conventions.

 The working group ―CEDAW‖ has evaluated the Law on Old Age Pensions (AOV) in terms of possible gender discrimination. At the CG meeting the working group has asserted that the law is not discriminatory.

 The working group ―CEDAW‖ in collaboration with the National Bureau Gender policy has held a presentation about ―Human Trafficking, state of affairs in 2009‖. This talk was presented by the head of the working group ―Combating Trafficking‖, Ms. Mr. G. Paragsingh, Head Officer of Justice at the office of the Attorney-General. During this presentation, the following subjects were being discussed:

o Causes of trafficking o Forms of trafficking o Prevention and fighting trafficking o International collaboration o Tasks of the working group ―Combating trafficking‖

 Since 2007, the CG has been working on a concept law ―Penalization stalking‖. This concept law has been approved by the Council of Ministers. Next, the concept law has been presented to the State council, and at present the concept law awaits approval of the National Assembly (DNA).

 The CG has prepared a concept law ―Penalization sexual molest‖. This concept law has been presented to the Ministry of Justice and Police for final wording of the concept law (2008/9).

 The CG also prepared a concept law ―Sexual molest on the work floor‖. This concept was discussed during a workshop ―Women in Decision-making‖; a workshop about a quota- policy and the participation of women in decision-making. The objective of this workshop was to raise awareness about participation in politics and decision-making among women. Representatives of the government, NGOs, political parties, and members of parliament were present. A large share of the participants recommended implementing a legal quota. In august 2010, Foundation Ilse Henar- Hewitt organized a follow-up workshop in collaboration with the Ministry of domestic Affairs, the Democracy unit of the ADEK University, and Women‘s Parliament Forum. It was decided that these organizations will formulate a law concerning this subject matter.

6.1.5 Institutional strengthening NBG BPfA 1995 Strategic goal: Create and strengthen national bodies and other government institutions.

In line with efforts aimed at institutional strengthening and decentralization of governance, the Ministry of Domestic Affairs has opened an auxiliary branch of the NBG in Nickerie. The opening of NBG-Nickerie took place on December 2, 2006.

In the period 2007-9, nine new staff members were hired, including professionals and a driver. At present the NBG counts 15 staff members with a college/university degree, two staff members in Nickerie, and one driver.

Between 2007 and 2010, the NBG has executed the following activities:

 Introductory presentation on gender for high-level government officials. Presentations were held by three consultants and the director Gender policy. The goal of this presentation was to provide insight in important gender issues and the state of affairs in Suriname with regard to gender policy and international commitments. Among the participants were the President, the Vice-President, Ministers, Directors of Departments, and Sub-directors.

 Distribution of the concluding comments UN CEDAW and information about Suriname‘s international obligations in the area of women‘s rights (on CD). The goals were to stimulate gender awareness and provide insights in international developments and treaties about women‘s rights and gender. Recipients included (sub) directors of government Ministries, libraries, DNA, GFP, the CG, and members of the Court of Justice. The CDs contain:

o Treaty of Belem do Para o CEDAW Convention o Optional protocol o CEDAW 3rd report in Dutch and English o CEDAW concluding comments o Quito consensus o Mexico consensus o Beijing Platform for Action, and o A short description of the above documents

 Basis training gender mainstreaming; training about gender mainstreaming within health care and a course gender studies for NBG staff.

 Three management trainings for the Head of NBG, and a basis training for managers and the replacement Head.

 Masters education Law for two juridical staff members

 In July/August 2009, NBG staff, the GFPs, and representatives of NGOs that are allied with the Platform Woman and Development, were trained in: gender and gender concepts, and skills in negotiation, lobbying, and networking

6.1.6 Gender Focal Points (GFPs) The government needs instruments to facilitate, support, and monitor gender mainstreaming in the various policy areas. One of the instruments is the appointment of Gender Focal Points (GFPs) – a key or support person- in each Ministry or sector. These GFPs must be well informed about gender, gender analysis, and gender planning, and must be able to network within and outside of the own Ministry or sector. A GFP is an appointed staff member who is involved in policy making and/or has the power to influence such processes.

The GFPs are an important part of the NBG and its communication structure, because they form a communication channel through which NBG obtains information about the gender policy of the various Ministries. In addition, the GFPs disseminate information to the Ministries. In other words, the GFPs are an essential communication link between NBG and the various ministries 79 and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs). The GFPs must actively approach CSOs and find contact persons to exchange information, so that they will remain informed about gender developments in the Suriname society.

Each Ministry, with the exception of the ministries of Public Works (OW) and Natural resources (NH) have a GFP. The NBG is working on a formal task description of the GFPs.

6.1.7 EC/UN Partnership on Gender Equality for Development and Peace

BPfA 1995. Strategic Goal H.3: Generate and disseminate sex-segregated data and information for planning and evaluation

In order to guarantee that gender equality and the human rights of women are being incorporated in national development processes and collaborative programs that are being supported by the European Commission (EU), the Suriname government has initiated a joint project with UNIFEM, entitled ―EC/UN Partnership on Gender Equality for Development and Peace‖. This project is being executed in 12 pilot countries, including Suriname. In Suriname, the project is being implemented by UNIFEM in partnership with the Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation (Government Institution) and the Ministry of Domestic Affairs (Implementing Partner). On June 25, 2008, the Minister of Domestic Affairs signed the Letter of Agreement for this project.

The Ministry of Domestic Affairs, through NBG, is responsible for implementation of the project activities:

 Capacity building for NBG and the GFPs. In July/August 2009, NBG staff, the GFPs, and representatives of NGOs that are allied with the Platform Woman and Development, were trained in: gender and gender concepts, and skills in negotiation, lobbying, and networking.

 Meetings with partners to discuss: ―Aid effectiveness from a gender perspective‖

 On May 7, 2009, a round table discussion was held. 21 participants, including donor organizations (Dutch embassy, EC, UNDP, PAHO), NGOs, and NBG were present. The objective of this discussion was to brainstorm about how gender equity in donor-driven projects can be effectively traced and monitored in Suriname. In addition, participants discussed how to establish a mechanism to guarantee regular information exchange and monitoring of gender equity in programs and projects.

In this meeting, two questions were posed:

1. How can we achieve coordination of donor financed programs in general, in order to track investment in gender and gender mainstreaming-activities? 2. What would an effective collaboration mechanism of Governments, NGO‘s and donor organizations look like? In addition, participants discussed indicators for measuring gender equality. No consensus was reached regarding the best indicator. Because there was not enough time to discuss the two questions, it was decided to continue the discussion by e-mail. The results of the e-mail discussion were distributed during the 2nd round table discussion on October 23, 2009. Prior to the 2nd round table discussion, there has been a workshop about indicators to measure gender equality, according to the principles of the Paris Declaration. The results of this workshop were presented during the second round table discussion. The goal of the 2nd round table discussion, namely: ―reach consensus on what indictors will be used and establish a mechanism for regular information exchange and monitoring gender equality‖ was not reached because important stakeholders did not attend.

6.1.8 Gender Database System (GDS) The NBG is working on the development of a Gender Database System (GDS), using the software programme DevInfo. Three staff members have been trained in working with DevInfo by the Bureau of Statistics (ABS). The GDS will serve as:

 Aid in implementation gender policy  Conduct gender analyses on the basis of sex-segregated data and gender-sensitive indicators  Planning and monitoring instrument  Source of reliable data for national and international reporting  Research: Onderzoek ―Gender Equality, Gender Relations and the position of Women, A Situation Analysis‖ The objective of the listed research is to obtain insight in existing gender relations and the position of women in Suriname.

6.2 NGO’s NGO‘s are playing a very important role in gaining gender related data en in the preparing and the execution of programs which are stimulating gender equality.

6.2.1 Foundation Man Mit man Although the government is not involving men at the plan of action concerning gender equality, the foundation Man mit‘ man is dedicated to the well-being of boys and men. Within their project also girls and women are involved. The organization regrets the fact that there is still no structural cooperation with organizations which are engaged with women and gender equality. In

81 the past there were some cooperation with organization of women and the government. The following projects were carrying out, together with other NGO‘s:

1. Stuka Doro, gi Opo doro, (Keep on studying, for open doors) together with the Ministry of Domestic affairs. This project was intended as a awakening campaign for girls and boys 2. Boys to men, was financed by the UNFPA, for boys between 10-14 years. During this project, basic life skills were teaching in 6 sessions to the boys (400). This project was carried out in the districts of Paramaribo and Wanica 3. National Women Movement (NWM), project ―legislation on Domestic Violence‖ 4. Stop Violence against Women, combined training ― Domestic Violence and counselling Women Rights Centre, training

The foundation stands for the improvement of the social position of men. Important on her agenda is the implementation of projects and programs for men, is that they can take their place in their families. Basic courses, which will help the men to function better on different domains, should be carry out Breeveld is on the opinion that in the process to gain gender equality men must have a role to play. This opinion can also be found in the plan of action of the Rio Declaration.

6.2.2 Women Rights Centre, training. Chapter 8.4.8. provides an extensive description of this NGO

6.2.3 Platform of NGOs for Women, Gender and Development The Ngo‘s has set up a Platform of NGOs for women, gender and development. This Platform is not a formal organ that implements projects and programs, but a communication institution for the exchanging of information and experience. Furthermore it is an organ for lobby activities, advocacy for common issues such as the national Gender policy.

6.2.4 Women Parliament Forum (Vrouwen Parlement Forum) The activities of this NGO are summarized in Table 6.2

6.3 Institute for Women, gender and Development Studies (IWGDS) On the 6th of December 2005 the launching of the Institute for Women, gender and development studies (IWDGS) took place. The institute has been linked to the factorial of Society Sciences of the Anton the Kom University and mandates themselves to education, research and service which is targeted on:

1. Questions, national, regional and internationally, which are related to life circumstances of women and men in general and women in particular

2. Sustainable development of the society by means of gender mainstreaming

3. Historical and contemporary common approaches concerning development questions in the society.

The IWGDS aims at developments and activities which execute themselves on nationally and international areas concerning gender-related issues. The IWGDS have also developed at the run-up stage to its establishment as afterwards several activities among which, looking after trainings in Suriname and the foreign countries. Moreover the institute has worked for its own strengthening by letting its members follow training abroad. These are some of the activities which the IWGDS has carried out in the previous period. At present the institute is busy with developing its strategic plan 2010-2015

6.4 Instruments for the improvement of the position of women

International treaties

Suriname has ratified two gender specific treaties: the CEDAW (1979; ratified by Suriname in 1993) and the treaty of Belem do Para, officially named the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Eradication, and Punishment of Violence against Women (1994; ratified by Suriname in 2002). In addition, Suriname has signed a number of treaties and conventions that are not explicitly about gender but do express the intention to eliminate the discrimination of women. These various treaties are listed in table 6.1. In this section we will discuss what the various documents say about gender.

Table 6.1 Relevant international agreements ratified by Suriname

Name Year of Ratification publication year Conventions of the United Nations: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) 1966 1977 International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights 1966 1977 (ICESCR) Conventions within the Inter-American System: The American Convention on Human Rights 1969 1986 Agreements within CARICOM CARICOM Charter of Civil Society 1997 1997 Environmental Treaties Rio Declaration 1992 1992 Agenda 21 1992 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992 1996

6.4.1 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) After the realization of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights various treaties that concern human rights have seen the light. However, it was only in the 1960s that attention was being paid to the disadvantaged position of women. Even though general human rights treaties promote equal rights and freedom for all people, the discrimination of women proved to be a tedious problem21. Persisting inequalities between women and men motivated the UN Commission on the Status of Women to develop the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, better known as CEDAW.

On December 18 1979, the CEDAW was adopted in the General Assembly of the United Nations. The Convention incorporates three specific goals:

1. to incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish all discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination against women;

2. Improvement of the position of women through elimination of discrimination against women in the enjoyment of all civil, political, economic and cultural rights.

3. Breach traditional thinking patterns about gender roles and the position of women and men in society

The CEDAW treaty has 30 articles. Articles 1 through 16 define civil, social, economic, political, and cultural rights of women. They also deal with issues that concern the equality of men and women in the law, and matters related to nationality (see also Ch. 8). Articles 17 through 22 are about the composition and operation of the VN/CEDAW Committee. These sections of the Treaty also discuss reporting obligations of states parties to the Convention. Articles 23 through 30 talk about administrative procedures such as procedures for signing and ratification of the Convention. They also bring forward reservations with the treaty.

The VN/CEDAW Committee. The CEDAW Committee is the supervisory body that monitors progress of the State parties with regard to the execution of the CEDAW treaty. This monitoring occurs on the basis of national reports submitted by the States parties within one year of ratification or accession, and thereafter every four years. NGO‘s are allowed to submit shadow reports, in which they express their critical vision on governmental efforts to improve the position of women. Both reports are instruments to work together -the Committee, the government, and NGOs- towards a new policy.

21 See CEDAW website: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/history.htm 84

After each evaluation of a national report and following the State party‘s defence, the Committee provides conclusions and recommendations. In this evaluation document the official findings of the Committee regarding Suriname are being presented.

Accession of Suriname to CEDAW. On March 1 1993 Suriname ratified the CEDAW treaty. Following article 27 clause 2, this Convention came into force for Republic of Suriname on March 31, 1993. The Convention was published in the Treaty journal of the Republic of Suriname no. 27, 2007. With the ratification of this treaty the state Suriname has committed itself to the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women, and inclusion of the principle of gender equality in the national Legal framework.

With ratification of the treaty the State Suriname is obliged to submit a baseline report within one year after coming into force, and subsequently provide a periodic report to the UN once every four years. The Ministry of Domestic Affairs, specifically the National Bureau Gender policy is charged with the coordination and monitoring of the implementation of this treaty.

Suriname submitted its combined initial and second report over the period April 1, 1993 to December 31 1998 and defended this report before the CEDAW Committee in June 2001. Suriname submitted its third country report, covering the reporting period January 1 1999 through March 31 2003, in April 2005. This report was defended on 25 January 2007.

One of the recommendations of the Concluding Comments in the third country report is to distribute recommendations to a large number of people, including government functionaries, politicians, members of parliament, women, and human rights organizations. In doing so, these various stakeholders become aware of the steps that have been taken to guarantee the Legal and actual equality of women, as well as the steps that still need to be taken in this regard..

In the next report, Suriname needs to report about the period 2002-2006 and 2006-2010. At present the ministry is working on the completion of the 4th and 5th reports to the CEDAW Committee.

6.4.2 The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women (Treaty of “Belem do Para”) The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women (Verdrag van ―Belem do Para‖) was approved by the General Assembly of the Organization of American States on 09 June 1994 in Belem do Para, Brazil. Suriname ratified the treaty on 19 February 2002. The treaty defines violence against women as ―as any act or conduct, based on gender, which causes death or physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, whether in the public or the private sphere.‖22 The treaty is not only

22 See website Convention: http://www.oas.org/cim/english/Convention%20Violence%20Against%20Women.htm#2 85 concerned with violence that takes place within the family, living arrangements, or other interpersonal relations, but also with violence in society at large.

Article 12 offers persons, groups, groups of persons, or any other non-governmental entity that is recognized in one of the OAS member states, the possibility to file a petition with the Commission, which contains a complaint or report on the violation of Article 7 by a state party to this Convention. The Commission will deal with such complaints on accordance with the norms and procedures for filing and processing petitions of the American Convention on Human Rights, and the Statutes and Regulations of the Inter-American Human Rights Committee.

6.4.3 Other treaties The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) speaks primarily in general terms about equal rights for anyone. Several articles more explicitly have a gender component. Article 23 poses that ―No marriage shall be entered without the free and full consent of the intending spouses‖ (sect. 3). The same article also states that ―States Parties to the present Covenant shall take appropriate steps to ensure equality of rights and responsibilities of spouses to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution‖. Article 26 of the ICCPR treaty handles about equality before the law. It conveys that ―the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground for all persons.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) focuses like the ICCPR on different human rights, of which some are specific to women. In article 2 it is stated that the rights mentioned in the Covenant will be granted regardless of race, skin colour, sex, religion, political or other belief, national or social descent, property, birth, or other status. Article 3 states that states that are party to the Covenant commit themselves to guaranteeing the equal rights of men and women to enjoy the economic, social, and cultural rights mentioned in the treaty.

The American Convention on Human Rights focuses on protection of human rights. The Convention also speaks out against discrimination on the basis of race, sex, descent, political colour, etc.

The Rio Declaration concerns the environment and related issues. Article 20 conveys that women play an important role in environmental management and development. The full participation of women is essential to arrive at sustainable development.

Agenda 21 focuses on sustainable development. Chapter 24 of this treaty is about world actions for women with regard to sustainable and fair development. The departing point for this goal is that the international community commits itself to various action plans and conventions for the full, equitable, and positive integration of women in all development activities. Particularly the future oriented strategies of Nairobi for improvement of the position of women emphasize the

86 participation of women in national and international ecosystem management and fighting environmental degradation.

Various other conventions, such as the Treaty concerning the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (Resolution 34/180 of the General Meeting) and conventions of the ILO and UNESCO reject discrimination on the basis of sex, and express the need to guarantee access of women to land and other resources, education, and safe and equitable work. The 1990 Universal Declaration for survival, protection, and the development of children and the related Action Plan (A/45/625, annex) are also relevant. An effective implementation of these programs depends upon the active involvement of women in economic and political decision-making, and will be of crucial importance to the successful execution of Agenda 21 (http://www.ddh.nl/agenda21/rioverklaring/h24.html)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) focuses on biodiversity. Even though the focus is not explicitly on women, arrangements regarding women have been included in various articles. In the convention it is states that women play a vital role in protecting biodiversity, and that therefore they must participate fully on all levels of policy making and the implementation of biodiversity programs (Preamble: para 13) (http://www.cbd.int/women/)

6.5 Developments concerning gender In Suriname a lot has been done the previous period in the field of gender mainly stimulated by the developments of gender on international scene. Several NGO‘s have been developing gender-related activities the previous period. Several NGO‘s (for example VPF, WRC) have been set up especially to aim at this question. Also the set up of the platform for women and development, where several NGO‘s among other things pursue a dialogue and develop jointly action regarding gender that can be counted to the action to reach gender equality.

The university of Suriname has mandated itself by means of the IGWDS to gender and from that the resulting actions. Although progress has been achieved in several areas such as, more women in the parliament, more women on diplomatic mails. Further we see that more and more women are taking key positions. From this study it becomes clear, that more and more women graduate to the faculties of the university compared to the male students.

Establishment of the NBG must be considered as one of the important steps of the government in its striving towards gender equality. Furthermore the government has with support from NGO‘s implemented several activities and research projects regarding this subject.

Table 6.2 Inventory of Activities Women Parliament Forum (VPF)

Project Name Area where the Number of Project partners Aim 2006-2009 project was carry out participants or is being carry out Workshop Assertiveness Feb. 2010 Paramaribo 20 Peace Corps Strengthening women in participation and decision making Women and political decision making Paramaribo 120 Women issues the Feminine leadership October the 1ste , 2009 Netherlands/ and pursuing politics What is politic, debate and networking Equality in politics Women and political decision making Paramaribo. As a 60 Women issues the Feminine leadership second of February 2009 weekend session for Netherlands and pursuing politics Basic training for districts and women of the districts continuation training for political of Brokopondo, participation so as mobilization and Saramacca en negotiation Commewijne Budgeting : sensible using of money The districts of 100 Canada Fund Stimulating economic April – June 2009 Paramaribo, strengthening of Saramacca, Nickerie women Gender mainstreaming, 2008 Paramaribo 30 Culconsult Henna Gender Guicherit mainstreaming and Government budget Gender & Development September– Amsterdam, the 10 CQ- Gender October Train de trainers, composing of Netherlands Advice/NUFFIC mainstreaming and Handbook Konmakandra gender the Netherlands government budget budgeting 2008

The government has itself by means of ratifying the different treaties which are related to gender have been mandated to develop activities in this area. With the assumption of the law Domestic violence, the modification of the statute book of criminal law within the framework of trafficking in human beings ( see Chapter 9) and the tender of the law design concerning sentence of sexual molest, we can state that progress has been made.

Although there is progress in the field of gender equality and other gender-related activities there is still much to do in Suriname in this area. The NBG in the long run must further reinforce itself to reach the gender institute of Suriname. Moreover tools are lacking to make women and men clear what gender implies. By the lack of supply on this information there is still a large degree of incomprehension in the society with respect to gender and gender-related questions. (Workshop within the framework of the Sitan research, 11 March 2010). These realization activities not only must concentrate on women and organizations which occupy themselves with gender, but also the media. It has been proven that in the media, except by some individuals, little on gender has been done. This has as a result that gender stereotypes are frequently confirmed in the media (See chapter 7 media).

Like already mentioned in this research it is difficult to determine on which areas women are discriminated against. In the chapter economy has been indicated that it has been already determined legally that women and men are equal for the law. In the inland country and the districts the NGO‘s are carrying out special economic capacity development programs for women. A special investigation would have to be conducted to indicate in which areas and how women look against obstructing factors in their striving towards progress (gender equality).

6.6 Collecting gender segregated data Within the collection and dissemination of gender related data, the university can play an important role. Students of the university can be motivated to do research on gender related issues, by integrating this issue in the curriculum of for example the sociology department.

When the data on gender issues is being collected it is important to know for which purpose the data will be used, so that one can know what kind and type of data will be collected and if the relevant organization is able to collect the information. On this basis gender data should be collected and provide. It should be usefully to have a unit at the library of the university where information on gender issues can is digital available.

Gender related data is important by the striving to gender equality. The information can be used to identify gender inequities that need to be changed and to monitor progress towards the goals set in international treaties, as named in this research.

7. Media In the Beijing platform for action is mentioned that the media play a vital role in the progress of women. The role of the media is also underlined in all the vital fields of gender in afore said document. The media on itself are also an area of concern and for this reason in the platform for action two strategies have been put out:

• increasing the participation and access of women to pronounce themselves and all new forms decision-making of the different media (radio, television, newspapers, Internet etc.) of technology and communication.

• Promoting balanced and non-stereotyping of women in the media

In Article 234 it is set out that during the previous decade there has been progress in the field of information technology. As a result, access to the international communication network has gotten much easier, which in turn influences public policy, attitudes and behaviour of especially children and young adults. Due to these developments the media has gained an increased potential to contribute to the progress of woman in all facets. The document also stipulates that even though today more women have careers in the communication sector –including media- few women have a decision-making function or reached a position in which they can affect policy. Due to a lack of vision concerning gender, gender stereotypes in public and private occasions, at both nationally and international levels, continue to persist. In this document, we suggest measures that governments and NGOs can apply in fighting gender inequality in the media.

7.1 Media Council23 In Suriname no specific measures have been taken to eliminate gender stereotyping. In 1999, the Media Council for child rights was established. The Council is an independent institute which has a protective function. The Council examines if the media in Suriname show and publish programs and articles that are child friendly and have an educational character. In addition, the Media Council is concerned with controlling whether TV programmes, advertisements, written articles, and other communicative expressions are kindly disposed towards women. The Media Council has carried out a couple of successful interventions, which have resulted in the removal of certain commercials from the television.

The media itself doesn‘t have structural gender-related activities. From a conversation with Ms. Van der Kooye, docent to the AHKCO study direction journalism and President of the association of journalists in Suriname (SVJ), it is proven that no attention is given on gender issues. At the study journalism gender-related questions have not yet been incorporated. She says

23 Interview with Karin Refos, chair of the Media Council for Children Rights 79 that some journalists in their reporting take into account gender, but it is a personal choice of journalist concerned.

7.2 Media in Suriname At present Suriname counts 19 television stations, 25 radio stations and 4 newspapers, of which one is an evening paper. In addition there are two newspapers, which appear daily in the Chinese language, as well as a media company, NSS, which primarily is concerned with digital news publishing. There is also the news for young people that is shown daily on local television stations. Their news focuses mainly on young people.

In processing our data we have considered that some companies have both radio and a television. Of the women working with the media, 6.8 percent is part of staff, 3.4 percent work at the technical service, 26.6 percent are journalists, and 32.3 percent -representing the largest part of women- have an administrative function at the newspaper (Table 7.1).

Table 7.1 Function in a media house by gender

7.2.1 Television stations In 1965, the first television station, Surinaamse Televisie Stichting (STVS) was founded. It took up to 1987 before a first competitor, named Algemene Televisie Verzorging (ATV), arrived. Initially this television station was only intended for persons with a television that was connected to a network. These persons were then only able to receive that station. Today, 23 years later, 19 national television stations (see Annex 5) broadcast in Suriname. The number of female journalists at the television stations amounts to 16.3 percent. Seven percent of women (3 of 15 employees) are staff members and the technical service has only 4.7% women on the department. Among the announcers on television women outnumber men, with 13 (30.2% of women) to 8 (8.5% of men) (table 7.3).

Table 7.2 Function of workers at TV Stations, by gender

7.2.2 Newspapers In 1774 the first newspaper appeared in Suriname. The present newspapers date of a later time in the history. In 1909, the evening paper the West was set up. This newspaper still exists. In 1957, the paper ―De Ware Tijd‖, the first daily paper, was printed. Today there are, beside De West and De Ware Tijd, still two other newspapers in Suriname. Namely: the Times of Suriname and Dagblad Suriname. Fifty-six percent of women who work with the newspaper work as journalist. Only 1 (2.3% of women at the newspapers) of the 4 staff members is a woman. With the technical service there is also 1 woman (2.3%)

Table 7.3 Function employees newspaper to Gender

7.2.3 Radio stations In 1935, Suriname received its first radio station with the establishment of the general association radio broadcasting Suriname (Avros). For more than twenty years the Avros was the only radio station in the air. In 1957, there came a second, Radio Paramaribo, Rapar. RP, The Hot One, is the oldest radio station. Now anno 2010 Suriname counts 25 radio stations. (See appendix 1). 12.5% of the journalists at the radio are women. In contrast to the other media, women form a slight majority among staff members (4 women versus 3 men). The administration is exclusively performed by 6 women (25%) while the technical service has no single woman in the department. The number of announcers for both men and women is 8.

Table 7.4 Function employees radio stations to Gender

Comment: In the past years, most existing radio stations also obtained a television broadcasting license. The staff tasks are often divided between radio and TV productions.

7.3 Gender and the Suriname media From the research appeared that it has been indicated, also internationally, more men have control of the media companies. Most of women have an administrative function. Also the number of journalists is of the male line. This could mean that the news and other information are frequently written by means of the media from the perspective of the man. It appears that there is no Media Council that keeps specific supervision on the media with regard to the prevention of gender stereotyping of women and aims at the gender realization of media employees and - owners. We can therefore note that in the field of gender and media there has happened not yet much. Special attention will be given will have on this component.

8 Domestic Violence

Domestic and sexual violence are receiving ever more attention in Suriname society. Weekly the newspapers report on these forms of violence and in the majority of cases, women and girls are victims. Television and radio campaigns24 of the Foundation Ilse Henar‐Hewitt Juridische bijstand voor vrouwen (Legal support for women; IHH) and Foundation Stop Geweld (Stop Violence; SG) draw the attention of society to these issues.

Research has shown that the victims of domestic violence are most often women. According to the United Nations25 1 out of 3 women around the world has at least once in her life been a victim of rape, threats or other forms of abuse and/or discrimination.

Suriname has, along with 186 other countries in the world, committed itself to the Treaty for the rights of women, better known as "The Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)26. CEDAW27 defines discrimination against women as any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field."

Suriname is also committed to the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women, better known as the Convention of Belem do Para (see Chapter 6). These agreements stipulate that violence against men and women, including domestic violence is a violation of human rights. According to the sector plan28 on justice, protection and safety of 2006-2010 of the Ministry of Justice and Police in Suriname, domestic violence is a violation of human rights.

By signing the CEDAW treaty, Suriname has committed to:

 Promotion of equal rights for men and women, human rights  Elimination of discrimination in legislation, and in the legal procedures and legal protection of women and men.

24 Radio Apintie; ‗Hoe recht is recht?‘ 25 http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm, access date January. 16th 2010, copyrights UN 2000- 2009 26 http://www.womenstreaty.org/facts_home.htm access date January 17th 2010, copyright' Guardians' (c) Ann Altman 1995. 27 http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm, access date January. 16th 2010, copyrights UN 2000- 2009 28 Sectorplan rechtsbescherming en veiligheid 2006-2010. Ministry of Justice and Police concept 9-12-2005

 Motivation of organizations, individuals and businesses to fight against domestic violence  Submitting national reports once every 4 years in order to guarantee the transparency of CEDAW.

This chapter addresses activities at a policy level and the related measures taken to address domestic violence in Suriname. The first part is about the Act Fighting Domestic Violence (Wet Bestrijding Huiselijk Geweld). The second part is about government policy on domestic violence and cooperation with Non Governmental Organizations. The third section discusses the various organizations that are working on the elimination of domestic violence and care for victims. The final section of this chapter provides information about the steps taken at a policy level to address domestic violence in the context of international treaties.

8.1 Act Fighting Domestic Violence Violence against men and women is a broad term, which includes domestic violence. Violence against men and women is a form of violence where the perpetrator and the victim do not have a particular connectedness with each other. In the case of domestic violence there is a familial or emotional connection between the victim and the perpetrator. Domestic violence is broader than violence between a man and a woman in an intimate relation. It also may concern violence between parents and children, brothers and sisters, or members of the family in law.

Domestic violence often has a structural nature because feelings of fear, guilt, and shame prevent victims from speaking up. In addition, financial concerns may play a role. A woman who financially depends on a man may refrain from filing a complaint against him out of fear for being unable to care for herself and her children. As a result, domestic violence often remains invisible. In the Netherlands, it is estimated that only 12 percent of the cases of domestic violence are reported29. The chairwoman of the working group Domestic Violence estimated recently that for every official declaration of domestic violence in Suriname, there are nine unregistered cases30. This means that the known and registered cases of domestic violence (Table 8.1) are only a tip of the iceberg.

Table 8.1 lists the cases of domestic violence over the last 5 years reported to the Police Corps of Suriname. Ages of the victims are not registered by the Service for Criminal information (Dienst Criminele Informatie Verzorging -DCIV).

29 5th report by the Netherlands to the CEDAW Committee, 24 November 2008 30 Georgetine Acton, chain woman working group Domestic Violence, cited in De Ware Tijd, Wednesday 4 August 2010 85

Table 8.1 Victims of domestic violence by sex, reported in 2005-2009 Year Men Women Total 2005 47 741 788 2006 350 1294 1644 2007 394 1375 1769 2008 449 1308 1757 2009 (1e t/m 3e quarter) 301 1158 1459 Source: DCIV / KPS, 2010

On June 20th 2009, the Act Fighting Domestic Violence (SB 2009 no.84) was adopted by the President of the Republic of Suriname, and has by now been published in the State Journal (Staatsblad) of the Republic of Suriname. This Act is an enormous break-through and very important in reducing domestic violence. The aim of this Act is to protect the victims of domestic violence from an early stage on and through rapid procedures.

Providing protection in an early stage means that protection may be offered as soon as there is a reasonable suspicion of domestic violence. Protection can be in the form of orders and prohibitions for the perpetrator (defendant), which are stated in a protection order (beschermingsbevel). The request, processing, and ordain of a protection order occurs at and by the civil judge.

The ACT allows for the option that the protection order is requested by the victim or by someone else in name of the victim. Also criminal investigators, probation officers, doctors, psychologists, and social workers are authorized to file a request, because their profession brings them in contact with cases of domestic violence. They may, in name of the victim, file a request for a protection order with the judge. At any point in time, the judge may command a temporary order if a protection order request has been filed. The temporary order can be ordained prior to the court case.

In order to speed up protective measures, it has been decided that the judge must have decided whether the request is granted or rejected within two months after submission of the protection order request. Furthermore, in the case of a court case, personal appearance is not obliged. Persons can be represented by their lawyer.

The law is not limited to victims of one specific sex, but must protect all victims of domestic violence: women and men, as well as children, parents, grandparents, family members, or dependents.

Relevant definitions are listed below.

The Act Fighting Domestic Violence defines domestic violence as follows:

―Any form of physical, sexual, psychological or financial violence that is committed by a person against a spouse, child, parent, member of the family, regardless of where the violence occurs.‖ (SB 2009 no.84, Art. 1.j.)

In the Act Fighting Domestic Violence a partner is defined as: a spouse or former spouse, concubine or former concubine, or a person who has or has had a relationship with the appealer or defendant without being married to this person, and who may or may not be or have been living together with the appealer or defendant (Art. 1.o.).

The following forms of violence are considered in the Act Fighting Domestic Violence 31

 Physical violence: Any intentional act or omission of an attempt, resulting in bodily injury or distress, including acts defined as penal acts in the second book, Title 1932, 20 33 and 21 34 of the Criminal Code (Wetboek van Strafrecht), as well as efforts to do so.

