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Metals

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Metals Processes Week 3

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41

Iron

Iron

Iron of

At

6.

and

4-4

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first

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iron

Iron

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iron

lower

work.

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times

first,

in

(Fig that

from

States About

iron

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contains

Minnesota, ore

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two

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Alabama with

in

iron.

[2700°C).

the

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melts

4-1).

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iron

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the

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steel

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explained

water;

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it

iron

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riched

largest

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plants crushed

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rock

shape.

process

ore

powdered

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ore

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into

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iron

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of

on open

these

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is

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iron-rich

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to

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particles

powder.

freight

plants

from

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ore

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form

pellets

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as

to

in

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mine.

ore plus

carry

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taconite

Steel

keep

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quartz)

mine

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then

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to

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of

(consist

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process

the

of

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rough

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sepa

load

used

iron ores

into

en

ex

41

to is in

43

to

re in

(by

in

and of

re

and

ele

by

steel

hard

arti iron

cast

mag

cast

con cools

metals

How

The

iron

struc a When

nonme or 6%

iron carbon

of

grain add

several

found

added content

Iron been

not

kinds amount,

cast

nonmetal.

iron

to

4—Iron

is

metal,

is

are pure

part iron.

these Modern

grain The carbon

has

called

4.5%.

active The

kinds

impurities,

The carbon.

Unit coarse

make

weaken but 1.7%

phosphorus, is carbon

to

93% cast

element

have white Cost carefully sulfur

all

to

different iron.

that

5% steel.

and

cracks.

makes the

of

iron

way mold. flammable

2%

to

machine

degree.

to following

about

of iron

a the

Iron of

about

machinability.

they sullur,

used different difference. little

iron

crystal-like

iron.

poisonous, this

of

grayish

a

is

3%

kinds The remove A

cast sulfur

a making into large

phosphorus a from

chemical about

causing

the

pig useful

and

cast

a

yellow,

of

is

in has

to better

a is a

hardness

is brittleness iron

resembles a made

of

and

several

to

from Cost

silicon, contains

Kinds

of

is

for

from range

much It

is

make iron poured

used

needed. pig

brittle, is

fracture.

are

different arrangement grades

gives properties

and iron

carbon

steel.

vary iron

is

kinds

sulfur object as

It

may causes and

Too

attempt cast in

shape

and iron the steels It

and

Pig and

Silicon The

Sulfur It brittle.

most Much Phosphorus

Manganese iron ranging An

Cast at

There

the

the

weight) mainder manganese.

rocks.

Excess steel. weak mills cluding ments some

tal.

iron

and netic.

melted in cle. ing. castings.

iron. cast

form, in content weight ever, tent broken, ture common

1

a

½ of

is

the

the

iron

t)

The

iron

into

to than

blast used ore,

about burnt hole.

called

which

and

melted

steel.

and coal), is

into

the

tapping) [3.6 furnace. is

The ore.

the

the

then It

iron

of

of

and

Institute( holds The

the

of slag, in

heavier

of pig

coke that transfer

tons

iron

iron.

separate

and a

of

tJ is

4

form a

(called

Steel

dumped

earth

iron,

for

iron brittle.

pig The

the

&

ashes

into

which

11.8 and waste

iron

are

of bottom.

continuously,

and

a

and

burning

trough

Iron

t(

the bottom

ladle

4-5).

melt

a through the purified

tons

a

melted

emptied

poured

wrought

rock the

2 (a The hard hours.

(0.9 at

air

off

forms works molten

furnace,

with is

6

(Fig.

into

to

the

t[.

into

the

limestone limestone, (American

being ton

iron,

to

hot

very

hole the coke

or of

1

about

5

of

blast

is

out

[909 of drips

mixes and

iron

drained

cast tap

t)

with furnace

top molds

mixture

furnace very it t]

a

is

the

Pig

iron

takes every

make

machine.

