Overcoming a Taboo: Normalizing Sexuality Education in Kazakhstan CAP Fellows Paper 200, January 2018

Karlygash Kabatova is a researcher currently interested sexually transmitted infections in how society development and sexuality education (STIs) among youth, leads to interrelate. Together with a colleague, she is completing early marriages, and limits the economic prospects of teenage a study on the emergence of sexuality education in the parents. Even if a young couple Kazakhstani educational system. Karlygash is a member keeps the baby and gets married, of the Astana-based PaperLab Research Group, and both parents dramatically curtail their opportunities for a good her recent work experience includes organizing open education and their professional expert discussions at PaperLab, student recruitment for prospects. A teenage mother the University of Central Asia, and data analysis for the suffers the most—she is the one Norwegian Helsinki Committee’s human rights project. who cares for the child and can rarely go back to her studies. Karlygash holds a Master of Arts degree in Politics and Sexuality education could help Security (Central Asia) from the OSCE Academy in Bishkek. address these issues. Moreover, She is a graduate of the Soros Foundation-Kazakhstan’s it promotes gender equality, Public Policy Initiative Fellowship Program for young thereby contributing to the overall sustainability of society. researchers and the Bolashak Scholarship Program. n October 6, 2017, five before they turned 15.”2 Over The initial idea of this study was days before the Inter- 10,000 teenage girls give birth to analyze how, in the absence national Day of the Girl in Kazakhstan each year.3 In of formal sexuality education, O young women in Kazakhstan Child, yet another abandoned 2016 alone, 4,254 babies were baby girl was found on the born to fifteen- and sixteen-year- and Kyrgyzstan create informal streets of Kazakhstan’s biggest old girls.4 These figures include platforms on social media to city—Almaty.1 In recent years, only the registered cases, and support and educate each other reports about newborns left on do not even take into account about sexual and reproductive roadsides, in trash bins, and unregistered births or abortions. health. However, a closer even in public toilets have be- investigation revealed that, unlike come commonplace. Typically, The problem can no longer be their Kyrgyzstani counterparts, these stories involve teenagers or ignored. Kazakhstani youths Kazakhstani women rarely young adults who became par- are in serious need of education discuss their intimate problems ents too early. about sexuality and reproduction. online. I therefore decided to A lack of literacy in this domain focus on the alternative sources A nationwide survey shows that not only results in abandoned of sexuality education available “64.6 percent of 15–19-year- children, but also poses threats to Kazakhstani youth. My olds first had sex during their to the lives and health of teenage hypothesis is that the internet school years, and 13.6 percent mothers, increases the rate of is the primary source of such information. If so, how can formal

CAP Fellows Paper 200 1 institutions mimic the youth- The Context However, these programs did not friendly features of internet go on to offer concrete strategies sources in their efforts to advance Political and Legal Background to address the problems: the sexual and reproductive literacy? former only mentioned STI How can civil society contribute A number of state programs and prevention in the context of the to raising awareness? To verify laws in Kazakhstan concern youth penitentiary system, while the my hypothesis, I conducted an health. None of them, however, latter introduced a new notion— anonymous survey of Kazakhstani pays enough attention to sexual “development of reproductive youth. Based on my findings, I and reproductive health, nor culture”—but confined this to developed recommendations for stipulates any detailed actions adults, simply recommending stakeholders to improve youth regarding it. Back in 2001, the that youths become more active access to sexuality education. Concept of Moral and Sexual in sports. Education in the Republic of Most developed countries Kazakhstan was adopted, with the Neither the Concept of the State include sexuality education goal of implementing an effective Youth Policy Up to 2020 (from in their school curricula. In policy in the sphere of youth 2013) nor the Law on the State Kazakhstan, sexuality education reproductive and sexual health. Youth Policy (from 2015) pays is not part of formal education, The document acknowledged significant attention to the nor has the government taken the major issues, which still exist importance of youth sexual and any meaningful steps toward today: growing rates of underage reproductive literacy. The only 5 including it. Certain cultural, pregnancy and STIs, lack of document that potentially lays social, and political factors awareness about maintaining the basis for creation of sexuality reinforce each other, resulting sexual health, and, consequently, education and its inclusion in the in policies that are not adequate adults’ lack of capacity to educate education system is the Concept to meet youths’ needs. Multiple youth. The Concept called for age- of Family and Gender Policy in state programs on the nation’s appropriate education involving the Republic of Kazakhstan Up strategic development touch parents, state authorities, and to 2030, adopted in December upon many important issues, but non-governmental stakeholders. 2016. The Concept deserves fail to pay proper attention to the Yet no specific actions followed. credit for highlighting the sexual and reproductive health of importance of sexuality education young generations—the human The Law of the Republic of in establishing gender equality. capital of the country. Kazakhstan on Children’s Rights, adopted in 2002, encouraged Local governments sometimes In the first part of this paper, the development of a sexuality prove to be more decisive in I look at the background of education course, but this was promoting access to sexuality the issue: the political, legal, never acted upon. The 2004 education for young people. For and cultural context, and Law on Reproductive Rights instance, the local government major initiatives undertaken of Citizens and Guarantees of of the Eastern Kazakhstan by the state and international Their Implementation stipulated oblast supported the United organizations relating to youths’ youths’ reproductive rights, Nations Fund for Population access to sexuality education and including sexuality education. Activities in Kazakhstan associated healthcare services. The Law was scrapped in 2009 (UNFPA) in implementing a In the second part, I analyze with no replacement. National pilot sexuality education course the findings of my anonymous healthcare development called “Valeology” in colleges survey and touch upon how programs “Salamatty Kazakhstan (i.e. vocational schools), where other countries in the region deal 2011–2015” and “Densaulyk students are 15–19 years old. with youth sexual activity. This 2016–2020” both raised the Valeology has now successfully is followed by conclusions and issues of teenage pregnancies been launched in the colleges of policy recommendations. and youths’ sexual illiteracy. two other oblasts. The completed

