Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age Jonathan Bardill Frontmatter More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76423-0 - Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age Jonathan Bardill Frontmatter More information

CONSTANTINE, DIVINE EMPEROR OF THE CHRISTIAN GOLDEN AGE S

Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age offers a radical reassess- ment of Constantine as an emperor, a pagan, and a Christian. The book examines in detail a wide variety of evidence, including literature, secular and religious architectural monuments, coins, sculpture, and other works of art. Setting the emperor in the context of the kings and emperors who preceded him, Jonathan Bardill shows how Constantine’s propagandists exploited the traditional themes and imagery of rulership to portray him as elected by the supreme solar God to save his people and inaugurate a brilliant Golden Age. The author argues that the cultivation of this image made it possible for Con- stantine to reconcile the long-standing tradition of imperial divinity with his monotheistic faith by assimilating himself to Christ.

Jonathan Bardill has held fellowships at Oxford University, Dumbarton Oaks, Newcastle University, and Koc¸ University’s Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations, Istanbul. He has contributed articles to numerous archaeological and historical journals, including the American Journal of Archaeology,the Journal of Roman Archaeology,andDumbarton Oaks Papers,aswellasseveral edited volumes, including Social and Political Life in Late Antiquity and The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. He is the author of the reference work Brickstamps of Constantinople.

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76423-0 - Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age Jonathan Bardill Frontmatter More information

CONSTANTINE, DIVINE EMPEROR OF THE CHRISTIAN GOLDEN AGE S

Jonathan Bardill

cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao˜ Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013-2473, usa www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521764230

C Jonathan Bardill 2012

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Bardill, Jonathan. Constantine, divine emperor of the Christian golden age / Jonathan Bardill. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-0-521-76423-0 (hardback) 1. Constantine I, Emperor of Rome, d. 337. 2. Byzantine Empire – History – To 527. 3. Emperors – Rome – Biography. 4. Rome – History – Constantine I, the Great, 306–337. 5. Rome – Kings and rulers – Religious aspects – History. 6. Kings and rulers in literature. 7. Kings and rulers in art. 8. Rome – Antiquities. 9. Christianity – Rome – History. 10. Christianity and politics – Rome – History. I. Title. dg315.b334 2011 937.08092 –dc22 [B] 2010046932

isbn 978-0-521-76423-0 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urlsfor external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Publication of this book has been aided by a generous grant from the Vehbi Koc¸ Foundation.

For my parents again

CONTENTS S

Illustrations page ix Acknowledgements xix Abbreviations xxi Chronology xxv Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchs and Constantine xxviii The Families of the Tetrarchs and Constantine xxx

introduction 1

1 achangeofimage 11

2 emperors and divine protectors 28

3 the saving ruler and the logos-nomos 126

4 the hippodrome procession 151 5 the symbol from the sun, the standard, and the sarcophagus 159

6 the roman colossus 203

7 constantine and christianity 218

8 sol and christianity 326

9 constantine as christ 338

Epilogue 397 Bibliography 401 Index 425

vii

ILLUSTRATIONS S

1a–d. The First Tetrarchy. (a) Diocletian as tetradrachm issued by Lysimachos. Augustus. Obverse of gold coin minted 306–281 B.C. 16 in Nicomedia. A.D. 295. (b) Maximian 9. Victory standing on a sceptre and as Augustus. Obverse of gold coin breaking a diadem. Reverse of silver minted in Nicomedia. A.D. 294.(c) denarius minted by Marcus Junius Galerius as Caesar. Obverse of gold coin Brutus. 43–42 B.C. 17 minted in Antioch. A.D. 294–295.(d) 10. Alexander the Great. Marble portrait Constantius Chlorus as Caesar. Obverse head from Kyme. Hellenistic, of gold medallion minted in Trier. A.D. third–second century B.C. 20 297. page 12 11. Commodus. Marble portrait head with 2. Constantine as Caesar. Obverse of gold eyes raised towards heaven. End second coin minted in Rome. A.D. 307. 13 century A.D. 21 3. Constantine as Caesar. Obverse of gold 12. Bronze head of the statue of a Tetrarch coin minted in Trier. A.D. 306–307. 13 from Adana, Turkey. Height: 37.8 cm. 21 4. Constantine as Augustus. Obverse of 13. Constantine. Marble portrait head with gold solidus minted in Trier. A.D. eyes raised heavenwards. Ca. A.D. 319–320. 13 324–337. 22 5. Constantine wearing plain diadem, his 14. Philosopher Carneades. Marble portrait head turned to heaven. Obverse of gold head. Late third century A.D. 23 coin minted in Ticinum. A.D. 326. 14 15. Constantine’s porphyry column as in 6. Constantine wearing diadem decorated 2010. Built ca. A.D. 324–330. 29 with small jewels and leaves, his head 16. Constantine’s porphyry column. Built turned to heaven. Obverse of gold ca. A.D. 324–330. 30 1 medallion of 1 /2 solidi minted in Siscia. 17. Reconstruction of the imperial statue A.D. 326–327. 14 and the porphyry column in 7. Constantine wearing heavily jewelled Constantine’s Forum at Constantinople. diadem, his eyes turned up to heaven. Ca. A.D. 324–330. 31 Obverse of gold coin minted in 18. Reconstruction of the imperial statue Thessaloniki. A.D. 335. 15 on the porphyry column in 8. Alexander wearing the diadem and the Constantine’s Forum at Constantinople. horns of Zeus Ammon. Silver Ca. A.D. 324–330. 32