on

tons of

and

furnace

Because pig

flows

coke,

[0.9 (0.45 of

The blast It

to slag,

The

Pig 4-5

making

ton ton air 1000 ore, top blast limestone coke

ore. slag. the through

iron steel iron floats furnace, tapped The in

Fig. costing 44 Part 2—Getting Acquainted with Metals White Cast Iron White cast iron is so named because of its white, crystalline color at the fracture when broken. White cast iron is made by rapidly cooling the molten pig iron. The carbon con tent usually ranges from about 2% to 3.5%. Most of the carbon in white cast iron is in a chemically combined state. It forms a very hard substance called cementite, or iron car bide (Fe3C). White cast iron is so hard that it cannot be machined except by grinding, Its di rect use is limited to castings requiring the surfaces to withstand abrasion and wear. The major use of white cast iron, however, is in making malleable cast iron. Malleable iron is cast iron that has been made soft, tough, strong, and malleable. It generally has about a 2% to 2.6% carbon con tent. When white cast iron is heated at a high temperature for 100-120 hours, it is converted to malleable iron. This heat-treatment pro cess, called malleableizing, takes place in a heat-treatment furnace. Metal is malleable if Fig. 4-6 The feeder drive pulley of this it can be hammered into different shapes combine is macic of gray cast iron. without cracking. Heat-treatment changes the arrangement of the carbon from its combined state as cementite to free carbon. At the pro longed high temperature the free carbon Gray Cast Iron comes together to form clusters or globules. One basic type usually contains from The surrounding iron then becomes soft and 1.7% to 4.5% carbon. It melts at about 2200°F machinable. Malleable castings are less brittle [1204°C]. than gray or white cast iron castings, and have Most of the carbon in gray cast iron is in many of the tough characteristics of steel, which are described in Unit 5. a free state. It is scattered in the form of graphite flakes throughout the crystalline Several different grades of malleable iron grain structure of the metal. This arrangement are available. They are used for making tough of carbon makes the cast iron brittle. Thus, it castings for automobiles, tractors, and many fractures easily from sharp blows. It has a gray kinds of machinery parts. crystalline color where fractured. The gray color is due to the tiny flakes of graphite mixed in with the grains of iron. Gray cast iron is the cheapest kind of iron. Ductile Cast Iron It is used to make large pipes, steam radiators, water hydrants, frames for machines, and Ductile cast iron is also known as nodular other machine parts. It is used for products or iron or spheroidal graphite iron. The carbon in parts that must be large and heavy but in ductile iron, like that in malleable iron, is in which impact strength is not very important. the free state. It is in small, rounded lumps of Gray cast iron can be machined easily (Fig. 4- carbon clusters called nodules. The iron sur 6). Several different grades of gray cast iron are rounding the tiny balls of graphite is soft, available, each having different properties. tough, and machinable. Unit 4—Iron 43

Pig It takes about 2 tons [1.8 t) of iron ore, 1 iron contains about 93% pure iron (by ton (0.9 t] of coke (a purified form of coal), Y2 weight) and from 3% to 5% carbon. The re ton )0.45 t] of limestone, and 4 tons 13.6 t( of mainder is silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, and air to make 1 ton 10.9tj of pig iron. The iron manganese. ore, coke, and limestone are dumped into the Silicon is a chemical element found in top of the blast furnace, which holds about rocks. It gives hardness to iron. 1000 tons 1909 tj. The burning coke and the Sulfur is a yellow, flammable nonmetal. blast of very hot air melt the iron ore. The Excess sulfur and phosphorus weaken iron and limestone mixes with the ashes of the burnt steel. Too much sulfur makes these metals coke and with the rock and earth of the iron weak arid brittle, causing cracks. Modern steel ore. The mixture forms a waste that is called mills attempt to remove all impurities, in slag. Because the molteE iron is heavier than cluding carbon and they carefully add ele the slag, it drips to the bottom of the furnace. ments as needed. A little sulfur is added to The furnace is eaptied [called tapprng) some steels for better machinability. through a tap hole at the bottom The melted Phosphorus is a poisonous, active nonme iron flows out into a ladle for transfer to a tal. It causes brittleness and coarse grain in steel furnace or into -a trough a’d then into iron and ned. iron pig maids (Fig. 45) The slag, which Mannucse is a grayish white metal, hard floats on top of the melted iron in the blast and briti . It resembles iron but is not mag furnace, s drained off throogh a separate hole, rietic. Ati- used in making steel. The blast furnauc works contru.ous1y, 2nd s tapped uvery 5 to 6 hours. Pg ion is vury hard and bfitIe. it is used in ‘‘i,i king cast :mr. viroughr iro:n, arid snnd.. 43 c— [Ml Cast iron is pig iron that has been re melted and poured into a mold. The iron cools Fig. 4.5 Pig iron b g pourso ,-rQ a pig .nsting rnnchiig. IAE.rcari 1i & institue tn the shape of a useful ‘machine part or arti cle. An object made this way is called a cast ing. Much pig iron is used to make cast iron N castings.