CAP Fellows Paper 200 2 pilot project demonstrated that, governmental structures. The On the whole, parents think they despite the concerns of many, initiators are promptly silenced need to have the conversation when provided with sexuality by supporters of traditional views only once, and they consider education rooted in the local who argue that: (1) sexuality that such a conversation is cultural context, young people education can corrupt the appropriate after a child turns tend to postpone becoming “innocent” minds of teenagers 12. However, this might be too sexually active rather than and trigger their interest in sex; late for a first discussion of sex. develop greater interest in sex. and (2) sexuality has never been During a consultation with a The initiative received great part of social discourse in Kazakh group of 10–12-year-olds, Asel support from both students and culture. Shanazarova noted, “the children their parents, many of whom laughed when they were told that “had no idea” how to discuss the When the need for sexuality their parents thought they didn’t topic with their teenage children.6 education is brought up, know anything about sex.”8 opponents of the idea argue that As the first project of this kind— it is up to parents to educate their This example is from the largest and created from scratch— children. The issue, though, is and most advanced city in Valeology does have some that the “sex talk” is taboo within Kazakhstan and includes only flaws. Most of the role-playing families, too. Typical Kazakh Russian-speaking families, who focuses on teaching girls to parents are not comfortable are more exposed to discussions navigate around the dangerous discussing sex with their children. on sexual health. But the majority behavior of boys and men. While Another valid concern is whether of teenage pregnancies happen this is a useful skill, such an all parents are conversant enough in southern Kazakhstan—the approach victimizes girls while in sexual and reproductive health most densely populated region, simultaneously making them matters to educate their children inhabited primarily by ethnic responsible for how males treat about them. According to Asel Kazakhs9 and Uzbeks,10 who them. Moreover, it presupposes Shanazarova, an Almaty-based supposedly keep to traditional that boys are never pressured by specialist who counsels adults family values more than do girls or other boys. Instead, the and children on sexual literacy, people in more urban or Russified course book could include scripts parents are very fearful of having regions. to help both girls and boys learn to discuss sex with their children.7 how to act under peer pressure; it Almost never do parents initiate While society is in denial of has room for improvement. the “hard talk” because they think teenage sex, UNFPA’s surveys it is time for children to learn show that 37 percent of youth With rare exceptions, about sex; typically, it happens in rural areas and 26 percent of Kazakhstan’s legislative body because the child starts asking youth in urban areas are sexually and executive authorities have questions and becomes interested active at the age of fifteen.11 been unable and/or unwilling to in her or his own body. Parents Kazakh-speaking youths are advance any genuine agenda on then seek a specialist to prepare at a disadvantage compared to youth sexual and reproductive them for the big talk. Those Russian-speakers because no literacy. The reasons for this are consultations reveal that for most credible, impartial information numerous, but a major structural parents, it is extremely hard even about ways to maintain sexual factor is a relatively conservative to name reproductive organs and reproductive health is cultural environment. without using metaphors. This is available in Kazakh. Prior to the how embarrassed they are about launch of Valeology in colleges, Cultural Background discussing sex. In other cases, UNFPA tested college students in they prefer to have the consultant two cities in eastern Kazakhstan: Once in a while, the need for talk to the child and not deal with Oskemen (the regional sexuality education is raised the issue themselves thereafter. administrative center), where the in the Parliament and other prevailing language is Russian,

