Constructions as Built Archives: An Innovative Analytical Approach to Reconstructing the Evolution of Imperial Opus Testaceum in

Gerold Eßer Vienna University of Technology, Austria

The , Trajan’s Market, the Baths of buildings are to be regarded as the outcome of Caracalla and the Basilica of : the monu- rational decisions made on the basis of economy, mental ruins of the imperial representational build- durability and functionality. Particularly in the ings mark the crystallisation points in a profound, area of important imperial public buildings, where centuries-long recasting of the appearance of the the pressure to be successful was exceptionally city of Rome (Fig. 1). The cores consist of practi- high, the conditions imposed by the market were cally indestructible opus caementitium, faced with certainly strictly observed. Large imperial buil- hard, quasi- industrially produced fired . This ding projects in which often many thousands of construction method, later called opus testaceum, workers had to be organised and directed required was uniquely suited to surviving the passage of the definition and implementation of standards time. For us today, this means that we have at our applicable right across the site. To ensure the suc- disposal an extraordinary wealth of evidence for the cess of a major project these standards had to be building construction methods used in those times. laid down in series of technical regulations. The Given that even the building sites of classi- doctoral thesis on which the present paper is based cal antiquity were subject to market forces, the examined the extent to which the organisation of large building sites influenced masonry construc- tions and whether, using the characteristics of the masonry that will be defined below, this influence can be read as a regulative on the erection of the structures.

The question of chronology The existing methods of dating differ greatly in their precision and reliability. Scientific methods based on the examination of construction materi- als taken in situ from buildings focus on analysing phenomena and processes peculiar to the material character and composition of the building materi- als. As a rule they should all be approached with caution as regards dating: in many cases their dat- ing relates to the time when the material exam- ined was made and not directly to the period Fig. 1: in Rome, 306-312 A.D. during which the building from which the mate-

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rial was taken was erected. Here, precisely, lies the tain accepted limits. Consequently strategies must great appeal of dating- oriented analysis of be developed that define and describe the essential masonry constructions: in comparison with build- aspects of this enormous range of findings. ing materials, masonry structures form so to speak the next, higher step in the process of creating a building. They are the building itself, or at the Present state of research very least its essential and innermost core. If we can exploit this characteristic to arrive at a dat- The number of important contributions to the ing, then our results will reveal, very closely and dating of urban Roman testaceum brickwork is directly, the point in time when a historic con- not very large. The first and original attempt was struction was built. published in an article by the American archaeolo- gist E.B. Van Deman (Van Deman 1912), which Problems in dating brickwork appeared in two parts. In a concise work based on If we view brickwork constructions as systems that, an enormous knowledge of antique monuments with their variations on an ideal model, practically gathered over a period of decades, the author suc- make up the entire volume of a building, then ceeded in producing a first classification by epochs we are confronted with an extensive and complex of caementicum constructions within which brick- range of findings (Fig. 2). Not only can brick- faced masonry structures form the most important work structures be read as the standard surface of category. In her analysis of various masonry typol- a closed wall; they also display a variety of con- ogies and epochs, the author develops a nomen- structional details and with their core penetrate the clature to describe the characteristics relevant to third dimension of walls. Even if we succeed in fix- defining a chronology. ing in time the canon of constructional possibili- Thereafter the most important publication has ties of a certain building tradition on the basis of been G. Lugli’s major work on Roman construc- all the different variations used, the human inad- tion technology with its often lexically meticu- equacies of those who carried out the work will lous description of the technical aspects of Roman still result in variations on this canon within cer- brickwork (Lugli 1957). Today’s experts are some- what critical of his attempts, on the basis of just a few characteristics, to fix the dates for the vari- ous typologies of Roman brickwork structures. A quarter of a century later the work by T.L. Heres, Paries: A Proposal for a Dating System of Late- Antique Masonry Structures in Rome and Ostia, introduced an improved system of documenta- tion into the discussion on methodology (Heres 1982). However, this work has a serious flaw in its method: although dated and undated masonry structures are distinguished from each other, the reader is left unsure whether and on what basis given datings are accepted or questioned, and how the dating system presented, which ultimately seems to operate on the basis of intuitive compa- risons, can be used to anchor buildings securely to a particular point in time. A number of subsequent works (Giuliani 1990, 19- 24; Cecchelli 2001) clearly betray reservations about the known masonry- based dating meth- Fig. 2: Mausoleum of Helena Augusta, 320-325 A.D.: Typical ods. M. Cecchelli, for example, in her informa- late antique testaceum brickwork, area showing the stand- tive and well- structured catalogue section on early ard bond.

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Christian masonry, restricts herself to compiling photographical, in part also photogrammetrical, and documenting all data of relevance to the buil- documentation of representative sections of the ding structures, ranging from the historical sources brickwork, a procedure was developed that com- through details of research history to examinations bines a series of new processes from the fields of of masonry structures following a strict standard. surveying technology, computer science and sta- A breath of fresh air was introduced into the tistics with the familiar methods of recording and discussion by a research direction that has been evaluating masonry data. It produces results that developed with remarkable success since the 1970s allow masonry structures to be characterized in a under the name mensiochronology, which analyses differentiated and objective manner. dimensions and uses modern statistical methods to evaluate mediaeval and modern bricks (Fossati Photogrammetry 1984; Mannoni and Milanese 1988). Although In the course of the study it proved possible to hardly any note has as yet been taken of it in show that the use of tacheometric- assisted meth- classical archaeology, this interdisciplinary ini- ods of planar image rectification and cylindrical tiative has in many parts of Italy already pro- development (Fig. 3) allow entire areas of brick- vided numerically substantiated proof, based on work to be surveyed and documented, true- to- the economics of construction, of a direct con- scale and with the real colours. For the first time nection between the dimensions of the bricks exa- in the history of the comparative examination of mined and the time when they were made. brickwork, these methods also allow the numeri- cal recording and analysis of entire walls as con- structional systems. As well as being able to be Aim of the study used at different scales, ranging from detailed to general overview, the plan material produced The challenging aim of the study is to reconsider in this way allows larger areas to be dealt with, the problem of determining the chronology of spe- improves the statistical basis of the recording of cific examples of antique urban Roman brickwork data, and increases the transparency and verifia- – a group of examples of testaceum brickwork from bility of the entire documentation. the period between Diocletian and Constantine1 that have already been given fixed dates using other methods – under new methodical preconditions and asking different questions. Comparison of the samples of brickwork examined demanded strict selection based on the following criteria: belong- ing to a single region, having been commissioned by comparable clients, use of the same masonry techniques, and reliable dating. After all, only if we prove that the assumed development over a contin- uous period of time did in fact leave a recognisa- ble mark on individual buildings can we justifiably attempt to put hitherto inadequately dated brick- work into a proven chronological order.

Documentation standard for testaceum brickwork

Taking into account existing methods that com- bine a verbal, qualitative description of the Fig. 3: Baths of Maxentius on the , 307-312 A.D.: building structures with measurements and exam- Rectified photograph of the substructures with mapping of the inations of their constructional elements and a system characteristics, original scale of image 1:100.