44 KncL f Ofl There are several different kinds of cast iron. The properties of the different kinds of cast iron vary to a large degree. The amount, form, and arrangement of the carbon content in the iron make the difference. The carbon content may range from about 1.7% to 6% by weight in different kinds of cast iron. How ever, most grades of cast iron have carbon con tent ranging from about 2% to 4.5%. When broken, cast iron has a crystal-like grain struc ture at the fracture. The following are several common kinds of cast iron. Unit 4—Iron 45

Ductile cast iron is produced very much like gray cast iron. Magnesium alloys and cer tain other elements are added to a ladle of gray iron before it is poured into molds to make Wrought Iron castings. These additives and proper heat treatment cause the carbon in the molten iron Wrought iron is pig iron from which most to form balls or nodules as it cools and be of the carbon has been removed. It contains comes solid. only about 0.04% carbon. Wrought iron was Ductile cast iron has properties similar to the most important structural metal before malleable iron. It is tough, machinable, and the development of the Bessemer steelmaking possesses many of the characteristics of steel. process. The metal was tough, easily formed, and for It is used for making tough castings for auto corrosion-resistant. It was widely used mobiles, farm machinery, and many other fences, horseshoes, nails, chain, lamps, and kinds of machinery. door hardware. It has been largely replaced with of Standard handbooks for machinists have the use hot-rolled low-carbon steels. information about different kinds and grades of cast iron.

i’\iJ.

WORDS TOKNOW

blast furnace gray cast iron malleable iron sulfur carbon heat treatment manganese taconite cementite iron ore phosphorus white cast iron ductile cast iron iron carbide pig iron wrought iron free carbon low-grade ores silicon graphite magnetic separation slag

REVIEWQUESTIONS

1. Where is iron ore found in the United States? 2. What is taconite? Describe how it is processed. 3. What is pig iron? Why is it so named? 4. Describe the furnace and the process for making pig iron. 5. What is cast iron? What is it used for? 6. What is gray cast iron and what is its chief use? 7. What is white cast iron and what is its chief use? 8. What is malleable iron? What is it used for? 9. What is ductile cast iron and what is it used for? 10. What is wrought iron? What was it used for? 11. What metal has largely replaced wrought iron? is

of

many

an

en

off,

feet

can

5-2.)

con

is

5

rolling

chem

into

carbon

oxygen

United

to

that

steel

Fig

for

oxygen the controlled

blooms,

steel

burned

about

of

furnace

th.e

pure forms

be

lance

excess

temperatures, furnace.

tJ

of the

ready

xn

After

to

specialized

required

BOP

flOP

basic

the

.4 furnace,

enables

use

As

rapidly process.

steel.

A

1272

oxygen 4’

steel

the

made.

time

the

made,

positioned

these

iron,

position

are

furnace

is into

flOP

of

is

shapes

tons

in

the

are steel. basic

oxygen

bie

metal. produced

pig

water-cooied

a

Abe,

the

Thecfore,

of

top a to

steel iron

process

300

the

lance

pure

the lance

by

into

billet.c

hIglic! pig

the steel

of iron standard

How

the

impurities

and

quabty

the

further

of through in Steel) about

roads

pig

use

5-1 shorterung

above

Oxygen

oxygen

through

Most

is

accurately.

other end high through

the

composition

slabs, Fig. different iron mills

The

5-2

ten

ters

The [l.5mJ

blown and changing

ical Bethlehem very very results thereby vert

produce hour. States

blowing

Fig.