x ILLUSTRATIONS

19. Detail of a reconstruction of the silver denarius minted in Rome by C. imperial statue on the porphyry column Antistius Vetus. 16 B.C. 45 in Constantine’s Forum at 32. Portrait head of Augustus from Constantinople. Ca. A.D. 324–330. 33 Pergamum. 27 B.C.–A.D. 14. 45 20. Sol wearing crown of vertical rays. 33.Silverdenarius of Augustus minted in Reverse of silver denarius minted in Spain. Obverse shows head of Augustus Rome by C. Coelius Caldus. 51 B.C. 34 wearing oak wreath. Reverse shows 21. Sol, wearing a chiton¯ , rides in four-horse comet with inscription referring to the chariot and radiates angled rays of light. divine Julius Caesar. Ca. 17 B.C. 47 Reverse of silver denarius minted in 34. Divus Augustus wearing radiate crown. Rome by M. Aburius Geminus. 132 Obverse of copper alloy as minted in B.C. 34 Rome under Tiberius. Ca. A.D. 15. 48 22. Drawing of the base of Constantine’s 35. Radiate statue of Octavian on a column porphyry column by Melchior Lorck. decorated with ships’ prows. Reverse of A.D. 1561. 35 silver denarius minted in Rome under 23. Drawing of head of Constantine Vespasian. A.D. 79. 48 wearing crown with vertical rays. Detail 36. The divine Augustus enthroned of Figure 22. 36 wearing radiate crown. Obverse of 24. Constantine’s statue upon the porphyry copper alloy sestertius minted in Rome column beside the enthroned Tyche under Tiberius. A.D. 21/22. 48 (Fortune) of Constantinople. Peutinger 37. Copper alloy as minted in Rome. Map. Twelfth-century copy of fourth- Obverse shows head of Nero. Reverse or fifth-century original. 37 shows Nero wearing flowing robes of 25. Colossal bronze head, left hand, and Apollo and playing the cithara. A.D. 62. 49 globe from a statue of Constantine or 38. Nero wearing radiate crown. Obverse Constantius II. 38 of copper alloy dupondius minted in 26. Colossal bronze head, from a statue of Rome. A.D. 64. 50 Constantine or Constantius II. 39 39. Nero wearing toga and crown of angled 27. Colossal bronze head, from a statue of rays holds patera in right hand and long Constantine or Constantius II. 40 sceptre in left. To the right stands the 28. Ptolemy III Euergetes wearing radiate empress (probably Poppaea), veiled and crown. Gold coin of Ptolemy IV draped, holding patera in right hand and Philopator minted in Alexandria. cornucopia in left. Reverse of aureus of Ca. 222–205 B.C. 41 NeromintedinRome.A.D.64–65. 51 29.Silverdenarius minted in Rome for 40. Amethyst intaglio probably showing the Sepullius Macer. Obverse shows head of Colossus of Nero in Rome. Roman Caesar with star behind. Reverse shows imperial period. 52 Venus with Victory in right hand, and 41a. Titus wearing radiate crown. Obverse of with a sceptre resting on a star in the copper alloy dupondius minted in Rome. left. 44 B.C. 43 A.D. 80–81. 53 30. Octavian adorning Caesar’s statue with 41b. Trajan wearing radiate crown. Obverse a star. Reverse of silver denarius minted copper alloy dupondius minted in Rome. in Rome by L. Lentulus. 12 B.C. 44 A.D. 104–111. 53 31. Statue of Apollo Actius holding a 41c. Hadrian wearing radiate crown. cithara and sacrificing on a high podium Obverse of copper alloy dupondius decorated with ships’ prows. Reverse of minted in Rome. A.D. 118. 53

ILLUSTRATIONS xi

42. Caracalla wearing radiate crown. 53. Aurelian (left) holding sceptre or spear Obverse of silver antoninianus and receiving globe from Sol holding (double denarius)mintedinRome. whip. Reverse of copper alloy radiate A.D. 215. 54 minted in Cyzicus. A.D. 273–274. 63 43. Aureus minted in Rome. Obverse shows 54. Diocletian and Maximian as Augusti in bust of Septimius Severus. Reverse consular dress. Aureus minted in Rome. shows Severus wearing the crown and A.D. 287. 64 cloak of Sol, riding in Sol’s chariot. 55. Two of the porphyry Tetrarchs in the A.D. 197. 55 Vatican Museums. 68 44. Septimius Severus, wearing radiate 56. Two of the porphyry Tetrarchs in the crown, and Julia Domna with a Vatican Museums. 69 crescent. Reverse of aureus of Caracalla 57. Porphyry sculptures of the Tetrarchs. minted in Rome. A.D. 202. 55 South side of San Marco, Venice. 70 45. Diocletianic copper alloy radiate. 58. Two of the porphyry Tetrarchs on the Obverse shows bust of Diocletian with south side of San Marco, Venice. 71 radiate crown. Reverse shows the 59. Heads of two of the porphyry Tetrarchs emperor receiving a Victory-topped on the south side of San Marco, globe from Jupiter. Mint of Alexandria. Venice. 72 Ca. A.D. 296–297. 56 60. Heads of two of the porphyry Tetrarchs 46. Copper alloy nummus minted in on the south side of San Marco, Venice. 73 London. A.D. 312. Obverse shows 61. Arch of Galerius, Thessaloniki, Constantine wearing radiate crown over southern pier (Pier B) from the east. Ca. helmet. Reverse shows Sol radiate with A.D. 299–303. 74 chlamys, whip, and globe. 57 62. Arch of Galerius, Thessaloniki, 47. Gold medallion showing Constantine northern pier (Pier A) from the east. wearing a radiate crown. Minted in Ca. A.D. 299–303. 75 Antioch in A.D. 326. 57 63. Detail of the frieze showing the 48. Aureus minted in Antioch. A.D. Tetrarchs enthroned. Arch of Galerius, 218–219. Obverse shows bust of Thessaloniki, Pier B, north side. Ca. Elagabalus. Reverse shows triumphal A.D. 299–303. 76 car carrying the conical black stone of 64. The Rostra and Five-Column El-Gabal and an eagle shaded by Monument in the Roman Forum in parasols. 60 Rome. Reconstruction drawing. 77 49. Sol wielding Zeus’ thunderbolt. 65. Line drawing of frescoes depicting the Reverse of aureus of Elagabalus minted eagle of Jupiter above the four Tetrarchs. in Antioch. A.D. 218–219. 60 Apse of room dedicated to the cult of 50. Copper alloy radiate minted in Rome. the emperors. Temple of Ammon, Obverse shows Aurelian wearing radiate Luxor, Egypt. Ca. A.D. 308/9. 78 crown. Reverse shows Sol with his foot 66. Gold medallion of Maximian minted in on the back of a captive. A.D. 274. 61 Ticinum. Obverse shows Maximian 51. Fides handing two standards to Sol. Augustus wearing the lion-skin Reverse of copper alloy radiate minted headdress of Hercules. Reverse shows in Siscia. A.D. 274. 62 the seated Diocletian being crowned by 52. Aurelian (left) receiving the globe from Jupiter (left) and the seated Maximian Jupiter. Reverse of copper alloy radiate being crowned by Hercules (right). minted in Serdica. A.D. 271–272. 63 A.D. 286–305. 79