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Graphical evaluation tabular overviews. While this phase of the work Whereas the true- to- scale graphical evaluation of meets the challenge posed by the large amounts the system characteristics can be carried out in of data, it also, and far more importantly, facil- the usual manner by mapping the photo- plans, itates the identification of those parameters of the evaluation of the standard elements of the bricks and that can help answer the ques- regular areas of brickwork – the brick and the tions of building archaeology. In addition to the mortar joints – is facilitated and accelerated by parameters of length and height that are gener- using a process developed in the research field ally required for each brick, further queries about of image analysis: semi-automatic, edge-precise characteristics can be defined. In addition to the segmenting (Fig. 4). The method further devel- calculated visible area of a brick, the automated oped for the questions examined here enables calculation of the pixels produces a value for its – like photogrammetry – large amounts of find- actual visible area. Using the form factor, which ings to be dealt with and thus also contributes works out the extent to which the actual surface of to greater precision and reliability in the results the brick differs from an ideal rectangle, we may of the examination. The further graphical devel- determine its degree of deformation and for the first opment of the standard bond bricks in the recti- time give a value expressing the probability of a fied images has the advantage that these elements, brick having been reused. The new method may along with their characteristics [height, length, well make it possible to establish other parame- shape], remain identifiable as individual pieces and ters defining the character of bricks.2 can be depicted in illustrations showing their sali- Meaningful parameters can be defined not only ent features. for the element brick but also for the representa- tive sections of masonry per se: by vertically and Automated evaluation of the characteristic horizontally scanning the masonry images and values of the standard bond with the help of new methods, the mean hori- The graphical isolation of the bricks in the rec- zontal joint thickness and vertical joint thickness of tified images allows their characteristic values to a section of masonry can be determined with a be evaluated automatically [extraction of char- high degree of reliability and accuracy. In areas acteristics] and to be subsequently organised in of wall made up of bricks that have been recy- cled these values could not yet be measured by hand, as the imprecise values obtained differed too widely. The spread of these two parameters within a defined measured area also allows objective state- ments about the inhomogeneity of the brick mate- rial examined and about the extent to which it was reused. Using this knowledge of the actual areas of brick and mortar surfaces in a defined section of brickwork, it is possible to work out area- related values for the proportion of brick and the propor- tion of mortar in the section of wall. These param- eters also represent something entirely new in the field of brickwork examination in that they can be used to establish precise surface values in the materials used on a given building site.

Manual evaluation of the characteristic values of special construction elements Evaluating special constructional elements of a Fig. 4: Typical standard bond of late antique testaceum brick- masonry bond – such as the bonding courses, scaf- work: Original image and result of the automatic segmenting. folding courses,3 openings and masonry arches –

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represents a second area for the derivation of calculated were organised in a table. Correlating masonry parameters (Fig. 3). It is based on the high- the data with the factor time made it possible to resolution photogrammetrical plan material pro- follow the development of the values during the duced at overview scale. As well as allowing a better period covered by this study [298-345 A.D.]. This handling of existing parameters, it also permits the also allowed unimportant characteristics to be dis- definition of masonry characteristics that are either tinguished from important ones. entirely new or that have so far only been partially numerically defined. So, for example, the character- Brick lengths and heights istic of the mean course height, which determines the One hardly surprising result of the study is that vertically measured denseness of the brick courses the parameters usually sought in comparative could, thanks to the possibility of making a contin- examinations of masonry, brick length and brick uous measurement of all brick courses in a defined height, say hardly anything about developments area, be increased to a certainty level of 100%. In during the period covered by the study (Fig. 5). addition, constructional elements such as the bond- As the spread of both characteristics in all the ing courses and scaffolding courses [along with the ver- buildings examined is very high, it can be safely tical distances between them], which structure the assumed that a homogenous brick material from building process in a special way, could be intro- a contemporary production source is not domi- duced as new, numerically recorded and therefore nant in any of the cases examined. highly accurate system characteristics. The informa- tion provided by this group of characteristics proved Proportion of mortar particularly significant in defining a building chro- By contrast, all the parameters relating to joint nology in the area under examination. mortar have shown clear development tenden- cies, which in the period between the earliest Statistical calculation methods Diocletian building in Rome, the Curia Iulia, and Through the use of statistical methods it was pos- the late Constantinian Mausoleum of Constantina sible to calculate a series of standard [specific] val- reveal a perceptible increase in the relative amount ues for the individual characteristics, allowing a of mortar used in brick faces. The results of the considerable increase in the reliability and preci- study reveal that the surface- related proportion sion of information conveyed by the values.

Building catalogue The results of the examinations of masonry car- ried out at selected building sites from the rele- vant period were compiled in a catalogue consisting of ten building- based sections, and were compared with the historical and archaeological source mate- rial required for identifying and dating the masonry. The characteristics and values of the examination parameters depicted here in systematic form pre- sent the building site standard that characterizes the individual buildings, and allow direct comparisons of the brickwork examined to be made.

Reconstructing the chronology of the brickwork structures examined After all the buildings [building sites] had been systematically recorded in the manner described Fig. 5: Comparison of the ten buildings from the period cove- red by the study [horizontal axis] according to the character- above and classified according to the occurrence istic of the mean brick height [vertical axis]: The characteristic of the masonry characteristics retrieved, the values is not of significance for the reconstruction of the chronology.

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of mortar in the Diocletian era was in the range System parameters 32-46%, under Maxentius 45-51%, and in the A second group of masonry characteristics first used Constantinian buildings as high as 50- 55%.4 systematically in the course of this study shows in an equally clear manner the development of the Height of the horizontal joints opus testaceum in the period under review from The development of the values for the height of Diocletian to Constantine. In the group of system the horizontal joints is even steadier and therefore, parameters it was in particular the characteristics given the current data situation, even more suitable distance between bonding courses, distance between for defining a chronology (Fig. 6). The Diocletian scaffolding courses and combination of bonding and buildings have horizontal joints measuring 1.4- scaffolding courses that were able to provide a numer- 2.2cm in height, the large Maxentian inner city ical description of the building chronology (Fig. 7). projects have joints with a constant height of 2.4cm, and from the last of the Maxentian pro- Bonding courses jects to all the Constantinian building sites the Whereas in the Curia Iulia we can recognise a joint height increases further to 2.6- 2.7cm5. standard and clearly consciously intended verti- cal distance between the bonding courses of some- Course heights what more than 4¼ ft [4.34 RF = 128.5cm], in With relatively constant brick heights, the mate- the period between the erection of the Baths of rial reveals a for the most part highly informative development as regards the characteristic course height – including brick and horizontal mortar bond. Whereas Diocletian course heights are on average 5.2- 5.7cm, and the three Maxentian large inner city projects have courses with an average height of 6cm from the Mausoleum of Maxentius erected in the late Maxentian era to the top sto- rey of the Mausoleum of Constantina the figure increases to 6.2- 6.6cm.