UNIT a

of

of

by

be of

in

In

can

daf car

the

car

and

and

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than

from

more

steel

mol

steel

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differ

of

that

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neces

the

steel

:eFinrg

and

is

1.7%

Process, Steelmaking in

finished

usually

the is

products.

of

kinds shows

by to

ways

beams,

methods

is harder

it

Electric iron

Steel

quantities

contains

make

Steel

impurities. into

5-1

about ore

Oxygen mill

carbon together).

between

metals. the

some

hundreds the the

and

Oxygen bars,

scrap.

steel

made

basic iron,

to

is

iron (SOP) also

Large

is,

iron

out

finish. is other different

iron.

and

into blown

pig

detail.

other Figure

the

rods,

closer

pig

steel

new

Basic

is

and

the

They contains

(that

all

produce from

of

0.05%

Bsc used—recycled—--.-in cast

stronger

Steel

describes

and

content taking

that the

from

steel

mirror

Process, plates, greater

that

iron

shapes.

by

packed

a

also

steel.

and

impurities.

from

iron also

carbon

batch

oxygen

in describes

with

almost

The Process

times is, steel

recall

to

of

are

process,

iron

carbon

carbon.

cast

are

discusses

pig

shape

iron

products. sheets,

is

Hearth companies

and

unit

pure

6

unit steel

other

Each

that

will of

Its

steel

shapes.

5%

steel

make

remove

many

kinds of than

are

structural

scrap

Process. mill

iron

and in

amounts, to

Steel to

[his You

Steel

This Open

iron,

polished

Unit BOP,

To

46

weight. ent wrought

dense bon be casr made

pig 3% bon ihcsc making. steel mixture

ferent making the various

nace producers other steelmaking steel grades

sary the 1- --

EDJCTiC

.LiJ

i-c.

V

I

A ‘1

Y-

Unit

V

-J

5—Steelmaking

47 is

of to

is is

of

to

for

gas

iron

that

heat

it very

used

up sam

been

air

scrap used.

some

brick

passes

a

hearth

pair process

to

cooled, beams,

used

compo and

pairs

is

and

process.

be

tested

is

also has

the furnace.

room

advantage gas

Hot

furnace

for

holds

air

before

the

open

One liquid, heavy

is

be

slow

make

used can

two

iron

the

An

pair

taken,

to

a

an It

to

The to which hot

5-4), C).

oxygen

used

are

that

of is

Pig

made

iron

has are

heating

process

another into

is

etc.

heating.

is

furnace.

steel.

other

The

(Fig.

It

pig

becomes

basic

metal view

1,649

then

the

flame

open-hearth furnace

it

the

as the

from tool

furnace,

metal,

metal OpenHearth

the or

rooms,

hearth

oven

shafts,

are

furnace

charged

an

of brickwork. adjustments to steel. gas

furnace

the

F,

heated.

well

a

t}

melted

the while

during in

When

in are

with sectional

open Process The

as

The Any

furnace

way

A

of

open

metal

the

and

baker’s been

hearth screws,

hearth

white-hat

high-grade

[3,000

a

the

its

the (181.4 scrap

made

5.4

open-hearthprocess

open-hearth the heated

one air metal.

steel,

content

with

the

to

is replaced

combine

on open of

open

like

baits, allows

Fig.

furnace.

tho

furnace. tons

of steel

and flame

The already

The analyzed.

Hot

52

Steel

making

the

48 that

carbon what and 200 the through rooms

work blown flame has

rooms heat hot ples and sition poured called rails, iron for of However,

largely

an

for

re

are

the the

t}

fur

side

con

thus

to

ladle.

blown

to

nickel,

the

side its

The

scrap iron,

is

meet

lime,

imourities

its large on

nJted

to

a

and

added

it

on

pressre,

the

carbon,

iricrer.se

then

molten

into

oxygen

Burned

iron

also required.

added

as

s

to

high

tilting

the

hited

is

It

are

steel

When

pure

s

of

by

steel

(such

Mo!ten

under

out oxygen

and

the

rnoutr.

impurities.