 Psychic violence: Behaviour of any kind with the purpose to harm the emotional or mental well-being of a person, including: a. Continuous harassment by the use of violent or threatening or humiliating language b. Continuous pursuit of the victim from one place to the other c. Restrict the victim to use his property to his own discretion d. Damaging property of the victim e. Spy on the victim or block his way regardless of where he is f. Isolate the victim or compulsive restriction of his movement g. The persistent calling of the victim h. Making unwanted and repeated or intimidating contact with a member of the family, a relative or a colleague of the victim

31 Staatsblad van de republiek Suriname, wet van 20 juni 2009, houdende regels met betrekking tot de bescherming tegen huiselijk geweld. Wet Bestrijding Huiselijk Geweld (SB 2009 no.84), Art.1 32 Titel 19; Misdrijven tegen het leven gericht pp 137-139 33 Title 20; Mishandeling pp 140- 141 34 Titel 21 Veroorzaken van de dood of van lichamelijk letsel door schuld Art. 367 t/m 369 87

 Sexual violence: ―Any sexually charged behaviour or multiple sexual conducted with a scope against the will of the victim, and the acts punishable under Articles 290 to 306 of the Criminal Code35 and attempts thereto.‖

 Patrimonial or economic / financial violence: ―Any conduct that has the scope to rule over a person or to exploit, to limit or to deny access to financial resources in order to accomplish or secure his financial dependence, including: a. Restrict the victim to use his property to his own discretion b. Damaging the property of the victim c. Withhold financial resources for household or personal purposes d. Refrain from paying a legally determined maintenance allowance e. Prohibit engagement in paid employment.‖

This law provides extensive possibilities to protect victims, because in addition to protecting against physical violence, it also offers protection against psychic, sexual, and financial violence. The Criminal Code, by contrast, does not offer protection against psychic and financial violence.

As stated above, the Act Fighting Domestic Violence aims to provide early protection to victims of domestic violence through the request of a protection order. The protection order must be requested through a specially designed form. On this form, all orders and prohibitions requested by the victim shall be recorded. These forms were published in SB 2010 no. 150.

One restriction to current execution of the Act in practice is that not all actors are properly informed about its contents (C. Bakboord, WRC, pers. com. 29 April 2010). Furthermore, it is important to emphasize that the Act Fighting Domestic Violence has a civil basis and as such domestic violence is not included as a punishable act in the Criminal Code (Lewis, Tai A pin, en Wallerlei, pers. com. 21 April 2010).

A victim of domestic violence has two options. If the victim wants punishment of the perpetrator, the case facts will be studied to determine what criminal acts from the Penal Act have been committed. If a criminal offense has indeed taken place, the offender will be prosecuted.

A second possibility is that the victim seeks protection against the perpetrator. In that case the victim can submit a protection order request. If the perpetrator does not respect the protection order, criminal law becomes applicable. In short: the penal fact is not the behaviour for which a protection order was ordained. However, violating the protection order is a penal fact. Furthermore, a protection order request does not exclude penal prosecution. The Public

35 The revised law on sexual crimes can be found in S.B. 2009 no. 122: G.B. 1911 no. zoals laatstelijk gewijzigd bij S.B. 2009 no. 122, Titel 14 Misdrijven tegen de Zeden, Art. 290-313 Wetboek van Strafrecht. 88

Prosecutor is, of course, authorized to demand prosecution in the case of a penal fact. Hence the victim can at the same time start a process of penal prosecution and request a protection order.

At the time of adoption of the Act Fighting Domestic Violence various members of parliament commented that the act lacks an integral approach to domestic violence36. In addition, both members of parliament and Foundation Stop Violence expressed concern about the fact that crisis shelter and financial support for victims of domestic violence have not adequately been arranged. Such arrangements would have to be coupled to a care protocol to guarantee that victims move on. In this context treatment of the Draft Act on Childcare, which also deals with shelter, is important.

8.1.1 Femicide

Femicide37 is the result of a variety of acts of verbal and physical abuse, including rape, torture, sexual slavery (particularly prostitution), incestuous and extra-familial child sexual abuse, emotional abuse, sexual harassment (on the phone, street, office, and in the classroom), genital mutilation (clitoridectomies, excision, infibulations), unnecessary gynaecological operations (gratuitous hysterectomies), forced heterosexuality, forced sterilization, forced motherhood (by criminalizing contraception and abortion), psychosurgery, denial of food to women in some cultures, cosmetic surgery, and other mutilations in the name of beautification. Whenever these forms of violence result in death, they are labelled femicides."

In Suriname, a few cases of femicide occur annually, yet precise data are not available. Especially rape, sexual abuse of children, and molest are problematic but seldom result in death of the victim. Genital mutilation, unnecessary gynaecological operations, and forced sterilization seem to be extremely uncommon, but there are no statistical data on these topics.

The Criminal Code prohibits homicide and murder of women and men, but there is no separate provision for femicide. To our knowledge no measures have been taken for this crime to be included in national legislation.

36 See Dagblad Suriname 3 June 2009 (Asha Bhagwat), National News 37 http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Femicide%2Ffeminicide:+extreme+gender+violence.-a0205495048, access date 30 January 2010, copyrights farlex incorporated 2010,

8.1.2 Sexual Harassment

In its efforts to fight domestic violence, the Ministry of Justice and Police considers it necessary to focus, among others, on sexual violence within the marriage and sexual exploitation of persons within the family.

Revisions of the law on sexual crimes (which is part of the Criminal Code) have made sexual violence within marriage a criminal offense38. In the former Article 295 of the Criminal Code the phrase ‗outside of marriage‘ has been deleted hence making rape within a marital relationship equally punishable. Another change is that this article has been made sex-neutral so that also the rape or sexual harassment of a man has become a penal act. Other forms of violence within marriage are all above named forms of violence (economic, psychic, physical).

In the Criminal Code sexual violence has been described under Sex Crimes (Misdrijven tegen Zeden)39. This article, including its stipulation on sexual violence, changed on July 29, 2009. In the new Act, the concept of sexual harassment has been expanded. The new additions to the law make sexual abuse of minors (ontucht)40 as a form of sexual intimidation punishable. Sexual abuse in this provision includes threats and through sexually explicit comments and behaviour. The age limit for acts to be considered sexual abuse of minors has been elevated to 16 years.

Further amendments of the law on Sex Crimes allow for the prosecution of sexual harassment in public places such as: public roads, parks, stations, cafes, bars and tourist centres, but also cinemas, theatres and museums. While the perpetrators of sexual offences are largely men (Table 8.2), the large majority of victims are women and girls (Table 8.3, Figure 8.1).

Table 8.2 Sexual offenses by sex of the perpetrator Year Men Women 2006 146 3 2007 244 6 2008 229 2

Source: ABS 2009. Selected Gender Statistics Suriname.

38 Criminal Code (Wetboek van Strafrecht) (G.B. 1911 no. 1, zoals laatstelijk gewijzigd bij S.B. 2009 no. 34) 39 Criminal Code (Wetboek van Strafrecht) Title 14, Art. 290-312 40 Conduct against the will of others, Art. 300 90

Table 8.3 Child victims of sexual crimes, by sex of the victim Year Boys Girls 2004 26 158 2005 30 212 2006 30 205 2007 20 231 2008 17 306 Source: ABS 2009. Selected Gender Statistics Suriname

Figure 8.1 Child victims of sexual crimes, by sex of the victim 350

300 Boys Girls 306 250

200 231 212 205 150 158

100 Number of children of Number 50 26 30 30 20 17 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Year

8.1.3 Sexual harassment at the workplace

In the Convention of Belem do Para, sexual assault in the workplace is condemned. In the concluding recommendation of the CEDAW41 Suriname is instructed to pay attention to this issue. Sexual harassment at the workplace is not yet included in the national legislation. A small number of companies have established internal rule on sexual harassment at the workplace, but not many businesses pay attention to this topic.

The Commission Gender Regulation (Commissie Genderregelgeving) has prepared two concept law proposals to combat sexual intimidation, among others at work. The first proposal is entitled ―Penalization Sexual Molest‖. This law proposal has been submitted to the Minister of Justice and Police in order to arrive at a final draft text.

The second law proposal is the ―Act on Prevention Sexual Molest at Work‖ (see Chapter 6).

41 CEDAW: Concluding comments: Suriname; 15 January- 2 February 2007 91

8.1.4 Violence committed by the State42

The state cannot be criminally prosecuted for crimes such as torture and crimes against humanity, but may be liable under civil law. A person employed by the state, such as a correctional officer who is found guilty of mistreatment in prison, can be prosecuted in criminal court. The state is liable in this case and may be prosecuted under civil law, in which case the state is obliged to pay compensation to the victim. The same civil laws apply in cases of violence in hospitals, educational institutions and in prison.

An example of violence committed by the state is the so-called ‗December killings‘ of 1986, when the Suriname national army exterminated a tribal maroon village and killed many of its inhabitants, including women and children. In the criminal case against the December killings the contemporary military dictator is trailed for crimes against humanity. In international court (OAS) the state has been held responsible for these crimes and has been obliged to apologize to the families.

8.2 Domestic Violence Policy

The Organization of American States (OAS) has adopted the Convention on the prevention, punishment and eradication of violence against women (CEDAW) in 1994. Suriname ratified this convention in 2002. In the concluding comments of CEDAW on the policies of Suriname regarding domestic violence, it has been recommended that several points need more attention. Adoption of the Act Fighting Domestic Violence was one of the recommendations of the CEDAW that has been achieved over the past years. There are still improvements that need to be worked on including the training of government officials and prison officials as well as other stakeholders, on how to deal with domestic violence. The policy for handling domestic violence will be addressed in this part of the chapter.

8.2.1 The Government and Domestic Violence

The Ministry of Justice and Police, particularly the police, plays a key role in fighting domestic violence. The following departments / agencies within the ministry of Justice and Police are involved in issues related to civil domestic violence:

 Bureau Women and Children Policy (Bureau vrouw en kinderbeleid). This office is responsible for monitoring and coordinating domestic violence policy.  The Counsel for the Crown/the Prosecution (Openbare Ministerie). The prosecution of perpetrators of domestic violence in particular.

42 Personal communication; lawyer Vos, attorney‘s office Schurman, 20 January 2010

 Bureau of legislation (Bureau wetgeving). Tasks are: advising on national laws and draft laws.  Bureau victim support (Bureau slachtofferhulp) in Paramaribo and Nickerie. This agency offers social and psychological counselling to victims and perpetrators of domestic violence. Furthermore, they give information to police about the services of the agency.

The Ministry of Justice and Police took the initiative to close a partnership agreement to address domestic violence on May 5, 2008. This agreement was signed by 6 Ministries namely:

 Ministry of Justice and Police  Ministry of Home Affairs  Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing  Ministry of Health  Ministry of Education and population development  Ministry of Regional Development

This partnership agreement shows the responsibilities of the respective ministries in regards to the Domestic Violence Act43.

A Domestic Violence steering committee has been installed consisting of representatives of the ministries mentioned above. The tasks of the steering committee are to:

1. Submit proposals with regard to policy aimed at the prevention and elimination of domestic violence 2. Submit proposals with regard to policies aimed at providing integrated services for shelter and support of victims of domestic violence 3. Coordinate the implementation of policy regarding the prevention and elimination of domestic violence, as well as the integrated support services for victims. 4. Evaluate collaboration between the Ministries 5. Advise on the further activities or termination of the partnership agreement..

The government has produced several policy papers regarding its approach on Domestic Violence44. These are stated below:

 Visionary policy of the Minister of Justice and Police of 2001  Children Policy 2002-2006  Integral Gender Action Plan 2000-2005  Policy for people with disabilities

43 See Annex 2 for responsibilities of the various ministries 44 Sectorplan rechtsbescherming en veiligheid 2006-2010, Paramaribo , december 2005, pp 49 93

 Sector plan legal protection and security 2006-2010.

8.3 Policy on Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence in the past was a matter of NGOs; the government had little involvement in addressing domestic violence. Since Suriname‘s commitment to the CEDAW Convention and the Convention of Belem do Para, the government has taken several initiatives in collaboration with existing NGOs to improve on this issue.

The Act Fighting Domestic Violence was prepared by the Women‘s Rights Centre (WRC). The WRC subsequently presented the Act to the Minister of Justice and Police, who sent it through to the juridical department. In 2009 the Act Fighting Domestic Violence was accepted with all votes in the National Assembly.

One of the initiatives is the creation of a Platform Approach to Domestic Violence that works in collaboration with the government on a policy program Structural Approach Domestic Violence. In addition there have been media campaigns about domestic violence that have been financed by the Ministry of Justice and Police and designed by, among others, the Foundation Ilse Henar‐Hewitt Juridical support for women.

There is an action protocol in the pipeline with the aim to establish guidelines for addressing domestic violence. The action protocol contains the provisional agreements with various organizations. A task description has been developed for the following Ministries and organizations45:

Government  the Ministry of Justice and Police, including: o the Counsel for the Crown o the office Women and Child policy, o the office of victims support in Nickerie and Paramaribo  the Ministry of Social Affairs  the Ministry of Health including doctors  The Ministry of Education and population development  The Ministry of Regional Development

NGOs  Child development agency  Medical Mission

45 Draft handelingsprotocol aanpak huiselijk geweld, received from STICRIS, 20 january 2010. 94

 Foundation Stop Violence  Foundation for the Child  Foundation for Women in Crisis situations  Foundation the voice  Association of Indigenous Village Leaders  Maroon Women Network

This action protocol defines the responsibilities and competences per organization or government office. Responsibilities in the area of aid to the victims and perpetrators are briefly addressed. The next section addresses the guidelines and protocols for the various stakeholders involved in policy and actions regarding domestic violence.

8.4 Approach on Domestic Violence

Guidelines for policies or protocols that give detailed advice to the police, prosecutors, correction officers, immigration officers, military personnel, health professionals, social workers, education professionals and others involved in violence against men and women do not exist. The Criminal Code and legal instruments, such as the Act Fighting Domestic Violence and the amendments to the law on Sex Crimes, contain instructions that indicate how to handle in the case of violence against men and women (G.B. 2009 no. 34).

A social roadmap ‗Victim support‘46 with general information and addresses for support to victims is made and available at the Domestic Violence units of the Police department, the Stop Violence Foundation, Foundation Ilse-Henar Hewitt, Bureau for Women and Children Policies and other organizations for victims of domestic violence. Information about domestic violence is only available in Dutch, the official national language of Suriname.

8.4.1 Police Corps Suriname

The Ministry of Justice and Police has a leading role in tackling domestic violence in Suriname. The police corps as an institution is often the first place of contact for victims of domestic violence. In the past the police had a mediating role in confrontation with domestic violence. This role is changing because the cases of domestic violence have gotten more severe with murder, suicide and /or aggravated assault as a result. Such serious consequences of domestic violence could occur in part due to the attitude of police officers who did not recognize the necessity of a strict approach47. Law enforcement agents often did not act because reports of

46 Appendix 1 47 Personal communication, Inspecteur DCIV, 13 januari 2010, KPS Duisburglaan 95 domestic violence were not made, and when they were made the victims often withdrew their declaration.

The need for a structural approach led to the creation of Domestic Violence Units in police stations Nieuwe Haven, Commewijne, Latour, Wanica Kwatta, Uitvlught and Nickerie. The first unit was set up in 2000 at the Nieuwe Haven police station. At the units special rooms are available for victims of domestic violence.

8.4.2 Domestic Violence Training for KPS

In recent years there have been several trainings within the KPS to raise awareness on domestic violence, including a training session on youth and sexual assault48. This training focussed on how to deal with sexual offenses with children. Interview techniques during a hearing, tracing evidence, and alternative punishment for youth were issues addressed during the training.

Stop Violence Foundation and the Women's Right Centre have provided training to police officers of the unit Domestic Violence of the different police stations49. The training consisted of counselling and assistant counselling. Still, the own initiative of the police officer in question continues to plays a major role in continuing education on domestic violence, according to a police officer of the domestic violence unit.

Cases of domestic violence as well as the way that is dealt with these cases differ from police station to station. At the police station of Kwatta relatively more cases of domestic violence are being reported. Serious cases of domestic violence including suicide and murder are dealt with at the Police station of Nieuwe Haven.

As mentioned earlier, the structural nature of domestic violence is difficult to verify because victims often do not file a complaint or withdraw. According to the KPS, reporting may sometimes have adverse consequences for the offender and the victim. In the past, the reporting of domestic violence has led to more violent behaviour. The police do not have the resources and capabilities to properly supervise offenders and victims. For guidance to prevent the recurrence of domestic violence, the police often refer to Foundation Stop Violence, which may offer psychosocial support and therapy on the basis of demand. However, such treatment is voluntary and not yet mandatory for perpetrators and / or victim. On the basis of the Act Fighting Domestic Violence the judge can order psychosocial support or therapy as part of the protection order.

A procedure for rehabilitation is only possible after a convict has been trailed and the decision was made that he or she must serve at Santo Boma50 prison. Also in this penitentiary institution

48 Training delivered in October 2006 in collaboration with police Utrecht, Netherlands 49 Personal communication, Agents of police of the unit Domestic Violence, resort Uitvlught, 15 January 2010, KPS 50 Personal communication, resort commander Nieuwe Haven KPS, 14 January 2010. 96 the possibilities for rehabilitation and psychological support are limited. The service Forensic Social Care (Forensisch Maatschappelijke Zorg-FMZ), which is charged with the rehabilitation program has only seven social workers on staff and one (1) part time psychologist, to serve the more than 600 prisoners of the CPI. In addition, one part time psychologist has been hired especially for youth in prison at Santa Boma. This person also is responsible for providing psychological support to youth in the transmission centre Opa Doeli. In addition, a part time child psychologist has been hired through a project financed by UNICEF. This child psychologist provides monthly trainings to social workers but does not have direct contact with the detainees. In the Penitentiary Institution Duisburg (PID) or the Penitentiary Institution Hazard (PIH) at Nickerie there is no program for rehabilitation and/or psycho-social support of detainees.

In addition to the FMZ there are religious groups that offer faith-based support to detainees and NGOs such as Youth In Prison that carry out projects to stimulate the rehabilitation of detained youth. The NGO projects are, however, not always long-lasting. The government does not provide concrete rehabilitation programs for offenders of domestic violence or other detainees. Due to the limited number of qualified staff and programs for social support to prisoners there is a severe shortage of possibilities to provide rehabilitation and psychological support to both perpetrators and victims of domestic violence.

The new domestic violence law does prescribe obligatory therapy on the advice of the court in certain cases. This approach may help minimize domestic violence in the future. On the bases of the Act Fighting Domestic Violence the Minister of justice and Police may determine what institutions can provide therapy.

In recent years more cases of domestic violence have been filed and sent to the Public Prosecutor. According to police officials, the increase in reporting is the result of the campaign on domestic violence and the adoption of the domestic violence law. Victims are increasingly recognizing that domestic violence is unacceptable and that measures can be taken51. In this context it is important to note that victims of domestic violence no longer need to go and report to the police in order to obtain support.

51 Mevr. Zebeda and Mevr. Lieveld, Unit Huiselijk Geweld, Uitvlught, pers. com. Jan 2010; Dhr. Alibaks, ressort commandant Nieuwe haven, pers. com. jan. 2010 97

8.4.3 Youth Department; Transit Centre OPA DOELI

The KPS has a youth department that takes care of victims and perpetrators of domestic violence. This takes place in the transit centre Opa Doeli. The Opa Doeli transit centre was founded in 2006 and is intended for the reception of juvenile detainees in the age group between 10-18 years52, who are hosted in separate units. The purpose of this centre is to "adequately care for juvenile detainees, in accordance with the rights of the child, and to create conditions in which structural attention can be paid to professional care and guidance of the youth towards their reintegration into society‖ 53.

It is important to make a distinction between the Opa Doeli transit centre and the Youth Education Facility (Jeugd Opvoedingsgesticht -JOG). The transit centre gives shelter youngsters in detention on remand. In this institution boys and girls stay in separate sections. Youth who have been convicted are transferred to the Youth Education Facility, which is part of the penitentiary facility Santa Boma. The JOG hosts only boys. Convicted girls are placed with adult women at the women‘s section of Santo Boma. This situation is a violation of child rights, and it will be changed with the opening of the Youth Correction Centre (Jeugd Correctie Centrum), which is currently being built. This Centre will have separate sections for boys and girls.

Re-allocation of youthful victims of domestic violence occurs in collaboration with the youth affairs department of the Ministry of Social Affairs, and the Bureau for Family Legal Affairs (Bureau voor Familierechtelijke Zaken - BuFaZ) of the Ministry of Justice and Police. The integrated approach of Opa Doeli must facilitate the rehabilitation of the juvenile delinquents. The transit centre has the following tasks:

 Social Support Services  Repressive and preventive services  Psychosocial support -to a lesser extent because the means to investigate mental abuse are lacking  Education and training

The following sections of Opa Doeli work together on the integrated approach:

1. Youth Division

The youth division provides social support for the youth. One problem is the limited number of qualified support staff for both victims of domestic violence and perpetrators. For example, there is only one part time psychologist to attend children in both the transit centre and the JOG.

52 Final document steering group and work group Opa Doeli, November 2008 through November 2009 53 Final document steering group and work group Opa Doeli, November 2008 through November 2009, Paramaribo, November 2009, pp.4 98

Youthful victims of domestic and/or sexual violence are often first referred to the gynaecologist and counselled by the social work department of the KPS. However, intensive and continued care is often lacking.

The Opa Doeli youth division also has a prevention program that aims to effectively tackle youth problems through the prevention of single-parent families, family counselling, and the observance of cultural norms and values. Informative programs on television (youth info) with various topics on youth issues are also contributing to the prevention of deviant behaviour among youth. Cooperation with other organizations such as Foundation Stop Violence Unit and Unit Domestic Violence at Nieuwe Haven needs improvement according to the information department of youth KPS54. There is collaboration with the Ministry of Social Affairs Department youth and children's homes.

Referral to the Opa Doeli transit centre occurs, among others, through the kids and youth telephone. In addition, referral takes place through Foundation for the Child. Finally, there is collaboration with the Ministry of Social Affairs, department Youth care and Children‘s homes.

2. The detention centre

The detention centre is the shelter for juvenile detainees pending their trial. In February of 2010, 63 detainees were awaiting their trial in the Opa Doeli detention centre55. The prison cells are divided into a section for boys and one for girls. Currently 56 two girls are being confined.

3. The school

At the transit centre education is provided at various levels namely57:

 GLO level from grade 3 in collaboration with OS Drambrandesgracht  Special Education 11-15 years  Secondary special education from 15-18 years, where practical lessons are given. The students learn a trade or profession.  ETO in partnership with Elementary Technical Education at the Duisburg Avenue  VOJ (LBGO, LTS, MULO) BBJ (LBGO, LTS, high school)  ENO. Negotiations to provide this type of education at Opa Doeli are ongoing

54 Personal communication, Police officer Kolf, department of information Youth division, Opa Doeli 14 January 2010 55 Personal communication, Agent of police Kolf, department public relations youth affairs, Opa Doeli 14 January 2010. 56 Personal communication, Agent of police Kolf, department public relations youth affairs, Opa Doeli 14 January 2010. 57 Personal communication school principal, Audrey Kruijdenhof- Denswil, Opa Doeli school, 15 January 2010

The possibilities for attending schools outside of the transit centre are considered by the school principal. The principal leads about 5 levels of education. It is now possible for detainees to attend school outside of the transit centre. This is only possible if the pupil has been behaving well and education at a continuing level is lacking at Opa Doeli. Using this method, the feeling of responsibility of the detainees is being observed in order to start their rehabilitation. In the case that a pupil breaks the rules by skipping school, the parents are approached to take detainee and bring him/her to the transit centre.

There are no specific guidelines for addressing Domestic Violence in the transit centre Opa Doeli. The school principal argues that as a result the victims of domestic violence, especially sexual harassment become the perpetrators. Table 8.4 presents the cases of child abuse reported at the Opa Doeli transition centre. These data are not available by sex.

Table 8.4 Victims of child abuse reported at the Opa Doeli transition centre

Year Number - 2004 - 57 - 2005 - 100 - 2006 - 134 - 2007 - 148 - 2008 - 132 - 2009 - 102 Source: Opa Doeli youth education department

4. Management of the centre

The management ensures smooth operation of the transit centre. Maintenance of facilities and material flow is one of the functions of the management organization.

The following departments from the Ministry of Justice and Police are present at Opa Doeli:

 Justice and Police  The Council of the Crown  The Court of Justice  The court commissioner  The Judicial Child protection

The juridical department of Opa Doeli is deals with youth problems and employs two female youth judges. The Opa Doeli transit centre only hosts youth who have not yet been convicted. After conviction boys are sent to the (JOG) at Santo Boma. The introduction of alternative

100 punishment for detainees has been proposed. In 2006 a pilot project for alternative work punishment was conducted58.

8.4.4 The court The Act Fighting Domestic Violence helps protect victims of domestic violence by giving the judge the option to demand a protection order or interim order. Within the legal framework, measures may be taken to protect victims of domestic violence in the form of street and / or contact restrictions.

Court protection of victims and survivors of domestic violence

Depending on the offense and the court case, in urgent cases a criminal prosecution for a lawsuit can be concluded within 1 to 3 months59. Court cases about domestic violence, however, can be settled within one week, depending on the judge and the severity of the case. Through introduction of the Act Fighting Domestic Violence actions to protect victims of domestic violence can be taken much faster. The judge may demand protection orders and interim orders within 24 hours, while awaiting interrogation and counter-arguments.

Geographical availability of courtrooms

In Suriname, the courtrooms are geographically distributed across the country as followed: 1. 1st cantonal court. The first cantonal court is located in Paramaribo and handles civil matters not related to Paramaribo 2. The 2nd cantonal court is intended for criminal cases in Paramaribo, the districts and other areas except Coronie and Nickerie 3. The 3rd cantonal court is located in Nickerie and is intended for civil and criminal matters of Coronie and Nickerie

In Nickerie, civil court cases are held every 3rd Tuesday of the month, and criminal court cases take place every 3rd Wednesday of the month. In Paramaribo, civil and criminal court cases are attended to on every week-day.

The foundation Ilse-Henar Hewitt juridical support for women accompanies, where possible, victims of domestic violence to court. This occurs on a voluntary basis. The Attorneys office of Schuurman and the Women's Right Centre support the victims where appropriate in the courtroom. Legal support for victims of domestic violence is provided by private lawyers and the Bureau for Legal Care. The latter bureau provides free juridical assistance to those who need it.

58 Information JKB 59 Personal communication, lawyers office Schuurman, 20 January 2010 101

Physical separation victim and offender in court

In criminal cases, the victim and perpetrator enter the courtroom through separate entrances. In exceptional cases and with strong arguments the criminal proceedings may take place in separate rooms to separate the offender and the victim. In that case the lawyers of both parties appear in one (1) room. In the courtroom, there are possibilities for testimony via video link and video.

8.4.5 Bureau Victim Support The Bureau Victim Support (Bureau slachtofferzorg) in Paramaribo, is part of the Ministry of Justice and Police, and was launched on December 10, 2008. The tasks of the Bureau Victim Support include informing the police on domestic violence, and in particular giving general information about the services the Bureau provides. The agency also provides assistance to victims of violence through the ‗demand for care approach‘. This approach entails that victims themselves indicate what they need. The Bureau Victim Support also offers social support to clients who are in the process of a divorce in the form of guidance in the case of a law suit. The preparation of claims provisions is also one of the tasks of the agency victim care.

The Bureau Victim Support records cases of domestic violence in a data base system. This information is passed on to the KPS.

8.4.6 Shelter for victims of domestic violence In Augustus 2010 the Minister of Justice and Police opened a shelter for victims of domestic violence. At this accommodation, which is situated on a secret location, professional support will be offered to a maximum of 20 persons –only women and children- who suffer from violence in the surroundings of their own home.

The shelter was established in line with the Act Fighting Domestic Violence and will, during a one-year pilot period, provide assistance and a safe haven to victims of domestic violence. The home is managed by the steering group Domestic Violence. Trained staff members from the Bureau Victim Support, Social Affairs, and Foundation Stop Violence will provide counselling and care. Security will be present 24 hours a day.

8.4.7 Foundation Stop Violence The Foundation Stop Violence exists for approximately 20 years is the most publically visible organization when it comes to combating domestic violence. The Stop Violence Foundation has provided training to police, religious and traditional leaders and other school districts in the interior on domestic violence, in collaboration with Women's Right Centre.

Counselling victims and perpetrators of domestic violence is the most important task of Foundation Stop Violence. The focus used to be primarily on women, but nowadays more and more men present themselves as victims of domestic violence. Stop Violence Foundation uses

102 the method of treatment demand approach. The treatment demand approach means that on the basis of interviews the victim‘s needs are addressed. The actual support offered differs per individuals, because care demands depend on their personal situation. Factors that play a role in care demand are children and support from family or the neighbourhood.

8.4.8 Women's Rights Centre The Women's Rights Centre is a volunteer organization that focuses on conducting research, performing trainings, and lobbying to promote gender equity. It aims to create preconditions for improving gender equality and in particular a life free of domestic violence.

The WRC performs diverse activities through its program ―Fighting Domestic Violence‖. In the past years the WRC has conducted research on the needs for the establishment of a nationwide network for fighting domestic violence and violence against children. The Centre has also established such networks and produced media programs and trainings.

Among the main tasks of the WRC is providing training to, among others, legal officers, police, military police, army personnel, religious leaders, media, and other social workers, including trainings on women‘s rights and –in this context- the importance of the Optional Protocol. The Optional Protocol of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (OP-CEDAW) is an international treaty that installs complaint and research mechanisms for the CEDAW Convention. Countries that are party to the Protocol allow the CEDAW Committee to hear complaints of individuals and investigate severe or systematic violations of the Convention. Such investigation may only take place once all national level legal instruments in the state concerned have been applied. Suriname has not ratified the Optional Protocol.

The Women‘s Rights Centre is the NGO that drafted the Act Fighting Domestic Violence and has worked hard for its implementation. This organization took the initiative for design of a draft Act when it was indicated in training sessions and stakeholder workshops that a law on domestic violence was necessary. After implementation of the law the government has been asked for permission to give more training about this law to relevant persons and institutions. The Minister of Justice and Police has promised his support and the WRC is now waiting for a decision of the Minister in order to start such training sessions.

8.4.9 Foundation Ilse-Henar Hewitt Foundation Ilse-Henar Hewitt juridical support for women was founded in 1997. The mission of this organization is as follows:

Even though men and women are equal for the Suriname law, in practice women have relatively more often a disadvantaged position. The mission of our Foundation is to increase awareness of their rights among women, men and children, and

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eliminate inequities in these areas. In this context the Foundation aims to improve the position of women and serve their interests. In doing so, the interests of society at large will be served.

The Foundation Ilse-Henar Hewitt offers free legal support to (mostly) women. It helps with the preparation of petitions for divorce, attends hearings –among others in the case of a language barrier-, joins clients to the court room upon request, refers clients to a lawyer or notary, and refers people to the Bureau for Family Legal Affairs (BuFaZ) and the Police. The foundation has a mobile office that is active in the districts to provide information about their services.

In cooperation with the Ministry of Justice and the Police, Foundation Ilse-Henar Hewitt launched various advertising campaigns through the radio in 3 languages namely Sranantongo (Suriname national Creole language), Sarnami (Suriname Hindustani language), and Dutch. Radio Apintie airs a weekly radio program entitled; ‗Hoe recht is recht‘ (~How fair/straight is the legal framework). This advertising campaign was commissioned by the Ministry of Justice and Police. In addition, the Foundation produced TV commercials.

The Foundation Ilse Henar-Hewitt provides public presentations on violence against women and legal assistance in collaboration with Women's Right Centre, Foundation Stop Violence and Man Mit' Man. They also provide briefings at Tammenga and Latour through their mobile office.

8.4.10 STICRIS60 STICRIS is a Non Governmental shelter for women in crisis. Through STICRIS women who are victims of domestic violence can stay at the shelter for 1 to 3 months at a payment of Srd100/month. There are rooms available for up to 15 women and their children. One problem is that the house has been full for many years now, partly due to limited transition to other places. The STICRIS is not listed on the social map, but the Foundation is involved in training and courses on domestic violence. The reason for the omission of the only shelter for victims of domestic violence is unknown.

8.4.11 Education and Domestic Violence, Basic life skills The Ministry of Education (MINOV) has not included education on domestic violence in the regular curriculum. Nevertheless, through the NGO Basic Life Skills pilots are designed for lessons on domestic violence at primary schools within the curriculum (see Chapter 5). In the context of the establishment of the 11-year program in Basic Education, MINOV will pay more attention to the various subjects of domestic violence and gender. Domestic Violence is on the

60 Personal communication, Ms. Cederboom, STICRIS, 20 januari 2010. 104 agenda of the Ministry, but no methods are developed at this stage to express this subject in the curricula.