Fig. 7: Comparison of the ten buildings from the period cove- red by the study [horizontal axis] according to the system Fig. 6: Comparison of the ten buildings from the period co vered characteristics distance between the bonding courses [left-hand by the study [vertical axis] according to the characteristic of the column of each building] and distance between the scaffolding mean horizontal joint thickness: This characteristic is of major courses [right-hand column of each building]: This characteristic significance for the reconstruction of the chronology. is of major significance for the reconstruction of the chronology.

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Diocletian and the Mausoleum of Maxentius this of a combination of bonding courses and scaffolding value oscillates in the range 5- 5¼ ft [4.90- 5.29 courses, not only do the four Maxentian build- RF = 145.0- 156.5cm], with the figure approxi- ings but also the enclosing walls of the Baths mating closely to five ft [4.98 RF = 147.5cm] in of Diocletian belong to the core period of the five of the six buildings concerned. In the only study. All other buildings follow different systems. Constantinian building in which, with some For instance, the standard in the Constantinian reservations, we can talk of a standard distance buildings examined reveals an efficient method in aimed for in 50% of the cases, the mean distance which bonding courses are used only where spe- between the bonding courses is by contrast some- cial demands of the construction require them, what more than 5½ ft [5.56 RF = 164.5cm]. which was thus clearly an attempt to establish a universal, statics- based kind of structural design. Distance between the scaffolding courses The distance between scaffolding courses reveals Maxentian building standard a similar picture: in the Maxentian period the However, the Maxentian standard goes far beyond standard distance was almost exactly five ft [5.05 guidelines determined solely by structural require- RF = 149.5cm]. The enclosing walls of the Baths ments. The system used between 306 and 312 of Diocletian [5.14 RF] and the Mausoleum of A.D. betrays the pursuit of a building process Helena [4.98 RF], which mark the start and end that could be checked at any time throughout of this period, can also be allotted to this group the building site and that through the regular and of buildings, whereas before and after this core combined use of the two different system courses period the mean distance between scaffolding was calculated to impose on the growing building platforms is exactly 5¼ ft. a rhythm clearly visible to all involved in the con- The two system parameters of distance between struction work. As this new standard made it easier bonding courses and distance between scaffolding than ever before to coordinate the many different courses also describe a core area in which the mean groups of workers in order to meet certain fixed standard interval lies very close to five ft. In the interim goals, it may be regarded as having been case of the distance between bonding courses this the fruit of experience and a conscious attempt to period can be extended backward to include the increase the efficiency of building site organisa- central building of the , while tion. Amongst the building sites where this stand- with respect to the distance between scaffolding ard is employed, the outer precinct of the Baths platforms it can be extended forwards to include of Diocletian, probably the earliest fourth-century the Mausoleum of Helena. If the enclosing walls example of that building standard, was clearly an of the Baths of Diocletian are included in this area of experiment for the new procedure.7 A short era, the overlapping area of the two core peri- time later, presumably following the seamless re- ods exactly matches the Maxentian construction engagement of the building firms and architects period,6 during which both parameters reached a who erected the baths, what emerged here as a mean figure of precisely five ft, while at the same highly promising form of organisation, structuring time the number of distances that clearly exceed the building process and shortening the construc- this standard figure decreases to a minimum. tion period, was to be brought to perfection in the large representational buildings of Maxentius. Combination of bonding courses and scaffolding courses What these figures describe – namely a complete Acknowledgements convergence of the two system distances govern- ing the construction process – is confirmed in I should like to express my heartfelt thanks to the practice: the logical regular combination of the supervisors of my dissertation, Prof. Dr. Marina system courses at intervals of five ft can only be Döring-Williams and Prof. Dr. Johannes Cramer, identified and proven in the Maxentian construc- who as experts in the Roman subject matter were tion period. If we follow this system parameter invaluable discussion partners.

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Notes 1. The study encompasses the following ten reliably dated 4. Here once again the value of the appears buildings from the Tetrarchan and Constantinian epochs: important, which with a proportion of mortar amounting Curia Iulia 298- 303 A.D.; Baths of Diocletian 298- to only 32% is far below that of all other buildings. 305/306 A.D.; Mausoleum Tor de Schiavi 305- 309 A.D.; Baths of Maxentius on the Palatine Hill 307-312 A.D.; 5. This characteristic – just like the proportion of mortar Temple of Venus and Roma 308- 312 A.D.; Basilica of above – also shows that as regards the way they are built the Maxentius 308-312 A.D.; Mausoleum of Maxentius 308- Baths of Diocletian are far more similar to the Maxentian 312 A.D.; Mausoleum of Helena Augusta 320- 325 A.D.; buildings than to the Diocletian Curia Julia, which has hori- S. Croce in Gerusalemme 326-330 A.D.; Mausoleum of zontal joints 1.4cm thick, a figures far below that of all other Constantina Augusta 340- 350 A.D. buildings. 2. For example work on a rotation factor has been started 6. An extensive discussion on a possible late dating of this that shows the position of a brick in its mortar bed; a value second phase of construction of the Baths can be found in that allows important statements to be made about the Esser 2008, 188–206 in Chapter 4.2 “Diokletiansthermen.” horizontality of the bricks in the course. 7. The same standard was achieved a century earlier in 3. These brick courses are marked by holes in which the the construction of the starting from timbers that supported the scaffolding used in erecting the 212 A.D. This must however have been forgotten in the walls were once fixed. intervening period, as there was probably no documenta- tion of the way the building site was organized.

Reference list Cecchelli, M., (ed.), 2001. Materiali e tecniche dell`edilizia Heres, T., 1982. Paries: A Proposal for a Dating System of paleocristiana a Roma. Rome: De Luca. Late- Antique Masonry Structures in Rome and Ostia. Am- sterdam: Rodopi. Esser, G., 2008. Opus Testaceum: Untersuchungsmethode zur Rekonstruktion einer Chronologie der kaiserzeitlich- Lugli, G., 1957. La tecnica edilizia romana con particolare stadtrömischen Ziegelmauerwerke. PhD diss., Techni- riguardo a Roma e Lazio. Rome: Bardi. sche Universität Wien [Vienna University of Technol- Mannoni, T. and M. Milanese, 1988. Mensiocronolo- ogy]. gia. Archeologia e Restauro dei Monumenti. R. Francovich Fossati, S., 1984. Possibilità di datare complessi di mat- and R. Parenti (eds.). Florence, 383- 402. toni. Archeologia Medievale 11, 395. Van Deman, E., 1912. Methods of Determining the Date Giuliani, C., 1990. L´edilizia nell`antichità. Rome: Ca- of Roman Monuments. American Journal of Ar- roci. chaeology 16, 230- 251, 387- 432.