-3.)

others)

7r13hon

5

furnace

the for

ts

limestone,

emptied

the

the

and

impurities.

burned

elements

fuooace

(Fig.

hOP

into poni:xan,

with. out

iier;.

of

frurr.

the been

toe:

Th

ed

ro

gd Omi’Jm

::va

;rugir1g,

L.IgL co tve

n’ce3sry :.;•icot!onS Unit 5—Stee]making 49

A. UPRIGHT POSITION 5-3 The Electric ARCS Furnace Processes The electric arc process (Figs.5-5 and 5-6)is used when close control of temperature and exact amounts of alloying elements are impor tant. Higher temperatures can be reached with the electric arc furnace than with other steel- STEEL making furnaces. Electric arc furnaces are good for making high-carbon steel, steels al B. POURINGPOSITION loyed with metals that have high melting points, and stainless steels. Powerful electric arcs bridge the air gap between large carbon electrodes and the metal to be melted. (The metal serves as the other electrode.) The arcs produce the heat required to melt the metal. 100% iron and steel scrap can be used. Temperature control is very good. This makes possible very close control of the grain structure of the steel. Electric induction furnaces (Fig. 5-7) greatly enlarged in recent years, have capaci ties up to 250 tons [225.7 t]. They are used for STEEL LADLE making small batches of high-quality steels or Fig. 5-5 Sectional views of an electric arc remelting metals for making steel castings. furnace. The intense alternating magnetic field of the furnace makes the steel heat up to its melting point.

Fig. 5-6 The electric furnace is widely used for producing steel alloys. American Foundry Association) 50 Part 2—Getting Acquainted with Metals

54 High Technology in Steelmoking The use of computers, lasers, robots, and other high technology devices in steelmaking is rapidly increasing. Only a few examples can be given here due to space limitations. Lasers are used in many ways in the pro duction of steel sheets. They are used to mea sure sheet width and thickness, inspect flat ness and finish, and control the alignment of the sheet as it is being rolled. At Armco Steel, scanned beams from sev eral high power lasers provide a 10% improve ment in the magnetic properties of sheet steel used in electrical transformers. The iaser treatment occurs at line speeds of 300 to 400 feet/mm (9J.44 to 121.92 meters/min. A com Fig. 5-8 app] ying Jeanficat1on puter is used to adust the laser pavver and Robot numbers to sissi ccls m scan rate to changes in hOCspeed. Anothe lase.r application is the ceasure ment of refractory (insulating matenal) wear inside BOP furnaces, By using this ‘echrique, Robots are also copeanna ic steel miLls In one company reports an increase oi 5% the one sin.pie application, a robot is used to r.iurnber of heats from one of its furnaces, and paint identifyine. numbers or. rolls ci steel a saving of 2% in refractory costs. Wh!e these sheet Fig. 5 8. numbers are small, the savings are OOi. In iron making, the moisture content of coke charged into the blast furnace is mea sured with a nuclear gage. The moisture con 55 tent must be known because it has consider atdc effect on the weight, and therefore amount, of coke charged into the fu-nace. When liquid steel fion nbc steel- This in turn effects the fuel economy of the making furnaces, the flow is directed into blast furnace arid the chemical composition of large ladies. The liquid steel may receive fur the pig iron ther treatment while it is in the ladle, This is A new type of mill roll has been developed called secondary steelmakirig or ladle metal for use in removing waves or buckles in heat- lurgy. Further ieflning in the ladle may be treated steel sheet. The roll is “inflated” done to adust its chemical composltinn or to (bulged) slightly with hydraulic pressure as precisely control its pouring temperature. needed in order to control sheet flatness. This From the iad.ie, the liquid steel is either type of roll lasts much longer between re poured into large ingot molds (Fig 5-9) or into grindings than solid rolls. a continuous casting machine (Fig. 5-10). After The roll is used with a computerized flat cooling and removal from an ingot mold, the ness measuring and control system. The com inside of the ingot may be white-hot while the puter displays the shape of the sheet on a outside is only red hoe. To make the ingot screen as it emerges from the rolling mill, and ready for rolling, its temperature must be uni automatically adjusts the roll shape to pro form throughout. Thus, irmgots must be re duce better flatness. heated in a gas furnace called a soaking pit ingot Fig.