The Ministry has advised the VOJ and VOS schools to incorporate this theme into the social studies courses. The RKBO has taken the initiative to involve the Foundation Stop Violence to educate care coordinators. These lessons have focussed on recognition of, and dealing with, domestic violence at schools.

8.5 Domestic violence in the Interior Also in the interior domestic violence is a problem. However, there are no quantitative figures to determine the scale of this problem. Interviews and observations suggest that violence against women, children, and men is frequent in both Maroon and indigenous communities. A recent investigation in the Trio indigenous village of Kwamalasamutu finds, for example, that rape, incest, and molest occur regularly (Heemskerk en Uiterloo 2008). In Southern indigenous villages such as Kwamalasamutu, domestic violence is often related to excessive drinking of kasiri, a locally brewed alcoholic cassava drink. These cases are seldom taken care of by local or national authorities.

There are no organizations that address domestic violence in the interior. The medical mission is the organization responsible for healthcare in the interior, and is often the first contact for victims of domestic violence. In Paramaribo the first contact is the police, but because there are limited police stations present in the interior, most cases of domestic violence are addressed by family or religious or traditional leaders. In many cases the perpetrators remain unpunished or receive minor punishment. In severe cases of domestic violence, the offenders are transported to Paramaribo to stand trial.

It is important to address domestic violence in the interior, because in some cultures domestic violence is being accepted as a form of settling disputes, and victims are not getting any support. It is necessary to investigate the forms of domestic violence within the entire country and take measurements accordingly. The Stop Violence Foundation has taken the initiative to train religious, traditional leaders and schoolteachers in recognizing and addressing domestic violence within their communities, but more action is needed to combat domestic violence in the hinterland.

8.6 Data collection Domestic Violence The KPS has a unit named the Department for Criminal Information Collection (Dienst Criminele Informatie Verzorging -DCIV) whose task it is to collect data about domestic violence at the national level, district level and the level of the police station. Because of the methods by

105 which data are collected and registered, this unit cannot provide figures for many international indicators for domestic violence.

Foundation Stop Violence and the Bureau Victim Support Bureau also collect data on domestic violence. Yet all the mentioned organizations use their methods and system for data collection, which makes it difficult to compile the data in order to get a thorough picture of domestic violence in Suriname. The Stop Violence Foundation has initiated the establishment of a national database.

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9. Trafficking Internationally, human trafficking is considered a serious violation of human rights. Human trafficking in is a crime, in which trader‘s profit of exploitation of persons by luring these victims to a place where they can be checked. (Folder trafficking in human beings composed with collaboration of: International Organization for Migration (IOM), Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the US, Ministry of Justice, Kingdom of the Netherlands.)

9.1. Forms of trafficking

The most common forms of trafficking are:

International:

 Prostitution,  Forced labour (fishing, building and construction, agriculture),  Working in the household (employee),  Child soldiers,  Work as camel jockey, and  Organ removal.

National:

In Suriname the most common forms of human trafficking are: forced prostitution and forced labour.

Reasons for trafficking:

The causes and / or factors that lead to trafficking can be viewed from two perspectives. These are:

a. Trafficking in country of origin (home victim). These victims are created due to poverty, unemployment, lack of development opportunities and no or insufficient training/ schooling.

b. Trafficking in destination country / place: Causes for this kind of trafficking include the demand for cheap labour, and the high demand for sex-related services.

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9.2 Trafficking in practice

9.2.1. Stages of Trafficking61

Trafficking takes place in three stages namely:

A. Recruitment: by using coercion, violence or threat with the use of violence, abduction, by abuse of dominance resulting from actual money by deception.

Deception: can be divided into two types:

1. Overall deception. The victim is in the homeland promised golden mountains and little did she / he know that she / he will have to prostitute or do forced labour in the country of exploitation. 2. Partial deception. The victim knows beforehand that she / he will have to prostitute or work, but the conditions under which she / he must work are very different from what they were told.

B. Transporting: Cross border. The victims are transported from country A to country B. Transporting can be done both legally and illegally.

Internal = rural to urban; from city to the inland (Gold Fields) (country).

In obtaining the legal travel documents for border crossing, the payment is usually given in advanced to the trafficker or accomplice. In this phase, the accommodation and transfer of the victim is also taken care off.

C. Operation (exploitation): The victim is forced or required to work (long hours, heavy work), for example in prostitution. Victims typically do not receive their earnings, because they have to pay back the traffickers for crossing. The amount to be paid back is usually two to three times more than the actual amount that is paid for the crossing. Victims may not leave the place of operation and usually they are monitored. Often enough they must sign a contract. Their passports and tickets are taken away from them, so they cannot go anywhere and therefore remain dependent of the trafficker. Refusal of work results in punishment by imposing a fine or abusing or threatening the victim. For the trafficker, the primary goal is financial gain.

61 http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/142747.htm

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9.3 Palermo Convention on human trafficking

In recent years, trafficking has gained increasing international attention. The UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime was adopted by the General Assembly by resolution 55/25 of November 15, 2000. This is the most important international instrument in the fight against transnational organized crime. It is the first global legally binding instrument with an agreed definition of trafficking. Among the objectives of the protocol is to protect and assist victims of trafficking with full respect for their human rights.

The treaty was adopted in Palermo, Italy, during the political conference (12-15 December 2000). The treaty came into force on September 29, 2003. The convention was supplemented by three protocols. They focus on specific areas and manifestations of organized crime, namely:

 Protocol on the prevention, control and punishment of trafficking in persons, especially women and children;  Protocol against smuggling of migrants by land, sea and air; and  Protocol against the Illicit manufacturing of, and trafficking, firearms, their arts and components and ammunition.

Countries must first be party to the treaty itself before entering one of the protocols.

The Convention represents a major step forward in the fight against transnational organized crime. It also means recognition by the Member States of the severity of the problems they face in trafficking and the need to promote and strengthen close international cooperation in order to address these issues. States that ratify the Convention commit themselves to taking a series of measures against transnational organized crime, including the establishment of national institutes that focus on the detection of criminal offenses (participation in an organized criminal group, money laundering, corruption and obstruction of Justice), the introduction of new laws and frameworks for extradition, mutual legal assistance and police cooperation and the promotion of training and providing technical assistance to establish and / or improvement of capacity of national authorities 1. Suriname ratified the treaty in 2006 when it had the necessary legal measures implemented (See Suriname and trafficking).

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9.4 Suriname and trafficking

9.4.1 Trafficking rankings concerning Suriname

In July 2003, the Surinamese government initiated a multidisciplinary working group to combat trafficking and smuggling. The immediate cause for the installation of this group was the fact that the United States placed Suriname in the 3th tier with regard to its policy on trafficking, that same year. The 3rd tier means that Suriname had not met the minimum standards (as contained in the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 of the U.S.) to eradicate human trafficking, and also that there was no evidence that the Surinamese government had taken steps to meet those standards. Tier 3 may have implications for countries such as the cessation of aid except for humanitarian aid and trade-related assistance.

The working group has a three-fold mission:

 identifying the various aspects of trafficking;  composing a coherent package of measures to eliminate the identified gaps and / or shortcomings;  Formulating a vision and a strategy for a sustainable approach to trafficking.

Suriname moved to the 2nd tier after the working group had carried out its tasks, but was placed on a "watch list". Countries are placed in the second category when they show progress concerning the minimum standards as required in the Victim Protection Act. The watch list is there to critically monitor the countries because the possibility exists that they can fall back into the 3rd tier.

Countries that fully comply with the minimum standards contained in the Victim Protection Act of 2000 are placed in tier 1. A lot of work has been done when it comes to prosecuting perpetrators of trafficking, prevention, and protection of victims of trafficking. That does not mean that no more trafficking in humans takes place in Suriname.

Suriname is now off the watch list and is in category 2. In the field of legislation and guidelines there are different measures by which this improvement of Suriname's position has been based on:

 Suriname has currently accepted legislation in the field of trafficking and smuggling in accordance with international standards such as the Palermo Convention and its protocols;  Suriname has ratified the Palermo Convention in 2006;  To obtain a legal basis to stay in the country during the process, the Working Group has formulated and presented the Minister of Justice and Police a concept decree to establish rules for the granting of a temporary residence permit for this category of persons.

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 A guideline is created on the procedure that has to be followed from the time of declaration and / or encounter of victims of trafficking up till the return to the country of origin.  Manuals are formulated for the police and immigration on interrogation of victims and / or potential victims of trafficking.

9.4.2 National legislation

Since April 2006 Suriname has a special legislation on trafficking. Article 307 of the Criminal Code was amended. The legal amendment dictates that instead of speaking about ‗ trafficking in women‘ one should say ‗trafficking in persons‘ (see Box 1). Another change is the addition of Article 249a to the Criminal Code. This Article 249a focuses on the criminalization of trafficking and smuggling. Furthermore, these articles have been expanded to define the sanctions that will be placed upon persons guilty o trafficking (Annex II). There are also other laws in the Suriname Criminal Code that can be used to penalize Trafficking (among others: the law on brothel owner, fraud, threats, kidnapping, etc.).

9.4.3. National plan to combat trafficking

Two years before the amendment to the law, the Working Group Trafficking Information Point (TIP) led by Mr. Paragsing put together a manual for the specialized police unit in charge of the detection of Human Trafficking, as well for the immigration authorities (2004). This guide contains guidelines that must be followed in order to achieve the best results when interviewing victims (e.g. how the interrogating officer should treat the victims). There are also numerous awareness campaigns and information meetings held for the standing and sitting judges, industry, brothel keepers, NGOs, and students (secondary schools and ADEK).

Some important activities that the TIP working group has done so far:

 Entering into partnerships with NGOs, among others regarding the care for victims.  Maintaining a close relationship with the media and maintaining a transparent information flow to the outside.  Carrying out of education programs on trafficking and smuggling for the Ministry of Justice and Police and the Ministry of ATM.  Production of posters and brochures in different languages (Dutch, English, Portuguese and Spanish) which provide valuable information on trafficking.  Entering into cooperation with the International Organization of Migration (IOM) 2.  Advising the Government of Suriname to join the TOC Convention.

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The TIP group has compiled a national plan to combat trafficking and smuggling. This plan includes, inter alia:

a. Setting up a research unit within the police organization. b. Establish the foundation on Trafficking (which provides care and supervision of victims)

Trafficking and smuggling are being combated through actions on different levels:

1. Investigation. There is a special police unit that is charged with detecting trafficking, smuggling and related offenses. The TIP Unit has had training in the detection of human trafficking and smuggling, recognizing victims of trafficking and interview techniques. The immigration service and the department of labour inspection both participated in the training, which were followed nationally and internationally.

2. Persecution. The Public Prosecutor (OM) has a special unit / desk, which deals with bringing cases of trafficking to court. The Public Prosecutor has successfully prosecuted six cases in trafficking and one on smuggling, which all resulted in convictions. Five cases involved forced prostitution and 1 case involved forced labour. There is still a case pending before the court, while another is being prepared for court by the Public Prosecutor.

3. Protection. An NGO, Foundation against Trafficking, was set up with the support of the working group. The purpose of this Foundation is to identify and assist victims of trafficking and to establish a regional and international network between governmental and nongovernmental organizations with similar objectives. The Foundation is a private foundation and receives no support from the government. This Foundation has already proven its services. The working group has asked the Brazilian, French- and Guyanese Embassy for help with the safe return of victims of trafficking to their country of origin.

Despite this progress, not all measures to protect and support victims and witnesses of trafficking are taken. However, an appeal can be made at the TIP-UNIT (police) to protect victims and witnesses during the legal process.

4. Support. There is no protocol that describes how to deal with victims of trafficking in their language. In cases involving human trafficking, an interpreter is used. The authorities have already identified tools that are essential in cases of trafficking. These tools include help lines, care, (psychological, free medical care, free legal assistance, rehabilitation and strengthening programs such as education and training programs for victims. The establishment and implementation have not yet taken place. Regarding the care for victims there is cooperation with NGOs (Foundation for the Child, Salvation Army and Victory outreach). For the return to the country of origin free of charge, a request must be submitted to the International Organization on Migration.

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5. Prevention. One of the goals of the TIP working group is prevention of trafficking and smuggling. In this context information has been given to the different stakeholder groups in Suriname. Places where trafficking is suspected are checked. Specific activities which have been achieved up till now include:  Provide awareness briefings to various ministries, the media, trade unions, business organizations, NGOs, religious organizations, the National Youth Parliament and the Chamber of Commerce. Specific activities for prevention include:  Giving presentations to various stakeholders including the media, unions, business organizations and various government agencies, religious organizations and NGOs in the district Nickerie. During the visit to this district, the working group together with the special police unit, which is in charge of the detection of trafficking and related criminal offenses, investigated brothels in which victims of trafficking were suspected. One brothel was closed. A similar session was also held in Maroni (Albina).  Providing awareness in schools. They started with the conglomerate of schools at Lelydorp.  Controlling in places suspected of harbouring victims of trafficking such as brothels and massage parlours. These monitoring activities have resulted in the (temporary) closure of various brothels.  in response to information received from the general public, the working group has several times sent out a press release under the headline "Warning to Potential Migrants', which includes warning signals.  To bring the phenomenon of trafficking under the attention of Surinamese society by airing news programs of the Ministry of Justice and Police and the Ministry of Labour.  Providing information sessions for the Regional Police Commanders and the resort commanders of the police.  Training of Surinamese judges by judges from America, in cooperation with the U.S. Embassy.

9.5 International and regional cooperation

Agreements, both international and regional, have been made on how to jointly address trafficking and smuggling (Guyana, French Guiana, Brazil and the Netherlands Antilles), but also with the IOM (International Organization for Migration). A regional partnership has been formed, also through the various embassies in Suriname (Guyana, Brazil, French Guiana and the Dutch Antilles), to combat trafficking and promote the safe return of victims to their country of origin. These partnerships are:

 The group works closely with the International Organization for Migration. The IOM has two of the projects funded that deal with the prevention of trafficking and provide guidance

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and assistance to victims of trafficking. The activities of the Group are also highlighted in the newsletter of this organization.  Agreements have been made with Guyana about how to support each other in combating transnational organized crime;  There are also agreements with the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba . A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) regarding collaboration in the field of transnational crime has been signed.

9.6 Achievements Tip Unit concerning Human Trafficking Table 9.1 lists the numbers of victims and suspects, their nationality, and the form of human trafficking. The data are from 2007-2010, after the criminal law has been modified, when it was changed from trading in women to human trafficking. Table 9.1: Suspects and victims of human trafficking Number of Number of Year victims Nationality of the victims suspects Forms of Human Trafficking

2007 5 Brazilian women 1 Forced prostitution 9 Chinese unknown Forced labour 1 Surinamese girl (Legal minor) 1 Forced prostitution 9 Brazilian women 2 Forced prostitution Total 24 4

2008 1 Brazilian women (minor) unknown Forced prostitution 4 Vietnamese 1 Forced labour 18 Indians 1 Human Trafficking/forced labour 2 Guyanese (minors) 3 Forced prostitution Total 25 5

Surinamese young man and young 2009 30 women 7 Human trafficking 1 Guyanese 1 Forced prostitution 13 Haitians 7 Human trafficking Total 44 15

2010 1 Legal minor Guyanese 1 Forced prostitution 1 Legal minor Guyanese 1 Forced prostitution Total 2 2 Source: TIP unit KPS

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The information from the TIP-Unit of the KPS does not list the ages of the victims. In total between 2005 (establishment year of TIP) and 2009, 22 cases of human trafficking have been recorded by this Unit. Between 2005 and 2006 condemnations took place on the basis of the law women trade and related laws. In 2007 the law on trafficking in human beings was adopted and became effective. Table 9.2 provides information on the trafficking cases that have been brought to court.

Table 9.2 overview course trafficking in human beings matter 2005-2009

Years Number of Condemnation No condemnation Conditional cases condemnation

2005-2006 10 6 3 1

2007-2009 12 4 7 1

Total 22 10 10 2

Source: data obtained of tip Unit * the descriptions of this matter are found in Annex 10

Although Suriname has achieved progress in fighting trafficking in human beings, they according to the trafficking in Persons Report not yet obtained the minimum standards for mastering trafficking in human beings. (Trafficking in Persons Report, June2009). With the assumption of the Palermo treaty and the modification of the statute book of criminal law the basis has been given to clear, to minimize or eliminating trafficking in human beings. In the aforementioned report Suriname has exhorted the activities within the framework of trafficking in human beings to continue and to intensify.

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10. Poverty

10.1 National vision on poverty The government of Suriname does not employ an official definition for poverty (James, V 2000). In the Multi Annual Development Plan (MOP) 2006-2011 it is indicated that in fighting poverty, the Government is not only using the concept of income poverty, but also that of human poverty. Human poverty is defined in this plan as poor access to a long, healthy and creative life and missing the opportunity to obtain knowledge and an acceptable living standard, self respect and respect for others. To reduce poverty as defined by the Surinamese government the MOP lists a number of measures, indicators and the responsible ministries have been set up. The general aim of poverty alleviation is a reduction of poverty with 4.4% per year and 22% in 2010, in line with the MDG for poverty alleviation. In table 10.1 an overview is given of the political intention of the government to fight poverty.

Internationally income poverty is being measured through poverty lines, which are determined specifically for each country, and sometimes also differ within different regions. For the past few years, the General Bureau for the Statistics (ABS) in Suriname has not calculated the number of households and persons who live below the (national) poverty line. ln the ABS Yearbook 2008, a poverty line has been calculation based on a household composed of two adults and two children. This poverty line has been determined at SRD. 1486 ( ±530 USD) (second quarter of 2009). The ABS has indicated to publish, possible in 2010, a study about poverty lines.

In the CIA World Fact book, the share of the Surinamese population that lives under the poverty line lives is being estimated on 70% for 2002 (website Nationmaster. com62). It is not clear how this authority calculate this figure. An international poverty indicator that is used to compare absolute poverty between different countries is the share of the population living off less than 1 USD per day (extreme poverty) or 2 USD/day (poverty) per day. For Suriname these figures are not calculated by national or international authorities.

62 URL:http://www.nationmaster.com/time.php?stat=eco_pop_bel_pov+lin&country=ns 116

Figure 10.1 Activity matrix for poverty reduction

General aim: reduction of Poverty with 4.4% per year and with 22% in 2010, in line with the MDG for Poverty reduction ( The number of persons which lives in extreme poverty, must be reduced by 2015 with half with respect to 1990) Sub Aim Measures Indicators Ministry/ Institute 1.Eliminating structural factors 1.1 Elimination of malnutrition a.reduce stunting (crooked proportion of length: weight BOG/Epidemiologie/Hospitals of Poverty which maintain and at children under 5) by 80% increase related phenomena of b. reduce hospitalizations and malnutrition by80% Poverty 1.2 promotion of well-being among - see Policy social security and reforming of the Sozavo/VGZ/ATM vulnerable groups Health sector 1.3 fighting unemployment a. reduce unemployment by 1.5% ABS/ ATM/MINOV/CBB/ NGO's b.reduce discouraged workers by 0.5% c.increase facilities for the development of the craft industry d. increase number of service providers from Maroon and Indigenous communities in the eco tourism sector 1.4 Stimulating gender equality a. reduce unemployment of women by 1.7% ABS/MINOV/HOSPITALS/CBB/BIZA/ NBG/STATISTICS/JUPO b. increase participation ratio of women by 6% c. increase women in leadership functions d. reduce violence against women by at least 17% e. reduce drop-out percentage of boys by 50% f. reduce teenage pregnancy g. increase women in well-paid jobs 1.5 Training and education increase of modern job trainings MINOV/ATM (SAO) 1.6 Improving access to land and housing - see Policy on housing- SOZAVO/RGB/OW

1.7 Community Development a. number of new neighborhoods organizations RO/ MINOV/NGO's b. increase of community facilities for creative ATM/Credit OPERATIONS expression 1.8 Improving access to credit a. Social investment fund is operational b. Increase of small and micro-businesses Source: MOP 2006-2011

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10.2 International measurement of poverty63 On an international level, different indicators have been developed to measure and compare poverty between different countries. Over the past few years these indicators have changed considerably. In the 60 and' 70, poverty was expressed mainly in terms of the Gross National Product (on the national level) and absolute poverty lines (on the household level).

Table 10.2: Suriname Human Development Index (HDI) index 2007

Adult education Combined gross Life expectancy at BBP per capita HDI value (% ages 15 and enrolment ratio birth (PPP US$) above) (%)

1. Norway 1. Georgia 1. Australia 1. Liechtenstein 1. Japan (82.7) (0.971) (100.0) (114.2) (85,382)

95. Maldives 104. Trinidad and 66. Sri Lanka 84. Azerbaijan 84. Serbia (74.5) (0.771) Tobago (69.2) (90.8) (7,851)

85. Hong Kong, 96. Jordan 67. Bolivia 105. Belarus (69.0) China (SAR) 85. Peru (7,836) (0.770) (90.7) (74.4)

97. Suriname 68. Suriname 86. Suriname 106. Suriname (68.8) 86. Suriname (7,813) (0.769) (90.4) (74.3)

98. Tunisia 69. Viet Nam 87. Bosnia and 107. Thailand (68.7) 87. Samoa (74.1) (0.769) (90.3) Herzegovina (7,764)

99. Tonga 70. United Arab 88. El Salvador 108. Fiji (68.7) 88. Algeria (7,740) (0.768) Emirates (90.0) (74.0)

181. Congo 182. Niger 176. Afghanistan 177. Djibouti 151. Mali (26.2) (Democratic Republic (0.340) (43.6) (25.5) of the) (298)

63 http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country fact sheets/cty fs SUR.html, jan 2010 118

These measurements have been strongly criticized because they do not well reflect real levels of welfare and wellbeing of a country or household. Currently more use is made of a more holistic concept of poverty, which incorporates also non-financial factors as health, access to school and decision-making processes and gender equality. Holistic expressions of poverty are measured by a composition of indicators, among which the best known is the Human Development Index (HDI).

The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) developed the Human Development Index (HDI). The Human Development Index goes beyond income and Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The index is composed of three dimensions of the human development. These are; a long and healthy life (measured by life expectancy); knowledge (measured by adult literacy (>15) and % enrolled in school; and an acceptable stand of living (measured by BBP per capita (PPP USD).

The index is by no means a comprehensive measure of human development. The HDI dates are collected over a certain period. In measuring the HDI, a short term policy can only be made for income and enrolment figures. That is why it is important to record changes in the HDI over a certain period. In the table 10.2, the HDI for Suriname is listed. Suriname, with a HDI of 0,769, has been classified on number 97 of the 182 countries. These data are from 2007

10.3 Poverty Index Besides the HDI, the UNDP has developed the Human Poverty Index (HPI-1) to calculate specific poverty. In this poverty index attention is given to several dimensions of poverty of the most needy. The HPI-1 measures the average progress of human development in a country. This index focuses on the percentage of persons who live below the standards of the HPI.

These standards are:

• A long and healthy life, measured by the probability of dying before the age of 40. • Have access to education, measured by adult illiteracy • Having a certain standard of living, measured by the number of people who have no access to drinking water and the number of children below five years who are underweight for this age category • A certain income

HPI-1 is a multidimensional alternative for determining poverty, in the place of the USD 1, 25 that particularly the World Bank often uses for determining poverty lines of countries. With an HPI-1 value of 10.1%, Suriname has been rated number 46 among 135 countries for which the index has been calculated.

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10.4 Gender-related development index (GDI) To determine gender inequality in a country, the UNDP introduced the gender-related development index (GDI). This index was first used in the Human development report of 1995. The index is calculated according to the same indicators that are used for calculating the HDI. The difference is that for the GDI, also the performance differences between women and men are taken into account in the calculation of the country ratings. In doing so, the HDI is corrected downward for gender inequality. The higher gender inequality in elementary human development, the lower the country‘s classification in the GDI-rank. With a GDI-value of 0,763, Suriname is ranked on the 69th place of the 155 countries with both HDI-en GDI-standards.

10.5 Measuring Poverty in Suriname In measuring poverty in Suriname, the poverty line and access to some basis provisions such as clean drinking water, sanitary provisions, electricity, telecommunication and housing are taken into consideration. According to estimates, which use income and consumption as wealth indicators, approximately 59,2 percent of the population of the districts Paramaribo and Wanica lived below the poverty line in 1999/2000 (ABS, 2001). Results of the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2000 show that approximately 7,4 percent and 33,4 percent of the population in the urban and rural areas have no access to clean drinking water, while the percentage for the interior is more than 80 % (Government or Surinam, 2001).

The results of the Seventh Census indicate that more than 27 percent of the total number of household in Suriname do not have a lavatory with a flush system and a sceptic tank, 30 percent of households do not have telecommunication facilities, while in 9 percent of houses tap water is not available indoors (ABS, 2006).

The fact that approximately 12 percent of the total number of household in Suriname consist of more families (the so-called plural household) forms an important indicator for the housings situation in Suriname (ABS, 2006). This is connected closely to, among others, the:

 Poor availability of land for the building of houses;

 High costs of constructing a house; and the

 Lack of affordable rental houses

In Suriname citizens have two options to acquire land. One can request domain (state) land, which is relatively cheap. However, the procedure is bureaucratic and not transparent. In practice persons who request this type of land often have to wait for years. The acquisition of land that already has an owner (private property or rental of domain land) is often expensive for lower income classes. There are sufficient houses for rent but the rents that are asked are far too high for persons who are seeking housing.

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In the MDG progress report 2009, it is commented that a national discussion about poverty and measurement of the poverty line in Suriname is urgently needed. In addition, the authors report that the General Bureau of Statistics only measures poverty in terms of income. Considering the above, we can conclude that the number of persons and households that are living the poverty line has not yet been determined and hence cannot be reported. Measurement of such poverty lines requires in-depth research and extensive survey work, which is beyond the scope of the present study.

Feminity index of poverty While conducting research we have not found any information with regard to the ―feminity index of poverty‖. We conclude that for Suriname, this index has not yet been defined and/or measured. A national poverty line must be determined before the mentioned index can be validated.

10.6 Policy on Poverty and Gender

10.6.1 Women in the MOP In the Multi-Annual Development Plan (MOP) 2006-2011 the government has outlined four strategies concerning the policy for poverty alleviation and the elevation of prosperity and well- being. One of these strategies is increasing the economic and physical independence of women, who act in all communities as a catalyst of development. Such policy should serve as a basis for the effective improvement of the depressed situation of women and contribute to general social development (MOP 2006-2011: 146).

According to the government fighting gender-specific poverty demands a multidimensional approach. As set out in the conclusions of the Beijing platform for action, the government is convinced that economic independence of women is the best way to alleviate poverty. Women must get the chance to earn their own income by providing them with access to supplies, facilities, resources, employment, markets and trade. Poverty alleviation will also be aimed at tackling all forms of violence against women and children, through support for civil society organizations and improved access to reproductive health facilities. Furthermore, for the protection of motherhood concept proposals concerning maternity leave will be developed into bills, in consultation with the social partners. (MOP 2006-2011: 147)

10.6.2 Specific measures regarding Poverty reduction In the MOP, policy intentions poverty alleviation has been explained (see activity matrix, Table 10.1). Specific programs that must lead to poverty reduction are described in the MOP 2006- 2011 and in the annual plan for 2010. from the foundation plan office Suriname (SPS), among

121 others the progress of these programs is declared. Below we listed progress reports of some programs/projects which must lead to fighting poverty.

1. The goals of the project Suriname Social Safety Net (SSN) is improvement of the system of social benefits and services, and strengthening of the institutional capacity of executing agencies, among which the Ministry of Social Affairs and public housing. An analysis has been made of policy measures regarding financial expenditures and the number of customers, as well as of the degree to which the poor are being made more resilient to macro economic or social shocks. The project lasted from 2005 to 2009. The evaluation of social security provisions has meanwhile been concluded and a reform strategy has been formulated. Financing of the 1st phase of the reform strategy has been sent to the Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation (PLOS) for financial approval.

2. In the period 2003-2008 the Low Income Shelter program (LISP) was implemented. The program aimed at improving the living conditions of low and mid income groups. It also offered institutional support to participating private financial institutions, NGOs and neighbourhood societies that are supporting participating households.

At the end of the program 3271 satisfactory living spaces had been realized. Furthermore, in the category modernization/extension 2380 and 891 new houses had been built. The Lisp I program was closed formally by 1 November 2008. At present second LISP program is in preparation.

3. Within the framework of poverty alleviation and increasing prosperity, the Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment (ATM) is offering, institutional strengthening and support for productive employment of the poor. The Foundation Labour Mobilization and Development (SAO) guarantees the continuation of policy in the areas of schools, training of jobseekers, young drop outs and workers from 16 years and older, for the labour market. The project ―Revision Surinamese Labour legislation‖ has been continued. The aim is the modernization of the labour legislation.

4. Establishment of a minimum-wage and a General Health Insurance, which can be seen as measures to fight poverty, have not been implemented in the political period 2005-2010.

10.7 Social security provisions The Ministry of Social Affairs is in charged with the social care in Suriname by offering support (financially) to the vulnerable groups in the Surinamese society. These social security provisions are; General Provision for the Elderly, general Child Benefits, Financial Assistance for the particularly needy, and the supply of a card that provides access to free medical aid to those who qualify for that.

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10.7.1 General old age benefits (AOV) The general old age benefits fund is a service institution that is responsible for the management and disbursement of benefits to AOV recipients. Beneficiaries are persons who have reached the age of 60 years, have the Surinamese nationality or have lived as a resident in Suriname for 10 years before reaching the age of 60. The amount is SRD.275 ($100) per month.

Until December 2009, a total of 43,475 persons were entitled to this payment. Of this number, 23.857 persons, more than the half, were woman (54.8%). This large number of woman that is entitled to receiving the elderly payment can be explained by the fact that women in Suriname have a higher life expectancy than men, and also have a larger chance to reach the age of 65 years.(see chapter Health). Because the larger share of the Suriname population lives in the District of Paramaribo, the largest share of elderly benefits is paid out in this district (Figure 10.1). The percentage of women who receives elderly benefits varies in the different districts between the 48.8% (Para) and 62.3 % (Sipaliwini). That a relative larger number of women in the interior district of Sipaliwini receive elderly benefits can be explained by the fact that relatively more men migrate to the city to work. It is not clear why in the district of Para men outnumber women among elderly benefit recipients.

Figure 10.1 AOV-entitled persons to district and sex (Dec. 2009)

14000

12000

10000

8000 Men

6000 Women

4000

2000

0 Number of people entitled AOV to entitled people of Number

District

Source: AOV-Fund/Min.of Sozavo

10.7.2 General Child Benefits (AKB) The General Child Benefits Regulation of 1973 GB 107 forms the basis for this benefit to parents who do not qualify for child allowances under another regulation. The maximum number of children that qualify for this payment per family is four. The children must be younger than 18 123 years and not have their own income or be married before they reached the age of 18. The contribution is SRD 3 ($ 1.07) per month. This fee is about the price of a pack of milk (Srd. 2.75). It is clear that this sum by no means reflects the expenses for raising a child, and must necessarily be adjusted.

The number of women who are registered as AKB recipients is 9887, versus 635 men. The domination of women among AKB recipients can be explained by the fact that in most household, women are the primary (financial) care takers of children. In cases where the children are not officially recognized by the father, the mother is automatically the claimant of the allowance. Furthermore, most requests for AKB come from women. The Ministry has not developed a formal policy to decide whether the father or the mother should receive the allowance.

Most women and children who are entitled to AKB live in the district of Sipilawini, with a number of 5068 claimants among whom only 36 are men. In the district of Brokopondo, 493 women are claimants and no single man is registered. In the district of Marowijne there are 367 female AKB recipients versus 10 males. Noticeably is that the number of men (338) who receive AKB in Nickerie, is almost half the number of women (723) who are registered for this form of assistance. In the other districts, women constitute a much larger majority among claimants (figure 10.2)

Figure 10.2: Persons entitled to General Child Benefits, to district and sex, 3th quarter 2009

5000 12917 4000 Men Women 3000 Children

2000

1000

0 Number of people entitled to child benefits child to entitled people of Number

District

Source: AUSV/Min. Sozavo

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10.7.3 Welfare Benefits The current system of welfare benefits is a modified version of the social assistance which was mainly paid in kind (food rations) up to 1970. In that year, this form of support was transformed into financial support which expressed the financial value of the food rations. Welfare payments form a contribution in the cost of living for needy individuals and households. Persons who qualify are:

 Persons who are between 18-59 years, who have done a request and who have a monthly income of no more than Srd.40

 Residents with Surinamese nationality who are unable to cover the necessary costs of their existence

 Foreigners who have lived at least one year legally (valid residence permit) in Suriname and cannot provide in their necessary costs of their existence.

Note: 60-year olds can fill in an application on behalf of their children or foster children under the age of 21.