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On Construction History, Robert Carvais, A Study on the Traditional Production of Lime: André Guillerme, Valérie Nègre, The Role of Oral Sources, Rita Vecchiattini, Joël Sakarovitch ...... IX Giovanni L.A. Pesce ...... 53 The Collection of the Deutsches Museum: A Source for Research on the History 1. CONSTRUCTION HISTORY, of Construction, Dirk Bühler ...... 61 A FIELD OF STUDY Integrated Methods for the Study of Construction Techniques, Mariachiara Faliva ...... 69

– Epistemology & Historiography – Education & Diffusion Analysing Historical Timber Structures Construction of a Pendentive Grid Crossing – A Case Study on Ernst Gladbach [1812–1896] Vault, José Carlos Palacios Gonzalo, and His Research on the “Swiss Style”, Knut Sandra Cynthia Bravo Guerrero ...... 81 Stegmann ...... 3 Maillart’s Practices for Structural Design Ethnographic Studies and Their Contribution [ETH-Bibliothek’s Virtual Exhibition], to Construction History in Portugal, João Denis Zastavni ...... 89 Mascarenhas-Mateus ...... 11 The Nervi System: A Model-Game The Science of Building as a Polytechnic to Understand, Tullia Iori, Sergio Poretti .... 97 Discipline in the 19th Century, Torsten CH.ESS: European Summer Schools on Construction Meyer ...... 21 History, Werner Lorenz, Roland May ...... 105 Architectural Anthropology: A Knowledge-Based – Heritage & Restoration Approach, Sascha Roesler ...... 29 Use of Modern Materials in the Conservation – Sources & Methods of Traditional African Buildings, Ishanlosen Odiaua, Abraham A. Taiwo, Mesopotamian Foundation Deposits in the Louvre Rosemary Ajayi ...... 113 Museum, Amparo Graciani ...... 37 The Interpretation of Palladio’s Building The Study of Medieval Lifting Machines Thanks Techniques: Palazzo Chiericati to Iconography: An Example in Mediterranean and the Restorations of the 19th Century, Machinery, Lorena Fernández Correas ...... 45 Damiana Lucia Paternò ...... 121

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Conceptual Problems in the Restoration – Applied Sciences and Adaptive Reuse of Historical Structures: Firmitas and the Status of the Laws The Rhaetian Railway Bridges in Switzerland, of Statics and Mechanics, Sara Franceschelli, Tom F. Peters ...... 129 Antonella Mastrorilli ...... 221 Material History and Conservation Some Aspects of John Wallis’s Structural of Contemporary Building Fabric, Franz Graf .. 135 Mechanics, François Fleury ...... 229 Newtonian Scientists on the Relation between a Catenary Curve and an Arch 2. KNOWLEDGE & THEORIZATION Supported by its Own Weight, Patricia Radelet-De Grave ...... 237 – Architectural & Structural Design Curves Mastery at the Royal Academy Toward an Iconography of Stereotomy, Richard of Architecture: The Case of Jules Hardouin- A. Etlin ...... 145 Mansart, Luc Tamborero ...... 243 Builders’ Inventiveness in Madrid’s Baroque Guarini’s Flat Vaults and Thin Vaults Convents: Construction Invariables, María on Wooden Beams in the Duchy of Modena, Antón Barco, Eva J. Rodríguez Romero, Juan Alberto Grimoldi ...... 249 Tejela Juez ...... 155 The Role of Stereotomy in Guarino Guarini’s The Narthex Vaults of the Church of Saint- Space Research, Carlo Bianchini ...... 257 Germain-l’Auxerrois in Paris, Theory and Practice in Timber Construction Dominic Boulerice ...... 163 1800-1830, Andreas Kahlow ...... 265 The First Complete List of All the Models Same Title, New Contents: Saint-Venant’s Made for the Construction of St. Paul’s Revised Edition [1864] of Navier’s Résumé Cathedral, London 1675-1720, Des Leçons Sur L’application De La Mécanique James W.P. Campbell ...... 173 [1826, 1833], Federico Foce ...... 273 Nineteenth Century Invention under Scrutiny: – Structural Analysis & Modeling Louis Auguste Boileau’s Frame Construction Systems of around 1850, Laurent Koetz ...... 185 The Membrane Analysis of Thin Masonry Shells, Jacques Heyman ...... 281 The Science of the Beautiful: S.C. Constant- Dufeux and the Parabola as Constructive The Temple of Diana at Baiae: History and Symbolic Form, Ralph Ghoche ...... 193 and Structure of an Imperial Roman Dome, Timothy Cooke, John Ochsendorf ...... 291 The Development of Design Charts and Other Graphical Calculation Tools On the As-Built Geometry of the Vaults for Use by Building and Civil Engineers of the Basilica of Maxentius, Alejandra up to the Early 20th Century, Bill Addis ...... 201 Albuerne, Martin Williams, Janet Delaine .. 299 Modern Interpretations of the Vernacular Structural and Constructive Analysis Tradition in the Work of J.A. Coderch of the Acequia Real Aqueduct in the Alhambra, 1940-1964, Ana Rodríguez García ...... 211 Granada, Javier Suárez, Laura Cirera ...... 307

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The Islamic Crossed-Arch Domes in Cordoba: ‘Machine pour ouvrire une fenêtre par contre- Geometry and Structural Analysis of the “Capilla poids’: A Case Study Revealing the Nature de Villaviciosa”, Paula Fuentes ...... 317 of Invention and Innovation in Late 17th Century Northern European Architecture, The Minaret of the Mosque of Mansourah: Hentie Louw ...... 401 A Half-Ruin Elucidated, Fouad Ghomari .... 325 Knowledge of Architecture and Building Structural Devices Concerning the Progressive Technologies in 18th Century Sweden, Outer Shell Construction in Brunelleschi’s Dome, Linnéa Rollenhagen Tilly ...... 409 Maria Teresa Como ...... 331 Early Iron Bridge Construction for the Grand The Ciborium or Lantern Tower of Valencia Duchy of Baden and for Central Europe, Cathedral: Geometry, Construction Martin Trautz, Friedmar Voormann ...... 419 and Stability, José Antonio García Ares, Traces of Construction Following Migration: Ignacio Javier Gil Crespo ...... 341 Transverse Gable; Massive Timber Arches and Spirals: The Geometrical Concept and Carpenter’s Marks in the Houses of the Curvilinear Rib Vault in the Albrechtsburg of the 19th Century German Settlers at Meissen and Some Considerations in Southern Chile, Francisco Prado, on the Construction of Late-Gothic Vaults María F. Vargas, Renato D’Alençon, with Double-Curved Ribs, David Wendland ... 351 Daniel Korwan, Johanna Moser ...... 429 An Insight into Abeille’s Flat Vault Technical Supremacy: Tropical Architecture through Numerical Analyses, Maurizio and Technologies of the British State, Brocato, Lucia Mondadini ...... 359 Alexandra Quantrill ...... 439 Analysis of Philippe de la Hire’s Arch Theory The Roots of Foreign Effects Using Graphic Statics, Thierry Ciblac ...... 367 in Development of the Turkish Construction Sector [1719-1933], Hilal Tuğba Örmecioğlu, Structural Analysis of Thin Tile Vaults Bilge Küçükdoğan, Aslı Er Akan ...... 449 and Domes: The Inner Oval Dome of the Basílica de la Virgen de los Desamparados in Valencia, A Study of Military Facility Planning from the Viewpoint of Technological Santiago Huerta ...... 375 Transfer from France to Japan, – Transfer of Knowledge Riichi Miyake, Michiko Maejima ...... 457 Stereotomic Exchanges between Iberia and France The Developmental Procedure of the Traditional in the 16th Century: Benoît Augier, Valencian Architectural Woodworking Tools in Taiwan, Stairways and the Escalier de Toulouse, Bo-Hsun Yao, Min-Fu Hsu ...... 465 Arturo Zaragozá Catalán, José Calvo-López, – Rules & Standards Pau Natividad-Vivó ...... 385 Transmission of Building Technology For a Comparative Study of Construction Laws, from Europe to the Americas: Underlying Robert Carvais ...... 475 Geometry and Stereotomy Studies of Three Ribbed The Architecture pratique by Pierre Bullet Vaults Constructed in Mexico between 1535 [1691] and the Normalisation of the Construction and 1575, Benjamin Ibarra-Sevilla ...... 393 Process, Juliette Hernu-Bélaud ...... 489