CAP Fellows Paper 200 3 20 and Semey, where the Kazakh about abandoned newborns who raised violent sons. language is dominant. The initial include: “Girls and women should level of awareness about sexual be punished so they learn to be Nazarbayev University is 15 health issues was higher among responsible”; “If a girl dressed arguably the best in the country, Russian-speakers.12 properly…would boys look at with high academic standards her?”;16 “Girls are to be put under inspired by Western experience The situation where strict control… There is no other and students mastering critical predominantly Kazakh- way! Moms, don’t sleep…puberty thinking. However, this lecture 17 speaking rural youth is highly is the most dangerous age!” is just one of a series that will sexually active13 but has no be put on there. Moreover, the access to sexuality education is Aside from demonstrating government-supported lecturers compounded by the culture of paternalistic attitudes toward will probably visit many other uyat. In the Kazakh language, females and considering them institutions, where young people uyat means “shame.” It is uyat solely responsible for rearing might internalize their rather for unmarried women to get children, the commenters misogynistic ideas. As Rose pregnant, but it is also uyat overlook the fact that it takes two Grace Grose, Shelly Grabe, and to talk or ask about sex. The to make a child. This is the result Danielle Kohfeldt emphasize, essence of the very complicated of what Cecilia L. Ridgeway and youths’ sexual identities form and changing notion of uyat was Shelley J. Correll call “hegemonic in accordance with “the context 18 grasped by a human rights activist, cultural beliefs about gender.” of gender-role stereotypes and Saule Mektepbayeva, who said, Men and boys should have equal sexual scripts youths receive “In our society, uyat is not killing responsibility, yet the majority from individuals and institutions 21 a baby but having a baby while of women actively support within their culture.” unmarried. This is because our those beliefs about gender. system of uyat is still constructed As such, “gender inequality is Non-governmental and in medieval categories, when recreated through everyday social international organizations 19 life was not an absolute and relations.” try to deal with gender-based could be compensated for with discrimination and conduct a certain amount of cattle.”14 Gender stereotypes are not only awareness campaigns for women This combination of language supported and circulated by and girls. However, this one-sided and cultural factors likely results ordinary citizens, but sometimes approach is somewhat counter- in a higher teenage pregnancy also inform local governments’ productive, as it leaves men and rate in rural areas of southern initiatives dealing with the boys out of the process of learning. Kazakhstan. spread of STIs and unwanted Researchers find a positive pregnancies. On October 24, correlation between youth access Gender Beliefs 2017, the akimat of Astana City to sexuality education, “more (i.e. the mayor’s office), together progressive attitudes toward girls Shaming discourses directed with the Office of Youth Policy and women,” and “less agreement toward girls and women are quite of Astana, held a lecture at with hegemonic masculinity 22 strong and seem to have a major Nazarbayev University entitled ideology.” Therefore, this influence on current policies. “Moral Upbringing of Ladies.” research posits that providing In case of a teenage pregnancy, The audience did not take the youths of both sexes with access the full weight of responsibility lecture well, as the speakers tried to comprehensive sexuality falls on the girl, who is blamed to convince the attendees that education will not only improve for being promiscuous, not a “[t]he main value of a woman their sexual and reproductive “proper” Kazakh girl, and badly of Kazakhstan is to bring her health, but also (in the long term) brought-up by her parents. children up morally,” and if promote gender equality. Examples of typical opinions in men commit sexual or domestic the comments section of reports violence, it is the fault of women, Overall, Kazakhstani society

CAP Fellows Paper 200 4 gravitates toward abstinence- illiteracy is not a temporary idea behind these so-called based discourse, condemning state, characteristic of young youth-friendly institutions is sexual relationships before people only. Sexually uneducated to provide various kinds of marriage. According to both adolescents tend to turn into healthcare services, including experts23 and ordinary citizens,24 sexually uneducated adults. That those related to sexual life, to this sometimes leads to situations is why Kazakhstanis are often young people, based on principles where drugstores refuse to sell not aware of STIs they have of accessibility and anonymity. contraception to teenagers. It is contracted or other sexual health On paper, they function very well: convenient to consider teenagers issues they have. As a result, statistically, they have “helped” too young to have sex, since there “around 16 percent of married thousands of young people. is then no need to worry about couples suffer from infertility by However, the original mission those who do: they disobey societal the time they are ready to have of the centers has been sidelined norms and therefore deserve all children.”26 The government over time, becoming little more the negative consequences that sees the problem of deteriorating than a formality. befall them. However, “the vast sexual and reproductive health majority of rigorous empirical mainly from the medical point According to experts, “the level investigations fail to support of view—but attempts to address [of qualification] of specialists abstinence-only programs’ ability the problem through healthcare at youth-friendly clinics is to reduce unplanned pregnancy alone have not proved to be very extremely low,” while “the and STI contraction or to increase successful. standards that were developed knowledge and accuracy of safer- for youth-friendly clinics are not sex practices.”25 Since 2001, a network of maintained.”27 Due to limited Youth Health Centers has been financial, infrastructural and Youth-(Un)Friendly Centers and developing in Kazakhstan. There human resources, the centers Clinics are currently 17 centers in major and clinics fail to provide quality cities, as well as dozens of smaller services. There are no specialists Sexual and reproductive clinics all over the country. The qualified to deal with sensitive