xii ILLUSTRATIONS

67. The Basilica of Maxentius (right) and 76. Arch of Constantine, Rome. South the temple of Romulus (left) in the façade. Ca. A.D. 315. 94 Roman Forum. 85 77. Arch of Constantine, Rome. North 68. Aureus minted in Ostia. Ca. A.D. façade. Ca. A.D. 315. 95 308/9–October 312. Obverse shows 78. Sculptured frieze showing Constantine frontal bust of Maxentius. Reverse and his troops at the siege of Verona. shows Mars handing a Victory-topped Detail from the south façade of the Arch globe to Maxentius. 86 of Constantine, Rome. Ca. A.D. 315. 96 69. Copper alloy nummus minted in 79. Sculptured frieze showing Constantine London. Ca. A.D. 310. Obverse shows (headless) standing on the rostra in the bust of Constantine with laurel wreath. Roman Forum. Detail from the north Reverse shows Sol, naked except for a façade of the Arch of Constantine, chlamys, with globe in left hand and Rome. Ca. A.D. 315. 96 right arm raised with open hand. 87 80. Sculptured frieze showing Constantine 70. Aureus minted in Ticinum. A.D. (headless) enthroned distributing 312–313. Obverse shows bust of money. Detail from the north façade of Constantine with laurel wreath. the Arch of Constantine, Rome. Ca. Reverse shows Victory crowning Sol as A.D. 315. 97 they both ride in a four-horse chariot. 89 81. Head of Constantine with nimbus. 71. Constantius Chlorus as Caesar wearing Roundel showing a boar hunt on the the lion-skin headdress of Hercules. north face of the Arch of Constantine. Obverse of gold medallion (5 aurei) Hadrianic, reworked ca. A.D. 315. 98 minted in Trier. A.D. 297. 90 82. Frontal portrait of Constantine with 72. Constantius on horseback approaches nimbus. Obverse of gold solidus minted the fortified city of London, in front of in Ticinum. A.D. 316. 99 which kneels a personification of 83.Solwearingchlamys and radiate crown, Britannia. Reverse of electrotype copy with right arm raised. West side of the of gold medallion (10 aurei)mintedin east passage of the Arch of Constantine. Tr ier. A.D. 297. 90 Ca. A.D. 315. 100 73. Sculptured frieze showing a Caesar 84. Constantine, with right arm raised in making a libation. The radiate head of imitation of Sol, is crowned by Victory. Sol and the headless body of Roma East side of the east passage of the Arch reclining appear to the right of the of Constantine. Ca. A.D. 315. 100 scene. Decennalia base of the 85. Column-base relief from the Arch of Five-Column Monument in the Constantine showing soldiers carrying Roman Forum. 91 poles topped by small statues of the 74. Sculptured frieze showing Maxentius’ gods. The god held by the soldier on troops drowning in the River Tiber. the right is Sol. Ca. A.D. 315. 101 Detail from the south façade of the Arch 86. Sol ascending from the ocean in a of Constantine, Rome. Ca. A.D. 315. 92 four-horse chariot. Roundel, east side 75. Gold medallion minted in Ticinum in of Arch of Constantine. Ca. A.D. 315. 102 A.D. 313. Obverse shows bust of 87. Luna descending in two-horse Constantine overlapping a bust of Sol chariot. Roundel, west side of Arch of wearing a radiate crown. Reverse shows Constantine. Ca. A.D. 315. 103 Constantine on horseback raising his 88. A personification of the emperor’s right hand as Victory walks ahead. 93 eternity (Aeternitas Augusti) holds a bust

ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

of Sol in her right hand and a bust of 100. Nielloed and gilded silver dish showing Luna in her left. Silver denarius minted an emperor, possibly Constantius II, on in Rome under Hadrian. A.D. 118. 104 horseback. Discovered in a necropolis in 89. Roundel showing Sol ascending from Kerch. Mid-fourth century A.D. 162 the ocean in a four-horse chariot above 101. Funerary plaque of Beratius Nicatoras frieze of Constantine’s entry into now in the Vatican Museums. Third Rome. East side of Arch of century A.D. 163 Constantine. Ca. A.D. 315. 105 102. Staurogram used as part of mint mark. 90. Nero’s colossal radiate statue viewed Reverseofgoldsolidus minted in from the south through the Arch of Antioch, A.D. 336–337. 164 Constantine. 105 103. Bronze steelyard weight filled with lead, 91. Sol Invictus presenting the globe to in the form of the emperor Constantine. Reverse of gold coin Constantine. Height: 12.5 cm. 165 minted in Arles. A.D. 317. 106 104. Late antique intaglios (red jasper and 92. Sol Invictus crowning Constantine. green jasper) with anchor symbols and Reverse of gold coin minted in dolphins. Third–fourth century A.D. 166 Sirmium. A.D. 321. 106 105. Carved ivory panel from casket made in 93. Frieze on the west side of the central Rome showing nimbate Christ on the passage of the Arch of Constantine. The cross. Ca. A.D. 420–430. 167 emperor on horseback crushes 106. Reverse of copper alloy nummus minted barbarians. Trajanic, reworked ca. in Aquileia in A.D. 334–335. 169 A.D. 315. 130 107. The Great Cameo. Agate cameo 94. Frieze on the east side of the central showing Constantine, Fausta, and passage of the Arch of Constantine. The Crispus in a chariot drawn by two emperor, standing with Roma to his centaurs. Ca. A.D. 315. 171 right, is crowned by Victory. Trajanic, 108. Sol radiating light in four directions. reworked ca. A.D. 315. 131 Reverseofcopperalloynummus minted 95. Rare copper alloy nummus minted in in Thessaloniki. A.D. 319. 172 Constantinople. Obverse shows head of 109. Eight-pointed star in wreath. Constantine. Reverse shows serpent Reverse of bronze coin minted in pierced by a standard topped by the honour of Helena in Thessalonica chi-rho monogram. A.D. 327. 143 A.D. 318–319. 172 96. Remains of the Serpent Column in 110a–f. Copper alloy nummi showing a the hippodrome in Istanbul. After profile bust of Constantine wearing a 479 B.C. 145 helmet decorated with a variety of 97. Reconstruction drawing of the designs. a–d: Minted in London, ca. hippodrome in Constantinople during A.D. 319–320; e–f: Minted in Siscia, ca. Constantine’s reign, showing southern A.D. 318–320. 173 turning-post (left), masonry obelisk 111. Bronze statuette of St. Peter carrying (centre), starting gates (distance), and staurogram. Fourth–fifth century A.D. 176 kathisma (right). 153 112. Gold medallion minted in Siscia 98. Reconstructed plan of the hippodrome discovered in Borca,ˇ a suburb of in Constantinople showing surviving Belgrade. Obverse shows Constantine remains. 155 with diadem looking towards heaven. 99. The masonry obelisk in the Reverse shows Constantine in military hippodrome in Istanbul. 156 dress holding a standard bearing a

xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

chi-rho symbol on its banner in his 125. Detail of the holes on the north side of right hand. A.D. 326. 176 the lid of the porphyry sarcophagus in 113. Constantius II, being crowned by Hagia Eirene. Reconstructed design Victory, holds a standard bearing the superimposed. 190 chi-rho monogram on its banner and 126. Detail of the holes on the south side of looks towards the powerful sign. the flank of the porphyry sarcophagus Reverse of bronze medallion minted in in Hagia Eirene. Reconstructed design Siscia. A.D. 350. 177 superimposed. 191 114. Bust of Constantine carrying standard or 127. The combined ankh and chi-rho design sceptre over left shoulder, and wearing carved on the eastern gable end of the helmet with chi-rho monogram in lid of the porphyry sarcophagus in crest. Obverse of silver medallion Hagia Eirene. 192 minted at Ticinum in A.D. 315. 178 128. Scenes from the trial of Christ with 115. Valentinian II (A.D. 375–392)carryinga central cruciform standard topped by a sceptre or standard over his right chi-rho monogram within a wreath. shoulder. Obverse of copper alloy Sarcophagus found near catacomb of medallion. 178 Domitilla. Mid-fourth century A.D. 193 116. Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator minted 129. Two groups of six Apostles approach in Ecbatana. The reverse shows Zeus a central cruciform standard topped by holding an eagle, a horse grazing at his a chi-rho monogram within a wreath. feet, and monograms and an anchor in Sarcophagus from cemetery of San the field. After 306 B.C. 180 Sebestiano. Left and right sections are 117. The pharaoh Akhenaten, his wife casts; central section is original. End of Nefertiti, and their three daughters fourth or beginning of fifth century A.D. 193 receive ankhs from hands at the ends of 130. Fragments of the colossal statue of the rays of the sun’s disc. Limestone Constantine from the Basilica of stele, 1351–1334 B.C. 181 Maxentius. Musei Capitolini, Rome. 204 118. The pharaoh Tutankhamun in a chariot 131. Reconstruction of the colossal statue of trampling his enemies, with solar disc Constantine integrated into a and ankhs overhead. Painted wooden reconstruction of the Basilica of chest, ca. 1333–1323 B.C. 182 Maxentius, Rome. 205 119. Porphyry sarcophagi displayed outside 132. Reconstruction of the Basilica of the Istanbul Archaeological Museums. Maxentius as remodelled by Inventory nos. 3154 (left), 3155 Constantine, showing the colossal statue (centre), and 3157. 183 in the northwest apse. 206 120. Cupids harvesting grapes. Fragment of 133. The Basilica of Maxentius. Exterior the flank of a highly decorated view showing the northwest apse (far porphyry sarcophagus. 184 right) and northeast apse (left of centre). 207 121. Highly decorated porphyry sarcophagus 134. Head of the colossal statue of from the mausoleum on the Via Constantine from the Basilica of Nomentana in Rome. 185 Maxentius. 208 122. Cupids harvesting grapes. Detail of 135. Head of the colossal statue of Figure 121. 185 Constantine from the Basilica of 123. Porphyry sarcophagus. 188 Maxentius. 209 124. Porphyry sarcophagus in the atrium of 136. Closed right hand of the colossal statue Hagia Eirene, Istanbul. 189 of Constantine. 210

ILLUSTRATIONS xv

137. Closed right hand of the colossal statue 149. Head of Constantine. Attic panel of Constantine. View of hole in top of of profectio. Arch of Constantine, fist. 210 Rome. Aurelian, reworked ca. A.D. 315 230 138. Right bicep, elbow, and forearm of 150. Head of Constantius Chlorus. Roundel colossal statue of Constantine. 211 showing a sacrifice to Apollo. Arch of 139. Statue, probably of Constantius II, in Constantine, Rome. Hadrianic, the narthex of St. John Lateran, Rome. 211 reworked ca. A.D. 315. 231 140. Closed right hand found at the Capitol 151. Constantine on horseback during a boar in 1744, probably from the colossal hunt. Roundel, north façade,Archof statue of Constantine. 213 Constantine, Rome. Hadrianic, 141. Closed right hand found at the Capitol reworked ca. A.D. 315. 232 in 1744, probably from the colossal 152. Constantine after a successful lion hunt. statue of Constantine. View of hole in Roundel, north façade,Archof bottom of fist. 213 Constantine, Rome. Hadrianic, 142. Copper alloy medallion showing reworked ca. A.D. 315. 233 Constantine in the costume of Jupiter 153. Constantine addresses his troops. Attic receiving a phoenix-topped globe from panel, south façade,Archof one of his Caesars. Mint of Rome. Constantine, Rome. Aurelian, reworked A.D. 326. 214 ca. A.D. 315. 234 143. Augustus in the Jupiter costume, 154. Constantine distributes money. Attic enthroned beside Roma. Detail of the panel, north façade,Archof Gemma Augustea. Ca. A.D. 10. 215 Constantine, Rome. Aurelian, reworked 144. Six-armed monogram with a dot at the ca. A.D. 315. 235 top serving as part of the mint mark on 155. Constantine sacrificing to Diana. a copper alloy coin of Constantine Roundel, south façade,Archof Junior as Caesar, minted in Ticinum. Constantine, Rome. Hadrianic, A.D. 319–320. 222 reworked ca. A.D. 315. 236 145a–c. Reverses of copper alloy nummi 156. Constantine sacrificing to Silvanus. minted in Arles. Two soldiers stand on Roundel, south façade,Archof either side of a single standard. The Constantine, Rome. Hadrianic, symbols on the banner (serving as reworked ca. A.D. 315. 236 parts of the mint mark) vary. Dates: 157. Constantius Chlorus sacrificing to December 333–September Apollo. Roundel, north façade,Archof 337. 223 Constantine, Rome. Hadrianic, 146. Inscription on the Arch of Constantine, reworked ca. A.D. 315. 237 Rome. Ca. A.D. 315. 223 158. Constantius Chlorus sacrificing to 147. Sculptured frieze showing Roma Hercules. Roundel, north façade, Arch (second from left) striding forwards on of Constantine, Rome. Hadrianic, the bridgehead alongside Constantine reworked ca. A.D. 315. 237 (lost) as Maxentius’ troops drown in the 159. Constantine sacrificing a bull, pig, and Tiber. Detail from the south façade of sheep. Attic panel, south façade,Archof the Arch of Constantine, Rome. Ca. Constantine, Rome. Aurelian, reworked A.D. 315. 225 ca. A.D. 315. 238 148. Diagram of the Arch of Constantine to 160. Reconstruction of the interior of the show the positions and dates of the imperial audience hall (basilica) at various sculptured elements. 229 Tr ier. 239