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Construction Market Organization – Technical Literature & Drawings in the 17th century: Norms, Actors “De Fenestris”: An Unpublished Treatise and Practices – Examples of Extension Plans in Aix and Marseille, Julien Puget ...... 495 from the Mid-15th Century on the Construction of Windows and Stained Glass, The Structure of Houses in Madrid Paola Travaglio...... 603 1669-1900: Buildings and Documents, Esperanza González Redondo ...... 503 Moving St. Peter’s Obelisk as Seen History of Construction in the 18th Century in the Engravings of Giovanni Guerra through the “Istruzioni” Written by Filippo and Natale Bonifacio: A Transmission Juvarra, Beatrice Maria Fracchia ...... 513 of Knowledge, or Pure Propaganda?, Contractors of 19th-Century Public Works Maria Grazia D’Amelio ...... 611 in Belgium: Looking for a Research Approach Guidobaldo del Monte as Architect for the Rural Areas, Jeroen Cornilly ...... 519 and the Construction of Santa Maria degli Limitations Stemming from the Legal Regulation Angeli in Pesaro, Francesco Menchetti, of Designs of Foreign Architects in Spain Laura S. Pelissetti ...... 621 in the 19th Century: The Case of the Basque Country, María Teresa Paliza Monduate ..... 527 An Unpublished Treatise on Waters by Vincenzo The First Building Code of Campinas – 1934: Della Greca: A Source of Carlo Fontana’s A Legal Instrument of the Urban Modernization Utilissimo Trattato Delle Acque Correnti, Process of the City, Silvia Amaral Palazzi Marisa Tabarrini ...... 629 Zakia ...... 537 George Semple and the Reconstruction of Essex – Training & Education Bridge in Dublin 1753-1755, Teaching Construction in the Académie Royale Dermot O’Dwyer, Ronald Cox ...... 637 d’Architecture, Hélène Rousteau-Chambon ..... 545 The Squinch Vaults in Joseph Ribes’ Llibre Oral Transmission and the Use of Models De Trasas De Viax Y Muntea,Fabio Tellia, in the Teaching of Architecture Jose Carlos Palacios Gonzalo ...... 647 and Construction at the Turn of the 19th Century, Valérie Nègre ...... 555 Hokusai Manga as a Reference How Belgian Engineers Passed on Their Construction Book, Jean-Sébastien Cluzel .... 655 Knowledge between 1830 and 1865: Education, Association and Publication, A Review of the Depiction of Ancient Willemijne Linssen, Krista De Jonge ...... 565 Construction by Charles Chipiez in L’Histoire Short of Education or Short of Engineers: De l’Art, Javier Girón ...... 665 British Civil Engineering 1890-1910, Construing Construction with Drawings: Mike Chrimes ...... 575 Robert Willis’ and Auguste Choisy’s Axonometric The Italian Engineers’ Architecture Representations of Vaulted Structures, and Technique Training, Simona Talenti .... 587 Hilary Bryon ...... 673 “Purpose” and “Means” of Architectural Design: Construction in Julien Guadet’s Teachings Handbooks on Construction Site Supervision in Architectural Theory, Guy Lambert ...... 595 in the 19th Century, Christoph Rauhut ...... 683

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Volume 2 3. PEOPLE & ORGANIZATIONS The Development of Belgian Ironworks in the 19th Century: Case Studies – Craftsmanship & Technical Tasks and Reflections on Sources and Historiography, Metropolitan Vernacular: On the History Koen Verswijver, Inge Bertels, Ine Wouters, of Informal Construction in a Brazilian City, Quentin Collette ...... 81 Silke Kapp, Ana Paula Baltazar ...... 3 Architecture and Reinforced Concrete in Brazil: A Case Study of Local Builders’ Carpentry Tools: The Action of the Largest Construction Traditional Constructions of Ürünlü, Companies in Brazil, Christiani Turkey, Gülşah Çelik, Kemal Reha Kavas ... 11 & Nielsen and Wayss & Freytag, Building Construction in Medieval Spain: Maria Luiza de Freitas ...... 91 The Female Perspective, Shelley E. Roff ...... 17 Building Modern Spain: Some Notes on Building Culture and Competence: Huarte y Cía, Javier Martinez-Gonzalez, Demonstrating Knowledge on Construction Marta Garcia-Alonso ...... 99 Sites in 18th-Century Virginia, The Significance of Building Labour Elizabeth Cook ...... 23 to the Production of the Built Environment, Building Trades in Catalonia during the Modern Linda Clarke, Charlie McGuire, Era: The Case of Immigration to Girona City, Christine Wall ...... 107 Gemma Domènech Casadevall ...... 31 Construction Work in Four German States: From Master Mason to Architect: James Smith’s Before, during and after the Cold War, Construction Techniques at the End of 17th Jörn Janssen, Ernst-Ludwig Laux...... 115 Century in Scotland, Cristina González-Longo, Concrete Constructors: Oral History Accounts Dimitris Theodossopoulos ...... 37 of Building Work on a Large, Complex Site Barbetti Serafín: Builder of Vaulted Bridges in 1960s Britain, Christine Wall, in South-Western Colombia [c. XIX], Linda Clarke, Charlie McGuire ...... 125 Jorge Galindo Díaz ...... 47 Who Paints the House? Scotswomen as – Organization of the Construction Site Housepainters and Decorators Construction Methods in Carolingian Rome from 1820, Nina Baker ...... 53 [Eighth-Ninth Centuries], Lia Barelli ...... 135 On the Construction Process Building during the War of Granada: The Project of Government Buildings in Taiwan during for Reconstructing Fuengirola in 1485, the Japanese Colonial Period, 1895-1945, Raúl Romero Medina, Manuel Romero Hsin-Yao Hsu ...... 63 Bejarano ...... 145 Building the New Prisons of Venice and Their – Contractors & the Labor Market Bridge [1591-1604], Andrea Bonavita ...... 149 Private Archives of the 18th The Building of the Arsenal of Le Havre and 19th Centuries: Sources for the History in the 17th and 18th Centuries, of -Working in Belgium, Joëlle Petit .. 73 Matthieu Pinon ...... 157