Figure 1. Factors Contributing to the Sexual and Reproductive Illiteracy of Kazakhstani Youth

Source: Based on author’s research

CAP Fellows Paper 200 5 teenage issues; the principles preferred the Russian language in the language they understand of privacy and anonymity are included an equal number of the best. In the southern regions broken; and centers do not have females and males.28 It is worth of the country, where strict separate entrances as they are mentioning that the majority (15 adherence to traditional values supposed to. The result is a loss out of 23) of the Kazakh-language dominates society, adolescents of trust on the part of teenagers. respondents grew up in the are sexually active but do not south of Kazakhstan, while the know how to safeguard their Another problem is that, according Russian-language respondents sexual and reproductive health: to Kazakhstani law, a person can represented all parts of the firstly, because there are no receive medical services without country, but primarily Almaty sources in the Kazakh language; being accompanied by a parent and Astana. and secondly, because they are only from the age of 18. This is a ashamed to ask for advice. One considerable obstacle for sexually The key questions that the survey respondent commented: “There active teenagers in seeking was designed to answer are: are no materials in the Kazakh competent medical help. It is language. I don’t know how to astonishing that at 14 a person • At what age do youth gain protect myself from diseases and can be prosecuted, at 16 he or interest in information about this is not taught at school.”29 she can get married, but to seek sex and what sources do they use medical help independently a initially? Youths reported that they would person has to be 18 years old. • What sources do they use now seek sexual and reproductive and why? medical services if the need arose. What Is the Youths’ • What sources would they However, many respondents Experience? prefer if they had a choice? in both groups would prefer • In what language is the to go to private clinics if they Survey Analysis information available? could afford it, as they do not • Are relevant healthcare trust the qualifications and To get a first-hand picture of how services accessible to youth? professionalism of specialists youths navigate their sexual and • Do youths consider sexual in state and student clinics. As reproductive health, in October– and reproductive literacy equally for the youth-friendly clinics, November 2017 I conducted an important for men and women? respondents did not seem to know anonymous survey among young about them at all. The Kazakh Kazakhstanis. The questionnaire The table below demonstrates how questionnaire also revealed that contained 18 questions: 5 different or similar the responses young women feel embarrassed demographic questions and 13 of the Kazakh and Russian groups about using—or even looking multiple-choice questions with were. The sample does not claim for—such services. the option to leave comments. to be representative of the whole Fifty-seven respondents aged youth population, but it does offer One of the Kazakh-speaking 15 to 30 participated in the insight into the typical opinions respondents suggested that when survey. The majority of the and experiences of Kazakhstani it comes to sexuality education, respondents were university youth. “despite our wishes, schools, students or recent graduates universities, parents will not give from across the country. Twenty- Both groups of respondents say the right result. Children will feel three participants filled out the that it is easy to find information on discomfort in front of parents. questionnaire in Kazakh, thirty- sexual and reproductive health on Schoolteachers cannot respond four in Russian. Gender-wise, the internet, but only if the search to requests properly and children 61 percent of respondents who is in Russian, or even in English. may think that their questions are preferred the Kazakh language This is indicative of the inferior stupid and feel shy about asking were females and 39 percent were position of Kazakh-speakers in them.”30 males, whereas the group which terms of access to information

CAP Fellows Paper 200 6 Table 1. Kazakh- and Russian-Speaking Youths’ Experience Accessing Information and Services on Sexual and Reproductive Health

Kazakh Group Russian Group Searched information on sex 11 years old 12 years old

• Friends • Internet forInitially the first received time atinformation • Internet • School on sex from • School • Friends • Internet • Internet Sources used now • Private clinics • Private clinics • Friends • Friends/Family • Non-embarrassing • Quick reply environment Why internet? • Learn peers’ experience • Quick reply • Anonymity • Anonymity • Parents • Parents/School Who should educate youth • School • University and other on sexual and reproductive • University and other educational institutions health? educational institutions • Student clinics In what language is informa- Russian tion more available? 83 percent of respondents 100 percent of respondents Importance of sexual and agreed on importance of agreed that it is important reproductive literacy for both awareness for both sexes; 17 to for both men and women sexes percent (3 males, 1 female) to be literate in sexual and disagreed with the statement. reproductive health issues.