[45 Fig. common

converting or

x

blooms. 1

kg)

.8rn1.

59

5-10

molds.

to

Steel

ingot

(Bethlehem

6

A

liquid

(American

tons

continuous

In

being

got size

[5.5

steel

sizes

are

Steel)

poured

t).

Iron

directly

2’

The

casting range

&

x

Steel

or

dimensions

2’

from

“teemed’

into

x

machine

Institute)

6’

100

slabs,

.Orn

pounds

of

into

for

X

billets,

a

.6m “I

During of lost steel ready converted Also, elimination based more casters cost

now 10).

slabs, Hot-Rolled soaking

Fig. soaking

can

the

In

About

during

After

be 5-Il

savings

continuously Considerable

called

finished

for

ingot

process.

continuous

they continuous

rolled.

the

is

pit.

pit

rolling an

Ingots

steel

directly

60%

slow the

are scale.

develops (American

(Fig.

of

average resulting

The

Steel steel

It

rolling

reheated ingot

must

has

reheating

of

5-11).

into

has

furnace

The

cast.

casting casting,

cost

into

American

compared

Iron

$50

been

a

be

been reheating

plates

process.

from

heavy scale

Unit

reheated

&

almost

a

savings

per

used

process,

Steel

cast

yields

estimated semi-finished

the

5—Steelnu2king

use

is

or

ton

layer

for

with

steel

broken Institute)

liquid

sheets

into and

of

whitc-hot

he[jre

[$55

this

result

up

of continuous the

the

output

handling.

is

ingotr

oxidized

per that

to

steel

they

off surface

(Fig.

called

ingot-

from

15% tj.

slab

and

in the

51

5-

is

is

or

a

a the

After

draw

tubing

through

by

after

[E

and

bell-shaped

metal.

a

made

wire.

of

drawn

pipe

welded

is

are

wire.

bar

D:raWIN.

is

through

drawing

hot

a

tubing /‘-.:‘

tubing

joint

for

Seamless

drawing -E--WPE

size.

or

metal

and

for

The

of

pipe

die

piercing

T,ibj

-_ pipe machine

desired

A

strip

A by

5-14). the

operation.

the

cmd

0OOO0cOcOcOØO

fiat

542

5-13

to

(Fig.

a

Welded

made

Fig.

Fig.

ing

die forming are

piercing, dies

are

of

it.

and

the in

rail

are

re wa

steel that

Plate

still

thin,

Sheet cold

steel

scale, hot- scale

used

cold

made.

great

small

rolling when

of

square, a

mixed small as

draw

drawn

into a rolls the siiliurie

hot

in

a

smooth,

pickling,

pure the pickled.

the

the

a

may

steel

are is They

hot-rolled

size deposit

a

mm].

has

shown from often

while

slabs.

in

called

steel,

well

linac

Metals

channel, a

under

more.

and

until

press as

is

5-12).

Round, are is

shape as

steel

size.

After

bars The

keeps

or from

final

further

machining. sizes

called first with

steel reduced which

to [6.35

reduced

made

to

from

(pulling)

rolled

dies

removes

rolled.

or

and

angle, the is containanc (Fig.

leaves

cylindrical off the

all

The

is

wire,

rollers

cooled

which

exact

steel.

thick

be which

made,

it

acid, used made

as

are

(also

also

hot-rolled

shapes.