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Road Construction Sites in 18th Century France: Urban Dynamics and Horizontal Property: Labor and Administration in Action, Case Study of the Boavista Axis, Porto, Anne Conchon, Katherine McDonough .... 165 Portugal, Clara Pimenta do Vale, Reconsidering the “Considerable Expense” Vítor Trindade Abrantes ...... 265 Involved in Building the Lavaur Bridge – Institutions in Languedoc [1769-1791], Catherine Isaac .... 173 The Great Hall of the Institution Innovation and Tradition in the Reconstruction of Civil Engineers Headquarters Building, of the Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls Malcolm Dunkeld ...... 273 in Rome [1825-1928]: Technologies, An Institution for Structural Innovation: Procedures, Protagonists, Nicoletta Marconi ..... 181 Office for the Study and Design The Builder’s Flying Squads: An Analysis of Industrial Building Types [BISTYP] of the Ministry of Works Special Repair Service in Postwar Poland, Alicja Gzowska ...... 281 Activities during WWII, Richard Burt ...... 191 Brazilian Construction Analysis of the Construction Site as Center: Initiative for Management a Historical Document of Its Production of the Brazilian Housing Construction Process, Carolina Heldt D’Almeida ...... 199 Industry [1969-1972], Ana Paula Koury ..... 289 Managing the Design and Construction Construction Material of the Empire State Building: Are There Lessons Testing at MPA Stuttgart during for Today’s Projects?, Kenneth F. Robson ...... 207 the Third Reich, Christiane Weber ...... 297 The Avianca Tower: Practices Driving – Politics & Policies Technical Innovations in a Construction Firm in the 60s, Camilo Villate, Construction Financing in Late Medieval Brando Tamayo ...... 217 Portuguese Towns [14th-16th Centuries], Arnaldo Melo, Maria do Carmo Ribeiro .... 305 – Property & the Real Estate Market Research and Construction in the Late The Role of the Islamic Pious Foundations Colonial Settings: Institutions, Technology [Waqf] in Building the Old City of Jerusalem and Development Programs in Africa, during the Islamic Periods [637-1917], 1948-1958,Hélène Vacher, ...... 313 Musa Sroor ...... 229 The Plot of Concrete in Brazil: A History Between Market and Architecture: of the Technology Diffusion of Reinforced The College of Engineers, Architects Concrete, Roberto Eustaáquio dos Santos .... 323 and Land Surveyors in Real Estate Pricing in 16th-18th Century Milan, The Material Genesis of an Icon: Michela Barbot ...... 237 The Construction of the Building of FAU USP [1961-1969], Felipe Contier, Building Expropriation Process for the Renato L.S. Anelli ...... 329 Construction of the New Dock at the Port of Cartagena [Spain] in the 18th Century, Conceiving the Industrialization Gema Ramírez Pacheco, Federico García of Construction in France in the 1950s, Erviti, María Jesús Peñalver Martínez, Christel Frapier ...... 337 Juan Francisco Maciá Sánchez ...... 245 Construction of Railway Workshops in Colombia Changing Patterns in Residential during the First Half of the 20th Century: Construction and the Real Estate Market: A National Engineering Triumph, Spain, 1910-1960, Miguel Artola Blanco ... 255 Ricardo Tolosa, Jorge Galindo Díaz ...... 345

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4. MATERIALS – Reuse For a History of Deconstruction, – Earth, Bricks & Tiles Philippe Bernardi, Daniela Esposito ...... 453 Earthen Building Techniques in the Humid The Use of the “Already There”: Reuse Tropics: The Archaeological Site of La Joya, and Recycling for Monumental Building Veracruz, México, Annick Daneels, in the West in Late Antiquity and the Luis Fernando Guerrero-Baca ...... 353 Medieval Period, Stéphane Büttner, ...... 461 Persistence of the Perishable; Wattle-and-Daub The Use of Dating Methods for Studying Architectures in the Roman Period: A Census Building Materials and Constructions: of the Archaeological Findings State of the Art and Current Challenges, in Gallia Cisalpina and the Case Pierre Guibert, Sophie Blain, Armel Bouvier, Ian Bailiff, Maylis Baylé, Stéphane Büttner, of Mediolanum, Anna Antonini ...... 361 Christian Sapin, Annick Chauvin, Philippe Efficiency in Form: Thomas Jefferson’s Dufresne, Anna Gueli, Philippe Lanos, Serpentine Walls at the University of Virginia, Marco Martini, Emanuela Sibilia, Jennifer Zessin, John Ochsendorf ...... 375 Daniel Prigent, Giuseppe Stella, Three Key Aspects of the History of Brick Olindo Troja ...... 469 Construction in Scotland, Moses Jenkins ...... 383 The Reuse of Columns in Rome, Marseilles Tile, Miles Lewis ...... 391 15th-16th Centuries, Emanuela Montelli .... 481 Against Replication: Carved Brick at the Dawn The Revival of Classical Building Techniques of the Terracotta Age, Sara Wermiel ...... 401 in Late Ottoman Architecture in Bergama, Turkey, Martin Bachmann ...... 491 Structural Morphology Presented on Surface Cladding: From Structural Brick A Study on Distribution and Reuse to Ornamental Tile in the Westernised of Tram Line Paving Stones in Japan, Far East, Nan-Wei Wu ...... 409 Sachiko Okada, Ichiro Kobayashi, Koichi Nakama ...... 501 Load-Bearing Wall Structures in the Works of Lluís Nadal, Gemma Muñoz Soria ...... 417 – Plaster & Mortar Traditional Structures Made with Gypsum – Stone Pillars: A Reasoned Hypothesis, Fernando Vegas, Camilla Mileto, Maria Diodato, José García The Aeolian-Style Polygonal Masonry in Larisa Soriano, Carles Grau Giménez, ...... 509 [Buruncuk] and its Regional Context, Geological Origin of the Reagents Constituting Turgut Saner, Kaan Sağ ...... 427 Roman Mortar, According to Vitruvius, A Mining Engineer in Heritage Land: Frédéric Davidovits ...... 517 A.L.W.E. Van der Veen and Early Research The First Verifiable Application of Cast Mortar on Natural Stone for the Netherlands State in Prefabricated Construction in the Coffered Commission on Conservation [1920-1936], Ceiling of the Early Hellenistic Mausoleum Wido J. Quist, Timo G. Nijland ...... 435 of Belevi, Reinhard Heinz ...... 523 Stone Cladding Techniques in French The Use of Mortar in Late Hellenistic Modern Architecture [1920-1940], Construction: The Case of the Octagon Angelo Bertolazzi ...... 443 in , Barbara Thuswaldner ...... 531