Since June 1998, people with disabilities are receiving a benefit of Srd.20 (USD 7.14) per month. Per September 2000, the Council of Ministers approved that persons with a monthly income of between Srd.0 - Srd.40 qualify for a financial contribution from the government.

The number of women and men who qualify for a welfare benefits are respectively 4347 women and 3349 men. Women are in the majority because the receipt of welfare is coupled to the status of being poor (minvermogend) or very poor (onvermogend).

Welfare payments for 2009 are: a. Household of 1 person (isolated) Srd. 33, - per month (~ USD 10.15) b. Household of 2 adults - 36, – per month (~ USD 11.07) c. Household of 1 adult and 1 child - 34.50 per month (~ USD 10.61) d. Household of 2 adults and 1 child - 37.50 per month (~ USD 11.54) e. Household of 2 adults and 2 children. - 39,- per month (~ USD 12-) f. Household with more than 4 persons - 41.50 per month (~ USD 12.77)

In Jan 2004 the ―Benefit for persons with a disability‖ became Srd.20, - + Alivio Srd.30, - = Srd.50, -. (~ USD 15.38)/month. On 1 October 2005 welfare recipients received an additional allowance of Srd 50, =, and on 1 Jan 2008, welfare benefits were increased with another Srd 25 to the Srd. 125 (USD 38.46)/ month of today.

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Figure 10.3: Number of persons entitled to welfare benefits by district and sex (Dec. 2009)

2000 1800 1600 Men 1400 Women 1200 1000 800 600 400 200

Peopleentitledto welfare benefits 0

District

Source: AUSV/min. Sozavo

10.7.4 Free medical care (VGH) In the extension of free medical care, a distinction is made between the poor and the very poor. In January 2004, because of conversion of the Suriname guilder (SF) to the Suriname dollar, these standards were revisited. The very poor are classified as those who have an income of Srd.0-Srd.40 (poor households class A). Those who have an income between Srd.40-Srd.80 are classified as poor (poor households class B). Table 10.3 lists the numbers of poor and very poor who receive a free medical aid card from the Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing.

The very poor (onvermogenden) are people who have no- or a very low income (0 to Srd.40, -, per week). They are entitled to exemption of doctors’ costs and hospital expenses (nursing and stay). Also their underage children (up to the age of 18; if attending school until 21 years) are entitled to coverage of aforesaid expenses.

The poor (minvermogenden): are people with a low income (Srd.40-Srd.80). They and their underage children enjoy partial exemption the doctor costs and hospital expenses (nursing and stay).

The very poor receive a class A card and the poor class B-card.

The cards are typically given for 6 months, with the possibility of renewal after this period. Free medical assistance cards for elderly people and people with disabilities are valid for up to one 126 year. These cards cover expenses for specialist treatment, hospitalization and medicines. After expiration one can appeal for a new medical card.

Table 10.3. The numbers of poor and very poor who are recipients of the SoZaVo medical card*(Oct 2009)

Number of entitled District Number of recipients persons

Very Very poor Poor Total poor Poor Total

Paramaribo 11,736 15,214 26,950 23,527 36,988 60,515

Wanica 8,048 17,126 25,174 20,610 51,288 71,898

Nickerie 3,193 4,016 7,209 4,254 9,340 13,594

Coronie 139 214 353 371 427 798

Saramacca 781 1,518 2,299 1,239 3,841 5,080

Commewijne 2,325 2,919 5,244 3,146 5,922 9,068

Marowijne 2,196 2,609 4,805 2,898 5,123 8,021

Para 1,357 2,179 3,536 2,393 5,282 7,675

Brokopondo 170 155 325 231 239 470

Sipaliwini 576 138 714 576 138 714

Total 30,521 46,088 76,609 59,245 118,588 177,833

Source: AUSV

* Recipients are the persons that fill in a request for Free Medical Care. In this case a mother or father can be the recipients. The children are those who are entitled persons.

Persons who may qualify for a medical card include:

 Adults,

 Heads of households,

 Unmarried single mothers and fathers, and

 Pregnant minors. 127

 All Suriname residents who cannot provide in the necessary costs of their existence. If one has no other possibility of access to medical assistance, one may appeal to the ministry

 Foreigners, who stay at least one (1) year legally (valid residence permit) in Suriname and cannot provide for the necessary costs of their existence. They can apply for a medical card which provides access to medical services.

Many persons in interior communities already make use of the free medical services from the Medical Mission for Primary Health Care64. Therefore they do not qualify for a free medical care provisioned by the ministry of SoZaVo (Table 10.3).

Medical aid (GH) (after conversion Sf. to Srd by jan.2004) Class A (so-called ‗very poor‘) 0 - 40, per month Class B (so-called ‗poor‘) Srd. 40, - 80 per month

Administrative costs: Class B card: Srd 2 Class A card: Srd 1 Own contribution by Hospital care: Class A card: Srd 1 Class B card: Srd 2 Own contribution for recipes/medicines: Class A card: Srd 0.50 Class B card: Srd 2 Note: 1 SRD= USD 0.31 (in Feb 2011)

10.8 School clothing & subsidies to children's homes The ‗very poor‘ and ‗poor‘ persons qualify for the receipt of a financial allowance for the purchase school uniforms for their children who are attending school (the exact fee depends on the type of school, e.g. primary, secondary, or tertiary education). In accordance with the abovementioned classification, the very poor are compensated for the purchase of two sets of uniforms per child, and those who are considered to be poor are entitled to one uniform for each child who is attending school.

Children‘s homes (boarding schools/orphanages) receive Srd. 4.50 per day for each child. Elderly people institutions get Srd. 3.50 per inhabitant per day. These allowances have been determined per October 2004.

64 This is also free medical care especially for those who live in the interior 128

10.9 A closer look at Social Benefits The figures of the social benefits in the past three years show a slight increase in the number of claimants and the expenditures (Figure 10.4). In every year since 2007, more than 1000 persons have been added to the pool of social benefit recipients.

Figure 10.4 Social benefits 2007, 2008, and 2009

180 160 140 Child benefits 120 Elderly benefits 100 Free medical care 80 Welfare 60 40

20 Nr. of entitledof persons(*1000) Nr. 0 2007 2008 2009 Year

Source: ABS & Sozavo

The increase in the number of social benefits claimants can signify (a) an increase in the number of the persons who qualify for social support (i.e. an increase of poverty) or (b) an increase in the number of registered persons (i.e. better administration). The available social do not clearly show whether poverty has increased in Suriname.

Table 10.4 presents poverty related indicators over 2007, 2008 and 2009. These figures show that poverty lines65 rose from SRD 1067 in 2007, to SRD 1357 in 2008. In 2009, the poverty line increased from SRD 1424 in the first half to SRD 1486 in the second half of 2009. Without information about the number of households or the number of persons that lives below these poverty lines, we can say little about trends in (economic) poverty.

Also figures of employment are ambiguous. One the one hand, the number female and young (15-30 year) jobseekers rose between 2007 and 2008, while the number of male jobseekers remained nearly equal. These numbers seem to allude to a worsening of work perspectives. In this context we must comment that the number of registered jobseekers is not a good reflection of the real number of persons that are looking for work, because most jobseekers are not registered. On the other hand, unemployment figures dropped in this same period. Both the

65 These numbers are calculated on the basis of an household with two adults and two children

129 unemployment rate according to the strict ILO definition as well the unemployment rate according to the relaxed definition66 points to an increase of job opportunities.

Finally, we return to poverty measurements of the UNDP with which we started this chapter

Table 10.4. Poverty indicators

2007 2008 2009 Number of very poor Number of poor Poverty lines in SRD. ($2.80) 1.067 1.357 1486 Jobseekers: women 444 614 -- men 269 267 -- young persons(15-30 year) 451 547 -- Unemployment rate: narrow definition 11 9 -- Relaxed definition 15 13 -- Men Women Human Development Index -- Gender Development Index Source: ABS

10.10 Additional aid In Suriname there is besides the structural aid from the government there are individuals, companies and (ecclesiastical) organizations which offer aid to poor people. This aid is not always structural, but frequently incidental.

10.11 Malnutrition Malnutrition is one possible outcome of poverty. If one cannot consume sufficient food of good quality, this leads to malnutrition. In Suriname malnutrition is especially found in children. Between 2000 and 2006 malnutrition among children under five has decreased..

66 The Unemployment rate according to the strict ILO definition refers to the number unemployed (people who are not employed but are willing to work and actively seeking work in the reference period) as a proportion of the number of economically active persons (employed + unemployed). The unemployment rate according to the relaxed definition refers to the ratio of the number of unemployment persons under the relaxed definition and the number of Economically actives (employed +unemployed according to relaxed definition). The group of unemployed persons under the relaxed definition comprises the unemployed according to the strict definition, plus discouraged workers who are available for work but are not seeking work. (ABS, Statistical Yearbook 2008:84) 130

Table 10.5 Under weight among children under 5

Indicator 2000 2006 % of < 5 years with moderate malnutrition (weight for age-2 SD) 13.3 9.9 % of 5 years with severe malnutrition (weight for age-3SD) 2.1 0.8 % of < 5 years with moderate malnutrition (height for age-2 SD) 9.9 7.7 % of< 5 years with severe malnutrition (height for age-3 SD) 2.7 1.4 % of < years with moderate malnutrition (weight for height-2SD) 6.5 4.9 % of < years with severe malnutrition (weight for height-3SD) 1.5 0.4 Source: MICS 2000-2006

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11. Economy

11.1 Overview of the Suriname Economy Suriname has many natural resources and its economy drives on the exploitation of these resources. Bauxite has been the most important export product for Suriname in the past years. With the definitive closing of the bauxite mining activities of the Bhp Billiton in December 2009, the bauxite production is in the hands of the Suralco. Other important export products are gold, wood, rice and crude oil.

In comparison with other Caribbean countries, the macro-economic development of Suriname in the period 2004-2008 has been reasonable to good (Table 11.1). The average Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate in this period was 5,4 percent. In 2004 GDP grew by 8 percent and in 2008 by ca. 5,1 percent. In 2007 and 2008, the Government expenditures contributed respectively 29.4 percent and 29.4 to the GDP (market prices). The income per capita rose in 2007-2008 from SRD. 13,090 (USD 4,675) to SRD.16214 (USD 5790) and domestic spending increased in 2008 as compared to 2007. The GDP growth rates for 2009 and 2010 are estimated at respectively 3.4% and 4%.

This growth projection incorporates the effects of the world crisis on our export and price developments in the mining sector. Particularly the rising gold prices are leading to economic growth (SPS Macro-economic Survey, November 2009).

The income and the expenditures of the government increased in 2007-2008. Between 2007 and 2008 the average purchasing power of the civil servants decreased by 4%. It is expected that the purchasing power will show an increase of 13% between 2008 and 2009. The cause for this projected increase is a decrease of the inflation figure and a robust increase of the wages and salaries in the context of the implementation of a new salary awarding system named FISO (Function Description of the Civil Servants). Between 2007 and 2008, the value of Social benefits has remained the same, except for the elderly payments. In January 2008 elderly payments were raised to SRd.275 (see Social benefits), which resulted in a light increase of the purchasing power (3,8 %) in comparison with 2007. (SPS, Macro-economic Survey, November 2009).

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Table 11.1 Macro-economic Indicators 2007-2008

Real growth, production en income per capita GDPmp (inclusive informal sector) in 1990 prices,(x1000 Srd) 5983 6241 Growth GDPmp in % (inclusive informal sector) 5.2 5.1 National Income per capita (incl. informal sector)in current Prices in SRD 13090 16214 National Income per capita (incl. informal sector) current Prices in USD 4675 5791

Revenues and grants 2316 2366

Current revenues 1945 2112

Expenditures and net loans 1960 2221

Balance expenditures 1656 1745 Balance current accounts 289 367 Balance total accounts 356 145 -356 -145 Financing

Balance of payments 1359 1743 Export goods on transaction basis in million USD -1045 -1304 Import goods on transaction basis in million USD 314 439 Balance trade balance on transaction basis in million USD 213 137 Balance current accounts million. USD (cash basis) -186 -46 Balance invest account in million USD 170 52 Balance total accounts balance of payments on cash basis in million 436 502 USD Monetary reserves (in million USD) 3,6 3,1 Coverage monetary reserves in number of monthly import*

Monetary en financial sector: 1360,3 1569,3 Domestic liquid assets in million SRD** 599 649 Vv-credits of residents (USD million) 12,9 12,0 Average nominal credit (debit interest) in %

Exchange rate & inflation 2,780 2,780 Average official exchange rate SRD/USD (sale rate) 2,799 2,799 Average parallel market exchange rate SRD/USD(sale rate) 6,4 14,7 Inflation (Annual average, %)

National debt: 297,9 319,3 Foreign national debt in million USD*** 582,8 640,2 Domestic national debt in million SRD***

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11.2 Consumer Price Index (CPI) The consumer price index (CPI) is a measure for the average change in the price of quality and quantity of a fixed package of goods and services intended for consumptive goals.

According to the temporary figures of the GBS, the consumers price on monthly basis (basis: April 2009-June 2009) the prices decrease with an average of 0.6% in December 2009 with regard to November 2009. Comparison of the consumer‘s price between December 2008 and December 2009 shows that the prices have an average increase of 1.3% (monthly inflation of 1.3%).

11.3 Economic situation of men and women Providing concrete statements about the economic situation of men and women in Suriname is difficult because many different factors play a role. In the past years, Suriname‘s economy has grown (see above). This trend could be an indicator of increased well-being in the country. Because of a lack of data, however, we cannot measure whether this national-level growth has resulted in increased well-being for women and men in Suriname. At the same time that we have seen economic growth, for example, the poverty line has been increasing for the past three years. Due to the lack of figures on the number of households that are living below the poverty line, and on the composition of these households (i.e. number of one-parent households with a female head of household), we cannot say much about the economic situation of male and female heads of household. Our research shows that more women than men are registered as job-seekers, while more men than women have a job outside the home (See section Employment). We also have found that women outnumber men among the persons who are registered with the Social Service for social welfare assistance (See Chapter poverty). More detailed (statistical) data on poverty lines and other measures of poverty are needed in order to determine and compare the economic situation of women and men in Suriname.

11.4 Economic situation of men and women in the interior The Indigenous and Maroon communities in the interior have always been largely self supportive. Although money is increasingly playing an important role in the tribal communities, a large share of the villages -particularly the Indigenous ones- continue to be largely self- sufficient.

Especially women perform a lot of unpaid work and they play a crucial role in the food provision of the villages (Van Arkel 2009:15). The women of the interior are not only taking care of housekeeping but are often also responsible for collecting food from the plots. Through the years, women have started with the cultivation of cash crops, often with the help of NGO‘s. Particularly in the upper-Suriname area the National Women Movement (NVB), is very active

134 with programs for the economic strengthening of women. In addition to their personal plots, the women have collective plots where they cultivate crops for commerce.

Van Arkel (2009) points out that the increasing importance of money in the indigenous and maroon societies will affect the lives and gender relations in these societies. Previously women were less likely to be handling money. The access to paid work for women in the interior is still difficult, while it is easier for men to find a job. Men from the interior, and particularly Maroon men, have a history of seasonal and migratory work. Men usually leave the village to look for work in the capital city and in French-Guyana. Women often are missing the required (technical) skills and their pool of suitable jobs is small. The mentioned researcher argues that women typically want to generate their own income to purchase necessary goods and to pay for facilities and services (education for their children, transport and work) they cannot perform themselves (van Arkel, Z, 2009:27). Van Arkel (2009:28) criticizes the fact that the government is paying little attention to the working conditions of Indigenous and Maroon women. She indicates that some of the government‘s services of the Ministry of ATM also have access to the interior.

11.5 Labour market The government policy concerning the promotion of employment finds its origin in the Multi Annual Plan 2006-2011. According to this policy document, employment is vital for the well- being and the prosperity of people. For this reason the policy has been aimed at the availability of sufficient jobs with adequate reward, social certainty and protection. Further it is stated that employment is the most important mechanism, where individuals can be incorporated in the society and economic independence.( Multi Annual Development Plan 2006-2011: 147). The measures which will be taken in regard to the promotion of employment and the protection of workers will be connected with poverty. These measures are in the Activity matrix (see chapter Poverty).

11.5.1 Positions of women on the labour market According to Article 26, 27 and 28 of the Surinamese constitution (See annex10) everyone has the right to labour according to its possibilities. Furthermore in these Articles there is no distinguish on basis of gender and performed labour. The constitution is clear on equal payments for men and women for the same performed labour and possibilities of both men and women to develop their economic possibilities. In the constitution there is also attention on pregnancy.

According to the General Bureau of Statistics (GBS) the number of workers in 2008, amounted 127,162 persons compared with 13,082 unemployed people. The total number of registered jobseekers in the districts Paramaribo and Nickerie is as follows:

Table 11.2 shows that in 2007, the number of women jobseeker is 383 (65.7%) in Paramaribo. This is higher than the men 199 (34.3%). In Nickerie the number of men is that is looking for a job is 70 (46.6%) compared with 61 (53.4%) women. The number of women that is searching

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for a job in Paramaribo in 2008 has increased with regard to 2007. In 2007, the number of women jobseeker was still 383 and in 2008, this number has increased to 443. In Nickerie the number of women jobseeker is 71 (54.6%) and the number of men who are looking for work is 45.5%, 59 men.

Table 11.2: Overview of registered jobseekers in Paramaribo & Nickerie 2007/2008 on gender

Paramaribo Nickerie

Year M F Total M F Total

2007 199 383 582 70 61 131

2008 208 443 651 59 71 130

Source: ABS

11.6 Employed population Figure 11.1 shows that many women are employed in administrative functions and in lower service and commercial occupations. In addition, many women have scientific occupations. These data are in line with the graduation results of the Anton de Kom University, which show that more women than men obtain scientific degrees (see Chapter 5, Education)

It is noticeably that men dominate the leadership positions (Figure 11.1). This finding is in line with earlier findings that men are more likely to obtain top-positions (see Chapter 6). The largest share of employed persons is in the age group 25/54 years. They are divided over the different occupations. The figures show that a much larger number of men (78.625) than women (48,052) have an occupation. The age category 15/24 years counts 17,085 persons. 25.6% of these people are women (ABS, Selected Gender Statistics 2009:34).

The figures demonstrate that more women (6545) than men (3111) have jobs in the field of science. About half of the persons employed in elementary occupations are female (8,927). Women are underrepresented in the technical sector, where only 89 out of 9785 persons who find employ in this sector are female. Many women (10,074) have an administrative job. In this sector only 4,056 men are active.

Figure 11.2 presents the working population by occupational group, age group and sex in Paramaribo and Wanica in 2008. In the age group 15-24 year (young persons), 74,4% of the employed persons is a man. This figure is consistent with the finding that girls and women are more likely than men to continue education. In the age group 25-64 year of the active population, 35%-40% of the women are formally employed. For men this figure lies around 60%.

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Figure 11.1: Working Population sector, age and sex in Paramaribo & Wanica 2008

Unknown Elementary occupations Technical professions* Crafts Professionals in agriculture and fisheries Lower service jobs and commerce Administrative Higher & middle level technicians** Women Scientific Men Staff/ Directing

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 Number of workers

Source: ABS

Figure 11.2: Employed population by age and sex, 2008

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40%

% of age group age%of 30% Women 20% Men 10% 0% 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 Totaal Age group

Source: ABS 2009

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11.7 Job-seekers and placement In 2008, a total of 881 persons were registered as being in search of employment (ABS 2009). Of this number, 614 were female and 267 were male (Figure 11.3). De number of women who were placed in that year was 184; a third of the number of female job seekers. Of the males, 154 were placed, which amounts to more than half of the men who were jobseekers. The largest group of women who had registered as a job-seeker were seeking for administrative jobs (249) and service delivery jobs (226). Among male job-seekers, 164 men were seeking for employment in craft-, industry, transport and related jobs, and 50 jobseekers looked for administrative jobs.

Even though few women expressed interest in an agricultural job, the largest group of women who were ultimately placed (63) was assigned a job in this sector (Figure 11.4). Only 16 women were assigned an administrative job, as compared to 30 men. Striking is also that 81 women were assigned a job in the craft-, industry, transport and related sector. Information on the total number of registered jobseekers in this sector is missing.

Figure 11.3. Registered job seekers by sex and education, 2008

University HBO Men VWO MBO Women HAVO teachers' college MULO Lower Technical Education (LTO) ULO ea Elementary school Continued special education (VBO) Special education None

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Number of registered job-seekers (2008) Source: ABS 2009

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Figure 11.4: Number of placements in 2008

University HBO Men VWO MBO HAVO teachers' college MULO Lower Technical Education (LTO) ULO ea Elementary school Continued special education (VBO) Special education None

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Number of job placements Source: ABS 2009

11.8 Unemployment In 2008, 13,082 persons were formally unemployed (ABS 2009)67. Of this number, 9289 or 71 percent were female and 29 percent were male. For adolescents in the age category 15-24, the total number of unemployed persons was 4859. Of this number, 61.2 percent were female and 38.8 percent were male.

Table 11.3 Overview unemployment 2000-2007

Year Unemployment 2000 15226 (14%) 2001 15575 (14%) 2002 11239 (10%) 2003 7817 (7%) 2004 10262 (8%) 2005 14910 (11%) 2006 16769 (12%) 2007 14878 (11%) Source: website VSB

67 ABS, selected gender statistics 2009:33 139

In its policy the Surinamese government has set out several measures to stimulate the employment (Multi Annual Development Plan 2006-2010). These measures have been implemented in the policy of the different ministries. Below some of the activities taken for stimulation of the employment are presented. These are:

Activities to stimulate employment

1. The ministry of ATM will continue its activities with regards to the Social Investment Fund (SIF) in 2010. This project is meant to support the productive but less fortunate and the fight against poverty. The activities are the provision of funds to entrepreneurs for sustainable development and empowerment of the production sector. 2. Project job training for women: training of women as professional painters. The goal is to increase the economic participation and ability of women. The coordination is fully in the hands of the Ministry of ATM. The training was conducted under supervision of ―Stichting Arbeidsmobilisatie en Ontwikkeling‖ (2008). 3. Projects in the scope of the CCPAP: the goal of this project is to increase economic participation and resiliency of women. The coordination is in the hands of the Ministry of ATM and training is conducted by ―Stichting Towards A New Alternative‖ (TANA). In embodies computer training to teen mothers and a course for cleaning ladies, financed by the UNICEF (2009).

Other policy strategies:

1. Since 2008: ―Yep Kraka Yu baka‖ credit for persons wanting to start their own business, but who do not have collateral for a loan. This program provides credit to entrepreneurs without collateral. It is not specifically aimed at women but there are women who apply for a loan. 2. Professional counselling: in collaboration with the municipality of The Hague, it was decided to transform the traditional way of job mediation of the Job Mediation Service (Arbeidsbemiddelingsdienst) of the Ministry of ATM into professional counselling. 3. Installation of the National Board for employment in August 2009. The key task of this Board is to formulate strategies. Based on the formulated strategies, the Ministry will be better enabled to conduct a structured employment strategy which will lead to a solution of the employment issue in the country.

On August 18, 2008, the official launch of the program ―Job market policy‖ took place. This program will be implemented with the support of the UNICEF. The goal of this program is:

1. Improve the link between the supply and demand sides of labour.

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2. Improve knowledge, skills, attitude and motivation of job-seekers which will increase their chances of obtaining a job and a decent wage. 3. Certification of job-seekers. 4. Remove the barriers that job-seekers encounter in entering the job market.

For 2010 there are several policy proposals prepared with regards to employment. These are:

 Preparation of policy intentions to improve employment for adolescents, women and people with a disability;

 Improving entrepreneurship through the policy of professional education for small entrepreneurs.

 Under the auspices of the ―Stichting Arbeidsmobilisatie en Ontwikkeling‖ (SAO) ongoing policies will be continued, with regards to the retraining of (young) job-seekers, financing of professional training activities, promotion and establishment of professional trainings and establishment of a diagnostic centre. These activities will also be conducted in the district of Sipaliwini, which covers a large share of the interior of Suriname.

11.9 Income There are no annual figures based on income, gender and sector. A separate study is required to obtain these figures. It is also unclear to which extend women receive the same wages as men for the same job. The only sector where this information is readily available is the government, because it works with a fixed salary scale. If a person is placed a in certain salary scale, payment for performed duties is based on that scale, regardless of gender68.

11.10 Access to credit To know exactly how many men and women have access to and have obtained credit, a separate study will have to be conducted. The Women‘s Business Group estimates that 80% of creditors are female and 20% male. .

Often, micro entrepreneurs do not have access to credit if they do not have a collateral or bank account, which is the case for the largest share of people in the interior. Credit institutions have not developed products for this group of entrepreneurs. The Women‘s Business Group (WBG) has recently, as the only NGO in Suriname, signed an agreement with Suritrust N.V. that manages the micro credit program of the Ministry of PLOS. By March 2010, the WBG will be operational as a Micro Finance Institute. In addition to distributing loans, they will focus on finance education and their core business: business development training to enable creditors to manage their finances.

68 From a conversation with dhr. Van Dams, staff employee at Stichting Planbureau Suriname 141

Most female and male micro entrepreneurs cannot obtain professional financial advice because such consults are expensive. The WBG has low rates for its services. Even though men can go to the organization for advice, women have preference.

Micro-credit Funds (MKF)

The Micro credits Fund was adjusted on the 01 of february 2010. From the ―verdragsmiddelen, the Nedtherlands has exempted 6 million euor‘s for this fund. Small entrepreneurs can now close loans from Srd.500 till Srd. 6000 with or without security. The MFK-sources will be managed by Suritrust The

loans can be closed by the following organizations: Women Business Group, Sewa, Trustbank en de Spaar- en kredietcooperatie ―De Schakel‖.

Bron: Dagblad ―De Ware Tijd‖, dinsdag 02 februari 2010

11.11 Child day care In Suriname there are 110 registered child day care centres. The Ministry of Social Affairs has made a bill, which must improve the quality of the nurseries. A research which was carried out by this ministry showed that not all child nurseries meet the determined criteria. this law lie still at the Council of Ministers. (Dagblad Suriname, 20 March 2010).

It is practice in Suriname that family members take care of small children to enable the mother to work. The government provides a small service in this area. There are 10 governmental day care centres and 1 kindergarten. The day care centres are located in the working class neighbourhoods e.g. Flora, Latour (2), Sophia‘s Lust, Kasabaholo, Hanna‘s Lust, Uitvlugt, Rensproject, Tourtonne, Geyervlijt and van Dijk (1 day care centre and 1 kindergarten). The contribution is Srd.75 per month (USD 27) and the children are looked after between 6.30 am and 17.00 pm.

Beside the Child day care centres of the government there are also private child day care centres. The compensation of these private day care centres differs and is mostly around Srd. 200 (USD 61.54)/month.

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12 Natural Environment

Suriname is lowly situated and therefore vulnerable to rising sea levels and other effects of global warming. The World Bank Policy Research Working Paper of February 2007 names Suriname in the top-10 of countries that will experience negative effects of the elevated sea levels as a result of warming of the earth. Among the possible effects of climatic changes are the changes in dry and rainy seasons which have been experienced by Suriname in recent years. In addition to a shifting of the seasons, the country also experienced extreme rainfall in 2006 and 2008, which caused severe floods in various parts of the country.

Because of their different roles and positions in society, women and men are affected differently by changes in the natural environment and natural disasters. UNIFEM and the Global Gender and Climate Alliance pose that women in low-income countries are particularly vulnerable to climate change because:

Women‘s everyday activities as managers of household resources — such as water, fuel and food — become increasingly burdensome. As small-scale farmers, they endure environmental stress more often, with far fewer resources than men to cope. […]. And during natural disasters like floods and hurricanes, they count higher among the dead. (UNIFEM 201069)

This description portrays the situation in Suriname, where women –particularly in the interior- carry the main responsibilities for (small-scale) agricultural production, collecting drinking water and fire wood, and providing the daily meals for the family. In this chapter we will discuss government policy with regard to natural disasters, and evaluate whether this policy takes gender into account.

In this chapter we present the government policy and activities vis-à-vis environmental pollution and disasters, and evaluate to what extend gender is taken into account. We start with a brief description of the impacts of anthropogenic environmental changes due to mining and logging on women and men.

12.1 Logging Logging and related activities (sawing, wood refining, administration, research, etc) employ 5 percent of the Suriname labour force. Logging concessions cover about 15 percent (2.5 million ha) of Suriname‘s land mass70. About 0.5 million ha of forest have been issued as wood cut

69 http://www.unifem.org/partnerships/climate_change/ 70 This figure excludes logging licenses extended to local communities, such as the woodcutting licenses (houtkapvergunning-HK) and community forests (gemeenschapsbos) 143 licenses (HKV71) and community forest. These titles are issued to the benefit of local communities and constitute 17 percent of the area that has been given out as forest concession.

Even though the forestry law of 1992 formally recognizes the ―customary rights of the tribal peoples of the interior‖, several Indigenous and Maroon villages are situated in or on the edge of logging concessions. For many years, lack of consultation with these communities in combination with weak regulatory and control mechanisms has been a source of conflict.

In the past 10 years officials of the governmental Foundation Forest management and Forest supervision (Stichting Bosbeheer en Bostoezicht -SBB) have more often advised against the issuance or renewal of concessions on locations that are overlapping with villages. Furthermore, a substantial part of North Suriname is now closed for logging. Despite these positive developments, Indigenous and Maroon families still do not have any guarantee that they will continue to have access to the forests that they depend upon for their livelihoods in the near future. By law, these traditional communities have no rights to the lands they have lived on and used to plant, hunt, and collect forest products for centuries.

The issuance of forest concessions on or near Indigenous and Maroon communities has a tremendous impact on these forest peoples. Women are particularly impacted by the lesser availability of agricultural lands because they are responsible for the subsistence plots, which provide the largest share of family food. The destruction of hunting grounds affects men and their families. Because women are less likely than men to earn cash income, they have fewer options to compensate for the loss of harvests by buying city produce.

12.2 Mining The current Mining Decree of 1986 contains the legal regulations regarding exploration and exploitation for minerals in Suriname. This decree is deficient in its provisions to protect the (customary) rights of interior populations (Heemskerk 2009). The only clause that refers to Indigenous peoples and Maroons is Article 25b, which states that the request for an exploration concession must contain: ―a listing of the villages of tribal peoples on and near the requested terrain‖ (Republic of Suriname 1986: 16). This phrase does not offer any legal protection. In the contrary, the inhabitants of the named villages are ―obliged to allow the mining title holder to execute activities in line with his acquired right on the named terrains: (a) given that they title holder has informed them in time … [and] (b) against a prior granted or guaranteed indemnification …‖ (ibid: 32-33, Art. 47).

The law also states that the interests of ―third parties … [will be] considered to the extent deemed reasonable‖ and ―minimally damaged‖. ―Reasonable‖ and ―minimal‖ are not defined though. Hence it is not necessary that communities that will be affected by mining activities are

71 This title is no longer issues but existing titles remain intact. 144 consulted, have a say in, or agree with issuance of the concession. Even the mentioned minimal provisions are often neglected. Mining concessions are regularly extended on tribal lands without prior notification, and indemnification is generally insufficient or absent (Heemskerk 2009).

12.2.1 Large-scale mining Large-scale mining is the backbone of the Suriname economy. The bauxite industry accounts for 15 percent of GDP and 70 percent of export earnings. The opining of a large-scale goldmine at Gross Rosebel in 2004 has even increased the economic importance of mining. Today, gold production from this mine constitutes almost half of Suriname gold exports. Due to the current high prices of gold, royalties from gold mining have become an important source of income for the Suriname state.

In issuing the Gross Rosebel concession, local inhabitants of the area were minimally taken into account. The village Nieuw Koffiekamp is situated in the concession, and different other villages are located on its edge or share the watershed with the company, including: Brownsweg, Balengsula, Tapuripa, Brokopondo, Klaaskreek, and Kwakoegron. The arrival of Iam Gold (before Cambior and before that Golden Star) has severely limited the freedom of movement of the local population. Villagers now need company approval to enter the concession area, which previously was part of their hunting grounds and agricultural lands. Due to these developments Maroon women are severely limited in their most important productive task: agriculture. Also for local men who work as small-scale gold miners the potential working area has diminished. Iam Gold has made a part of its concession area available to local gold miners but the area is too small to provide a working spot for all interested miners.

Rosebel Goldmines NV (RGM), as the local mine operation of the mining multinational Iam Gold is named, employs between 800 and 1200 persons, including women. Because the local people are typically not highly educated, they usually perform the lowest paid unskilled jobs. Local women often work as cleaning ladies.

(Potential) conflicts over land use are less an issue in the case of the bauxite mines of Suralco (a daughter firm of the US-based ALCOA) and the oil mines of the Suriname oil company Staatsolie. During exploration activities of BHO Billiton in the Bakhuis Mountains in West Suriname (2007-9) the local population did express concern about its effects in hunting, fishing, and subsistence agriculture. According to an anonymous employee of the company, male employees of the mining firm did have sexual contacts with local indigenous women and girls. In 2009 Billiton left the area because it failed to come to an agreement with the government about the conditions for mine development.