Source: Based on author’s research

When asked whose role it is to Avoiding embarrassment is also Kazakh group. bring awareness to youth, 74 at the root of young Kazakh- percent of Kazakh-speaking speaking women’s reluctance Though the internet is the respondents said parents. to seek professional medical most popular means of getting However, only one of those 23 services. information, only four people individuals actually received out of 34 in the Russian group initial information from a parent. Thus, the internet remains the questioned the accuracy of In both groups, parents were prime source of information for information found in web sources. rarely the ones who addressed the vast majority of respondents. Meanwhile, only one person youths’ first questions about sex. For both the Kazakh- and the in the Kazakh group showed Later in life, too, youths rarely Russian-speaking groups, the concern about this and expressed turn to parents for advice. The fear top three reasons to prefer the the need for web sources with of embarrassment or uyat causes internet included “quick replies verified information in the Kazakh situations where both parents to requests” and “anonymity.” language. This level of trust and children avoid discussing However, a non-embarrassing in online sources is somewhat the highly sensitive topic of sex. experience ranked first for the disturbing, especially considering

CAP Fellows Paper 200 7 that half the respondents in both of gender roles. In general, sexual and reproductive illiteracy groups encountered some form of Russian society is opposed to among its young population: high pornography while searching for educating youth about sexuality, rates of teenage pregnancy,39 information. despite various initiatives and damage to girls’ health in the even political and financial long term, increasing levels of International and Regional support by the government STI infection, etc. Youth from Experience several years ago.34 However, civil less well-off families and those society and activists keep pushing residing in rural areas are more The problem of youth sexual the issue. A great example is a at risk due to their limited access and reproductive illiteracy project to produce a sexuality to internet sources of information is not unique to Kazakhstan. education textbook for youth. on sexual health.40 On a more Both international (Estonia, The author is a popular sex positive note, since 2012 sexuality Germany, Sweden, etc.) and blogger who is crowdfunding the education has gradually been local31 experience shows that book, which will be reviewed and introduced to higher education comprehensive sexuality edited by experts in sexual and institutions.41 education, incorporated into the reproductive health.35 school curriculum, empowers Looking at Central Asia is teenagers to make informed Turkey is regarded by Kazakhstan somewhat discouraging. Though decisions and encourages them as a “big brother” in the Turkic not at their peaks since gaining to postpone sexual activity. world, and it makes sense for the independence from the Soviet Owing to this approach, “teenage Kazakhstani authorities to look at Union, teenage pregnancy rates pregnancies in Germany have Turkey’s experience. Turkey is a remain rather high. In the fall dropped by half within the last Muslim-majority country, where of 2017, female high school 10 years, from 15,000 in 2004 to a large segment of the population students in the Samarkand oblast 7,500 in 2013.”32 is inclined toward conservative of Uzbekistan were obliged to attitudes and traditional gender go through medical checks to In Russia—the largest roles. Social discourses on sex confirm their virginity.42 In this neighboring country, which has mirror those of many other way, the authorities intended shaped Kazakhstan’s education conservative societies: the topic is “to prevent suicides among system and probably had taboo. Sexuality education is not young girls who, with a loss of the most substantial cultural included in the formal curriculum virginity or with pregnancy, influence overall—the problem because “families worry about would decide to commit suicide of sexual illiteracy is also quite the risk of premature sexual to avoid shame.”43 In Tajikistan, acute. Sexuality is not covered experience if their children are it is standard practice for brides by the school curriculum and provided with sex education.”36 to get gynecological checks the approach to youth sexuality The argument for not educating before their weddings to prove is conservative. With a million girls about sex is very similar to their virginity.44 Otherwise, they abortions annually (one of the uyat, the Kazakhstani culture of might be rejected by the groom’s highest rates in Europe) and a shaming: “female virginity before family. Turkmenistan does not human immunodeficiency virus marriage is, in many cases, tied share much information with (HIV) epidemic, Russia sees to the concept of family honor,”37 the outside world. Nonetheless, widespread myths about sex and and if a girl is not going to have according to Aynabat Yaylymova, contraception.33 Traditionalism sex before marriage, “it [sexuality the founder and an administrator and religiosity are on the rise and education] is not relevant to of a website that provides discussing sex is taboo in one- school.”38 advice on healthcare in the third of Russian families. Recent Turkmen language (www.saglyk. political trends contribute to a Despite—and perhaps because info), reproductive and sexual strong backlash against Western of—these social norms, Turkey illiteracy is quite an issue in a culture and resistance to revision seems to face the classic issues of very strict, traditional society,