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The Knowledge and the Development Béton Armé in a Sinking City: of Mortars between the 18th and 19th Centuries: Mexico 1902-1914, The Case Study of the Verona Amphitheatre Mónica Silva-Contreras ...... 593 Restoration,Marco Cofani ...... 539 Technological Innovation and Traditional History and Technique of an Italian Wooden Building Methods in the First Application Floor System Based on Reeds and Gypsum of Reinforced Concrete in L’Aquila: Plaster Frames: The Case of Reggio Emilia, The “New Provincial Insane Asylum” Luca Boiardi, Maria Regina Tedeschini, [1903-1916], Alessandra Bellicoso ...... 601 Riccardo Gulli ...... 549 Auguste Perret: The Grenoble Orientation Tower – Architecture, Art and the Press, – Metal Cédric Avenier, Anne Coste ...... 609 The Role of Iron Armatures in Gothic Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Constructions: Reinforcement, Consolidation in High-Rise Construction in Spain, or Commissioner’s Choice, Maxime L’Héritier, 1950-1975: Technique and Innovation, Philippe Dillmann, Arnaud Timbert, Jesús Anaya Díaz ...... 619 Philippe Bernardi, ...... 557 The Transformation of Construction by Concrete, Andrew Rabeneck, ...... 627 A Victorian Ironworld: Cast Iron, Ornament and Brighton, Paul Dobraszczyk .... 565 The ‘Scientification’ of Reinforced Concrete in Belgium during the Interwar Period: Development and Dissemination of Scientific, – Reinforced Concrete Theoretical and Technical Knowledge, François Hennebique’s Patents as Applied Stephanie Van de Voorde, Rika Devos ...... 637 on the Building Site: The Mercato Orientale Manual Abilities and Modern Constructive in Genoa [1896-1899] and the Creation Techniques in a Building by Arturo of a Local Construction Hoerner: The S. A. Supertessile Plant Network, Hermann Schlimme ...... 573 and the System Baroni-Lüling, Rieti-Italy, Concrete Piling: Major Developments 1926, Edoardo Currà ...... 647 in the Historical Practice of Pile Foundations, Air Raid Shelters in the United Kingdom Armande Hellebois, Yves Rammer, 1939-1945: An Initial Investigation, Jean-Claude Verbrugge, ...... 583 John McGuinness ...... 657

Volume 3 5. TECHNOLOGY to Reconstructing the Evolution of Imperial Opus Testaceum Brickwork in Rome, – Foundations & Masonry Gerold Eßer ...... 13 The Achievement of Structural Stability The Scaenae Frons of the Roman Theatre in the Drystone Iron-Age Broch Towers of Itálica: Notes on the Construction Process, in North Scotland, Dimitris Theodossopoulos, Francisco Pinto Puerto, José María John Barber, Graeme Cavers, Andy Heald ..... 3 Guerrero Vega ...... 21 Masonry Constructions as Built Archives: Foundation Techniques in the Early Modern An Innovative Analytical Approach Low Countries [1600-1750]: A Problematic

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Case – St. Walpurgis in Antwerp, – Shells & Thin Vaults Maud De Voght, Krista De Jonge ...... 29 Tests on Tile Vaults in France in the 19th The Pentagon Ramparts and Bastions Century, Esther Redondo Martínez...... 107 of Fortress Rosenberg in Kronach, Germany, Philip S.C. Caston...... 37 Pioneer Concrete Shells in Spanish Architecture: The Innovation System-Design of Ildefonso – Vaults & Stereotomy Sánchez del Río, Pepa Cassinello ...... 117 Opus revinctum in Dome and Barrel Vault James Hardress de Warenne Waller Constructions in Roman Asia Minor, Ursula and His Contribution to Shell Roof Construction, Quatember, Barbara Thuswaldner ...... 45 Concrete and Fabric Formwork Technologies, The 100 Ft Vault: The Construction Ciarán Conlon ...... 125 and Geometry of the Sala dei Baroni Shell Wars: Franz Dischinger of the Castel Nuovo, Naples, Enrique and Ulrich Finsterwalder, Roland May ...... 133 Rabasa Díaz, Miguel Ángel Alonso-Rodríguez, Tomás Gil López, Ana López-Mozo, Reinforced Concrete Shells in Estonia José Calvo-López, Alberto Sanjurjo Álvarez .... 53 during the Soviet Period: Science and Practice, Maris Suits ...... 143 Construction of Early Rib-Vaults in Croatia, Marina Šimunić Buršić ...... 61 – Wood Structures The Chambiges and the Construction A New Approach in Studying the Structural of Vaulted Stone Spiral Staircases, Systems of Prehistoric Wooden Post Buildings: Alberto Sanjurjo Álvarez ...... 67 A Case Study from Aşağı Pınar in Eastern Thrace, Zeynep Eres, Eylem Özdoğan ...... 149 The Irregular Ribbed Vault of the Sacristy of the Cathedral of Saint-Jean Baptiste A Roof under One’s Feet: Early Neolithic Roof in Perpignan, Rosa Senent Domínguez, Constructions at Göbekli Tepe, Southeastern Miguel Ángel Alonso Rodríguez, Turkey, Dietmar Kurapkat ...... 157 Enrique Rabasa Díaz ...... 75 Fan-Shaped Bracket Sets and Their Application Late German Gothic Methods in Different Building Materials: A Discussion of Vault Design and Their Relationships of the Chinese Fangmu Tradition with Spanish Ribbed Vaults, Rafael Martin and Jin-dynasty Tomb Architecture Talaverano, Carmen Pérez in Southwest Shanxi Province, de los Ríos, Rosa Senent Domínguez ...... 83 Alexandra Harrer ...... 167 Safavid Ribbed Vaults Medieval Timber Structures in Eastern as a Masterpiece of Iranian Construction Germany: Archaeological Evidence from Techniques, Stefania Petralla ...... 91 Eberswalde, Christof Krauskopf ...... 175 The Lecce Vault: History, Construction Commercial Categories and Applications Techniques and New Design Perspectives, of Construction Timber in the Trentino-Verona Giuseppe Fallacara ...... 99 Area [14th-16th Centuries], Silvia Dandria .... 183