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12.2.2 Small-scale mining In the period 1998-2008, gold purchases from small-scale gold miners show a rising trend and were, on average, 13 tonnes a year (C. Healy, pers. com. April 2010, based on data from the Centrale Bank of Suriname). About 12.000 persons work as small-scale gold miners; or 8% of the working population (Stichting Planbureau Suriname 2003). At least as many persons work in the mining service economy as deliverers of good and auxiliary services such as transportation, cooking/food provision, sex work, and the repair and maintenance of machinery.

About 5 to 10 percent of those working in mining are women (Heemskerk 2003). Some women work as mine owner and/or supervisor. Maroon women in such higher functions were usually raised and educated in the city. Most women, however, work in the service sector. They constitute the majority of cooks, and are also well represented among the (travelling) merchants as bar and restaurant holders. In addition, all sex workers in the mines are women.

The proportion of women varies per mining area. In some places, such as Benzdorp and Pakira creek, there are gold miners‘ villages (curatela) where women live with their families and often small children. In these areas, women have a wide variety of businesses ranging from bars and hotels to pharmacies and beauty parlours. In the Sella creek mining area, by contrast, there are only a few Maroon women, who mostly work in the local brothel.

The presence of commercial sex workers is not always appreciated by the local population. The recent closure of the Djuka creek, for example, was partly motivated by increasing aversion of the Ndyuka Maroons against the presence of brothels near their villages. Across the river from the village of Faandagi, for example, there is a brothel with Brazilian women. Local area inhabitants complain that school youth is drawn to these places. In addition to the negative influence on values and norms, the commercial sex industry brings health risks. A recent study among commercial sex workers in Paramaribo found that 3.8 percent of female sex workers tested positive on HIV (Heemskerk and Uiterloo 2010). It is not likely that sex workers in the mining area do better. In the contrary, the relative more difficult access to condoms; aversion against condoms among local men; and the absence of HIV/AIDS prevention campaigns elevate the HIV-infection risks in the mining areas.

12.2.3 Mercury pollution Among the different forms of environmental pollution caused by small-scale gold miners, mercury pollution has generated most public, media, and scientific attention (Heemskerk 2009). Gold miners use mercury (Hg), which amalgamates with gold, to separate gold from the remaining soil particles. The gold is retrieved again by heating the amalgam, whereby the mercury evaporates and gold remains. The process is effective, simple, and cheap (1kg Hg costs ~1g gold). Mining experts estimate that gold miners use more or less one kg mercury to obtain

146 one kg gold. When the gold reserves are getting less rich, miners tend to use somewhat more mercury to capture even the finest grains (Heemskerk en Olivieira 2003).

Gold miners are in contact with mercury in different stages of ore processing (Heemskerk en Olivieira 2003). They:

 Hold mercury in their hands when placing it in the sluicebox.

 Remove abundant mercury from the amalgam by placing it in a cloth and squeezing it. This way one captures mercury for future use.

 Remove abundant mercury from the amalgam by placing it in a cloth and sucking it. This way one captures mercury for future use.

 Inhale mercury vapours when heating the amalgam.

 Wrench the leaves that covered the gold pan during heating in order to save the mercury.

Mercury ends up in rivers and creeks because gold miners spill the substance and through rainfall. In the waterways, mercury is taken in by micro-organisms at the bottom. During this process, inorganic mercury transform in the very toxic organic mercury or methyl-mercury. Methyl-mercury bio-accumulates in the food chain as small fish eat the micro-organisms and large fish, in turn, eat the small fish. Villagers living near mining areas risk mercury poisoning by consuming polluted fish. It is very unlikely that one suffers from mercury poisoning because of drinking water with mercury.

Acute mercury poisoning by absorption of mercury by the body is characterized by problems with the digestive system, stomach and intestine cramps, throwing up, and watery or bloody diarrhoea. People risk chronic or methyl-mercury poisoning as a result of prolonged consumption of polluted fish or prolonged absorption of mercury by the skin and membranes. Chronic mercury poisoning affects the central nerve system and can cause Minamata disease. In all Suriname groups that have been tested for mercury pollution, levels of mercury that exceed the World Health Organization safe levels of 10 µg/g have been found (Ouboter et. al, 2007). Especially among the Wayana indigenous peoples of Apetina and the Lawa River, mercury levels are worrisome.

A high level of mercury is particularly dangerous to pregnant women, where it may damage the unborn child or result in miscarriage. In Suriname there has not been thorough research on the relation between mercury contamination and the birth of children with a mental or physical disorder.

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12.2.4 Water pollution For interior populations, water pollution is the most visible and important problem associated with small-scale gold mining (Heemskerk and Olivieira 2003). Due to the continuous turnover of river and creek beds and the discharge of mine tailing into the rivers, water near mining areas is turbid. Clean water is very important for villages in the interior, not only to drink, but also to cook, bath, and wash clothes and dishes. Even though there are different sources of water – including garbage, motor oil, and human waste- small-scale gold mining is the main culprit. Down streams of small-scale gold mining areas, the water is often no longer suitable for human consumption, and sometimes even for bathing. Medical consequences are, among others, increasing cases of diarrhoea and skin complications.

For women, who are responsible for the household water provision, local water pollution means a lot of extra work and worries. In order to find clean drinking water, women now have the paddle far to an unaffected creek. Without outboard motor, which few women can afford, such a trip can take several hours. In addition, children are more likely to fall ill when they swallow polluted water during bathing. Because women have the care over children, frequent child illness reduces the production capacity of women.

The increased siltation of streams also affects the quality if the water ecosystem. The destruction of living and breeding places and interference with foraging strategies harm the health of fish and other aquatic animals. The quality and quantity of the fish population affect the diet of Maroons, who largely depend on fish for protein.

12.3 National Action Plans The government of Suriname has two kinds of actions plans with regard to (disastrous) events related to ecological processes. In order to better anticipate the possible effects of climate change, the Ministry of Labour, Technology, and Environment has drafted a Climate Change Action Plan (Klimaatverandering Actieplan). Among others, this Plan points at the importance of secure spatial planning as a basis for the execution of protective measures in the coastal zone.

Secondly, the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Management (Nationaal Coördinatie Centrum Rampenbeheersing - NCCR) has developed a National Disaster Plan (Nationaal Rampenplan) to coordinate activities of the government and NGOs in the case that natural disaster strikes. At present the National Disaster Plan is on the desk of the Council of Ministers for approval. Prior to approval, no detailed information about its contents can be provided (NCCR, pers com, 4 November 2009).

The NCCR is charged with activities at the time of disaster. Nevertheless, from its experiences with the floods of 2006 and 2008 (see below), this organisation also has provided the government with recommendations for preventive measures. In this context, the government has recommended to interior peoples to go live further removed from the River and on higher

148 grounds. In addition, the NCCR is establishing an early flood warning system in various villages. With the aid of sounding rods with colour codes, community members themselves can read the water level and estimate the risk of flooding.

Neither the Climate Change Action Plan nor the National Disaster Plan explicitly differentiates between women and men. Neither of these Plans refers to gender issues into account and hence there is no recognition of the fact that Climate Change (and Natural Disasters) can have different consequences for women and men (M. Silos, Suriname environment and climate expert, pers. com. 15 December 2009).The NCCR does emphasize that in practice, the special needs of particularly vulnerable groups such as elderly, people with disabilities, children, and women are taken into account.

12.4 The flood of 2006 Early May of 2006, Suriname was hit by heavy rainfall. This caused severe flooding along the Suriname, Tapanahoni, Lawa, and Marowijne Rivers. At least 175 villages were affected and 70 villages were for the largest part under water, causing the houses and/or agricultural plots of an estimated 25.000 people to be flooded. In some villages the water level rose by five meters. Houses and household goods were destroyed or washed away by the strong current; tools such as chain saws were destroyed; and harvests were lost. The NCCR web site reports at least three deaths; all children (NCCR website, consulted 2 Nov. 2009).

In 2008 the area experienced another flood but this time less dramatic. Exact counts of the number of victims do not exist. The Maroons and Indigenous peoples are very mobile, and during the flood many moved (temporarily) to family on higher grounds- in Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil. On the other hand, family members from elsewhere came to the affected areas to receive the food packages that were distributed.

In her evaluation of the effects of the flood, NCCR looked at different factors, namely:

1. The number of people whose houses and agricultural grounds were flooded 2. Drinking water and sanitary facilities 3. Economic activities 4. Schools that were closed (through MINOV) 5. Clinics that were closed (through MZ)

The analysis of effects does not differentiate between men and women. It is probable, however, that the flooding of Agricultural fields has particularly affected women because traditionally they are the primary care takers of the agricultural grounds. The loss of harvests and valuable seeds and plant materials has been detrimental to their productive activities and has given them a lot of additional work. The loss of collected firewood and the difficulty of finding clean water suitable for drinking and cooking only aggravated the burden on women as a result of the flood.

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Om May 8 2005, the NCCR started operation Falawatra to coordinate support activities for the victims of the May flood. The Centre could count on the help of 1300 volunteers and various NGOs, government services, and semi-government institutions to distribute, among others, food parcels (Table 8.1), water, tents, tools, gasoline and kerosene, chlorine tablets, and medication. The majority of food aid went to the Tapanahoni (13,778 parcels) and Upper-Suriname (12,234 parcels) areas. In composing the food and hygiene parcels, the specific needs of different target groups such as women and children were taken into account.

Table 8.1 Number of food parcels distributed

NGO parcels 4,322 Red Cross parcels 4,323 Venezuelan parcels * 6,000 NCCR parcels 16,442 TOTAL 31,087

* NCCR re-divided and added to the contents of 2000 Venezuelan parcels to make 6,000 parcels for distribution Source: NCCR 2009

Operation Falawatra (2006) lasted about two and a half months. Between 9 May and 19 August, about 900 aid workers were flown in. The working capital of NCCR was about 3.5 million SRD. 2 Of this money, about /3 was used for transportation, and particularly flights to the interior (NCCR website, consulted 2 Nov. 2009). In addition to national organizations (e.g. Suriname Red Cross, Medische Zending-PHC, the BOG, and NGO‘s within the so-called ‗Interior Consultation Organ‘) also entities from abroad supported Operation Falawatra. These included the Dutch government, the cities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the Belgium Government, and various private initiatives.

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13 Health Health problems differ for women and men. These differences are partly due to biological factors, and partly to gender inequalities in the care given to girls and boys; the social and economic position of women; cultural factors, and access to health care. In this chapter we discuss these differences.

The chapter not only looks at health status, but also at knowledge, attitudes, and practices in the area of health, with particular focus on Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH). These issues are particularly relevant in the context of Suriname‘s obligations to the CEDAW convention. This convention emphasizes that governments must ensure that women and girls receive necessary and appropriate education and information about sexual health through its articles on education, health, and the elimination of discriminatory cultural practices and stereotypes (UNIFEM 2001; see Box 1- section 13.4).

In the first section we take a look at government policy regarding health care and the status of this care at a national level. Next we compare the life expectancies and mortality rates for women and men. In this section we also discuss suicides, a societal problem that occurs relatively often in Suriname. In 13.3 we talk about different illnesses and their prevention and treatment. These include malaria, measles, tuberculoses, and diarrhoea. Sexual and reproductive health is being discussed in the concluding sections of this chapter.

13.1 Health general

The Constitution of the Republic of Suriname states that (Art. 36): ―1. Every individual has a right to health. 2. The state promotes public health care through systematic improvement of living and working conditions, and information provision to safeguard good health‖.

13.1.1. Public expenditures on health As stated in the Constitution, the Suriname government aims to offer equal access to health care to the entire population, regardless of ethnicity, age, or sex. In 2009 the expenditures of the Ministry of Health were 3.5 percent of total government expenditures (Ministry of Finance, governmental budget 2009). Also counting the medical expenses for the poor and very poor and the contribution to medical devices of the ministry of Social Affairs and Housing, government expenses on health amount to 6.9 percent of the total government expenditures (ibid.). In 2007

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Per capita public spending on health was 391 USD (PPP int. USD; WHO 200972). In comparison with other countries in the Caribbean, Suriname‘s government health expenditures are rather low. In 2006, public spending on health in Guyana, Cuba, Trinidad and Barbados was respectively 144 USD, 674 USD, 863 USD (2005), and 1208 USD per capita (PPP int. USD).

13.1.2. Health Insurance Health insurances and related expenses constitute a significant share of total government expenses on public health (42.8%). Health expenses of the poor and very poor73 are covered by the state after registry with the Ministry of Social Affairs, which provides the so-called ―sociale zaken kaart‖ (social affairs card). The social affairs card is coupled to automatic registry with the State Health Insurance (Staatsziekenfonds, SZF) program. Because more women than men are registered as poor and very poor (See Chapter Economy), relatively more women than men are insured for medical expenses through the state. In the past couple of years, more than 100,000 persons, or one fifth of the total population, were as poor and very poor obligatory insured through the SZF. This number exceeds the number of people who voluntarily obtained a SZF or private insurance plan (e.g. Self reliance, Assuria, AZPAS) (Table 13.1). These data are not available by sex.

Table 13.1 Number of persons with health insurance

Year SZF obligatory SZF voluntary Private insurance 2005 109,613 13,122 40,744 2006 110,400 14,761 44,057 2007 103,222 24,343 48,620 Source: Ministry of Health, undated (2008?)

A large share of people who do not qualify for free SZF or free medical care that is offered by the Medical Mission in the interior is uninsured (ProHealth 2007; 14.7% in surveyed neighbourhoods). Men (18.3% not insured) are more likely than women (11.1%) to have no health coverage.

The General Health Insurance (AZV), which the Ministry of Health seeks to implement, should dramatically reduce the number of uninsured citizens. The aim of this new social care system is that every Suriname resident has access to basic medical care (website Min. of Health74, 2009).

72 WHO National Health Accounts, country information. http://www.who.int/nha/country/en/ 73 These categories (in Dutch: ‗onvermogenden‘ (very poor) and ‗minvermogenden‘ (poor)) are used by the Ministry of social affairs to register right of access to special allowances such as social welfare 74 http://www.volksgezondheid.gov.sr/azv.html 152

13.1.3 Main problems in health care Unhealthy eating and insufficient exercise are important causes of disease in Suriname. On a national level cardiovascular diseases are the number one cause of death. The Ministry of health does not expect this pattern to change in upcoming years (Website Ministry of Health, 200975). Another, related disease is diabetes. Especially type 2 diabetes, which is associated with obesity and insufficient physical activity, is reaching epidemic levels. Complications related to sexual and reproductive health (SRH) are problematic throughout the country. There are, however, few concrete figures on issues such as abortions, teen pregnancies, problems related to pregnancy and birth, and HIV/AIDS (see 13.4 and 13.5). Table 13.4 provides a list with the most important causes of death in Suriname.

In the interior, a main health system problem is that specialist treatment is not possible. Patients in need of such treatment have to travel to the capital city, and this trip is only covered by the Medical Mission Primary Health Care Suriname (MZ) in the case of medical emergencies. Unless there is a coincidental empty spot on an MZ charter flight, the expenses of travel to the city are for the patient‘s account. When the costs of housing and food are added, treatment in the city is far beyond the budget of interior inhabitants. For this reason patients from the interior often do not seek timely treatment for complications, which consequently are worsening. The most frequent illnesses in the interior are airway infections and diarrhoea.

13.2 Birth, Life Expectancies, and Death

13.2.1. Sex ratio Sex Ratio (SR): Ratio of males to females in a population. The primary sex ratio is the ratio at the time of conception; the secondary sex ratio reflects the number of boys in relation to the number of girls at time of birth; and the tertiary sex ratio is the male-female ratio in the entire population. Among humans it is assumed that the natural sex ratio at birth is 105 boys versus 100 girls.

Generally, each year slightly more boys than girls are born, but the difference is small (Table 13.2). With the increase in age, girls and women are taking over, and the sex ratio is becoming less equal. The sex ratio for the entire population (tertiary sex ratio) was for the census of 2003 and 2004 slightly above 101 (men per 100 women). These figures demonstrate that the often heard proposition that there are many more women than men in Suriname has no empirical basis.

75 http://www.volksgezondheid.gov.sr/infopatientenhartenvaat.html 153

Table 13.2 Sex ratio at birth Boys Girls Sex ratio 2007 4889 4880 1,00 2006 4722 4589 1,03 2005 4453 4204 1,06 Source: Live births. Centraal Bureau voor Burgerzaken

13.2.2. Life expectancies and death

Adult Mortality Rate: Probability of dying between 15 to 60 years, per 1000 population. Infant Mortality Rate: the number of infant deaths (one year of age or younger) per 1000 live births. Child Mortality Rate: Probability of a child born in a specific year or period dying before reaching the age of five, per 1,000 live births.

Reducing infant mortality and reducing child mortality are important goals among the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the World Fit for Children (WFFC) goals

All indicators demonstrate that women, on average, get older than men and are less likely to die before reaching a certain age (Table 13.3). This trend is already evident immediately after birth. According to both the MICS76 and WHO data, more boys than girls die before reaching the age of one or the age of five (Table 13.3). No explanation is given for this difference, which calls for further investigation.

The Ministry of Health does not collect data on infant and child mortality by sex, ethnic group, or urban versus rural population. Figures of the BOG, the bureau that registers Suriname‘s death cases, suggest that both infant mortality and child mortality have not changed much in recent years (Figure 13.1). An exception is the year 2001, when a remarkable reduction in both figures is observed. We do not know how to explain this dip, or whether it indicates a real reduction in mortality rates or is the result of underreporting. In evaluating these figures it must be taken into account that newborns who decease prior to their registration with the Central Bureau Citizens‘ Affairs (Centraal Bureau Burgerzaken, CBB) do not appear in the statistics of newborns and infant mortality. Data from the MICS 2006 indicate that in the interior, 6.7 percent of children under 5 years of age are not (yet) registered. In the rural coastal areas 3.3 percent of children of this age are not registered, and in Paramaribo this is the case for 2.5 percent of children younger than 5 years.

76 The particular figures or the size of the difference are not stated. 154

Figure 13.1 Child mortality and infant mortality, 2000-2008

35 0 Child mortality, under 5 year /00 30 (per 1,000)

20 18.7 15

10 Infant mortality, under 1 year (per 1,000) 5

0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008*

Source: Epidemiology-Bureau Public Health (BOG) National Health Information System –Ministry of Health

The most important causes of child mortality (<5 years) are: 1. External causes (e.g. accidents, traffic accidents) 2. Acute bronchial infections 3. Congenital diseases and disorders

As age increases, men are increasingly more likely than women to pass way (Table 13.4). According to data from the General Bureau of Statistics, the life expectancy at birth is 67.4 for men and 72.8 for women. In other words; women live, on average, five years longer than men (Algoe, Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, NHIS, pers. Com. 18 November 2009)77. The life expectancies for both women and men have increased as compared to 1980, when the life expectancy for men was 64 years and for women 71 years. WHO figures for 2007 are comparable (Table 13.3). The Healthy Life Expectancy at birth (HALE) is 58 for men and 64 for women (World Health Organization 2009; 2007 data78).

Healthy life expectancy (HALE) at birth (years) = Average number of years that a person can expect to live in "full health" by taking into account years lived in less than full health due to disease and/or injury.

The chance at birth to become 65 years old is 66.4 percent for men and 77.7 percent for women. These figures place Suriname for women on the 73th place of 159 countries worldwide (UN

77 Source: Bevolkinsprojecties voor de Republiek Suriname 2004 – 2024, ABS 2008 78 World Health Organization Statistical Information System (WHOSIS). URL: http://www.who.int/whosis/en/ 155

200179). Adult mortality is 27 percent for men and 16.4 percent for women (WHO 2009; 2007 data). The chance to pass away before reaching the age of 40 is 12.4 percent for men and 7.8 percent for women (ABS 2009: 36)

Table 13.3 Mortality Indicators

Indicator Men Women Source/ Year Life expectancy at birth (2004) 64.4 72.8 ABS 2005 Life expectancy at birth (2007) 66 73 WHO 2009 Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE) (2007) 58 64 WHO 2009 Adult Mortality Rate (2007) 27% 16.4% WHO 2009 Probability at birth of reaching age 65 66.4% 77.7% UN 2001 Probability of dying before reaching age 40 (2007 data) 12.4% 7.8% ABS 2009 Infant mortality (per 1000 live births <1 year) 32 22 WHO 2009 Child mortality (per 1000 live births <5 year) 33 24 WHO 2009

13.2.3. Causes of death Cardiovascular diseases head the list of most frequent causes of death among women and men (Table 13.4). Together with malign neoplasm (e.g. cancer) and diabetes, cardiovascular diseases are counted among the so-called non communicable diseases (NCD). In Suriname and other Caribbean countries, this disease group causes the majority of deaths.

The Ministry of Health considers that fact that external causes are the second most frequent cause of death ―worrisome‖ (Ministry of Health, undated). Men are more likely than women to die as a consequence of such external causes. For women, malign neoplasm forms the most frequent cause of death, followed by complications during the perinatal period and diabetes mellitus.

In the past five years, the listing of the most frequent causes of death has remained virtually the same (BOG 2009)

79 Source: UN (United Nations). 2001. World Population Prospects 1950-2050: The 2000 Revision. Database. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. New York. 156

Table 13.4. Top ten most important causes of mortality for men and women, 2007

Men N (%) Women N (%) # 1 Cardiovascular diseases 482 (28.3%) 366 (28%) 1 2 External causes (accidents, violence and suicide) 265 (15.6%) 99 (7.6%) 5 3 Malign Neoplasm (cancer/ malign tumours) 163 (9.4%) 147 (11.2%) 2 4 Perinatal complications 138 (8.1%) 113 (8.6%) 3 5 Diabetes Mellitus 88 (5.2%) 101 (7.7%) 4 6 HIV/AIDS 85 (5%) 57 (4.3%) 6 7 Acute Bronchial Infections 63 (3.7%) 40 (3%) 7 8 Complication in the urinary tract 43 (2.5%) 27 (2%) 8 9 Liver cirrhoses and chronic liver complications 34 (2%) 10 Congenital disorders 19 (1.4%) 21 (1.7%) 9 Chronic lower airway infections 18 (1.4%) 10 Other complications 321 (18.9%) 320 (26.2%) Total 1701 (100%) 1309 Source: BOG (2009) Doodsoorzaken in Suriname

13.2.4 Suicide In comparison with other countries Suriname has a high suicide rate. In 2008, the district of Nickerie in West Suriname even ranked third among regions worldwide with the highest suicide rates. In 2007, the Bureau of Public Health (BOG) registered 119 cases of suicide, which corresponds with 32.7 percent of deaths as a consequence of ―external causes‖. In the two previous years, 112 cases were registered. The person committing suicide was in 73 percent of cases male and in 70 percent of cases of Hindustani descent. Suicide was most frequently committed by taking pesticides (57.1%) while in a quarter of cases the person had hung him or herself.

Suicide figures are consistently higher among men than among women. As far as we could ascertain, no research has ever been conducted in Suriname to explain this difference. Scientific articles about other countries have pointed out that women more often do suicide attempts, while men more often die as a result of suicide. The high rate of suicide attempts among women has been attributed to the higher frequency of mood disorders among women, such as heavy and chronic depressions and dysthymia.

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13.3 Important diseases, prevention and treatment Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 4: Reduce child mortality by two-thirds between 1990 and 2015

World Fit for Children Goal: Ensure full immunization of children younger than one year of age, at 90 percent coverage nationally, with at least 80 percent coverage in every district.

13.3.1. Vaccination

Vaccination is crucial in the reduction of child mortality. In Suriname children are not inoculated against TBC. All boys and girls receive the measles shot as part of the BMR vaccination after their 1st birthday. In 2007 and 2008, BMR coverage of children younger than 18 months was 85 percent (National Health information System, 200980). The Ministry of Health does not publish these figures by sex. The MICS 2006 does provide vaccination data by sex based on a sample of 412 children in the ages 18-29 months. In 2006 were, according to this survey, 81.8 percent of boys and 80.4 percent of girls immunized against measles. In the interior children are being vaccinated at the MZ clinics. In 2008, 79 percent of boys (N=590) and 78 percent of girls (N=569) between 1 and 2 years of age in the interior received a BMR vaccination.

Figure 13.2 Vaccination coverage children 0-1 year (1998-2008) 95 90 85 80 75 70 65

% vaccinated % Diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus (DPT3) 60 Oral Polio Vaccin (OPV3) 55 Mumps, Measles, Rubella (MMR) 50 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Source: Republic of Suriname, MDG report 2010

80 Maltie Algoe pers. com., 18 november 158

Longitudinal data show that in the most recent three years for which data are available (2006- 2008), vaccination coverage of children between 0 and 1 year of age has remained constant (Figure 13.2).

According to data of both the ICDP+10 report and the MICS 2006, vaccination coverage is in the rural areas and in the interior higher than in Paramaribo. In 2006, 82.9 percent of children (18-29 months) in Brokopondo en Sipaliwini had been vaccinated against measles, as compared to 78.3 percent of children in Paramaribo (MICS 2006, sample N=412). This difference is possibly due to the close contact of the MZ Primary Health Care staff with their clients. All standard vaccinations for children are being financed by the Suriname government (100%).

13.3.2. Diarrhoea World Fit for Children Goals: - Reducing by one half deaths due to diarrhoea among children under the age of five, between 2000 and 2010.

A major contributor to child illness and death is diarrhoea. Annually 1.87 million children under the age of five die of diarrhoea. As such, diarrhoea stands at the second place of most frequent causes of death for this age group, and is responsible for one out of every five (19%) deaths among these young children81. Effectively treating diarrhoea by providing an oral rehydration solution or a comparable home treatment and continued feeding can prevent many of these deaths (MICS 2006).

In 2000, the MICS estimated the prevalence of diarrhoea among children in the interior at 25.6%. Six years later this figure was slightly reduced (20.6%; MICS 2006). At a national level there is hardly any difference in diarrhoea prevalence between girls (11.1%) and boys (10.1%) in the ages 1-5 years.

Among children under five years of age with diarrhoea, 45.4 percent of boys and 42 percent of girls received oral rehydration solution (ORS) from a package (MICS 2006). Compared to urban residents, people from the interior more often give their children with diarrhoea oral rehydration treatment (ORT) (23.9% versus 70.4%). The difference may be explained by the Medical Mission PHC policy to give every patient with diarrhoea ORS with instructions for preparation and intake. The patient must return after 2 to 3 days for check-up.

In addition to giving ORS, parents and other care takers also treat their children with home remedies, especially when the diarrhoea does not seem severe. The MICS 2006 reports that 46.3 percent of girls and 34.3 percent of boys with diarrhoea in the survey sample were drinking more

81 Boschi-Pinto, Cynthia, Lana Velebit and Kenji Shibuyac. 2008. Estimating child mortality due to diarrhoea in developing countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 86:710–717 URL: http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/9/07-050054.pdf 159

(Table 13.5). About half of boys and girls continued to eat, or were eating a little less than usual (resp. 49.7% tegen 47.5%). When considering the full treatment of diarrhoea, it shows that just over one quarter of girls and boys both drank more (ORS or other liquids) and continued to eat (29.9% versus 25.1%) (MICS 2006; Table 13.5). The UNICEF estimate that on a national level, 28 percent of children under five with diarrhoea are receiving oral rehydration and continued feeding (period 2000–2007) is consistent with these figures (UNICEF website 201082)

Table 13.5. Girls and boys between 0 and 59 months with diarrhoea and their treatment

Children with diarrhoea who… Sex of Had diarrhoea Received Oral Drank At just a little Received ORT or the child in the past Rehydration more less, the same, or drank more AND two weeks Solution more than usual received (ORS) continued feeding (package) Girls 10.1% 42% 46.3% 47.5% 29.9% Boys 11.1% 45.4% 34.3% 49.7% 25.1% source: MICS 2006: 89-90

13.3.3. Malaria In the past five years, the number of malaria cases has been dramatically reduced as a result of an intensive intervention campaign of the Ministry of Health (Fig. 13.3). In 2003 and earlier years, it was not uncommon that more than 10,000 cases of malaria were reported per year. In 2007 and 2008, by contrast, less than 1500 people tested positive on malaria (Table 13.6). The real difference is probably even higher because many more people have been tested in recent years due to the intensive malaria campaign of the Ministry of Health. As a result not only symptomatic cases have been tested and cured, but also people who were carrying the parasite but did not show disease symptoms.

The Annual Parasite Incidence (API=(confirmed cases during one year/research population)*1000) is an international indicator to measure the severity of malaria in a country. In five years time, Suriname‘s API has dropped from 214 (2003) to 30 (2008). The malaria mortality figure has been reduced from 5.9 (per 100,000) in 1995 to one single case in the most recent years for which data are available (2006-2008) (Table 13.7). Figures on malaria incidences and malaria death are not available by sex.

The number of malaria cases among children under five reduced from 3393 in 2001 to 48 in 2008 (ABS et al. 2009, in: MICS 2006: 37). In 2006 55 percent of households in the interior districts of Brokopondo and Sipaliwini owned at least one insecticide treated bed net. In the

82 . At a glance: Suriname. URL: http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/suriname.html 160 interior about half of girls (48.1%) and boys (48.3%) under five years of age are sleeping under an impregnated mosquito net (ABS at al. 2009. MICS 2006: 99). A large share of these bed nets are nets that have been distributed by the Medische Zending PHC as part of the Global Fund programme against malaria. Another approximately 10 percent of girls and boys are sleeping under a mosquito net that has not been impregnated.

Figure 13.3 Number of cases of malaria 2000-2008

14000

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000 Number of malariaof Number patients 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Source: Medische Zending PHC data, provided by Ministry of Health, NHIS, 2009)

Table 13.6. Frequency of malaria in the interior All patients in the interior API Malaria* 1995 10500 210 2000 7230 144.6 2001 12197 243.94 2002 9342 186.84 2003 10713 214.26 2004 8488 169.76 2005 8846 176.92 2006 3859 77.18 2007 1137 22.74 2008 1487 29.74 *Annual parasite Incidence= (confirmed cases during one year/research population)*1000 Source: Government of the Republic of Suriname, MDG Progress Report 2009

Everyone who comes to the MZ clinics in the interior with malaria symptoms is tested and receives, when positive, treatment at no cost. The MICS 2006 reports that 4.3% of boys and

161

1.1% of girls with fever in the two weeks prior to the research received malaria treatment. It is unclear whether this difference is due to more boys being infected with malaria, or by the fact that boys with malaria were more likely than girls with this illness to receive proper treatment. The latter is unlikely.

Table 13.7. Malaria mortality 2004-2008

Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Number of mortal cases 7 2 0 1 0

Source: Doodsoorzaken in Suriname , BOG 2009 Since 2009, local inhabitants of gold mining areas have been trained to test for malaria and provide medication in the gold mining areas, as part of the Global Fund/Ministry of health program ―Looking for Gold, Finding Malaria‖. Every person who comes to the Malaria Service Deliverer (MSD) is tested for malaria and received appropriate medication for free. Interviews with gold miners and others working in the mining areas suggest that a large number of women and men is not tested and prefer to but over the counter medicine (i.e. Artecom) in the local pharmacies and supermarkets. The number of people who take malaria medicine without prescription is not known.

13.3.4. Tuberculoses The number of TBC cases increases slightly between 2005 and 2007 (Table 13.8). The tuberculoses mortality figure is 2 per 100,000 inhabitants. TBC data are not available by sex.

Table 13.8 Tuberculoses cases by type of TBC (not available by sex)

TBC indicator 2005 2006 2007 2008 Cases of lung tuberculoses (A15-A16) 97 102 107 - All other forms of tuberculoses (A17-A19) 10 14 17 - All forms of tuberculoses (A15-A19) 107 116 124 - Tuberculoses prevalence, per 100,000 inhabitants 21.4 23.2 24.8 22.1 Mortality associated with tuberculoses, per 100,000 1.6 1.2 1.4 2.1 inhabitants Source: Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, undated (2008?) en Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Health Related Millennium Development Goals – Update 2009

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13.4 Sexual and reproductive health Good Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) requires ―…the promotion of healthy, voluntary and safe sexual and reproductive choices for individuals and couples, including such decisions as those on family size and timing of marriage.‖ (Millennium Project 200683). Improving SRH is key to reaching the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Three out of eight MDGs refer directly to SRH: MDG 4 about the reduction of child mortality; MDG 5 about improvement of the health of mothers; and MDG 6 about the battle against HIV/AIDS. In this section we will discuss maternal mortality, births, teen pregnancies, the use of contraceptives, and abortions. HIV/AIDS, which also relates to SRH, is the main topic of the final section.