xvi ILLUSTRATIONS

161. Reconstruction of the interior of the Constantine as Maximus Triumphator Basilica Ulpia in Trajan’s Forum, Rome. 239 Augustus wearing a jewelled diadem. 162. Basilica of St. John in the Lateran. Plan Reverse shows the Tyche of and 3-D reconstruction. 240 Constantinople holding a horn of 163. Basilica of Sts. Marcellinus and Peter plenty, wearing a turreted crown, and with the Mausoleum of Helena. Plan seated on a throne. A ship’s prow is and 3-D reconstruction. 241 visible below her feet. 263 164. Basilica of the Apostles (now San 178. Ivory diptych showing the Tychai of Sebastiano). Plan and cut-away 3-D Rome (left) and Constantinople with reconstruction. 242 turreted crown. Sixth century A.D. 265 165. Basilica of St. Laurence. Plan and 3-D 179. Gold aureus of Licinius minted in reconstruction. 244 Nicomedia. Obverse shows frontal 166. Basilica of St. Agnes and mausoleum of portrait of Licinius. Reverse shows Constantina. Plan and 3-D Jupiter enthroned. A.D. 321. 283 reconstruction. 245 180. Radiant charioteer in a ceiling mosaic 167. Basilica of St. Peter. Plan and 3-D in the Tomb of the Julii (Mausoleum reconstruction. 246 M) beneath St. Peter’s basilica, Rome. 168. Chapel in the Sessorian palace. Mid-third to early-fourth century A.D. 329 Cut-away 3-D reconstruction and plan. 249 181. Christ as a bearded, long-haired 169. Map to show the locations of philosopher preaching the Sermon on Constantine’s Christian foundations in the Mount and performing miracles and around Rome. 250 (Cure of the Paralytic, Cure of the 170. Copper alloy medallion showing on the Leper). Sarcophagus, ca. 290–310. 346 obverse a bust of the Tyche of 182. Youthful Christ performing miracles. Constantinople, and on the reverse Detail from sarcophagus of Marcus Victory standing on the prow of a Claudianus, 330–335. Centre: Miracle warship with the legend VICTORIA of Loaves and Fishes. Right: Raising of AVGVSTI. Minted at Rome in Lazarus and Cure of the Woman with A.D. 330. 253 Issue of Blood. 347 171. Map of Constantinople in the 183. Christ teaching, seated among His Constantinian period. 254 Apostles. Fresco in the catacomb on the 172. Anastasis Rotunda and basilica of the Via Anapo, Rome. Ca. A.D. 325. 348 Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem. Cut-away 184. Christ enthroned surrounded by the 3-D reconstruction and plan. 256 Apostles. Fresco in cubiculum 74 of the 173. Anastasis Rotunda and apse of the Catacomb of Domitilla, Rome. basilica of the Holy Sepulchre, Watercolour by Carlo Tabanelli over Jerusalem. Cut-away 3-D photograph by Pompeo and Renato reconstruction. 257 Sansaini, 1897–1903. Ca. A.D. 350–375. 349 174. Gold solidus minted in Sirmium. 185. Magi presenting their gifts to the baby Obverse shows Helena as Augusta. Jesus. Sarcophagus ca. 325–350.From Reverse shows a personiﬁcation of the Vatican Necropolis. 350 Securitas. Ca. A.D. 324–325. 259 186. Constantine ascending in chariot 175. Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem. reaching out to a divine hand emerging Plan and 3-D reconstruction. 260 from the clouds. Reverse of gold solidus 176. Church at Mamre. Plan. 261 minted in Constantinople in 337. 350 177. Silver medallion minted in 187. The Ascension of Christ. Ivory diptych, Constantinople in 330. Obverse shows ca. 400. 351

ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

188. Christ, beardless and with nimbus, personifications. Arch of Galerius, hands the law to Peter, the first bishop Thessaloniki, Pier B, north side. Ca. of Rome. Apse mosaic from the A.D. 299–303. 374 mausoleum of Constantina (Santa 199. Christ on the cross flanked by six Costanza). Ca. A.D. 360–390. 352 Apostles on either side. Carnelian 189. Christ, bearded and with nimbus, sits intaglio, British Museum. Third–fourth on the globe of the cosmos. Apse century. 374 mosaic from the mausoleum of 200. Cross topped by wreath being Constantina (Santa Costanza). Ca. A.D. approached from either side by six 360–390. 352 Apostles. Sarcophagus. Musee´ 190. Reverse of silver denarius of Octavian departmental´ Arles antiques. Ca. minted in Italy, showing a naked statue A.D. 380. 375 of Octavian with his foot on the sphere 201. Copper alloy nummus minted in of the cosmos. 36–31 B.C. 353 London ca. 307–310. Obverse shows 191. Beardless Christ seated above Caelus. bust of the divus Constantius. Reverse Detail of plaster cast of sarcophagus of shows lighted altar flanked by Junius Bassus, A.D. 359. 353 eagles. 377 192. Christ in military dress, carrying a cross, 202. Gold solidus minted in Constantinople and standing upon a lion and a serpent. in 337. Obverse shows a veiled bust of Mosaic in the Archiepiscopal Chapel, Constantine. Reverse shows the Ravenna. Sixth century A.D. 355 emperor ascending in a chariot reaching 193. Reconstruction drawing of the church out to a divine hand emerging from the of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, clouds. 378 showing the basilica and Anastasis 203.Reverseofa30-solidi gold medallion in Rotunda. 357 honour of the Caesar Constantius. 194. Copper alloy nummus in honour of Constantine is crowned by a hand Helena Augusta. Reverse shows Pax emerging from a cloud. A.D. 333. 378 holding an olive branch and sceptre 204. Hercules, riding a chariot, is received Minted in Trier, June 337–April 340. 366 into heaven by Athena. Funerary 195. Copper alloy nummus in honour of monument of the Secundinii from the Theodora Augusta. Reverse shows village of Igel near Trier in Germany. Pietas nursing a child. Minted in Trier, Ca. A.D. 200–250. Photograph with June 337–April 340. 366 drawn outline overlaid. 379 196. Porphyry sarcophagus formerly in the 205. Schematic diagrams showing three mausoleum of Helena, Via Labicana, different scenarios for the development Rome. 367 of the Holy Apostles complex and its 197. Comparative plans of the Pantheon and internal arrangements: 1. Rotunda a number of late antique rotundas. 371 precedes church; 2. Church precedes 198. Frieze showing the Tetrarchs enthroned rotunda; 3. Rotunda and church built in the centre of a gathering of gods and simultaneously. 383