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Wooden ‘Italian’ Wide-Span Roofs of German Comfort versus Industry: Maintenance 19th Century Theatre Buildings, Anja of the Royal Palaces of Milan during Wünnemann, Stefan the 1860s, Carlo Manfredi ...... 289 M. Holzer, Clemens Voigts ...... 193 The Military Engineers and Hygiene in Barracks in the Second Half of the 19th Century, – Metal Structures Francesca Turri, Emanuele Zamperini ...... 299 Rebuilding St. Petersburg’s Winter Palace Scientific Developments of Heating in the Context of Early European Steel Structures and Ventilation Professional Unions and Learned 1838-1850s: Contemporary Sources Societies in France during the First Part and Documents, Sergej Fedorov ...... 203 of the 20th Century, Emmanuelle Gallo ...... 309 Two Crystal Palaces: Constructive Technology Innovations in Ventilation: Wind Cowls in the and Practice; Great Britain 1851 – 19th Century, Maaike van der Tempel, United States 1853, Donald Friedman, Ine Wouters, Filip Descamps, Brian Bowen ...... 215 Dorien Aerts...... 317 Wrought Iron and Steel Structures in Berlin Hygiene in Belgian Architecture: in Their Prime from 1875 to 1925, The Case of Victor Horta [1861-1947], with a Focus on Buildings for the Arts, Dirk Van de Vijver ...... 325 Ines Prokop ...... 225 Artificial Light in the Aristocratic Palaces A Prefabricated Cast Iron Three-Hinged in the Po Valley between the 17th and 18th Arch Bridge in Ljubljana, Lara Slivnik ...... 235 Centuries, Laura Balboni, Paolo Corradini, Historic Bridge Bearings: Material Research Angelo Landi ...... 333 on Cast Steel, Volker Wetzk ...... 243 Artificial Light in Architecture in France The Vierendeel Bridge at its Heyday: and Italy during the First Years of the 20th Rational Design, Experiments and Brittle Century: From Gas Light to Electric Light, Failure, Bernard Espion ...... 253 Giulio Sampaoli ...... 341 – Interior Environment & Energy The World Health Organization Headquarters in Geneva [1960-1966]: How Mechanical Heated Vaulting in Roman Britain and Electrical Services are Integral to Reading and the Invention of Hollow Terracotta Built Form, Giulia Marino ...... 351 Voussoirs, Lynne C. Lancaster ...... 261 The Morphological Evolution of the Vertical The Stube: Constructive Evidence for the Concept Axle Windmill between the Second of a Smoke-Free Heated Living Room between and the 18th Centuries A.D., the Alps and Southern Scandinavia, Kambiz Mosthtaghe Gohari ...... 359 Rainer Atzbach ...... 269 Constructing a Solar House, c. 1959, The Construction and Integration of Historic Daniel A. Barber ...... 367 Heating Systems in Churches in the United Kingdom from the 17th to the Early The Thermal Insulation of Facades 20th Century, Spyridon Papavasileiou, after the Oil Crisis of 1974 to the 80s, Magdalini Makrodimitri, James Campbell ..... 277 Samaher Wannous ...... 379

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– Prefabrication & Industrialization Cellars: Construction and Insulation through Post-War Industrialized Construction Processes the Beginning of the 20th Century, in France and Architectural Flexibility, Antonia Brauchle ...... 479 Leda Dimitriadi...... 385 Tiled Vaults in Western Sicily: The Dismantled War: Barracks Originality and Continuity of an Imported and Industrialization of Light Construction Building Technique, Giovanni Fatta, [1914-1918], Kinda Fares ...... 395 Tiziana Campisi, Calogero Vinci ...... 487 The Simplification of the Frame: Window The Use of Vaults in the Reconstruction Experiments in the Work of Le Corbusier of Pombaline Downtown Lisbon, in the 1920s, Vanessa Fernandez ...... 405 João Caldas, Rita Lisboa ...... 495 Rationalization of Systems and Materials The First Earthquake-Resistant Structures in Construction in the Spanish Modern Movement: Fernando Garcia Mercadal, 1921-1937, in Japan: Lessons from the Forgotten Rafael Hernando de la Cuerda ...... 413 Earthquake of Ischia [1883], Nobi [1891] and San Francisco [1906], Akio Sassa ...... 503 Concrete Meccanos: Precast Constructions after the Second World War in the Netherlands, The Roof Frame of the Salon Carré, Rafael García García ...... 421 Guillaume Fonkenell ...... 515 RetCel: The Development of Floor and Roof Assemblies of Precast Concrete – Hydraulics Cells in Colombia, 1949-1989, The Historical Aqueduct of Genoa: Materials, Hernando Vargas ...... 431 Techniques and History – A Way to Know, The First ENI-SNAM Headquarters Anna Decri ...... 525 in San Donato Milanese: Some Features of Industrialization in Construction Techniques Wooden Embankments in the Lagoon Territory Applied to Office Buildings in the Post Second of Capitanata between the 18th and 19th World War Period in Italy, Laura Greco ...... 439 Centuries, Giuseppe Rociola ...... 533 Flaine: Mountain City; The Building Construction Process of the Tsujunkyo of a High Altitude Citadel, Yvan Delemontey ...... 449 Aqueduct Bridge [1854] – A Case Study of Japanese Bridge Construction in the Edo Architectural Expression in the 60s and the Prefabrication of Formwork, Period, Yasuhiro Honda, Keiko Nagamura, Maite Palomares Figueres, Jésica Moreno Ichiro Kobayashi ...... 541 Puchalt, Veronica Llopis Pulido ...... 457 The Role of the Tsujun Irrigation Canal’s Competing Building Systems: Post-War Construction and Maintenance in the Creation University Architecture in the Ruhr Area, of a Cultural Landscape [Shiraito Plateau, Sonja Hnilica, Markus Jager ...... 463 Kumamoto, Japan], Naoto Tanaka ...... 549 – Natural & Technical Risk Prevention Water Pumping Plants for Land Drainage Not Built in a Day: Awareness in the Po Valley, A Case Study of The Mantua of Vulnerability and Construction Techniques Region [1866-1940]: People, Techniques, in Roman Times, Hélène Dessales ...... 471 Materials, Carlo Togliani ...... 557

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– Infrastructure & Public Works Road Construction in Greece during the Interbellum: The Makris Project, A in the Roman Town Evangelia Chatzikonstantinou, of Privernum, Lazio, Italy: The Project, the Plan, Paschalis Samarinis, Areti Sakellaridou ...... 637 the Construction, Carla Maria Amici ...... 565 Historical Research for the Planning The Roman Bridges of the Via Traiana: An and Construction of Misumi Port, Yuji Hoshino, Innovative Building System, Ivan Ferrari ...... 573 Sachiko Okada, Daijiro Kitagawa ...... 647 Development and Use of Mechanized Heavy The Development of Multi-Cable-Stayed Construction Equipment in the United States, Bridges, Eberhard Pelke, Karl-Eugen Kurrer ...... 657 Richard C. Ryan ...... 579 Sunderland, Birdsall and the Roebling Co: Innovation in 19th Century Vaulted Bridge Development and Diffusion of Construction Construction, Stefan M. Holzer ...... 589 Technologies for Suspension Bridges, The Timber Trusses of R.W. Smith: History, 1928-1952, Dario A. Gasparini ...... 667 Design and Behavior, Stephen Buonopane, Technical Systems and Networks Sarah Ebright, Alex Smith ...... 599 for a Modern High Altitude Settlement: The Most Important Construction in Bahia’s The Construction of the Sanatorium Village in Sondalo [1932-1946], Davide Del Curto, 19th Century History: Salvador’s Mountain Francesco Carlo Toso ...... 675 Retaining Wall, Rosana Muñoz ...... 607 Notes on Technological and Architectural Postscript : For a multilingual Aspects of London Transport Power Dictionary of Construction History, André Guillerme ...... 685 Stations and Substations, 1880-1915, Matteo Porrino ...... 617 Author Index ...... 691 The Highway Comes to the American City: General Index ...... 697 Automobility, Urbanity and the Functioning of City Streets, Ted Shelton ...... 627 Complete Table of Contents ...... 717

2238_TDM_generale_CS5.indd38_TDM_generale_CS5.indd 772828 111/06/20121/06/2012 118:39:548:39:54 2238_TDM_generale_CS5.indd38_TDM_generale_CS5.indd 772929 111/06/20121/06/2012 118:39:548:39:54 lmprimé sur les presses de l'imprimerie France Quercy - 46090 Mercuès Numéro d'impression: 21094- Dépôt légal: juillet 2012

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