13.4.1. Maternal mortality

Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 5: Reduce maternal mortality by two thirds between 1990 and 2015

Between 2000 and 2004, Maternal mortality reduced from 153 to 88.3 (per 100,000 live births) (Figure 13.4). In the three subsequent years, the number of maternal deaths fluctuates, with a sudden and unexplained peak of 184.3/100,000 in 2007. In 2008 the maternal mortality rate lowered again to 77.2/100,000. The Ministry of health does not differentiate maternal mortality by ethnic group or district.

The main causes of maternal mortality are: 1. PIH -Pregnancy Induced Hypertension (High blood pressure) 2. Excessive blood loss (fluxus or haemorrhagia postpartum (HPP)). 3. Complications of pregnancy, delivery, and puerperium (post-partum)

The grand majority of maternal mortality occurs during and in the period directly following delivery. The presence of a health worker with special skills in the area of deliveries (e.g. midwife, doctor, nurse) is critical in reducing the chance that a woman dies at her childbed.

According to the Ministry of Health, 85 percent of births in Suriname are being assisted by a qualified health worker (NHIS 200984). The MICS 2006 gives a slightly higher figure based on a sample of 776 women who delivered a child in the two years preceding the survey. Ninety percent of these deliveries were assisted by skilled health workers, and 88.3 percent took place in a health institution.

83 MillenniumProject 2006. Public Choices, Private Decisions: Sexual and Reproductive Health and the Millennium Development Goals. Achieving the Millennium Development Goals. By Stan Bernstein with Charlotte Juul Hansen. United Nations Development Programme. http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/documents/UNMP_QA_SRH.pdf 84 Algoe, Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, pers. com. 11 November 2009 163

Table 13.9. Share of births in urban areas, districts, and the interior that is assisted by qualified health workers

2000 2006 Kind of assistence during delivery Urban Rural Interior Total Urban Rural Interior Total Doctor 31.1% 32.5% 7.1% 24.0% 28.5% 23.7% 18.6% 25.8% Midwife 49.5% 49.2% 11.2% 37.6% Nurse 12.1% 8.3% 6.1% 9.3% Nurse/Midwife 62.6% 64.0% 50.6% 60.7% Assistant midwife 3.7% 3.2% 2.3% 3.3% Community health workers 0.0% 0.0% 43.9% 13.6% 0.2% 0.0% 19.1% 3.6% Traditional healer/midwife 0.0% 1.7% 25.5% 8.3% 0.0% 0.0% 6.7% 1.2% Family/Friend 1.3% 2.7% 2.2% 1.7% No answer 6.3% 7.5% 6.1% 6.6% 3.2% 5.1% 0.0% 3.0% No help 1.1% 0.8% 0.0% 0.7% 0.4% 1.2% 0.6% 0.6% Qualified health worker 92.6% 90.0% 68.4% 84.5% 94.8% 90.9% 71.4% 89.8%

Source: MICS 2000 en MICS 2006 (2009), also cited in MDG rapport 2010

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The chance that a woman is assisted during delivery by a trained health worker is largest in the urban areas (94.8%) and smallest in the interior (71.4%) (MICS 2006; Table 13.9).

The MZ reports that in 2008, the largest share of deliveries (83.2%) occurred under the guidance of Western educated health workers, such as the health assistants in MZ clinics (56.8%), hospital staff (23.6%), a medical doctor (0.2%), or a clinic aid (2.6%). Eleven percent of women were during delivery assisted by a traditional midwife, and 1.3% had no special assistance. The MZ figures concern 1018 deliveries of the in total 1575 babies that were born that year (64.6%). For about a third share of the deliveries (35.4%) of interior inhabitants there are no data available (Source: MZ unpublished data, pers. com. 4 January 2010)

Figure 13.4. Maternal mortality rate, per 100,000 live births

200 180 160 maternal mortality rate 140 120 100 80

60 Maternalmortality

(per 100,000 life born) (per100,000 40 20 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Source: NHIS, Ministry of Health, pers. com. November 2009

Health services related to child birth are free of charge in Paramaribo city and the coastal districts if the women have obtained a ―sociale zaken kaart‖ (social affairs card) from the Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing (SOZAVO). The policy of the Ministries of Health and SOZAVO is that any pregnant woman who cannot bear the expenses related to child birth can request a social affairs card, which provides access to free medical care. Women from the interior need to be registered with the Medical Mission PHC to qualify for free ante and postnatal care.

13.4.2 Fertility rate There are different ways to measure fertility in a population. A generally used measure of the fertility rate is the number of live births per woman in the age group 15 to 49 years. Between 2005 and 2007, the fertility rate in Suriname has remained constant at 2.5 (Table 13.10)

Another commonly used measure is the Total Fertility Rate (TFR). This figure is an expression of the number of children the average woman would have if she lives her full reproductive lifetime, which in conventional international statistical usage is ages 15–44 or 15-49. Over a longer period

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of time the TFR has decreased strongly. In 1964, the average number of children per woman was 7.1. By 1972, this figure had dropped to 5.51 and a decennium later, in 1980, it was 3.37. By 2000, the TFR had decreased further to 2.57 (Ministry of Health, undated (2008?)). The decrease in TFR is probably largely due to the increased education of women and the increased availability and usage of contraceptives.

After 2000, the TFR has decreased slightly to 2.39 in 2007 (Table 13.10). TFRs have fluctuated in the past years though, and between 2005 and 2007 we see a slight increase; from 2.15 in 2005, to 2.30 in 2006, to 2.39 in 2007 (ABS 2009a).

Table 13.10. Fertility rates in Suriname, 2007

Indicator Value General Fertility Rate (GFR); 73.57 The number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age per year. Total Fertility Rate (TFR); The number of children an average women would 2.39 have assuming that she lives her full reproductive lifetime. Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR); The average number of female children a 1.19 woman would have if she survived to the end of her childbearing years and if, throughout that period, she were subject to a given set of age-specific fertility rates and a given sex ratio at birth.

Source: ABS 2009

Each year, there are 73.6 live births per 1000 women. Also the General fertility Rate (GFR) has been fluctuating between 2000 and 2007. Hence there is no clear indication of an increase or decrease of fertility. The Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR) for 2007 is 1.19. This rate provides a measure of the replacement fertility of a population in the absence of mortality. Whether the GRR is high enough to replace a country‘s population depends on mortality rates. A GRR of one (1) means that each generation of mothers has given birth to exactly the number of daughters to replace itself in the population, if all women would live at least to the age of 45.

The Ministry of Health indicates that even though fertility rates have dropped at a national level, there are significant discrepancies between different socioeconomic and ethnic groups. Table 13.11 shows the number of children per women by ethnic group. The table shows that Maroon women have, on average, more children than women from other ethnic groups. 3.6 Percent of Maroon women has ten or more children; among other population groups (except for the group ―unknown‖) less than 1 percent of women has this many children. A third share of Maroon women between the ages 12 to 64 has four or more children; among other ethnic groups the percentages of women with this number of children is about 20 percent, and among women of ―mixed descent‖ only 12.4 percent.

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With 2.8 children per woman, the fertility rate among the Maroon population is higher than average (2). ―Mixed decent‖ women have, on average, the lowest number of children (1.4 in 2004) (Table 3.11)

Table 13.11. Women in the ages 12-64 by number of live born children and ethnic group, 2004 (Percentages)

Number of Maroon Creole Hindustani Javanese Mixed Other Unknown Total children (CEB) 0 33.6 36.3 33.9 29.0 43.2 30.1 27.7 33.9

1-3 31.2 41.2 43.3 47.5 40.8 41.2 27.2 40.5

4-6 19.0 14.4 16.7 16.7 10.3 16.7 13.9 15.7

7-9 10.8 3.5 2.8 3.0 1.6 4.2 6.9 4.3

10-11 2.7 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.2 1.0 1.7 0.8

12+ 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2

Unknown 1.9 4.0 2.8 3.3 3.8 6.7 22.2 4.5

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Average # 2.8 1.8 1.9 2 1.4 2.1 1.9 2 children Source: adapted from: Fertility and Mortality, 2006 ABS Suriname in Cijfers no 219-2006

Table 13.12. Birth and fertility indicators

2005 2006 2007 Birth rate (per 1,000 persons) 17.7 18.7 19.4 Fertility rate (live births per 1,000 women 15-49 yr) 2.5 2.5 2.5 Mortality rate (Number of stillborns per 1,000 births) 17.6 14.6 13.7 Source: Ministry of Health, undated (2008?)

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13.4.3. Teen pregnancy

Many adolescents become sexually active as a teenager. In surveyed Suriname neighbourhoods and districts, women are, on average, 16.5 years old and men are 14.5 years old when they have their first sexual contact (ProHealth 2007). In the far interior of Suriname this age is often much lower. A research to sexual and reproductive health in the Trio indigenous village of Kwamalasamutu reports that some girls are sexually active from the age of nine, and boys from the age of 10 or 11 (Heemskerk and Uiterloo 2008). During these early sexual contacts anti- conception is not consistently used, and as a result a significant share of teenage girls in Suriname becomes –wanted or unwanted- pregnant.

On a national level, on average 16.1 percent of all pregnancies was a teenage pregnancy in the period 2003-2007 (Ministry of Health, undated; Figure 13.5). Research by ProHealth (2007) shows that particularly in poor neighbourhoods and districts, a huge number of teenage girls become pregnant. In the district Brokopondo, the village Moengo, and the urban quarter Latour, respectively 40%, 31%, and 30% of surveyed teenage girls (15-19 yr) had been pregnant at least once (ProHealth 2007). The population in these areas is primarily of Maroon descent. In the small cities of Nickerie and Lelydorp, which are somewhat wealthier and have another population composition (resp. mostly Hindustani and Javanese), the number of teen pregnancies is still considerable yet much lower (resp. 12% en 17%). In Kwamalasamutu, there are girls as Young as 12 or 13 who get pregnant but there are no figures about their numbers (Heemskerk and Uiterloo 2008). In many cases these pregnancies were unplanned.

In 2007, 1,550 young women in the ages 15-19 year became a mother (from 9,769 deliveries) (Table 13.13; Figure 13.5). For 1,131 of these women this was the first time that they had carried a child. In other words, slightly more than 1/5 of these young women had been pregnant before (regardless of whether it was completed). Regional differences in the number of teen pregnancies are large. Thirty-five percent of 15-19 year old women in Brokopondo are mothers; 24 percent in Moengo; and 21 present in Latour. On the other hand, ‗only‘ 7 percent of this age group is a mother in Nickerie. The WHO (2009) estimates the teenage fertility rate for Suriname at 63 (per 1000 girls in the ages 15-19 year).

An overview of pregnancies by age group (Table 13.13) shows that most teenage pregnancies are carried by older teenagers (19-19 yr). Pregnancies of young teenagers (10-14 yr) represented in 2007 0.7 percent of all pregnancies. In addition to teen pregnancies, also pregnancies of women over the age of 40 are considered ‗high-risk‘ pregnancies. In 2007, pregnancies among women from this age group represented 2.6 percent of all pregnancies.

In 2008 in the interior, the clinics of the Medische Zending PHC Suriname reported 264 girls in de ages 15 to 19 year who became a mother (not counting stillborns). This means that 17 percent of all deliveries registered by MZ were by teenagers. For 114 girls in this age group this was their 168

first delivery (9 % of all pregnancies) (MZ pers com. 4 January 2010). We must comment that among the Maroons and Indigenous peoples, adolescents are considered adults at a relatively young age. A recent Masters research from ADEKUS stipulates that for the Indigenous people of Kwamalasamutu, a girl is considered adult when she is about 13 years of age (Koolen 2009). At that age she is ready for marriage and hence a pregnancy is in the community no longer considered a teenage pregnancy. For the Maroons at Guyaba the cut off age is 16; in this community, a pregnancy is considered a teenage pregnancy is considered a teenage pregnancy of the girls is younger than 16 years of age (ibid).

Table 13.13. Pregnancies by age group Age group 2005 2006 2007 Comment 10-14 67 64 65 High risk pregnancy 15-19 1368 1384 1485 High risk pregnancy 10-19 1435 1448 1550 teenage pregnancy 20-24 2476 2783 2818 25-29 2142 2302 2487 30-34 1576 1645 1716 35-39 814 863 943 40-44 188 224 243 High risk pregnancy >44 26 20 12 High risk pregnancy Unknown 0 26 0 Total 8657 9311 9769 Source: Ministry of Health, undated (2008?): 15

The ages of the boys and men who impregnated teenagers are not registered and there is no information about this subject matter.

The government supports different initiatives to make teenagers more conscious about their sexual behaviour and related risks. These programs aim, among others, to reduce the number of pregnancies among teenagers and/or girls still attending school.

Classes in sexual and reproductive health are part of the curriculum of grade 5 and 6 of elementary school, and are being continued at middle school level. Through the Basic Life Skills programme, the Ministry of Education integrates information about HIV/AIDS and SRH in the existing curriculum. This happens at all educational levels, both in Paramaribo and in the districts. In 2007, 11 out of 282 schools gave at least 30 hours of Basic Life Skills training to 5th en 6th graders.

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Figure 13.5. Teenage (15-19 yr) motherhood as a percentage of the total number of deliveries of live borns, and the share that concerned a first pregnancy. 18.0 16.0 16.6% 15.9% 14.0 15.6% 12.0 10.0 11.6% 9.8% 8.0 9.3% 6.0

4.0 1st pregnancy

% deliveries % 2.0 0.0 2005 2006 2007

Source: Ministry of Health, NHIS, Bureau Openbare Gezondheidszorg, pers. Com. 2009

In collaboration with the Basic Life Skills programme and the organization ―Peer Educators‖, the project Student mothers (Scholierenmoeders) of the Directorate Youth Affairs, Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing, gives trainings in responsible sexual behaviours at schools. In the academic year 2008-2009, one LBGO school started as pilot. It is foreseen that this initiative will be extended in the upcoming school years.

Also various NGOs such as Foundation Lobi and ProHealth promote consciousness of SRH among youth. In the marginalized urban quarter Latour, Foundation ProHealth is executing a project focused on empowerment of young Maroon women. This target group was selected because unsafe abortions, unwanted pregnancies, and the wrong use of contraceptives occur disproportionally often in this group. Information transmission does not occur in the traditional classroom style, but rather through activities that are of interest to the target group such as beauty and hair care. These trainings in practical skills are linked to information sessions about SRH, family planning (in collaboration with Stg. Lobi), healthy partnerships (with Man Mit Man), HIV/AIDS (with NAP) and professional possibilities. An effort is made to also include the people who are housing the woman and the partner. (Goeding, Pro Health, pers. com. 17 December 2009)

In 2007, the same foundation started a programme with adolescents in the Maroon village Brownsweg (District Brokopondo). One of the goals is to reduce teenage pregnancies among young girls (13-17 years). Teenage girls are taught skills to become more resilient, such as self- consciousness, life planning, working together, and verbal skills. Information about SRH is being

170 integrated in this information. The Foundation hopes to extend the (pilot) project within Brokopondo district (Jurgens, Pro Health, pers. Com. 17 December 2009). Both projects work with peer educators.

The government does not have special programmes to draw boys and men into efforts to combat teen pregnancies. Boys are an integral part of the classes and information sessions at school. Programs of the Foundation Man mit Man, the Women‘s Rights Centre (WRC), and Foundation Lobi do pay attention to awareness rising among boys and men. In the interior, information about SRH is being delivered by the Medische Zending PHC. HIV/AIDS, contraceptives, and the prevention of (teenage) pregnancy are part of these sessions.

It is not known whether the abovementioned programmes have had an impact. At any rate, we do not witness a reduction in teenage pregnancies between 2005 and 2007.

13.4.4. Contraceptive prevalence

Contraceptive prevalence rate= the percentage of women between 15-49 years who are practising, or whose sexual partners are practising, any form of contraception

Few detailed studies about contraceptive prevalence exist in Suriname. The most extensive study in this area is the Suriname Contraceptive Prevalence Survey (CPS) which was executed 18 years ago (Jagdeo 1992). An update of this research is important to draw empirically grounded conclusions about needs and behaviour related to contraceptive use.

At the time of the 1992 CPS about half (49.3%) of women in the ages 15-44 in a relationship (marriage, concubinage or steady partner) used contraception. In 2006 a comparable number of women in the ages 15-49 years reported using contraception (45.6%) (ABS et al. 2009 -MICS 2006, table RH.1, p. 117). The 42.1% contraceptive prevalence mentioned by WHO for the period 2000-2006 is comparable (WHO 200985). There are large differences in contraceptive prevalence between the coastal area and the interior (Figure 13.6). In the coastal zone, including Paramaribo, about half of women in a relationship (or her partner) are using some form of contraception, versus only 14.6 percent of women in the interior (ABS et al. 200986). These differences have not decreased in the past 20 years (Figure 13.7)

85 Health Related Millennium Development Goals. http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS09_Part1.pdf. Het cijfer geeft percentage vrouwen die gehuwd zijn of in concubinaat leven, die op dat moment minstens een soort anticonceptie gebruikten 86 -MICS 2006, tabel RH.1, p. 117 171

The number of existing children plays a role in a woman‘s decision whether or not to use contraceptives; women without any children are least likely to use contraception (22.6%), versus more than half of the women with two (57.2%) and three (56.2%) children. Women with four and more children are again less likely to use contraception. The SCPS (1992) reports similar results. This latter group probably (partly) exists of women who are not at all involved in family planning.

Figure 13.6 Contraceptive prevalence among women ages 15-49 years in a steady relationship

None 14.3

Elementary school 38.4

Middle school 51 Education

Higher 56

contraceptives % women using women %

Rural, interior 14.6

Rural, coast 49.6 Location

Urban 47.6

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Source: MICS 2006, table RH.1, p. 117

Consistent with worldwide findings, the MICS 2006 finds that a woman‘s education is an important determinant in predicting her use of contraceptive and number of children (Figure 13.6). Higher educated women are four times more likely than women without formal education to use contraception.

In total, 45 percent of women (15-49 yr) in a steady relationship use contraceptives (2006 data, Figure 13.7). Contraceptive prevalence is highest en virtually equal in the urban areas and coastal districts. In the interior contraceptive prevalence is low; only 13.9 percent of women in a steady relationship uses contraceptive (ibid.).

Recent research among youngsters (10-24 years) finds that only 60 percent of the sexually active study population (N=732) used contraceptives during the latest sexual contact (ProHealth 2007). In virtually all areas and age groups, relatively more men than women reported the use of contraceptives (ibid).

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Figure 13.7. Contraceptive prevalence in 1992, 2000, en 2006. 60

50 1992 49.3 50 51 49.5 45 46.8 45 2000 40 42.1

2006 49 jaar in eeninjaar 49 - 30

20 20 17

10 13.9

huwelijkrelatievasteof % vrouwen% 15 0 Suriname Stedelijke Rurale gebieden Binnenland Ruraal en gebieden binnenland

Source: Republic of Suriname, MDG report 2010

Suriname women (15-49 years) in a steady relationship prefer the pill as a contraceptive (27.3%) (MICS 2006; Figure 13.8). Another much used method is female sterilization (9.1%). Fewer women use condoms (3.9%), the IUD (1.5%), injections (3.1%), or other methods. The number of sterilizations among men is negligible. The MICS 2006 data indicate that 90.3 percent of couples that use contraceptive choose for female methods. This finding suggests that in Suriname, the use of contraception is primarily considered the woman‘s responsibility.

Education, age, location, and the number of children of the woman influence the selection of a 1 certain type of contraceptive (Figure 13.8). The pill is preferred among young users (+ /3 of women 15-34 yr) while women over the age of 35 relatively more often choose for (female) sterilisation. This latter method is relatively more in use among women with more children; 17.5 percent of women with three children and 19 percent of women with four or more children choose for sterilisation (ABS et al. 2009). Among youth the condom is much used as well; not only to prevent pregnancy but also to protect against HIV. A ProHealth (2007) study finds that 80 percent of sexually active youth (10-24 yr) from marginalized neighbourhoods used a condom during the latest sexual contact. Oral contraceptive (pill) comes second (17.2%), while virtually no-one reports the use of an IUD or injection.

In the interior, oral contraceptives (pill), microgynon injections, and condoms are the most used contraceptive methods. There are, however, no concrete figures on the absolute numbers or percentages of users (Drs. Jaglall, MZ, pers. com. 1 December ‗09). In comparison with women from the urban areas and the coastal zone, women in the interior are more passive when it comes

173 to family planning. Getting children is perceived as one‘s ‗fate‘ or a ‗gift of God‘, and not as something that can be actively controlled or influenced.

The MZ extends information about the use of contraceptives and distributes these free of charge in the interior. Health workers from this organizations observe that many men have an aversion against wearing condoms, and sometimes against the use of contraceptives in general (Drs. Jaglall, MZ, pers. com. 1 December ‗09). Reasons to not use a condom (for men and women) in both the city and the interior are among others: lack of money to buy condoms; shame; (perceived) reduction of sexual pleasure; condoms break, lack of control over sexual desires; more belief in traditional medicine; and a fatalist attitude (‗fate determines‘) (ProHealth 2007).

Figure 13.8. Contraceptives used by women aged 15-49 yr in a steady relationship (2006), by education 100% Other 90% Withdrawal 80% Temporary abstinance 70% Condoms 60% Injections 50% IUD 40%

30% Pill

20% Male sterilisation

10% Female sterilisation

0% No contraceptives No formal Elementary Middle/High Higher education school school education

Source: ABS et al. 2009 (MICS 2006, table RH.1. pg. 117-118

In the urban areas, the first reason -a lack of money- has largely been taken away by the Nationaal AIDS Programme which is distributing condoms free of charge through different distribution points. Male- and female condoms are being distributed by NAP itself, as well as via NGOs, various pharmacies, and from condom machines at strategic locations in the city centre. In the interior the Medische Zending PHC Suriname is handing out condoms free of charge. Many youngsters hesitate, however, to get condoms in their community clinic because they cannot be obtained anonymously and sometimes health workers are criticizing their sexual behaviours. The government also pro-actively distributed condoms among certain high risk

174 groups, such as commercial sex workers (via Stg. Maxi Linder). In the period 2005-2007, NAP, health workers, and NGOs distributed about half a million male condoms, using UNFPA donor funding. The Ministry of Health of started in this period a campaign for the introduction and spread of the female condom. About 100,000 female condoms have been distributed through different channels.

Despite a lack of data about condom use in the different ethnic groups, Suriname has developed a condom distribution plan and a national condom policy. A national contraceptive survey focusing on condom use seems very important for the adequate execution of this policy. For other contraceptives there is no central distribution plan. The policy plan of the National Bureau Gender Policy (NBG) mentions abolishment or modification of a law that prohibits reaching contraceptives to youth and prisoners. No actions have been performed in this area.

13.4.5. Family planning National demographic trends show that many women want to postpone a (next) pregnancy or else do not want any children anymore. According to the MICS 2006, 64 percent of women who are married or living in concubinage have a need for contraception. Forty-six percent of the women in a steady relationship also use contraceptives, but almost a fifth of these women indicated to have an unmet need for contraceptives (Figure 13.9). Among the women with an unmet need, two thirds (67.9%) would like to use contraceptives to limit the number of children, while a third share (31.5%) wanted contraceptives for birth spacing.

Age plays an important role in the wish to have (no) more children (Figure 13.9). For young women (<30 years) the main reason for contraceptive use is to space births, while older women are more likely to use these methods in order to limit their number of children. The average age of the Suriname woman to have a first child is 21 years (Nickerie.net 2009)87. In the interior women are, on average, 18 years of age when they have their first child (MZ pers. com. 4 January 2010). On average, women in Suriname have 2.4 children (UNICEF 2009; 2007 data88).

An important factor in family planning is the attitude of the man involved (Jagdeo 1992). Results of the contraceptive prevalence survey of 1992 (SCPS) indicate that communication about sexuality and family planning is far from open; 39 percent of women in a steady relationship (ages 15-44) had never spoken with her partner about the use of contraception. Not discussing family planning within the relation appeared particularly problematic among teenagers (15-19 years; 55.4%).

87 Nickerie.net, 26 september 2009. Demografische data van Suriname anders bekeken.http://www.nickerie.net/News2009/2009-09-25-%20nnet%20- %20Demografische%20data%20van%20Suriname%20anders%20bekeken.htm 88 UNICEF website. At a glance: Suriname. URL: http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/suriname.html 175

Figure 13.9 Percentage women in the ages 15-49 years who are married or live in concubinage, with an unmet need for contraception.

25 For limiting births 6.8 For birth spacing 20 5.1

8.4 16.5 16.6 15 17.2 16.8 16.6 11

% women women % 10.4

5 4.3 2.1 0 1.2 0.2 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 Age group

Source: ABS et al. 2009 – MICS 2006, table RH2, p. 119

Also ethnicity and related cultural factors affect communication about sexuality. Among Maroon women, three quarters had never talked with her partner about family planning. The level of education of the woman also affects communication within the relationship. More than half of women who had either no formal education or not gone beyond elementary school had never discussed contraceptive use with her partner, while this subject matter was taboo for ‗only‘ 20.2 percent of higher educated women. Among the women who had discussed family planning with the partner, 86 percent reported that the partner agreed to the use of a contraceptive method. The study that produced these figures was conducted more than 15 years ago and it is possible that communication within relationships has become more open in recent years,

Virtually nothing is known about men with regard to their uses and needs in the area of contraceptives. We do not know how many men use contraceptives and for what reason; what percentage of men would like to use a contraceptive method but does or cannot do it; and what share of men in a stable relationship would like to space births or not have any more children. In the context of family planning policy it is important that thorough research will be conducted among men, their attitude towards having children, and contraceptive prevalence.

Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) play an important role in the delivery of SRH related care, services and information. The most prominent NGO is Foundation Lobi, which operated clinics in Paramaribo, Lelydorp, Moengo, Nickerie, and Commewijne (mobile unit). Foundation Lobi offers a broad package of services in the area of SRH, including family planning, preventive cervical and breast cancer research, contraceptives, and HIV testing and counselling (ICPD 2009). This Foundation reaches and provides information to its target audience through its

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library, outreach activities, folders and posters, peer education programmes, and television jingles (Table 13.14). In January 2009, Foundation Lobi signed an agreement with the Suriname government which stipulates that this Foundation is responsible for the SRH policy in Suriname.

Table 13.14. Selected activities and results of Stg. Lobi, 2006

Activity/Indicator Result Topics Behavioural change with regard to SRH Different SRH education activities met their respective goals Users of the library 1,189 Requests for information and counselling about SRH 1,204 Persons reached by outreach activities 13,763 Materials produced and distributed 3,100 Youth empowerment Number of youth who have been reached by peer educators 4800 or peer education programs Awareness of SRH and rights among adolescents Number of TV programs produced and aired 8 Written materials produced and distributed 4175 Source: Overheid van Suriname, undated (2008?)

13.4.6. Abortions

Abortion occurs frequently in Suriname. The above mentioned contraceptive prevalence survey from 1992 among 717 women from different ethnic groups and different districts reports that 11.2 percent among women who have ever used a contraceptive method has had at least one abortion (Jagdeo 1992; Figure 13.10). Most of these women were of indigenous descent. Creoles and maroons came respectively second and third in the ranking of women who had had an abortion. Women in the ages 30-34 years were relatively more likely to have an abortion as compared to women in their teens and twenties. In that same year, a poll from the Institute for Demographic Research in Suriname (IDOS) found that a quarter (25%) of women who had been pregnant at least once had had an abortion at least once in her lifetime (in: Jagdeo 1992).

Five years later (1997), Foundation Lobi estimated the annual number of abortions at between 8.000 and 10.000; a figure that is comparable to the annual number of pregnancies (Prohealth 2006). More recent estimates speak of between 5.000 and 10.000 abortions per year (Drs. Julia Terborg, in: Koole 2009). These figures indicate that between 4.3 and 8.6 percent of women in the ages 15 to 44 years has had an abortion.

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In the study ―Youth and their Health‖, ProHealth finds that seven percent of youth (15-24 yr) who have been pregnant at least once, have had an abortion. We observe that a relatively larger share of teenagers (15-19 yr; 13.1%) than young adults (20-24 years; 5%) has had at least one abortion. This finding suggests that in comparison with women from a previous generation, today‘s teenage women are more prone to abortion. Regional differences are large. In Nickerie, for example, relatively few teenage girls get pregnant, but among those who do, a large (28.5%) is having an abortion. In areas where the number of teenage pregnancies is high (Latour, Moengo, en Brokopondo) teenagers are more likely to have the baby. .

The Medische Zending PHC Suriname, which delivers health care in the interior, registers for all women who visit the clinics for prenatal control whether the woman has had an abortion before. In the period 2004-2008, 87 percent of pregnant women in the interior reported to have never had an abortion. Nine percent of women had had one abortion; three percent reported two abortions, and one percent had experienced three or more abortions (MZ unpublished data, pers. com. 4 January 2009).

Figure 13.10. Percent women in the ages 15 to 44 years who have committed at least one abortion, by age group and ethnic background. Only women who have used some form of contraception were surveyed (N=717).

20 20,4 20,7

15 16,5 14,1 13 10 9 9,4

5 % vrouwen % 1,5 3,7 0

Leeftijdsgroep etnische groep source: Jagdeo, T.P. 1992. Suriname Contraceptive Prevalence Survey. Stichting Lobi: Paramaribo, Suriname: 71

Age and ethnic background play an important role in the probability that a woman ever committed abortion (Figure 13.10). One out of every five women in the ages 30-34 has had an abortion, versus merely 1.5 percent of teenagers (15-19 years). In comparison with other

178 population groups is abortion most common among Indigenous peoples, Maroons, and creoles most common. Also education influences the chances that a woman has an abortion; in comparison with women who have not been to school or not gone beyond elementary level (16.5% has had at least one abortion), fewer women who have been educated at VOJ (11.2%) or VOS (10%) level have experienced an abortion (Jagdeo 1992). ProHealth (1997: 114) reports different reasons for committing abortion:  Was still in school and did not yet want a child.  Partner had another relation.  Partner did not want a child and put the pressure on the girl to have it removed.  Parents did not approve of the pregnancy.

Youth in the district of Sipaliwini added several other justifications for having an abortion (not necessarily the personal experience):  In case of rape  If the health of the pregnant woman is in danger  If the child is not wanted  If the male partner abandons the woman  If the father is unknown  In case of HIV infection

In the new Moral Law, the premature termination of a pregnancy is still considered a crime against life. Nevertheless, in practice abortion is tolerated by the government, performed openly by gynaecologists, and socially accepted (ProHealth 2006). To date, legal prosecution and the punishment of persons committing abortion has not occurred.

Abortions in the districts researched by ProHealth were in most cases performed with professional assistance of a gynaecologist (53%) or a general practitioner (13%) (ProHealth 2007). For women from poor families this treatment is too expensive (if not adequately insured) and in the interior there is oftentimes no possibility to have an abortion by a skilled doctor. Hence in socioeconomically more marginalized families, abortion frequently occurs without professional assistance (Koole 2009). In the ProHealth research, 20 percent of women had performed an abortion with home remedies, and another seven percent had aborted herself (ProHealth 2007). The latter happens quite often in the interior. Health workers in the Trio villages of Tepu and Kwamalasamutu indicate that home abortions constitute a serious threat to sexual and reproductive health among the indigenous populations in the far interior:

―A substantial number of girls who become pregnant from the ‗wrong‘ (in their own or their parent‘s perception) man abort the foetus …. They may obtain forest medicine from the shaman; squeeze the foetus out; and/or to stick a long sharp straw or stick into the uterus…. By doing so several girls have gotten infections

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and inflammation of the uterus. In a few cases their condition was so severe that they had to be transported to the capital city for medical treatment. …Fear for a severe beating from the parents and aversion to marry the man in question are among the main reasons for a girl to prematurely terminate her pregnancy‖ (ACT 2008)

The report ―Sexual and Reproductive Health in Kwamalasamutu‖ (ACT 2008) further conveys that not only young girls but also middle-aged women are having abortions in this indigenous village. Reasons for older women to have an abortion are that they -for the time being- do not want any more children (birth spacing or limitation) or that they have become pregnant from an extramarital affair.

Many women who have had an abortion, with or without adequate medical assistance, experience long-lasting health problems as a result (ProHealth 2007). Especially home abortions present enormous risks and may lead to lasting infertility or even death. Experts in the area of SRH argue for the decriminalization of abortions and the development of regulation, so that pregnancies may be terminated in a medically responsible matter, if such should be necessary.

13.4.7. Maternity leave

The Constitution of the republic of Suriname poses in Article 29: ―It is the duty of the state to…. Offer special protection at the workplace for women during pregnancy and after delivery …‖ (Ch. 4, 4e section, Art. 29). Article 35 states: ―Working women have a right to maternity leave while keeping their salary.‖

For civil servants paid maternity leave is regulated in SB 1990 No 36. and S.B. 2003 no 77. This law determines that: a. Pregnancy leave lasts between six weeks prior to delivery and six weeks after delivery, b. After consultation with a doctor, the female public worker can continue to work up to two weeks prior to delivery, so that she has a right to take ten weeks paid leave after delivery.