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS S

This book has been long in gestation. It started in a that stimulated me to expand that text into this book. small way whilst I held a British Academy Postdoc- Cyril Mango generously took the time to read the toral Research Fellowship at the Institute of Archae- entire typescript at a much later stage in composition ology and Linacre College in Oxford from 1994 to in 2007 and made helpful and encouraging remarks. 1997. Those readers interested in the curiously den- Mary Whitby always took an interest and was happy dritic ways in which scholarship develops may wish to enter into discussion of knotty linguistic mat- to know that it was the references to Constantine in ters. I would also like to thank Halil Arça, Assistant Palatine Anthology 1.10 (the poem inscribed in Anicia Director of the Ayasofya Museum, and his colleague Juliana’s sixth-century church of St. Polyeuktos) that Sabriye Parlak for permission to study the sarcophagi caused me to look more closely at the first Christian in Hagia Eirene. In the very beginning there were emperor and the statue on his porphyry column. many long lunches in Oxford with Dimitris Plant- The work was a stimulating distraction from my zos, who deserves thanks for patiently listening to main research topics at the time – Constantinopoli- my vague plans to write, among other things, about tan stamped bricks and the church of St. Polyeuktos. Constantine’s Golden Age. I found the time to explore Constantine and For generous grants towards the cost of the kingship philosophy in greater depth whilst I was a illustrations and of the extensive notes and bibli- Research Fellow in the AHRB Centre for Byzan- ography, many thanks are due to the Vehbi Koç tine Cultural History at the University of Newcas- Vakfı and the Kress Foundation. I would like tle upon Tyne from 2001 to 2003. The article that I to thank all of the institutions and individuals who produced during that time developed to become this have provided or helped me obtain the images in book during a year of research undertaken with per- this book. Among them I must single out for spe- sonal resources in 2005–2006. In the following aca- cial mention: Richard Abdy of the British Museum, demic year, 2006–2007, I was able to make significant who not only set me straight on certain numismatic advances whilst holding a memorable Senior Fellow- matters but also gave his assistance with obtaining ship at Koç University’s Research Center for Ana- images of coins; the British Museum itself for pro- tolian Civilizations in Beyoglu,˘ Istanbul. I brought viding a marvellous online image database; Franz the book to completion by subsequently undertak- Alto Bauer for kindly helping me obtain articles and ing much further independent research and writing illustrations in works out of my reach; Sylvia Dieb- in precious spare time up to April 2011. ner and Daria Lanzuolo for advice and for locating I am particularly grateful to Averil Cameron and images at the German Archaeological Institute in Ja´s Elsner for their detailed and thought-provoking Rome; William Storage for allowing me to make comments on my early article in 2004 – comments full use of his excellent photographs of the Arch

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of Constantine after cleaning; and particularly Tay- their constant support it would not have been possi- fun Oner,¨ who exceeded my expectations by pro- ble to bring this project to completion. viding not only fresh plans of the monuments of A number of the topics discussed in the text were the period but also excellent 3-D reconstructions. presented in lectures at the Byzantium in the North Brigitte Pitarakis kindly liaised with the Vehbi Koc¸ conference on Constantinople at Newcastle Univer- Vakfı. sity on 16 November 2002;atLate Antique Archae- For seeing this book into print, I would like ology 2003: The Social and Political Archaeology of Late to thank Beatrice Rehl and Amanda J. Smith at Antiquity in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, on Cambridge University Press in New York,and Peggy 22 March 2003; at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat¨ M. Rote at Aptara, Inc. in Munich on 23 May 2006;andatConstantine and the Finally, I thank my parents, Janet and Philip Late Roman World in the Yorkshire Museum, York, Bardill, for their patient encouragement. Without on 19 July 2006.

ABBREVIATIONS S

Reference Works ILS H. Dessau, ed., Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae. 3 vols. (Berlin 1892–1914) AE L’Annee´ epigraphique:´ revue des LIMC Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae publications epigraphiques´ relatives a` Classicae. 9 vols. (as 17). l’antiquite´ romaine 1888–. Paris. (Zurich–Munich 1981–1999) ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen¨ LTUR E. M. Steinby, ed., Lexicon Welt. 1972–. Berlin–New York. Topographicum Urbis Romae. 6 vols. BMC H. Mattingly and others, Coins of the (Rome 1993–2000) Roman Empire in the British Museum. OLD P. G . W. G l a r e , e d . , Oxford Latin 6 vols. (London 1962–1976) Dictionary. Combined edition, CAH2 Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd ed. reprinted and corrected (Oxford 1996) 14 vols. (in 19). (Cambridge 1971–2005) PG J.-P. Migne, ed., Patrologiae Cursus CIL T. Mommsen and others, eds., Corpus Completus. Series Græca. 161 vols. (Paris Inscriptionum Latinarum. 17+ vols. 1857–1866) (Berlin 1862–) P. Lond. F. S. Kenyon and H. I. Bell, eds., Greek DACL F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq, eds., Papyri in the British Museum. (London Dictionnare d’archeologie´ chretienne´ et de 1893–1907) liturgie. 15 vols. (in 30). (Paris P. Oxy. Grenfell, G. P., Hunt, A. S., and others, 1924–1953) eds., The Oxyrhynchus Papyri. 68+ vols. FHG C. Muller¨ and T. Muller,¨ eds. Fragmenta (London 1898–) Historicorum Graecorum. 5 vols. (Paris PLRE A. H. M. Jones, J. R. Martindale, and J. 1848–1928) Morris, eds., The Prosopography of the ICVR G. B. de Rossi, ed., Inscriptiones Later Roman Empire. 3 vols. in 4. Christianae Urbis Romae (Rome (Cambridge 1971–1992) 1857–1861) Repertorium Repertorium der Christlich-antiken IGR R. Cagnat, Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Sarkophage. Romanas Pertinentes. 4 vols. (vol. 2 never I F. W. Deichmann, Rom und Ostia. published). (Paris 1906–1927; reprinted (Wiesbaden 1967) Chicago 1975) II J. Dresken-Weiland, Italien mit einem ILCV I E. Diehl, Inscriptiones Latinae Christianae Nachtrag Rom und Ostia, Dalmatien, Veteres I (Berlin 1925) Museen der Welt. (Mainz 1998)