CAP Fellows Paper 200 8 since this means that bringing up early teen years. Youth sexual which they deem equally sexuality in conversations is not and reproductive illiteracy important for both males and acceptable.45 leads to many social problems: females. In the absence of formal teenage pregnancies and sexuality education, the internet Kyrgyzstan is sadly known for abortions, abandoned newborns, has become a major source of its obsolete but still widespread early marriages, etc. Despite information for youths. Internet practice of “bride kidnapping,” Kazakhstan’s aspirations to resources are easily accessible essentially kidnapping a young enter the top 30 most developed and provide replies to specific woman or girl, at times as young as countries of the world, unlike questions promptly and in fifteen, with the goal of marriage most developed countries, it non-embarrassing anonymous or rape. Often, “the groom will has not implemented sexuality environments. The downsides rape his kidnapped bride to education as part of the formal are that online platforms do prevent her from returning to her school curriculum, nor has it not always provide reliable family due to shame.”46 However, taken consistent steps toward information, there is a lack a positive initiative recently took such a measure. of local Kazakhstani sources, place in the country: in November and information in the Kazakh 2017, the Joint United Nations Instead, the society tries language is non-existent. Programme on HIV/AIDS to regulate sexuality using (UNAIDS) and United Nations abstinence-only discourse and The situation was summed up Educational, Scientific and the institution of shaming, by a 17-year-old female survey Cultural Organization (UNESCO) which international experience respondent, who said of the opened a youth online portal, (supported by scholarly works) accessibility of information on www.teens.kg. This Russian- has proved to be ineffective sexual and reproductive health to language platform hosts various in addressing the problems youth: “This type of information materials for adolescents on mentioned above. Opponents of is not widely and easily accessible, sexuality, relationships, health, youth sexuality education hold because this topic is taboo. If you and other issues that concern parents responsible for making do not intentionally search for them. This resource should play their children aware of sexual and the information, I noticed that no a very important role in raising reproductive issues. The problem one would explain about health awareness and promoting youth is that discussions about sex and protection. Adults look down sexual literacy. between parents and children are upon it and pretend that it [the not part of social norms, and most problem] doesn’t exist.”47 Conclusions parents are not competent to deliver the necessary information. Recommendations Implementation of youth sexuality Meanwhile, comprehensive education has always been an sexuality education that The bottom-line recommendation ambivalent, complex issue, as covers a variety of topics— of this research is to make is the problem that it seeks to including human development, comprehensive sexuality tackle. Sexual and reproductive relationships, decision-making, education for youth legally health is the cornerstone of a etc.—is effective at improving required and introduce it into sustainable society. Like many youths’ sexual and reproductive the formal education system in other developing countries, health. Moreover, it also advances Kazakhstan. Sexuality educators Kazakhstan is taking time to gender equality. could be trained through the realize the urgency of tackling Bolashak scholarship program. the population’s sexual and In the anonymous survey, Aside from considerable financial reproductive illiteracy. Kazakhstani youth—even those investment, the introduction who were not yet sexually active— of sexuality education will Whether adults admit it or not, expressed an interest in increased require consistent collaboration youths start having sex in their sexual and reproductive literacy,