At present, the GOS is developing a law on maternity leave. This law should increase, among others, women‘s choice in the use and planning of the maternity leave. Cases are known where pregnant women working in the private sector got fired after becoming pregnant. In other cases, an obligatory pregnancy test was part of the application procedure. It is unknown if and to which extent the proposed law will be able to eliminate the mentioned abuses.

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13.5 HIV/AIDS

13.5.1. HIV Prevalence HIV prevalence is difficult to estimate because only a small section of the sexually active population gets tested. These are both people who take a voluntary HIV test, and pregnant women who are all tested as part of the prenatal control. Among tested persons, prevalence is slightly higher among men than among women. Male prevalence decreased from 8.55 percent (of tested men) in 2005 to 5.56 percent in 2006 en 2007. Also among women we observe a slight decrease in sero-prevalency, from 3.01 percent in 2005 to 2.65 percent in 2007 (Figure 13.11).

Figure 13.11. Prevalence sero-positive people by sex

Prevalentie positieven naar geslacht 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2005 2006 2007

Prevalentie mannen Prevalentie vrouwen

source: Ministry of Health, Stijnberg pers. com. 17 December 2009

A large share of the men and women in reproductive ages are not tested. UNAIDS (2008) estimates sero-prevalence rates among young (15-24 yr) men and women respectively 2.7 percent and 1.4 percent. With these figures Suriname‘s sero-prevalence rates are highest on the Latin American continent and in the top three within the Caribbean. Since the first case of HIV was discovered in Suriname in 1983, the number of HIV positive persons has increased (Figure 13.12). 2007 marks the first year that we see a decrease in the number of sero-positive men and women (13.12 and 13.13). In 2007, 85 men and 57 women died off the consequences of AIDS in Suriname (Figure 13.14). Since 2002, after years of rising numbers of AIDS-related death, AIDS mortality rates are fluctuating around 90 cases for men (with an exceptional peak in 2005) and 55 cases for women. In 1997 HIV/AIDS was rated 10th on the list of most frequent causes of death in Suriname. A few

181 years later, between 2003 and 2005, HIV/AIDS had moved up to the 5th place. In 2006 and 2007, HIV/AIDS ranked 6th on the list of most frequent causes of death.

Figure 13.12. Number of HIV-positive cases, by sex, 1983-2007

Aantal HIV-positieven naar geslacht

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007

Mannen Vrouwen Totaal

Source: Dermatological service

Figure 13.13: Number of HIV-positive cases by sex, 2004-2007

500 450 Mannen 400 435 Vrouwen 412 350 300 332 307 305 250 281 271 200 230 150 100 Aantal HIV+ personenHIV+ Aantal 50 0 2004 2005 2006 2007 Jaar source: ABS 2009. Geselecteerde Genderstatistieken

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In the interior new HIV cases are being registered by the Medical Mission PHC. A large number of tested persons are pregnant women. MZ data suggest that sero-prevalence is higher among Maroons than among Indigenous peoples. (Table 9.4). The figures show a slight increase in sero- prevalency among the Indigenous patients in 2008, in comparison with preceding years. Among the Maroons, by contrast, we observe a slight decrease in new HIV cases. Among certain at risk groups, sero-prevalence rates are much higher. Among commercial sex workers (CSW), men prove to be particularly vulnerable to HIV infection. A 2004 study among CSW in Paramaribo found that more than a third of male CSW (36.2%) and one out of every female CSW (21.1%) were HIV-positive (PAHA/CAREC and SMLA 2005). A more recent study among CSW (Heemskerk en Uiterloo 2009) found a larger gender difference; 69.3% of male CSW in the study (N=13) versus ‗only‘ 3.8 % of women (N= 236) were found sero-positive.

Figure 13.14 AIDS-related mortality, 1997-2007

140 130

120 Men

Women 99 100 100 88 85 77 78 80 74

60 48 65 46 61 55 57 51 51 40 30 43 45 38 20 20 0 11 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Source: MDG report 2010

Table 13.5. Prevalence (per 1000 registered) of new HIV cases, per year by ethnic group 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Indigenous 0 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 Maroons 7.1 2.9 4.3 4 2.8 2.1 Source: Medische Zending PHC Suriname, unpublished data. Pers. Com, 1 Jan. 2010

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13.5.2. Knowledge about HIV/AIDS In general the Suriname public is reasonably informed about HIV/AIDS. Research shows that 91.3 percent of youth is familiar with the concept ‗HIV‘ (ProHealth 2007). When asked about ways in which HIV may be transmitted, the larger share of surveyed youngsters mentions sex without a condom (69%). Other known transmission forms are blood-blood contact (32.7%) and through (dirty) needles (8.3%). Three quarters of youth mentioned ‗use a condom‘ or ‗always use a condom‘ as a ways to prevent HIV infection (57%). Forty percent of women and 18.6 percent of men (15-24 yr.) had taken an HIV test.

In the interior knowledge of HIV/AIDS is somewhat more limited. One fifth share of women (20%; 10-24 yr) and 16.2 percent of men say they do not know what AIDS is. Especially in the 2 indigenous village of Kwamalasamutu, knowledge on HIV/AIDS is low; /3 of men (66.7%) and 87.1 percent of women from this Trio indigenous village do not know what AIDS is. Along the Upper Suriname River (Saramacca Maroons) and the Tapanahoni (Ndyuka Maroons) knowledge on HIV is even better than among trained youngsters from Latour, Brokopondo, Nickerie, Moengo, and Lelydorp.

A recent study among commercial sex workers (CSW) in Suriname reports that three-quarters of sex workers are familiar with the concept sexually transmitted infection (STI). The most mentioned STIs are Gonorrhoea (also: droipi, druiper) and HIV/AIDS. The large majority is aware of HIV transmission through unsafe sex; regardless of the form of sex (oral, anal, vaginal) and what the sex partner looks like. It remains, however, worrisome that a significant minority believes that HIV cannot be spread through oral or anal sex (respectively 8.2% and 7.4%), while others say they do not know (5.1% for oral sex; 7% for anal sex). The risk of sharing dirty needles is generally known, but knowledge of other means of HIV transmission is limited. Half of CSW believes erroneously that one may get infected with HIV through a mosquito bite (52.6%) or by sitting on a dirty toilet (44.2). Also the misperceptions that HIV may be transmitted through hair and skin contact, or via saliva (e.g. drinking from the same cup) are persistent (Heemskerk and Uiterloo 2009). According to the 2006 MICS, 39.3 percent of women of reproductive age (15-49) has correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS transmission. This means that during the interview, they were able to name at least two ways HIV/AIDS prevention and could identify at least three misconceptions. Also this study found that knowledge is most accurate in urban areas (43.3%) and lowest in the interior (17.3). Education correlates positively with knowledge about HIV/AIDS (MDG 2010).

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13.5.3. HIV/AIDS at the work place In Suriname, research on the effects of HIV/AIDS on the work floor has never been conducted. The sero-prevalence in Suriname is not of a dramatic rate that one would expect lowering productivity as a result of HIV/AIDS infections among employees. Discrimination of HIV positive people remains, however, a problem, both in society at large and on the work floor specifically. Even though it is forbidden, cases of individuals being laid off because of their status have been reported. According to the Suriname Business Coalition against HIV and AIDS (SBC), a working arm of the VSB, no such cases have been registered for 2009. In 2008 there were at least three reported cases. If someone is fired because of his or her sero-positive status, he or she should report this to the SBC or the Ministry of Labour.

An increasing number of companies is becoming aware of the possible effects of HIV/AIDS on the Labour productivity and sphere at work. At present, fifteen firms have an HIV programme, which mainly consist of the delivery of information and awareness building; six have an HIV/AIDS-policy; and four are busy formulating such a policy. The SBC assists firms with the formulation of such a policy or strategy (NAP 2009, T. Vreden, pers. Com, November 2009).

13.5.4. HIV/AIDS policy and prevention The common policy of the Government of Suriname and NGOs for combating HIV/AIDS is captured in the ‗National Strategic Plan‘ (NSP) for a multi sectoral approach of HIV/AIDS. The Strategic Plan contains almost 100 concrete activities for reducing HIV/AIDS. These activities are placed within five focal areas: 1. National coordination, policy, en capacity building 2. Prevention of the further spread of HIV 3. Treatment, care, support 4. Fighting of the stigma and discrimination of people living with HIV and AIDS 5. Strategic Information for policy development and service delivery (ICDP 2009) Coordination of the national policy on HIV/AIDS is in hands of the National Aids Programme (NAP). The NAP is not an executing agent but rather identifies, includes, and supports organizations that carry out activities that fit within the National Strategic Plan for HIV/AIDS. In collaboration with the Ministry of Health, the NAP has opened a youth centre in Paramaribo, where youngsters can get information about SRH and other issues that are of importance to them. To date the youth centre is not drawing the anticipated number of young visitors. Within its Edutainment programme, NAP also has different awareness and information activities for youth in Paramaribo and the coastal districts, including a ―safe sex show‖. According to NAP this programme is successful.

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Through the Prevention Mother To Child Transmission (PMTCT) programme, pregnant women are being tested and, if found positive, supported during and after their pregnancy. In the context of the PMTCT programme, the HIV test has been incorporated within the regular prenatal screening of all pregnant women. The percentage of pregnant women who have been tested on HIV has increased from 30 percent in 2003 to 70percent in 2005. All pregnant women who turn out to be HIV-positive receive Anti-Retroviral (ARV) treatment during pregnancy and after delivery. The child is also being treated. Other than the OMTCT programme, there are no specific HIV/AIDS programmes that are specifically targeting women (NAP 2009, T. Vreden, pers. Com)

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14 Conclusions De latest situation analysis of women in Suriname was conducted in 2000/2001. Now, ten years later, a new situation analysis has been conducted. When we evaluate changes in the development of women and gender issues in the various topical areas in the past decade, we can conclude the following.

1. Because of ratification of CEDAW (1993), the treaty of Belem do Para (2002), and other treaties the Suriname government has taken an important step towards the development of a sound and evidence-based gender policy. Following the obligations that result from these treaties, legal changes have been made and policy interventions have taken place. Examples are: adoption of the law on Domestic Violence; modification of the laws on sexual molest; and strengthening of the National Bureau Gender policy.

2. The NBG has gone through various transformations. It has a new director and continues to reside directly under the Minister of Domestic Affairs. Gender Focal Points (GFP) have been appointed to assist in coordination. In practice, rapport between the NBG and the GFP is suboptimal and there are few examples of the ways that GFP have affected policy. The current gender policy is described in the Integral Gender Action Plan (IGAP II).

3. Data registration and presentation within the government are substandard. Many data are difficult to find or not to be found at all, even when it concerns basic information such as employee records of the various Ministries. Because the data are not sufficiently specified, by sex and other variables, conducting a thorough analysis is impossible.

4. The number of women in political managerial functions has increased. Yet as compared to men, women continue to constitute a minority in such positions. It is remarkable that equal numbers of women and men now work in judicial bodies (10 men and 10 women) while women used to constitute a minority. VPF has taken various initiatives to promote female participation in politics.

5. Also in the private sector men fill the majority of top positions. In comparison to men, women are less likely to have leadership positions or work as higher and middle-level professionals.

6. Research and workshops have shown that women do not feel particularly limited in their career options by the so-called glass ceiling. Reasons why not more women have top positions may primarily be produced in the personal and domestic spheres. Women‘s ambitions and support from the direct social environment (Household members, kin) appear to be key determinants.

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7. As in many other Caribbean countries, Suriname girls are doing better than boys in school. Boys are disproportionally represented among the repeaters and drop-outs. In discussions it was brought forward that in the past, boys tended to be higher educated than girls. We do not know when and why this change has taken place. It also remains unclear where the boys go.

8. More women than men study at the University. Even at the Medical faculty, where men still constituted a majority 10 years ago, women have outstripped men.

9. Progress has been made in the area of domestic violence. Important areas of improvement are the legal system; support and protection of victims; counselling and psychological care for victims; the settlement of court cases (such as free juridical advice); and societal awareness. Nevertheless, domestic and sexual violence remain substantial problems in the Suriname society. Moreover, shelter and protection for victims of domestic violence are not adequately arranged for. It is important that these problems are being tackled effectively to prevent transfer of structural domestic violence from generation to generation.

10. Suriname has taken various important steps in the battle against human trafficking. These steps are, among others, the installation of a multidisciplinary working group to eliminate the trafficking in and smuggle of humans (2003); Installation of the TIP unit; composition of guidelines for police and migration officials (2004); adoption of laws that deal with human trafficking; and ratification of the treaty of Palermo (2006). As a result of these changes trafficking in humans is now more readily detected and punished, while there is better support for victims. Despite this progress, Suriname will have to increase and intensify its actions against human trafficking.

11. Even though the government expresses in it‘s MOP the intention to combat poverty through the empowerment of women, few concrete actions have been taken to realize these goals. The various programs for poverty alleviation rarely incorporate gender. The IGAP discusses the theme ―poverty‖ but on a policy level not much has happened. NGOs do execute self- sufficiency programs for women in the city, the districts and the interior. There are no measures of the extent to which these programs succeed in alleviating poverty and strengthening women. More research is needed.

12. The number of female jobseekers remains larger than the number of males. Even though increasingly more women are participating in the labour force, their numbers remain far below those of men. Unpaid labour, such as the care for children and domestic chores, which often is performed by women, is undervalued.

13. More women than men are registered recipients of social welfare benefits and services. The reason for this phenomenon is unclear because government policy does not preferentially award social benefits to women. It is possible that women are relatively more often welfare 188

recipients because they more often have the care over children. It also is possible that the larger number of women that are registered as poor and very poor is an expression of the feminisation of poverty. More research is needed to provide conclusive answers.

14. It is unclear to what extend women unfriendly and stereotypical images and texts are being published and/or shown. There is no media council for supervision in this area. The media council for children‘s rights has filed protests in certain cases where women unfriendly advertisements and/ or programs were shown. The SVHJ and the college of Journalism at the AHKCO have not taken any initiatives to reduce or eliminate the negative image of women in the media. Media workers have not had gender trainings.

15. The number of teen pregnancies and teen mothers is very high; the abortion rate is high (especially among young people and young adults); and HIV prevalence among young adults is the highest on the Latin-American continent. These issues not only cause health and emotional problems for the young people involved, but also lead to social and economic problems in society. An intensive campaign aimed at improving the sexual and reproductive health of youngsters is important

16. The government has developed national action plans that prepare for natural disasters and climate change. These plans do not consider that the effects of natural disasters and climate change differ for women and men as a result of differentiated access to, and use of, natural and financial resources.

17. Boys and men are hardly involved in the execution of gender policy and gender related activities. In other cases they are invited to participate but prefer not to be involved. Also in the different women‘s movements and initiatives for the promotion of gender awareness boys and men participate minimally. Due to worldwide activities for the development of women, women are increasingly progressing and attention for boys and men has wittered. Equity of the sexes will remain a utopia as long as boys and men are not being listened to and not actively involved in activities and policy measures aimed at the promotion of gender equality.

18. Further research is warranted in various topic areas; these areas are being discussed in the recommendations.

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15 Recommendations In this part we give recommendations with regard to policy and activities, and identify areas that call for additional research.

15.1 Policy and activities of the government and NGOs 1. There is need for a thorough evaluation of the execution of the gender policy in Suriname, to see whether the desired results have been achieved.

2. The NBG is now a section of the Ministry, which leaves little room to independently execute activities. It is advisable to elevate the status of the NBG to that of a directorate within the Ministry, so that it has a mandate to execute its own policies.

3. For the execution of gender policy, the government will need to work in closer collaboration with persons and organizations that already have experience with gender. Hiring consultants to help implement policies can be useful, yet the objective should be to strengthen the NBG and the Ministry of Domestic Affairs with people with expertise in the area of gender. In this context we recommend capacity within the NBG through training in gender theory and research. Executing awareness campaigns will only be successful of all actors (women and men) truly understand the meaning of gender.

4. Activities and actions must be taken to involve men in the promotion of gender equity. For this reason it also is important that men are working with the NBG.

5. A legal quorum policy is essential to elevate the number of women in political managerial organs. Experiences of other countries that are working with a quorum policy should be taken into account in the implementation of such a policy in Suriname.

6. During the workshop Quota policy and the promotion of participation of women in politics it has been suggested (Dr. H. Breeveld, DWT) to empower people to actively assert their rights. Also men must be involved in these efforts.

7. A media council for the inspection of women unfriendly media programs must be established. It is desirable that the college of journalism at the AHKCO includes gender related subjects in its curriculum, and that also other institutions (e.g. NBG) provide gender training to media workers.

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8. The government should adopt amendments to the law to restrict the exhibition of women unfriendly, violent (whether or not involving women), sexist, and offensive media productions. Women‘s‘ organizations such as the WRC or the Foundation Ilse Henar‐ Hewitt Juridical support for women could assist in drafting a concept law regarding this subject. As far as we know there have been no attempts to develop such a law.

9. The implementation of a minimum wage that takes the yet to be determined poverty line into account, is strongly recommended.

10. The government – by means of the TIP unit- needs to create shelters and invest in facilities to take the best possible care of victims of human trafficking. It must be investigated in what sense other actors, such as the OM, can contribute to such efforts.

11. Drop out on all educational levels is unacceptably high, especially among boys. The government has an important role in reducing the number of alumni who are prematurely (before reaching a degree) leaving school. After school activities can help to improve school results and increase the pleasure in attending class. In addition to homework support and additional reading hours, such activities could involve sports, games, and creative activities. In this area close collaboration with NGOs in warranted.

12. Not all government officials are conscious of the latest developments regarding domestic violence. For this reason the approach to domestic violence differs per organisation and sometimes even within organizations. Awareness rising among the people who are dealing with this issue is essential.

13. Structural trainings for among others the KPS could help ensure that domestic violence in the first stage will be better tackled. This should occur in close collaboration with other support organisations. The use of victims‘ rooms and the treatment of victims by the police, among others to guarantee the victim‘s privacy, could be improved through such trainings.

14. The research revealed that sound psychosocial counselling of perpetrators and victims is critical to fighting domestic violence. Family counselling and particularly guidance of the children is essential. Research has shown that too little attention is being paid to the mental effects of domestic violence, even though mental violence is the most severe form of domestic violence.

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15. Obliged family counselling and therapy for perpetrators in the early stages of the proceedings could help prevent repetition of domestic violence. Foundation Stop Geweld tegen Vrouwen has submitted a request for a program concerning the rehabilitation of perpetrators. This request should be honoured as soon as possible by the Ministry of Justice and Police.

16. There is a need for better support facilities for victims of domestic violence. Despite the recent opening of a government shelter, there are not enough locations where victims of domestic violence and their possible children can find shelter, help, counselling, information, advice, and consultation. STICRIS is the only NGO that has facilities to host victims of domestic violence.

17. The theme domestic violence has not yet been included in the educational curriculum at elementary and secondary levels. The MINOV is working towards the inclusion of gender and related themes, including domestic violence, in collaboration with the Basic Life Skills project. It is recommended that the BLS program is implemented at all schools in the new academic year 2010-2011.

18. Sexual abuse of children is unacceptably high and calls for a potent answer from the government in terms of prevention (information and awareness), detection, prosecution, and protection of victims. It is important that society at large, as well as teachers, health workers, sports trainers, and other people who on a regular basis work with children, become more alert about the possible presence of abuse, learn to recognize signals, and know what to do if they suspect a case of abuse.

19. Because of differences in their tasks, responsibilities, and access to resources, natural disasters and climate change affect men and women, as well as for people who differ in age or wealth, differently. National disaster plans and the climate change action plan should take these differences into account.

20. Suicide attempts and actual suicides have been problematic for years, and existing support programs have not resulted in a decrease in the number of suicides (attempts are not recorded). Public health institutions (RGD, BOG, derma, MZ) should pay more attention to this issue and health workers must be trained in the recognition of people with suicidal tendencies and their counselling.

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21. Youngsters must learn cherish their sexual and reproductive health in order to decrease the number of (unwanted) teen pregnancies, abortions, and HIV infections. (Semi) governmental health institutions such as BOG, RGD, Derma, and MZ must play a central role in such efforts. There is a need for intensive awareness campaigns made by youngsters. Boys and men must be an integral part of such activities, particularly in programs aimed at reducing the numbers of teen pregnancies and abortions. Close collaboration with NGOs is essential.

22. There is a large unmet need for contraceptives, also in the interior. In other words: due to material, physical, or socio-cultural reasons, too many people -particularly women- who want to use contraceptives have no or limited access to means to prevent or space births. The unmet need for contraceptives is particularly severe in the interior. NGOs working in this area should be supported in information delivery, awareness building, and the distribution of contraceptives.

23. We recommend that the government publishes important national and international indicators in ministerial year books and on web sites. Such transparency not only allows the government to monitor its own achievements, but also provides students, professional researchers, international development organizations, and the Suriname people with tools to do the same.

15.2 Research and data collection and registration 24. With increasing computerisation of many ministries there is room for better and more detailed data registration. It is essential that the various ministries appoint a professional for database development and management, and train their employees in the use of such a system. With regard to gender related data, the GFPs at the various ministries could play a central role in database development and management.

25. The driving forces of boys‘ drop-out as the level of education increases must be investigated. Such research should also focus on the alternative career tracks that boys are choosing. Longitudinal data are necessary in order to detect when and why this phenomenon started. The researchers must conduct long-term interviews with boys in different neighbourhoods, but also collect the experiences and opinions of family members, teachers, church leaders, the peer group, and other groups in the social life of boys. This broad approach is necessary to develop a better understanding of the various factors that contribute to drop-out.

26. The General Bureau of Statistics does not collect data on educational completion rates within the population. Also, within the category ‗university‘ no further differentiation is made to department. Hence it is not possible to detect what percentages of women and men have

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graduated in medicine law, or civil engineering. The next population census should include a question about the highest completed educational level. The next population census could include a question about the highest completed educational degree.

27. Data collection about domestic violence by DCIV should be specified to the kind of domestic violence; separating cases of, among others, intimate partner violence, violence including minors, and other forms of violence.

28. The factors contributing to domestic violence, as well as the factors that allow families to escape the violence spiral, must be thoroughly studied. Such research should not only focus on victims but also on perpetrators. A better understanding of the thoughts and behaviour of perpetrators of domestic violence is essential to efforts aimed at changing violent behaviour.

29. Poverty and the gender dimensions of poverty warrant further investigation. Such research should establish various measures of poverty lines, calculate the number of people living in ‗poverty‘, identify which households are living in poverty, and how many of them have access to social welfare services. In this context it would also be interesting to research why a disproportional number of women is registered at the social services desk. At present there are no figures on the numbers of people or households living below national or internationally established (USD 1/dag or USD 2/dag) poverty lines. Due to this paucity it is difficult to detect whether poverty has increased or decreased.

30. Research must be conducted on the number of unemployed and job seeking people. Many people who are looking for a job are not registered as such. On the other hand, many people working informal jobs are not visible in the statistics.

31. Annual figures on incomes and access to credit, by sex and sector, do not exist. These questions could be included in the national census. It is not known whether banks and other credit facilities register information about their clients by sex.

32. Even though suicide has been a problem in Suriname society for long, there has been little research on the variables that motivate suicide attempts or true suicide. Data about suicide attempts should be registered with detailed information about the person and his or her family and societal situation. A psychologist or remedial education specialist should be involved to conduct qualitative research on the general motivations and factors triggering suicide.

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33. While different NGOs en government institutions work with teenage mothers, the fathers of the (unborn) babies of teenagers remain unknown and unaddressed. These boys and men must be identified in order to include them in programs aimed at the prevention of teenage pregnancies and unsafe abortions.

34. There are few detailed studies on contraceptive prevalence in Suriname. The most extensive study in this area is the Suriname Contraceptive Prevalence Survey (CPS), which was conducted 18 years ago (Jagdeo 1992). An update of this study is important in order to better understand contraceptive needs and behaviour; also among men! We know hardly anything about the number of men who are using contraceptives and for what reasons; what share of men would like to use contraceptives but does not or cannot do so; and what percentage of man in a relationship would like to spread births or have no more children. In the context of family planning we must learn more about men and their attitudes towards having children and contraceptive use.

35. A national survey about condom use is important for the adequate execution of the national condom policy. As far as we know, there is no distribution policy for other contraceptives.

36. The attitudes and visions of men towards gender relations and their role in gender policy warrant research.

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16. Sources

16.1 Literature Author Year Title Publisher/Organization Place ABS, Ministerie van Planning 2009 Suriname Multiple Cluster Indicator Survey 2006, United Nations Children's Fund Paramaribo, en Ontwikkelings- Final Report. Suriname samenwerking, en Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Volkshuisvesting ABS 2009a Statistisch Jaarboek 2008. Suriname in Cijfers 263- Algemeen Bureau voor de Paramaribo, 2009/10 Statistiek Suriname ABS 2009b Geselecteerde Genderstatistieken in Suriname Algemeen Bureau voor de Paramaribo, Statistiek Suriname ABS 2005 Zevende Algemene Volks- en Woningtelling in algemeen Bureau voor de Paramaribo, Suriname Statistiek/censuskantoor Suriname Apapoe, I.R and J.Z. van Arkel 2009 ICPD+15 Field Questionnaire, draft report Ministerie van Volksgezondheid Paramaribo, and UNFPA Suriname Breeveld, Hans 1992 Wissele Mammie, Suriname op een beslissend Onbekend Paramaribo, Kruispunt Suriname Cassell, Kevin 2007 Boys Falling Behind in U.S. Education. http://www.kevincassell.com/blo Disenfrancised, with nowhere to go but down. g/index.php?id=19&num=1 Codrington, William 2009 Ethel Pengel. Vrouw met een missie De Ware Tijd (12 December, Paramaribo, C1) Suriname CULCONSULT 2008 Seksuele en Reproductieve Gezondheid en Rechten GOS (Min. van Paramaribo, van Jongeren in het District Sipaliwini Volksgezondheid)/EC/ENFPA Suriname Joint Programme for Reproductive Health CULCONSULT 2005 Analyse van de resultaten van de Algemene , Vrije Vrouwen Parlement Forum Paramaribo, en Geheime verkiezingen van 1996,2000 & 2005 van Suriname de Republiek Suriname De Ware Tijd 2009 Huiselijk geweld Suriname hoogste in regio De Ware Tijd (Saterday 2 Paramaribo, December, A1) Suriname

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Geertruida Loseng 2009 Bedrijfsleven moet beleid maken tegen hiv- De Ware Tijd (issue date) Paramaribo, discriminatie Suriname Geertruida Loseng 2009 Jaarlijks procent zwangeren hiv- geïnfecteerd De Ware Tijd (issue date) Paramaribo, Suriname Guicherit, Henna 2005 Analyse van de resultaten van de algemene, Vrouwen Parlement Forum Paramaribo, vrije en geheime verkiezingen van 1996, 2000 Suriname en 2005 in de Republiek Suriname Guicherit, Henna 2009 Verslag presentatie "Mensenhandel, stand van Nationaal Gender Bureau/Cie Paramaribo, zaken anno 2009 Genderregelgeving Suriname Guicherit, Henna 2001 Turning the Tide, Cedaw and the Dimensions of United Nations Development Paramaribo, HIV/AIDS Pandemic fund of women Suriname Guicherit, Henna 2004 Verslag workshop "vrouwen en Leiderschap Nationaal Gender Bureau Paramaribo, i.s.m Biza Suriname Heemskerk, M. 2009 Kleinschalige goudwinning in Suriname. Een Centrum voor Studie en Amsterdam, overzicht van sociaaleconomische, politieke, en Documentatie Nederland milieuaspecten van Latijns Amerika (CEDLA) Heemskerk, M. 2005 Rights to land and resources for indigenous Amazon Conservation Team Paramaribo, peoples and maroons in Suriname Suriname Suriname

Heemskerk, M. en M. 2003 Perceptions of small-scale gold mining impacts: World Wildlife Fund Guianas Paramaribo, Olivieira Results from focus group discussions in mining Regional Programme Suriname camps and affected communities. Tapanahonie & Brokopondo Regions, Suriname. Paramaribo, Suriname. Heemskerk, M. en M. 2009 Mapping the commercial sex work population National AIDS Program, Paramaribo Uiterloo in Paramaribo. A cartographic and ethnographic Ministry of Health review. Heemskerk, M. en M. 2008 Sexual and Reproductive Health among the UNFPA/GOS/EU, in Paramaribo Uiterloo Trio peoples of South Suriname collaboration with the Amazon Conservation Team Suriname

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IADB 2003 Suriname. Basic Education Improvement Paramaribo, Project (SU-0023) Suriname International Monetary Fund 2007 Suriname: Statistical Appendix IMF Washington (IMF) DC Jagdeo, T.P. 1992 Suriname contraceptive prevalence Stg. Lobi Paramaribo, Suriname James, V. 2000 Social Development and poverty eradication UNDP strategy Ketwaru-Nurmohammed, 2001 Situation Analysis of Women in Suriname Unifem Paramaribo, Sheila en Forum NGO's Suriname Klein, Rosa 2007 The Education Budget in Suriname 2004-2007. Kennedy School of Boston, USA Child Friendly Budget Analysis:A Tool to Government, Harvard Measure Results for Children and Enhance University Transparency Koole, Simone 2009 Invloeden van een Veranderend Scriptie ter verkrijging van de Paramaribo, Socialisatieproces. Een Onderzoek naar het graad van doctorandus in de Suriname Seksueel en Reproductief Gedrag van Sociale Wetenschappen. Adolescenten in Kwamalasamutu en Guyaba. Faculteit der Maatschappijwetenschappen. Anton de Kom Universiteit Suriname. MINOV 2009 Jaarboek Onderwijsindicatoren, 2007-2008 Ministry of Education and Paramaribo, Public Information, Division Suriname for Research and Planning MINOV 2008 Jaarboek Onderwijsindicatoren, 2006-2007 Ministry of Education and Paramaribo, Public Information, Division Suriname for Research and Planning

198

Ministerie van 2008 Country report on the UNGASS Declaration of Ministerie van Paramaribo, Volksgezondheid commitment to HIV/AIDS Volksgezondheid Suriname Ministerie van Undat Report of the director of health, 2005-2007 Ministerie van Paramaribo, Volksgezondheid ed Volksgezondheid Suriname (2008? ) Ministerie van 2009 HIV/AIDS Surveillance rapport 2004 -2007 Ministerie van Paramaribo, Volksgezondheid Volksgezondheid Suriname Ministerie van Binnenlandse 2006 Integral Gender Action Plan, 2006-2010 Ministerie van Binnenlandse Paramaribo, Zaken Zaken, GOS Suriname Onbekend 2007 Women in Leiderschap roles Online discussion report Paramaribo, Suriname Ouboter, P., G. Landburg, C. 2007 Mercury pollution in the Greenstone Belt. Final R. Vieira(Ed.). World Paramaribo, White, J. Mol, F. van de Lugt Technical Report. Wildlife Fund. Guianas Suriname. en J. Quik (2007). Regional Programme. ProHealth 2007 Jongeren en hun Gezondheid Ministerie van Paramaribo, Volksgezondheid and UNFPA Suriname ProHealth 2006 ICPD+10 Report. 10 years program of action of Vaco Paramaribo, the international conference on population and Suriname development (ICPD) in Suriname, 1994-2004 Punwasi, Widya 2009 Doodsoorzaken in Suriname 2007 Bureau voor Openbare Paramaribo, Gezondheidszorg en Suriname Ministerie van Volksgezondheid Republiek Suriname 2005 Meerjaren ontwikkelingsplan (MOP) 2006- Government of Suriname Paramaribo, 2011 Suriname Republiek Suriname 2003(? Derde vervolgrapport periode 1 januari 1999 Government of Suriname Paramaribo, ) t/m 31 maart 2002, Verdage inzake de Suriname uitbanning van alle vormen van discriminatie van vrouwen (CEDAW) Republiek Suriname 2006 Millennium Development Goals Baseline Government of Suriname/UN Paramaribo, Report - Suriname Suriname

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Republiek Suriname 2009 Staatsblad 2009 No. 122. Republiek Suriname Paramaribo, Herziening zedenmisdrijven Suriname

Republiek Suriname 2009 Staatsblad 2009 No. 84 Republiek Suriname Paramaribo, Wet Bestrijding Huiselijk Geweld Suriname