.250”

of

eating

deposit

and rod rolled

steel

is

than

gives dies.

is sheets of

water

are the

can

the

rolling.

been

smaller Acquainted

die

drawing

very

mm] hoE-rolled. or and crust,

bars solution

hot-rolled

such

washed

it

finishing

n bats

Smooth than

This

of

Thus, obtained

‘water, a

from drawing

then

finished

or

by

flat

ftai

is

rods

steel

has

5-13.

steel and

bar

is

cold

larger

the

is

stops

rolling

[6.35

put sizes

rollers

for

or

been

and commonly

drawing

until

5-1).

more

lime

It

steel.

skin

acid

steel. time and

shapes the the

that

evaporates steel, cold-rolled

2—Getting

cooling,

pickling

dry,

make

a surface

little

thinner steel

in

are

highly

first

This

.250” bars

of

by

owii

the any

used

a

smaller

at (Fig.

hard

Part to

the

is

5-12

finish

is

diameter

smaller rails. the rectangular steel is wiredrawing

are

is water. This rusting

The

already on

Grooved

called

water

After

through

Cold-rolled then

size

The

sulfuric

When

on

Cold-drawn

A

mills used

steel steel 52 into

and Structural

1-beams road black,

Co[doe

steel has cold-rolled

emowil cold,

acid. the fiom ter, with

be lime The from

between pressure. then bright without

Cold

rolled

The amount steel through quired

plate) Figures Unit 5—Steelmaking 53

BELLr Fig. 5-14 Drawing a flat strip of metal through a die to form a pipe. ----F*-T U: --t. bell-shaped

J... “-: ,.s

WoRDsto KW basic oxygen continuous casting hot-rolled steel scale process drawplate ingot soaking pit charging electric arc furnace mill wire-drawing die cold-drawn steel electric induction open-hearth furnace cold-rolled steel furnace pickling

REVIEWQUESTIONS

1. What materials is steel made from? 2. What is the difference between pig iron and steel? 3. Describe the process of making steel. 4. What is an ingot? 5. Describe the open-hearth process of making steel. 6. How is steel made in the electric arc furnace? 7. What kinds of steel are made in the basic oxygen furnace? Open-hearth furnace? Elec tric furnace? 8. What is hot-rolled steel? 9. What is cold-rolled steel? 10. What is cold-drawn steel? the

.05%

plain Low-

foe vise

in

cold

carbon

taps,

dies,

milling turning

knives,

saws

Ste

dies,

the

other

made

table

drills, wrenches,

hammers,

contains

drawing springs,

is

furnaces. cutlery,

and

faces,

threading wire

saws,

shows

steel

cutters,

hammers,

surgical

anvil

dies,

weight

tools,

steel 6-1

screwdrivers,

knives,

by

dies,

tools,

milling

cutting

boring

table

open-hearth

Table

dies,

blacksmiths’

hammers, steel

cold

tools.

LowCcrbo

Low-carbon

and knives,

blades,

engravers’

drop-forging

blades low-carbon

threading

shear

carbon. beatings,

planing

of

machinists’

cutters,

steels.

screwdrivers,

knives,

Oars

ball

and

dies,

hacksaw

instruments,

Low-carbon

Uses

.30% rablc

rnandrels,

Th’?

cutters.

springs,

circular

Steel

screws,

lorgings, knives,

chisels.

reamers.

turning

to

content carbon

basic-oxygen

centers,

springs.

sets. fine 6-1

sutgical

screwdrivers

files,

blades,

drop

drop-forging

of centers,

knives,

saws, nvCts,

wood, lathe

axes,

river dies,

bits,

tools,

as

shear

dies,

forginps hatchets,

dies,

lathe

and the

Thbla

ele

tools,

scythes,

The

buldirr’,

pkin

three chains,

drills, high-’

woodworking

auger

needles,

:i-1s

chrsels,

drop

to

centers,

drawing

brass

sledges,

centers,

drills,

rock

dies, files,

engravers’

prycs, Kiri1s reamers,

known

threading

into and

other

wire brrdges,

axles, drills,

lathe

boilers,

steels.

drop-forging

drills

steels:

lathe

twist

turning

added

taps, hand

small

woodworking

rock

chisels, pins,

also

the

steel,

of

metals,

rails,

dies,

©ii

for

hammers,

threading

steel; alloy

forgings, buildings,

tools,

are

knives,

taps,

large

crowbars,

I V divided cutters, on

hard

crank razors,

roofs

of

cutting

reamers,

steel,

reamers,

kinds sets,

bolts,

chisels,

pressing

tools,

small pipe

saws, are

that

bndics,

for steels.