CAP Fellows Paper 200 9 between (and the dedication to people under 18 nelzia, molchat’?” (2018) of) the Ministry of Education Ø Establish a free hotline 6 Raimbek Sissemaliyev, personal and Science, the Ministry on sexual and reproduc- interview with the author, of Healthcare, international tive health issues. Besides April 13, 2017 (translation organizations, and civil society. educating people, it will from Russian to English by the While this is a long, challenging help collect demographic author). process, smaller steps can be data (age, region, gaps in 7 Asel Shanazarova, personal taken to prepare the ground. knowledge, social status, interview with the author, These steps are outlined in the etc.) that will inform the November 20, 2017 (translation recommendations below. policies of educational from Russian to English by the and healthcare authori- author). For the state and healthcare au- ties going forward. 8 Ibid. thorities: 9 “Kak izmenilas’ etnicheskaia Ø Enforce the standards Notes karta Kazahstana za 25 of youth-friendly clinics let,” Vlast.kz, October 17, more strictly 1 “V Almaty v kustakh nashli 2016, accessed November Ø Train medical personnel novorozhdennogo mladentsa,” 7, 2017, https://vlast.kz/ on the importance of pa- Zakon.kz, October 6, 2017, obsshestvo/19747-kak- tient confidentiality accessed November 20, izmenilas-etniceskaa-karta- Ø Reduce the age of in- 2017, https://www.zakon. kazahstana-za-25-let.html. formed consent for medi- kz/4881835-almatinka-brosila- 10 Ramziya Yunusova, cal services for youth from novorozhdennogo.html. “Kak zhivetsa uzbekam v 18 to 16 2 S. Tanirbergenov and G. Kazakhstane?” Central Asia Ø Open accounts on social Abuova, “Situational Analysis: Monitor, February 20, 2015. media to be more accessi- Reproductive Health of the accessed November 7, 2017, ble by youths Population in Kazakhstan (2008- https://camonitor.kz/15295- 2014),” United Nations Fund for kak-zhivetsya-uzbekam-v- For social activists and non-gov- Population Activities, p. 54. kazahstane.html ernmental organizations: 3 “10,000 Teen Girls Have 11 Galina Grebennikova, personal Ø Create local online plat- Children Every Year in interview with the author, forms on youth sexual Kazakhstan,” TengriNews, July April 15, 2017 (translation education based on the 20, 2012, accessed September from Russian to English by the principles of accessibili- 27, 2017, https://en.tengrinews. author). ty, positivity, trust, and a kz/health/10000-teen-girls- 12 Raimbek Sissemaliyev, scientific approach. These have-children-every-year-in- personal interview with should be in Russian, Ka- Kazakhstan-11443/. the author, April 13, 2017 zakh, and potentially oth- 4“Assiia Khairullina: Pogovorite (translation from Russian to er languages (e.g. Uzbek). s dochkoi po dusham,” Time. English by the author). Ø Conduct awareness cam- kz, November 22, 2017, 13 “V Iuzhnom Kazakhstane paigns for parents, reli- accessed November 25, 2017, kazhdyi god beremeniut 900 gious communities and http://www.time.kz/blogs/ shkol’nits,” Nur.kz, May 18, society more broadly hocu-skazat/2017/11/22/asija- 2017, accessed October 1, 2017, about sexual and repro- hajrullina-pogovorite-s-dochkoj- https://www.nur.kz/1122500-v- ductive literacy po-dusham. yuzhnom-kazakhstane-kazhdyy- Ø Make contraceptives 5 Karlygash Kabatova and Sergey god-beremen.html. more accessible to youth; Marinin, “Polovoe prosveshenie v 14 Saule Mektepbayeva, “Uyat— monitor drugstores and sisteme shko’lnogo obrazovaniia eto pozhat’ ruku cheloveku, ensure that they not de- Respubliki Kazakhstan: Uchit’ iesli znaete, chto on domashnii cline to sell contraceptives