Republiek Suriname 2006 Staatsblad 2006 No. 42 Republiek Suriname Paramaribo, Wijziging van het Wetboek van strafrecht (t.a.v. Suriname mensenhandel en mensensmokkel) Republiek Suriname 1986 Decreet E-58. Decreet van 8 mei 1986, Republiek Suriname Paramaribo, houdende algemene regelen omtrent de Suriname opsporing en ontginning van delfstoffen (Decreet Mijnbouw) SB 1986 No. 28. Republiek Suriname 1987 Kiesregeling (SB 1987 No 62, Geldende tekst Republiek Suriname Paramaribo, SB 1987 no 73 Suriname Sedney, Jules 1997 De Toekomst van Ons verleden, Democratie, De Ware Tijd (25 Nov-10 Paramaribo, etniciteit en politieke machtsvorming in Dec) Suriname Suriname Stg. Ilse Henar-Hewitt 2009 Violence against Women, various articles UNICEF Paramaribo, Suriname Tembon, M. en L. Fort, eds. 2008 Girls‘ Education in the 21st Century. Gender The World Bank Washington Equality, Empowerment, and Economic DC Growth. Directions in Development. Human development. United Nations, 2002 Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly. United Nations Vienna S-27/2. A world fit for children. United Nations Committee 2005 Suriname. Third periodic report United Nations Vienna on the Elimination of (CEDAW/C/SUR/3) Discrimination against Women UNDP Draft country programme document for the UNICEF, Education Section New York, Republic of Suriname (2008 - 2011) Programme Division USA UNICEF 2009 Al Childen, Everywhere. A strategy for basic Leo Victor Paramaribo,

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education and gender equality. 20 Years he Suriname Convention on the Rights of the Child van Arkel, Zaire 2009 Rechten en kansen van Inheemse en I-re-acct/Cordaid Paramaribo, marronvrouwen, bevindingen van een Suriname deskundige Waalring, Reina N. 2009 Veerkracht in Flora. Een onderzoek naar pro- Leo Victor Paramaribo, sociaal gedrag van kwetsbare kinderen uit een Suriname Surinaamse volkswijk

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16.2 Websites Organization/Author Date consulted Site address United Nations Committee on the 10/12/2009 www.gendermatters.eu/images/stories/ProfileSuriname/Suriname%203rd%2 Elimination of Discrimination 0cedaw%20report.pdf against Women UNDP 2/12/2009 http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_SUR.html WHO 8/12/2009 http://who.int/mental_health/media/suri.pdf UNICEF 5/3/2010 http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/suriname.html UNESCO 6/12/2009 UNDP 2 December '09 http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_SUR.html Korps Politie Suriname 5 December '09 http://www.korps-politie-suriname.com/ Stg. Stop Geweld Tegen Vrouwen 10 December http://www.stopgeweld.sr/index_home.htm '09 NVB 13 december '09 http://www.nvbsuriname.org/05Overige.htm Ministerie van Binnenlandse 4 februari '10 http://minbiza-sur.net/ Zaken UNODC 4 februari '10 http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/index.html United Nations Environment 18 maart '10 http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=78 Programme &ArticleID=1163 Agenda 21 16 maart '10 http://www.ddh.nl/agenda21/rioverklaring/h24.html CBD 18 maart '10 http://www.cbd.int/women/

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Annex 1 List of consulted persons and organizations Organization Persons or Section Topic Datum

ADEK University Staff records Professors and researchers November 2010

ADEK University Student records Student population by faculty November 2010

General Bureau of Statistics Mss. Fung Loi, J General statistics

General Bureau of Statistics Ms. Harnanadan Economy & Poverty data

Algemene Televisie Ms. Delchot, I List of media workers 7 February '10 Verzorging

Head officer of Justice Ms. Paragsingh, G Trafficking Jan '10

Institute for Graduate Marten Schalkwijk, director Student population, male and female December 2010 Studies and Research

Lim a Po Institute Olley Chin, Manager Student population, male and female December 2010

Man Mit Man Mr. Jonathan Participation of men and boys in SRH programmes

Medische Zending PHC Algoe, medical doctor/Veenman, Health data for interior Suriname database manager

Ministry of ATM Ms.Friperson Economy

Ministry of ATM Ms. Rellum, J Economic strengthening of women 9 February '10

MINOV Ms. Mangoen Research and planning

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MINOV Ms. Bennanon, Gender focal point and Policy Officer Gender policy within MINOV

MINOV Ms. Monique Brown, curriculum Gender bias in curriculum, and activities development to eliminate it

MINOV – adult aducation Mr. Oedit/ Ms. Tholeo, Adult Participation of women and men in adult aducation and Literacy education

MINOV Ms. Stjeward, Bureau Education Grants to male and female students information and Study facilities (BOS)

MINOV Ms. Simons, VOJ School inspection Policies with regard to pregnant students

MINOV Project Student mothers, sub directorat youth centres, directorat youth affairs Sharon Waterval Student mothers

Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ms. Favery/Ms. Campagne Diplomatic data

Min. of Health,

National Health Information System (NHIS) Maltie Algoe, Coordinar General health indicators and statistics

Min. Health Ms. Madoeban Statistical data

Ministry of Justice and Police Mr. Wijngaarde Violence/Trafficking in Persons

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Ministry of Social Affairs Ms. Warso, J Social wellfare 15 februari '10 and Housing

National AIDS Pogramme Thelma Vreden HIV related data, sex segregated

National Coordination Governmental response to the flooding of Center for Disaster 2005 and national disaster response Management (NCCR) R. Nasib planning

ProHealth Nancy Gooding SRH programme in Latour 10 December '09

ProHealth Carol Jurgens SRH programme in Brokopondo 10 December '09

Radio & TV ABC Ms. Kamperveen, A Listing media workers 12 Februari '10

Radio & TV Garuda Ms. Radji, C Listing media workers Februari '10

Rasonic Ms. Jairam Listing media workers 1 Februari '10

SCCN TV Ms. Atma Listing media workers Februari '10

Sctv45 Mss. Sanrochman, C Listing media workers 14 December '09

Shalom radio Ms. De Miranda Listing media workers 15 Februari '10

St. Stop geweld tegen Claudia Halfhide Domestic violence against women 9 December '09 vrouwen

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Stg. Ilse-Henar Hewitt Juridical support in case of domestic 9 December '09 Bureau violence

Stg. Plan Bureau Suriname dhr. Van Dams employment/ economic figures Februari '10

Stichting Gezin en Recht Sharon Geerlings Raising children without violence 30 November '09

Stichting Gezin en Recht Karin Tirion Raising children without violence 19 November '09

Stichting Projekta Mss. Bhattacharij, Rayah Gender issues 11 Februar '10

Surinaamse Televisie Mr. Wongsopawiro listing media workers 4 Februari '10 Stichting

Telecommunicatie Autoriteit Ms. Castelen, M listing media companies 21 Januari '10 Suriname

Trafficking Information Mr. Wijngaarde,V Trafficking 26 Oktober '09 Point

University of Amsterdam, Merette Schuurman, MA student Women in top positions 18 maart 2010 Sociology

Vrouwen Parlement Forum Ms. Gilliard, I activities VPF, gender issues 17 Februari '10

Women Business Group Ms. Wiebers. L Economic strengthening women

Women's Right Centre Carla Bakboord Domestic violence against women 4 December '09, 23 April 2010

* Only persons and institutions that participated in data collection are listed

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Annex 2 Number of VOS-students by Sex, Academic year 2007-8 School type M F Total

Total HAVO (Higher general education) 699 1200 1899 Evening HAVO 198 316 514 HAVO-I 264 470 734 HAVO-II 122 162 284 HAVO-III 115 252 367 Total IMEAO (Mid-level Economic and Administrative 809 2455 3264 Education) IMEAO-I 395 853 1248 IMEAO-II 75 431 506 IMEAO-III 15 255 270 IMEAO-Nickerie 74 115 189 Evening IMEAO 97 283 380 Afternoon IMEAO 153 518 671 Total VWO (Preperatory Scientific Education) 939 1620 2559 AMS (General High school) 216 403 619 Lyceum-I 316 551 867 Lyceum-II 286 459 745 VWO-IV 121 207 328 Total Teachers’ Colleges 166 3,128 3294 Teachers‘ college Nickerie 32 178 210 ACI 9 479 488 CPI 39 651 690 SPI 67 939 1006 Evening Advanced education degree 19 402 421 Evening Education degree 479 479 Total Technical schools 2487 564 3051 AMTO-Nickerie 12 2 14 NATIN 1617 519 2136 AMTO 858 43 901 Total Educational Centres 385 600 985 SGN (Educational centre Nickerie) 178 278 456 SGL (Educational centre Lelydorp) 207 322 529 Total VOS pupils 5485 9567 15052 Source: Jaarboek Onderwijsindicatoren 2007-2008, MINOV Research and Planning. 2009: p. 31-32

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Annex 3. ADEKUS Students 2009–2010 Faculty Study M F TOTAL % female Medical sciences

-Medicine 138 149 287 51,9

- fysiotherapy 9 39 48 81,3 TOTAL medical sciences 147 188 335 56,1 Technological sciences - Agricultural production. 8 30 38 78,9 - Mineral Production 81 96 177 54,2 - Electro technicion 114 49 163 30,1 - Infrastructure 128 161 289 55,7 - Environmental law. 13 72 85 84,7 - Mechanical engineering 111 22 133 16,5 TOTAL technological sciences 455 430 885 48,6 Social sciences Social and cultual work 30 221 251 88,0 (Agogie) and education Management 44 118 162 72,8 Economy 217 530 747 71,0 Public administration 160 473 633 74,7 Law 246 475 721 65,9 Sociology 25 113 138 81,9 TOTAL Social sciences 722 1930 2652 72,8 TOTAL FACULTIES 1324 2548 3872 65,8

Preporatory year 212 381 593 64,2 TOTAL FACULTIES and 2929 4465 65,6 PREPORATORY YEAR Bron: ADEK Bureau Studentenzaken, 16.11.09

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Annex 4. Number of Adult students by school, class, sex and average age. Academic year 2009-2010 District School class M F Average age Average age men women Paramaribo Evening bigisma skoro/polanen 6 2 10 26.5 29.3 Bigi sma skoro Frigiterestraat 1 1 14 18 29.6 Bigi sma skoro Frigiterestraat 2 6 24 20.8 28.6 Bigi sma skoro Frigiterestraat 3 5 13 27.2 31.1 Bigi sma skoro Frigiterestraat 4 13 9 21.7 21.2 Bigi sma skoro Frigiterestraat 5 1 12 20 22.3 Bigi sma skoro Frigiterestraat 6 7 23 25.4 23.3 Para Bigi Suma Skoro 3 0 1 . 42 Bigi Suma Skoro 4 1 1 18 53 Bigi Suma Skoro 6 1 1 17 19 Paramaribo Afternoon elementary school (Latour) 1 6 19 33.2 27.6 Afternoon elementary school (Latour) 2 10 28 22.1 37.4 Afternoon elementary school (Latour) 3 11 15 26.5 28.5 Afternoon elementary school (Latour) 4 8 25 22.9 20.6 Afternoon elementary school (Latour) 5 10 26 22.2 24.3 Afternoon elementary school (Latour) 6 15 61 23.1 25.4 Afternoon elementary school II (Martin Plet) 1 7 14 24 28.1 Afternoon elementary school II (Martin Plet) 2 1 16 33 26.1 Afternoon elementary school II (Martin Plet) 3 7 12 22.6 31.75 Afternoon elementary school II (Martin Plet) 4 3 21 22 24.3 Afternoon elementary school II (Martin Plet) 6 5 14 25.8 21.4 Paramaribo Afernoon school (Rankin) 6 14 21 20.6 24.9

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Annex 5 Media Companies

210

Annex 6 Social map victim support Domestic Violence

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Annex 7 Responsible ministries in collaborative covenant Domestic Violence Ministry of Justice and Police

1. In de preventive sphere undertake a broad range of actions that benefit the community

2. Provide victim support in collaboration with other support organizations

3. Provide support by localizing, tracing, and registering (dossiervorming) of cases of domestic violence

4. Within the existing legal framework, take measures to protect the victim in the short term (detention, contact restriction) and the long term (reduce the chance of repetition).

5. With regard to prosecution policy, take the victim‘s personal and family conditions into account, and refer the victim to support services.

6. Inform the victim about subsequent measures

7. Provide therapy to perpetrators in detentions in order to reduce chances of recidivism.

Ministry of Domestic Affairs

1. Coordinating and initiating policy and legal changes in support of a balanced gender policy that is in line with the obligations dictated by in international treaties. These include among others reduction and elimination of domestic violence through information to society.

Ministry of Health

2. Take responsibility for preventive and curative care of victims and where necessary perpetrators of domestic violence

Ministry of Education and People‘s Development

3. Develop and deliver education and information programs for all educational levels.

Ministry of Social Affairs and Housing

4. Provide support in the areas of family therapy and shelter and care for children

Ministry of Regional Development

5. Facilitating role in the policy towards, and reduction of, domestic violence in the interior and the districts.

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Annex 8. Law on Human Trafficking, 6 April 2006

State Journal (Staatsblad) of the Republic of Suriname

Law of April 6, 2006, on detailed amendments to the Criminal Code (AB 1911 No. 1 as last amended by SB 2004 no.105)

The President of the Republic of Suriname

Having considered that the Criminal Code (AB 1911 No. 1 as last amended by SB 2004 no.105) needs to change.

The State Council has heard and approved by the National Assembly, ratified the following law.

Article 1

In the Criminal Code (AB 1911 No. 1 as last amended by SB 2004 no.105) the following changes were made.

After Article 249, added a new article 249 reads as following

2006 No.42

Human trafficking Article 249a

1. Any person whether or not for financial gain, assists in the obtaining or entry or stay in Suriname of another person, or to do for him profit opportunities, resources or provided information, while he knows or has serious reason to suspect that the entry is of unlawful residence, is guilty of Trafficking and will be punished with imprisonment of not more than four years and a fine of up to SRD.300.000 .-any person who assists

2. If the offense described in paragraph 1 of this Article is committed by a person who makes such an action a habit, job or if this is committed by several persons, the prison sentence is of up to eight years and a fine of up SRD.600.000. -

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B. False passport Article 284 Article 284 / 1 paragraph, the words "imprisonment not exceeding two years "are replaced by imprisonment not exceeding four years.

C. Article 307 Human Trafficking

1. With imprisonment of up to eight years and a fine of up to SRD. 500,000 .- he guilty of Human Trafficking shall be punished:

a. The person who by violence or other act or threat of violence or other act or by abuse of from actual circumstances arising from the actual or deception, moves another to provide labor, services or sexual acts with or for a third person with charge, or under the above circumstances, undertake any actions, which he knows or should reasonably suspect that the other is therefore to provide labor, services or sexual acts with or for a third available;

b. The person who recruits, takes or kidnaps with the intent to persuade that person in another country to provide labor, services or sexual acts with or for a third person with charge;

c. Another one who leads herself available to perform labor, services or sexual acts with or for a third for charge, which he knows of or should reasonably suspect that the other is therefore to provide labor, services or sexual acts with or for a third with charge, while the other is minor.

Aggravating the sanction 2. The guilty will be punished with imprisonment not exceeding ten years and a fine of up to SRD. 600,000 .- if a. the facts described in paragraph 1 of this Article are committed by two or more persons in society; b. the minor's which have not yet reached age of sixteen years c. violence or other act referred to in paragraph 1 under a of this article which has caused serious physical injury.

3. The facts described in paragraph 1 of this Article, committed by two or more persons, united under the circumstances referred to in paragraph 2 b and c (minor, serious bodily injury as a result) of this section shall be punished with imprisonment of up twelve years and a fine of up to SRD. 750,000 .-

4. The guilty will be punished with imprisonment not exceeding fifteen years and a fine of up SRD.800.000 .- if the violence or other facts referred to in paragraph 1 under a of this Article

215

results in death.

5. The facts described in paragraph 1 of this Article, committed by two or more persons, united under the circumstances referred to in paragraph 2 b (minor) and paragraph 4 (due to death) of this section shall be punished with imprisonment of an exceeding twenty years and a fine of up SRD.1000.000 .-

Article 2 1. This is a law in the State Gazette of the Republic of Suriname declared. 2. They shall enter into force beginning of the day following the promulgation 3. The Minister of Justice and Police is responsible for the implementation of this law

Given in the Paramaribo, April 6, 2006

R.R. Venetian

Published at the Paramaribo, April 27, 2006

The Minister of Home Affairs

M.S.H. Hassan Khan

Explanatory Memorandum

Human trafficking is nothing more than a modern form of slavery and an attack on the principles of human dignity and freedom.

Trafficking takes place in three phases: a. Under compulsory recruitment of victims; This is done by force, threat, violence and deception. Human trafficking often starts with making a false promise, such a better job, a lot of money, money can be returned to the family home. b. Transporting: Victims are then brought to a place where they are exploited For example: from the country side to the city. Most of the time victims are women and children. c. Operation: this is achieved by the use or sale of the victims for their own financial gain.

The most common forms of human trafficking in our region: a. forced prostitution, this can take place in brothels, massage parlors, call girl and escort services, striptease dancing and exotic dancing b. the forced labor for example, in construction, fisheries, agriculture, mines, shops and

216 restaurants c. the servant

There are differences between Human trafficking and human smuggling:

a. With people smuggling the victims search for the perpetrators in order to bring them to another country where they think the social-economic terms are better than at home, while with human trafficking the perpetrators look for their prey. b. people smuggling has a crossing borders nature, which is illegal, because the necessary documents to enter a land are not present or are done with the use of false / forged documents, while human trafficking has a crossing border nature and may also take place within national borders example from the countryside to the city or from the city to the country side and commerce can take place with valid / forged travel documents. c. The core of the offense people smuggling, is that Suriname is protected against unwanted foreigners.

Sexual acts are except for carnal and penetration also oral and other indecent acts which are forced against the will of the victim's

Article 284 of the Criminal Code penalizes drawing up false or falsifying a passport or the use thereof. Unfortunately, no arrests can be made on this fact because it is threatened with imprisonment not exceeding two years. Because the penalty provision to four years, arrests can‘t be made, as this article by article 56, paragraph 3 b of the Code of Criminal Procedure will be covered. It is known that people who deal with people trafficking and people smuggling use false travel documents, in particular.

Under the current Article 307 of the Criminal Code shall be women and trafficking in minors of the male sex punished with imprisonment not exceeding five years. This article is very general and restrictive. Because this is not defined what constitutes trafficking, making each his own interpretation which can give them the legal right not to come. Moreover, not only women but also dealt in adult men. Hence it was decided to include it and adapt in line with international standards, namely the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime and its protocols: 1. the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children 2. Protocol Against the smuggling of migrants by land, sea and air.

As the Criminal Code provisions on trafficking was not a criminal, is a new article 249a added.

Paramaribo, April 6, 2006

R.R. Venetian

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Annex 9: Results from the TIP unit and its operations (2005-2007)

The following is a brief overview of the operations and outcomes of the TIP Unit since its creation on June 3, 2005. The cases whit a double asterisk (**) are in state concern such matters prior to the ratification of the Law of Human Trafficking and Smuggling. The defendants in these cases are based on other legislative items held in insurance made or ordered (e.g. participation in a criminal organization, Trafficking, Fraud, and embezzlement).

01) ** Research on the trafficking of Guyanese women, including two minors, who were forced to perform sex work in a brothel in Nickerie. The brothel owner, who is also district secretary, was sentenced by the District to an unconditional prison sentence of 2 ½ years (late 2004-early 2005)

02) ** Research on smuggling of Haitians. The main suspect in this is so far on the run, however, his wife is sentenced to an imprisonment of 2 ½ years by the District Court. (June 2005)

03) Investigation of a number of illegal Chinese. This case could not be examined further because no suspect (s) within image could (s) are placed, partly because the Chinese did not fully cooperate status (November 2005)

04) ** Research on trafficking of Brazilian women, who were forced to perform sex work in a brothel in Paramaribo. The brothel owner was sentenced by the court to a prison sentence of six months (December 2005)

05) ** Research on trafficking of women from the Dominican Republic, who were forced into prostitution in various brothels in Paramaribo. There were three brothel owners in this case was arrested and put insurance. The suspects have already been released. Unfortunately, this case could not be brought to justice because the victims had taken back statements to the police that they had made (January 2006)

06) ** Research on trafficking of women from the Dominican Republic, who were forced to perform sex work in a brothel in Nickerie. The brothel owner, a Dominican who also held U.S. citizenship, was sentenced by the District Court to a suspended sentence. (February 2006)

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07) Study of the arrival of a hundred or so Haitians to our country. In this case there were some Haitians with forged or falsified passports or expired visas traveling, who were arrested. They were raised for questioning, but were not identified any suspects. (The arrested members were under the violation of the Aliens Act, aliens into custody and transferred to the department foreign service (March 2006).

08) Research on trafficking of some women from Brazil, who were forced to perform sex work in a brothel at the Hofstraat in Paramaribo. The brothel owner, a Surinamese was arrested and put in insurance. The suspect was by the district judge sentenced to unconditional imprisonment of eighteen months. (June 2006).

09) Research on human trafficking in a private chat cafe, where women were forced to perform sexual activities. In this case, no arrests have been made since the private chat cafe before the investigation had already been shut down. (July 2006).

10) Research on human trafficking and smuggling of hundreds of Guyanese, who were assigned to Jarikaba. In this case there are no arrests, but the suspects are well mapped. However, there was not enough evidence to arrest operations. Also, due to the fact that most of the Guyanese at the start of the study were already gone. (October 2006)

11) Regular monitoring activities in nightclubs in Paramaribo and surroundings and also in the districts. On April 4, 2007 was supervised by the Public Prosecutor Mr. Paragsing monitored in five nightclubs in Nickerie. A nightclub was closed then advised by the TIP Unit commissioned by the District Commissioner after it was found that the license invalid. In addition, there are also regular checks carried out in cyber cafes and private chat cafes in and around Paramaribo. (2007)

12) In May 2007, after control work in a brothel Koewarasan, known as "Stone Bar, proceeded to close the brothel because of the fact that there were five Brazilian women were found there. These women worked as sex workers, but were not in possession of a valid passport, and so stayed illegally in Suriname. These women stated during interrogation that they voluntarily worked as sex workers. Such women are awaiting their deportation transferred to the Immigration Department, after checking with the OM.

13) In the month of November 2007 a beginning has been made investigate the trafficking of nine Chinese who were employed here in two companies where stones are manufactured. Because the victims at some point no further wished to cooperate with the investigation, the case could not be completed. Although this is indeed the existence of human beings in the form of forced labor, the victims refused the names of the suspects here in Suriname to relinquish or to identify the suspects. (November 2007)

14) Research on trafficking of a minor Surinamese woman (17 years old), who forced an escort had to work as sex worker. The investigation is complete. The suspect was arrested after arraignment but sent back (December 27, 2007). The file is formatted and sent to the prosecutor.

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15) Analysis of trafficking of some Brazilian women in a nightclub in Nickerie, under duress, had to work as sex worker. The study was completed (February 2008). The brothel owner, a Chinese, was sentenced to an imprisonment of 12 months, with six months probation and a fine of Srd 50,000.-. His girlfriend, a Brazilian, was sentenced to an imprisonment of four months with two probation and a fine of Srd.10.000.

16) Analysis of trafficking of a minor Brazilian (16 years), illegally brought to Suriname as a sex worker in the gold field (Benzdorp) to work. The victim was interrogated in a report but wished for fear of retaliation, not to assist in the investigation work. She returned to Brazil at her own cost, with the cooperation of the Brazilian Embassy in Suriname (February 13, 2008). It was two days caught at the Foundation for the Child.

17) Analysis of trafficking of four Vietnamese workers, who on a fishing boat in Suriname were employed (in March 2008). They have been working for approximately one year without pay. The suspect in this case, a Korean, by the magistrate sentenced to unconditional imprisonment for six years and a fine of SRD 50 000. - (pronounced August 11, 2008)

18) Examination of possible smuggling of some Guyanese through Suriname to the U.S. and Canada (April / May 2008). This case is still under investigation in cooperation with the U.S. Embassy, the Guyanese Embassy and the Canadian Consulate in Suriname. A suspect known but there are insufficient facts collected in order to arrest him.

19) Examination of possible trafficking of 20 Indians in Suriname, who are employed in a steel processing plant at Paranam. After research showed that in this case there was an industrial dispute between the workers and the manager (July 2008).

20) Research on trafficking of a minor (15 years old) Guyanese girl in a brothel in Nickerie was exploited as a sex worker. In this case, there were two suspects, a Guyanese woman and a Surinamese with Dutch nationality, was arrested and put insurance. The daughter of Guyanese woman, who probably led the case, is still a fugitive and her search and arrest warrants are in progress (September / October 2008). The brothel operators, her mother, and a crimp in insurance provided. All three defendants have been sentenced to 1 ½ years SRDs 10 000 .- fine, 09 months and fined SRDs 3000 .- 2 yr imprisonment (June 2009)

21) Research on human beings of an unknown group of Surinamese, mainly Hindus in Suriname were recruited for a 'job in the catering sector in the Netherlands. Recruited to the Surinamese were told that they are first in Trinidad a course of about two weeks should follow. In Suriname, they each paid € 1500. - to the operator for their tickets Suriname-Trinidad-Netherlands. Arrived in Trinidad found that there forced labor and were forced to perform sexual services. The recruits were never sent to the Netherlands. Despite of having paid € 1500. - in Suriname they had to call with their relatives in Suriname to ask for more money to travel to the Netherlands. Three suspects have been sentenced to 3 years, 3 years and 2 ½ years imprisonment (July 2009). Four other suspects were arrested in Curacao and extradited to Suriname. The case is currently at the discretion of the court. (July 2009). Meanwhile, the court ruled, and the defendants are sentenced to a combined prison sentence of 30 years.

22) Research on trafficking case of eight Indonesians who were put to work in a motorcycle 220 assembly at Lelydorp. The victims were not prepared to testify. They were taken in by the Indonesian Embassy in cooperation with IOM and then went back to Indonesia. The suspect was not arrested because of a lack of evidence.

Annex 10 Constitution of Suriname: Articles 26, 27 & 28

Article 26 1. Everyone has the right to work, according to his capacity. 2. The obligation to work is inseparable from the right to work. 3. Everyone has the right to free choice of profession and employment, retention rules imposed by law. 4. Everyone has the right of initiative for economic production.

Second Division STATE CARE OF THE WORK Article 27 1. It is the duty of the state to sustain the right to work as much as possible by a. a systematic policy aimed at full employment; b. dismissal without just cause or for political or ideological reasons; c. guarantee equal opportunity in the choice of profession and type of work and to prohibit that access to any function or action is prevented or restricted on grounds of sex; d. training for workers.

2. The state is responsible for creating the right conditions for optimal promotion of initiatives for economic production.

Third Division RIGHTS OF EMPLOYEES Article 28 All employees, regardless of age, sex, race, nationality, religion or political opinion, entitled to: a. reward for their work according to quantity, type, quality and experience based on the principle of equal pay for equal labor; b.carry out their task under humane conditions, as order fulfillment possible; c. safe and healthy working conditions; d. sufficient rest and relaxation.

a. Fourth Division DUTIES OF THE STATE WITH RESPECT TO RIGHTS OF EMPLOYEES Article 29 It is the duty of the State to the conditions of work, remuneration and rest to which workers are entitled to indicate, in particular

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by: a. arrangements concerning wages, hours, and special workers working categories; b. to provide special protection for women at work during and after pregnancy, for minors, disabled persons and for those involved in special activities efforts or working in unhealthy or dangerous circumstances.

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ANNEX 11 List of Figures

Figure 4.1 Percentage of women in the national assembly by Political Party 24 Figure 4.2. Composition of the Governments since 1987 24 Figure 4.3 Public Servants according to sex in 2003 and in 2009 (November) 25 Figure 4.4 Composition of the juridical power 27 Figure 4.5: Overview of the management of external representation by gender 29 Figure 5.1. The Suriname Educational system 35 Figure 5.2. Men and women following adult education, academic year 2008-2009 39

Figure 5.3 Differences in the percentages of toddlers and pre-schoolers who are attending pre-school by district and educational level of the mother 41 Figure 5.4 % girls in the total student population in the different grades of elementary school, for the academic years 2006-7 en 2008-9 47 Figure 5.5 Number of VOS Students by sex, academic year 2008/9 49 Fugure 5.6 Number of students in tertiary education by sex,2008-2009 50 Figure 5.7 Pupil-Teacher ratio (PTR) in pre school and primary school, per district, academic year 2007-2008 54 Figure 5.8 MINOV study allowances granted to students in Suriname 58 Figure 5.9 Grants awarded to students abroad, 2005-2009 60 Figure 8.1 Child victims of sexual crimes 87 Figure 10.1 Activity matrix for poverty reduction 114 Figure 10.2 AOV-entitled persons to district and sex (Dec. 2009) 115 Figure 10.2 Persons entitled to General Child Benefits, to district and sex, 3th quarter 2009 121 Figure 10.3 Number of persons entitled to welfare benefits by district and sex (Dec. 2009) 122 Figure 10.4 Social benefits 2007, 2008, and 2009 125 Figure 11.1 Working Population sector, age and sex in Paramaribo & Wanica 2008 133 Figure 13.1 Child mortality and infant mortality, 2000-2008 Figuur 11.2 Employed population by age and sex 134 Figuur 11.3 Employed population by age and sex 135 Figure 11.4 Number of placements in 2008 134 Figure 13.2 Vaccination coverage children 0-1 year (1998-2008) 145 Figure 13.3 Number of cases of malaria 2000-2008 Figure 13.4. Maternal mortality rate, per 100,000 live births 152 Figure 13.5 Teenage (15-19 yr) motherhood as a percentage of the total number of deliveries of live borns, and the share that concerned a first pregnancy 153 Figure 13.6. Contraceptive prevalence among women ages 15-49 years in a steady relationship 153 Figure 13.7. Contraceptive prevalence in 1992, 2000, en 2006. 153 Figure 13.8. Contraceptives used by women aged 15-49 yr in a steady relationship (2006), by education 155

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Figure 13.9. Percentage women in the ages 15-49 years who are married or live in concubinage, with an unmet need for contraception. 156 Figure 13.10. Percent women in the ages 15 to 44 years who have committed at least one abortion, by age group and ethnic background. Only women who have used some form of contraception were surveyed (N=717). Figure 13.11. Prevalence sero-positive people by sex Figuur 13.12. Number of HIV-posite cases, by sex, 1983-2007 Figure 13.13 Number of HIV-positive cases by sex, 2004-2007 Figure 13.14 AIDS-related mortality, 1997-2007

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ANNEX 12 List of Tables

Table 4.1 Composition of Parliament between 1996 and 2010 Table 4.2 Composition of DNA to Political Parties & sex 23 Table 4.3. Overview of District Commissioners by sex 26 Tabel 4.4 Composition of the highest Authorities of state27 Table 4.5 Composition of the International Diplomatic representation Suriname 28 Table 5.1 Expenditures on education as a percentage of the total government budget 36 Table 5.2 Highest attended educational level in the population aged 5 and older, by sex pre-school by district and educational level of the mother 38 Table 5.3. Number of pre-school pupils by district 41 Table 5.4. Age Specific Enrolment Ratio 2006-2007 and 2007-2008 44 Table 5.5. Educational indicators primary school* for the academic years 2006-7 en 2008-9 Table 5.6. Number of VOJ students by sex, academic year 2008-2009 Table 5.6. University Students 2009 – 2010 (Per 06 November 2009) Table 5.7 Scientific and/or research personnel, by institute and sex 2008/9 Table 5.8 Number of students with a Suralco study allowance Table 6.1 Relevant international agreements ratified by Suriname Table 6.2 Inventarisation of Activities Tabel 7.1 Function in a media house by gender Table 7.2 Function of workers at TV Stations, by gender Table 7.3 Function employees newspaper to Gender Table 7.4 Function employees radio stations to Gender Table 8.1 Cases of domestic violence reported in the first two quarters of the years 2005- 2009 Table 8.2 Sexual offenses by sex of the perpetrator Table 8.3 Child victims of sexual crimes Table 8.4 Victims of child abuse in Opa Doeli Table 8.5 Plans for training to provide training on domestic violence Table 9.1 Overview number of suspects & victims of Human Trafficking Table 9.2 Overview course Human Trafficking matters 2005-2009 Table 10.2 Suriname Human Development Index (HDI) index 2007 Table 10.3 The number of poor and very poor *(Oct 2009) Table 10.4 Poverty indicators Table 10.5 Under weight at children under 5 Table 11.1 Macro-economic Indicators 2007-2008 Table 11.2 Overview jobseekers Paramaribo & Nickerie 2007/2008 Table 11.2 Overview registered jobseekers Paramaribo & Nickerie 2007/2008 by sex

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Table 11.3 Overview unemployment 2000-2007 Table 12.1 Number of food parcels distributed Table 13.1 Number of persons with health insurance Table 13.2 Sex ratio at birth Table 13.3 Mortality Indicators Table 13.4. Table 13.6. Frequency of malaria in the interior 148 Table 13.7. Malaria mortality 2004-2008 Table 13.8 Tuberculoses cases by type of TBC (not available by sex) Table 13.9. Share of births in urban areas, districts, and the interior that is assisted by qualified health workers

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