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III B. Christern-Briesenick, Frankreich, CSEL Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Algerien, Tunisien. (Mainz 2003) Latinorum RIC The Roman Imperial Coinage (London) CSHB Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae I C.H.V.Sutherland,31 BC to AD 69 – CUF Collection des universites´ de France Augustus to Vitellius. Revised edition. FC Fathers of the Church (1984) GCS Die griechischen christlichen II H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham, Schriftsteller der ersten Jahrhunderte Vespasian to Hadrian. (1926) JACE Jahrbuch fur¨ Antike und Christentum III H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham, Erganzungsband¨ Antoninus Pius to Commodus (1930) LCL Loeb Classical Library IV.1 H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham, MGHAA Monumenta Germaniae Historica Pertinax to Geta (1936) Auctorum Antiquissimorum IV.2 H. Mattingly, E. A. Sydenham, and PC Penguin Classics C. H. V. Sutherland, Macrinus to SC Sources chretiennes´ Pupienus (1938) SLNPF Select Library of Nicene and IV.3 H. Mattingly, E. A. Sydenham, and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian C. H. V. Sutherland. Gordian III to Church Uranius Antoninus (1949) TCL Translations of Christian Literature Series V. 1 P. H . We b b, Valerian to Florian (1927) 1. Greek Texts V. 2 P. H . We b b, Probus to Amandus (1933) TTH Translated Texts for Historians VI C. H. V. Sutherland, From Diocletian’s Reform (AD 294) to the death of Maximinus (AD 313) (1967) Journals VII P. M. Bruun, Constantine and Licinius, AD 313–337 (1966) AAAH Acta ad Archaeologiam et Artium VIII J. P. C. Kent, The Family of Constantine Historiam Pertinentia I, AD 337–364 (1981) AB Analecta Bollandiana IX J. W. E. Pearce, Valentinian I to AC L’Antiquite´ classique Theodosius I (1951) AIPhO Annuaire de l’Institut de Philologie et X J.P.C.Kent,The Divided Empire and the d’Histoire Orientales et Slaves Fall of the Western Parts AD 395–491 AJA American Journal of Archaeology (1994) AJPh American Journal of Philology RPC A. Burnett, M. Amandry, P. P. AnTard Antiquitetardive´ Ripolles,` Roman Provincial Coinage. 2 ArtBull Art Bulletin vols. + supplement. (London 1992–) BABesch Bulletin Antieke Beschaving SIG W. Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum BCH Bulletin de correspondance hellenique´ Graecarum. 3rd ed. 4 vols. (Leipzig BJ Bonner Jahrbucher¨ 1915–1924). Reprinted 1960. BMGS Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies TLL Thesaurus Linguae Latinae. 10+ vols. Boreas Boreas: Munstersche¨ Beitrage¨ zur (Leipzig 1800–) Archaologie¨ ByzZ Byzantinische Zeitschrift CJ The Classical Journal Series ClAnt Classical Antiquity CPh Classical Philology ACL Ante-Nicene Christian Library CQ Classical Quarterly CCSL Corpus Christianorum Series Latina CRAI Comptesrendusdel’Academie´ des CFHB Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres

ABBREVIATIONS xxiii

DOP Dumbarton Oaks Papers MediterrAnt Mediterraneo Antico EMC Echos´ du Monde Classique, Classical Views MDAI(R) Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen¨ G&R Greece and Rome Instituts, Romische¨ Abteilung GRBS Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies MEFRA Melanges´ de l’Ecole´ franc¸aisedeRome: HSCP Harvard Studies in Classical Philology Antiquite´ HThR Harvard Theological Review NC Numismatic Chronicle IstMitt Istanbuler Mitteilungen NZ Numismatische Zeitschrift JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in OJA Oxford Journal of Archaeology Egypt PAPhS Proceedings of the American Philosophical JbAC Jahrbuch fur¨ Antike und Christentum Society JBL Journal of Biblical Literature PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome JDAI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologischen¨ P&P Past and Present Instituts RAC Rivista di archeologia cristiana JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology RBen Revue Ben´ edictine´ JECS Journal of Early Christian Studies REA Revue des etudes´ anciennes JEH Journal of Ecclesiastical History RHPhR Revue d’histoire et de philosophie religieuses JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies RHR Revue de l’histoire des religions JLA Journal of Late Antiquity SBN Studi bizantini e neoellenici JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies SCI Scripta Classica Israelica JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology STh Studia Theologica JRS Journal of Roman Studies StudPat Studia Patristica JSAH Journal of the Society of Architectural TAPhS Transactions of the American Philosophical Historians Society JSAN Journal of the Society for Ancient T&MByz Travaux et memoires´ Numismatics TPAPhA Transactions and Proceedings of the JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament American Philological Association JThS Journal of Theological Studies VChr Vigiliae Christianae JWI Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld YClS Yale Classical Studies Institutes ZAC Zeitschrift fur¨ Antikes Christentum LNV Litterae Numismaticae Vindobonenses ZKG Zeitschrift fur¨ Kirchengeschichte MAAR Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome ZPE Zeitschrift fur¨ Papyrologie und Epigraphik

CHRONOLOGY S

273 Constantine born to Constantius 301–302 Constantine travels through Palestine to Chlorus and Helena at Naissus (27 Egypt with Diocletian. February). 303 Diocletian posts the First Persecution 284 Diocles (later Diocletian) proclaimed Edict in Nicomedia (24 February). emperor near Nicomedia (20 Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and November). Constantius meet in northern Italy and 285 Maximian appointed Caesar (early discuss the imperial succession summer), so forming the Dyarchy. (autumn). 286 Maximian elevated to junior Galerius required on lower Danube co-Augustus with Diocletian (1 April). frontier. 289 (approx.) Constantius separates from In Rome, Diocletian and Maximian Helena and marries Theodora. celebrate their vicennalia and the victory Panegyric X is delivered (21 April). over Narses (20 November). 291 Panegyric XI celebrates Maximian’s In the temple of Jupiter on the birthday (21 July?). Capitoline, Maximian swears an oath to 293 Constantius and Galerius appointed retire with Diocletian. Caesars to Maximian and Diocletian 305 Diocletian and Maximian retire; respectively (1 March), so forming the Galerius and Constantius are appointed First Tetrarchy. Constantius drives Augusti in East and West; Maximinus Carausius from the coast of Gaul. Daza and Severus are proclaimed their Carausius murdered and replaced by respective Caesars (1 May), so forming Allectus. the Second Tetrarchy. 296 Constantius liberates Britain from Active persecution ceases in the West Allectus. Narses invades Armenia under Constantius. (autumn). Constantine joins his father in Gaul. 297 Panegyric VIII to Constantius is They cross to Britain and win a victory delivered (1 March). Galerius captures over the Picts (summer or autumn). the harem of Narses at Oskha in 306 Constantius dies in York and Armenia (autumn). Constantine succeeds (25 July). 297–298 Galerius captures Ctesiphon (winter) Constantine restores property and accompanied by Constantine. freedom to Christians in Britain, Gaul, 298 Panegyric IX by Eumenius is delivered. and Spain.