CAP Fellows Paper 200 10 tiran,” TengriNews, November 24 Janna Akhmetova, Facebook 7, 2017, http://www.euro. 18, 2016, accessed November post, November 2, 2017, who.int/__data/assets/pdf_ 7, 2017, https://tengrinews.kz/ https://www.facebook. file/0018/292203/Sexuality- article/413/ (translation from com/janna.akhmetova.9/ education-in-Germany.pdf?ua=1. Russian to English by author). posts/1797511486949239. 33 “Seks-bloger Tatyana 15 “Vybrosivshei mladentsa v 25 Grose, Grabe, and Kohfeldt, Nikonova o polovom vospitanii,” musorku studentke iz Almaty ““Sexual Education,” 743. Wonderzine, February 5, 2017, grozit do trekh let tyur’my,” 26 Resolution of National Debate accessed November 28, 2017, Nur.kz, May 18, 2017, accessed “Respublikanskoe soveschanie http://www.wonderzine.com/ October 25, 2017, https://www. “Puti vnedreniia nravstvenno- wonderzine/life/sex/224047- nur.kz/1436987-vybrosivshey-v- polovogo vospitaniia v sex-ed. musorku-mladenca-stude.html Kazakhstane dlia povysheniia 34 Yuliya Dudkina, “Vmesto (translation from Russian to osvedomlennosti podrostkov polovogo vospitaniia—polovoi English by the author). i molodykh liudei 15-19 let po razvrat: Pochemu v Rossii net 16 Ibid. voprosam reproduktivnogo seksual’nogo prosvescheniia 17 Ibid. zdoroviia,” Astana, November v shkolakh. Reportazh 18 Cecilia L. Ridgeway and 20, 2015 (translation from ‘Meduzy’,” Meduza, September Shelley J. Correll, “Unpacking Russian to English by the 1, 2017, accessed November the Gender System: A author). 15, 2017, https://meduza.io/ Theoretical Perspective on 27 Raimbek Sissemaliyev, feature/2017/09/01/vmesto- Gender Beliefs and Social personal interview with polovogo-vospitaniya-polovoy- Relations,” Gender & Society the author, April 13, 2017 razvrat. 18, no. 4 (August 1, 2004): 510, (translation from Russian to 35 Tatyana Nikonova, “Kak doi:10.1177/0891243204265269. English by the author). sobrat’ million za nedeliu: kratkii 19 Ibid., 512. 28 In the rest of this chapter, uchebnik kraudfandinga,” 20 “‘Nravstvennoe’ vospitanie respondents who filled out Afisha, August 17, 2017, devushek/’Moral Upbringing of the questionnaire in Kazakh accessed November 27, 2017, Ladies’,” YouTube video, 52:35, are referred to as the “Kazakh https://daily.afisha.ru/ posted by “itsallapretend,” group;” those who preferred relationship/6502-kak-sobrat- October 24, 2017, https://www. Russian are called the “Russian million-za-nedelyu-kratkiy- youtube.com/watch?v=x5O_ group.” uchebnik-kraudfandinga/?utm_ 29 fJ3yVkw (translation from Anonymous survey designed source=fb&utm_ Russian to English by the by the author, completed medium=socialsharing&utm_ author). October 26, 2017. campaign=kak-sobrat-million- 30 21 Rose Grace Grose, Shelly Anonymous survey designed by za-nedelyu-kratkiy-uchebnik- Grabe, and Danielle Kohfeldt, the author, completed October kraudfandinga. 36 “Sexual Education, Gender 28, 2017. Alper Çuhadaroğlu, “The 31 Ideology, and Youth Sexual The pilot project on sexuality Effects of Sex Education on Empowerment,” The Journal of education of the United Nations Psychological Counselling Sex Research 51, no. 7 (2013): Fund for Population Activities in Students in Turkey,” Sex 742-53. doi:10.1080/00224499. Kazakhstan named “Valeology.” Education 17, no. 2 (March 30, 32 2013.809511. Laura Brockschmidt and 2016): 209-19. doi:10.1080/1468 22 Ibid., 750. Angelika Hessling, “Sexuality 1811.2016.1164132. 37 23 Galina Grebennikova, personal Education in Germany: An Justin Vela, “Turkey: Sex interview with the author, Effective Intervention to Support Education Remains Taboo April 15, 2017 (translation the Sexual and Reproductive Topic,” EurasiaNet, September from Russian to English by the Health (SRH) of People 7, 2012, accessed November 29, author). Across the Lifespan,” BZGA. 2017, http://www.eurasianet. de, 2015, accessed November

CAP Fellows Paper 200 11 38 Ibid. one-in-five-girls-and-women- 39 Linnea Celik, “Is Turkey Ready kidnapped-for-marriage- for Holistic Sex Education? in-kyrgyzstan-study- Possibilities for Design, idUSKBN1AH5GI. Application, and Implementation 47 Anonymous survey designed in Contemporary Turkey” (BA by the author, completed thesis, Amsterdam University October 23, 2017. (Translation College, June 11, 2014), accessed from Russian to English by the November 29, 2017, https:// author. Original punctuation is www.academia.edu/15445974/ preserved.) Is_Turkey_Ready_for_Holistic_ Sex_Education_Possibilities_ for_Design_Application_ and_Implementation_in_ Contemporary_Turkey. 40 Vela, “Turkey: Sex Education.” 41 Ibid. 42 Daniil Khashkovsky, “Uzbekistan: Devushek proveriaiut na devstvennost’ ‘s tseliu predotvrascheniia suitsida’,” Kloop.kg, November 22, 2017, accessed November 29, 2017, https://kloop.kg/ blog/2017/11/22/uzbekistan- devushek-proveryayut- na-devstvennost-s-tselyu- predotvrashheniya-suitsida/. 43 Ibid. 44 Anora Sarkorova, “V Tadzhikistane vrachi proveriayut zhnschin na devstvennost’— BBC Russkaia sluzhba,” BBC News, December 19, 2014, accessed November 29, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/russian/ society/2014/12/141218_ tajikistan_women_virginity. 45 Aynabat Yaylymova, personal interview with the author, November 21, 2017. 46 Lin Taylor, “One in Five Girls and Women Kidnapped for Marriage in Kyrgyzstan: Study,” Reuters, August 1, 2017, accessed November 29, 2017, https://www.reuters. com/article/us-kyrgyzstan- women-bride-kidnapping/

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