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Galerius proclaims Severus the new 312 Constantine crosses the Alps (spring or Augustus and Constantine Severus’ summer), becomes master of northern Caesar. Italy, defeats Maxentius at the Milvian Maxentius claims imperial status in Bridge (28 October), and enters Rome Rome (28 October) and summons his the next day. father, Maximian, from retirement in his Maximinus’ edict of toleration in the support. He extends toleration to East (end of year). Christians in his realms (winter). 313 Constantine and Licinius meet in Milan 307 Severus defeated by Maxentius at and forge an alliance through the Ravenna and later murdered. marriage of Constantine’s oldest Constantine marries his second wife, half-sister, Constantia, to Licinius. They Fausta (daughter of Maximian and agree on a policy of religious freedom Eutropia) and is raised to the rank of (February). Augustus by Maximian. Galerius does Maximinus attacks Licinius at not recognize the appointment. Hadrianopolis (Adrianople; April) but is Panegyric VII celebrates the marriage defeated and flees eastwards. Licinius (December). kills surviving members of other 308 Maximian attempts to take Rome from Tetrarchic families. Maxentius but fails (April). Maximinus issues edict ending Diocletian, Maximian, and Galerius persecution and restoring confiscated meet at Carnuntum (11 November) and property in his territories (May). declare Licinius successor to Severus, Licinius sends to governors of both Constantine Caesar to Licinius, and the Balkans and provinces newly taken Maxentius as usurper. Maximian steps from Maximinus (Asia Minor, Syria, down again. Palestine, and Egypt) a letter extending 310 Maximian attempts to regain power but to Christians the same benefits already is captured by Constantine and forced to enjoyed by those in the West (13 June). commit suicide at Marseille (July). Maximinus, besieged in Tarsus, Panegyric VI describes Constantine’s commits suicide (July). vision of Apollo. Constantine perhaps visits Britain. Galerius acknowledges Constantine Panegyric XII delivered in and Maximinus Daza as Augusti, so Constantine’s honour (autumn). bringing the Tetrarchic system to an 314 Council of Arles convened to discuss end. the Donatist controversy. 311 Galerius posts edict of toleration to 315 Constantine’s decennalia celebrated in Christians in Danubian provinces and Rome (18/21 July–27 September). Greece (late April) but dies a month Arch of Constantine dedicated by the later in Serdica, having entrusted his Senate and people of Rome. wife and bastard son to Licinius. His 316 Constantine defeats Licinius at Cibalae territories are divided between Licinius (autumn). and Maximinus. 317 Peace negotiated at Serdica between Panegyric V celebrates Constantine’s Constantine and Licinius. quinquennalia (25 July). Licinianus (son of Licinius), Crispus Constantine and Licinius attempt to (Constantine’s son by Minervina), and curb Maximinus’ persecuting tendencies Constantine Junior (Constantine’s first in the East. son by Fausta) named Caesars (1 March). 311 or 312 Diocletian dies at Spalato (Split; 319 Constantine bans private acts of 3 December). divination.

CHRONOLOGY xxvii

321 Panegyric IV delivered by Nazarius on 333 Constans (Constantine’s third son by the quinquennalia of the Caesars (1 March). Fausta) proclaimed Caesar (25 323 Constantine encroaches on Licinius’ December). territory. 334 Constantine wins a victory over the 324 Constantine defeats Licinius at the River Sarmatians. Hebrus (3 July) and Chrysopolis (18 Council at Caesarea investigates September) and adds Asia Minor, Syria, accusations against Athanasius. Palestine, and Egypt to his domains. 335 Council at Tyre (July–September) ﬁnds Constantinople founded on site of Athanasius guilty. Byzantium. Dalmatius (nephew of Constantine) Constantius (Constantine’s second son named Caesar (18 September). by Fausta) named Caesar, and Helena Church of Holy Sepulchre dedicated and Fausta made Augustae (8 November). in Jerusalem, and Eusebius recites the 325 Licinius executed at Thessalonica extant oration on the church of the (spring). Holy Sepulchre (September). Council of Nicaea convened to Council of Tyre summoned to discuss the Arian controversy Constantinople and presents new (June–July). Bishops invited to banquet accusations against Athanasius. to celebrate beginning of Constantine’s Eusebius recites a second oration on vicennalia (25 July). the church of the Holy Sepulchre in 325 or 326 Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, receives Constantinople (November). letter from the emperor instructing him 336 Constantine adopts the title Dacicus to build a basilica at the site of the Holy Maximus. Sepulchre. Arius dies (24 July). 326 Trial and condemnation of Crispus; Constantine’s thirtieth anniversary suspicious death of Fausta. celebration (tricennalia)at Constantine enters Rome (15 July) to Constantinople, at which Eusebius celebrate the twentieth anniversary of recites his In Praise of Constantine (25 his accession ten days later. July). 327 Helena embarks on pilgrimage to Holy 337 Constantine baptized and dies at Land (spring) and is joined by Eutropia, Nicomedia (22 May). He is buried in a Constantine’s mother-in-law. shrine of the Apostles in Constantinople Council of Nicomedia readmits Arius (late May or early June). to the church. Constans agrees to the construction 328 Constantine constructs a bridge over the of a temple in honour of the imperial Danube. family at Hispellum. Helena dies, probably in Nicomedia, Massacre of the sons and grandsons of and is buried on the Via Labicana in Theodora, including the Caesar Rome. Dalmatius (early June). 330 Constantinople dedicated: radiate statue Constantine’s sons (Constantine, of Constantine placed on top of Constantius, Constans) proclaimed porphyry column (11 May); circus Augusti (9 September). procession of Constantine’s statue 339 Eusebius of Caesarea dies (May). (12 May). 359 Patriarch Macedonius moves 332 Constantine wins a victory over the Constantine’s body to the church of St. Goths (winter). Acacius.

Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchs and Constantine

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information this web U nive service rsit -

y Constantine, Divine EmperoroftheChristianGoldenAge

Cam Pre

Afranius = (1) Eutropia (2) = (2) Maximian* (1) = unknown Diocletian = Prisca Romula s b s r Hannibalianus (r. [285–]286–305, (r. 284–305) idge 306–308, 310) Valeria = (2) Galerius (1) = unknown daughter (r. [293–]305–311) U Helena = (1) Constantius I Chlorus (2) = Theodora (?) Theodora (?) n (r. [293–]305–306) (adopted by Maximian) Candidianus i v (adopted by Valeria) e r sity Minervina = (1) Constantine I (2) = Flavia Maxima Maxentius* = Valeria Maximilla Maximinus Daza (r. 306 [306–307] 307–337) Fausta* (r. <306–312>) (r. [305–]310–313) Press

Valerius Romulus

Fl. Dalmatius† Galla = (1) Julius Constantius (2) = Basilina Hannibalianus Constantia = Licinius* Eutropia = Virius Anastasia = Bassianus* (died young) (r. 308–324) Nepotianus†?

Licinianus Licinius* Julius Nepotianus xxx

son† Fl. Dalmatius† (r. [335–337])

Crispus* = Helena Constantine II Constans Constantina = (1) Hannibalianus† (r. [317–326]) (r. [317–]337–340) (r. [333–]337–350) (King of Kings r. [335–337]) = (2) Gallus Caesar (r. [351–354])

child Helena = Julian (born 322) (r. [355–]360–363)

Constantius II (1) = Daughter (r. [324–]337–361) (2) = Eusebia (3) = Faustina

Key Reigned as Augustus: (r. 284–305) Reigned as Caesar: r. [293] Reign not recognized: r. <306–312> * Constantine involved in the death † Assassinated in 337

The Families of the Tetrarchs and Constantine www.cambridge .org