rods, planing

punches,

drills,

sledges

ceankshafts,

turning

and

woodworking

axes,

cold

rivet

metals,

and

kinds

band

cutters,

drills,

shafts,

saws

for

depend

main planing

chisels, small twist

axles,

alloy

steels

setscrews.

jaws, chisels,

and

cutlets, twist

cutting tools

metals)

Automobile Gears,

connecting

Car

Hammers, Stamping Punches,

Punches,

Taps,

Axes, Milling

two

Turning Small

Razors,

many

each lowcarbon

and

medium=carbon

of

are

arc

carbon

steel

weight

usually

steels

in steel,

30

by groups: steel;

1.50

There 70-0.80 Plain

There

0.05-0.20 020-030

0.30-0.40 040-050 0.50-0.60 ‘ 0.60-0.70 1.00-1.10 o 1.10-1.20 0.80-0.90

0.90-1.00 1.20-1 1.30-1.40

1.40-

carbon

54

of ugh-Carbon

Percent

carbon

main Low-Carbon: ydcdium-carbon: mild carbon

properties nit’nts I soc Unit 6—Kinds of Steel 55 carbon steel is used for forge work, rivets, finish. Round bars that are accurately ground chains, and machine parts that do not need to standard drill sizes are called drill rod. Drill great strength. It is also used for almost every rod is used for making such tools as drills, product that was once made of wrought iron. reamers, taps, and punches. It is also used to Some low-carbon steel is cold-rolled be make dowel pins. Dowel pins are used in die tween highly polished rollers under great pres making to keep metal parts accurately aligned sure. This improves its tensile strength, and with each other. gives it a very smooth finish and exact size. It Free-machining carbon steels are espe is then called cold-rolled steel. cially made to have high machinability. Re sulfurized carbon steels, which have sulfur added in amounts from .08% to .33%, have much better machinability than plain carbon steels. The resulfurized steel designated AISI 62 Medium-Carbon 1112 is given a machinability rating of 100%. Steel Other steels are rated in comparison with AISI Medium-carbon steel has more carbon and 1112 steel, as described in Section 2-3. For ex ample, AISI 1012, a plain low-carbon steel, has is stronger than low-carbon steel. It is also rating of only 53%. more difficult to bend, weld, and cut than a machinability low-carbon steel. It contains .30% to .60% Lead is sometimes added to further im carbon. Medium-carbon steel is used for bolts, prove the machinability of resulfurized steels. shafts, car axles, rails, and other parts or tools The percentage of lead added is small. Only that require strong metal. (See Table 6-1,) about one third of a pound of lead for each of steel [151 grams per 45 kg) Medium-carbon steels are frequently hard hundred pounds is used. Some leaded free-machining steels ened and tempered by heat treatment. These have machinability ratings as high as 300%. steels can be hardened to a Rockwell-C hard ness of 40 (medium hard) to 60 (very hard), de A new free-machining steel alloy, pending on the carbon content and the thick DK121O, does not contain lead. It is capable of or leaded ness of the material. Unit 94 describes the cutting speeds equalling exceeding Rockwell hardness test. steels and provides longer tool life. The alloy contains 0.10% bismuth and has a slightly higher sulfur content than the other free-ma chining steels. Free-machining steels are used in auto matic lathes for the high-speed manufacture High-Carbon Steel of cylindrical and threaded parts. High-carbon steel, also known as carbon Table 6-2 indicates some properties of sev tool steel, contains between .60% and 1.50% eral types of steel that are frequently used in carbon. The best grades of this steel are made industry and in metalworking classes. in electric furnaces. High-carbon steel is called tool steel because it is used to make such tools as drills, taps, dies, reamers, files, cold chisels, crowbars, and hammers. (See Ta ble 6-1.) It is hard to bend, weld, and cut. High-carbon steel becomes very hard and Alloy Steels brittle when it is hardened. The more carbon Alloy steels are made by combining steels a steel contains, up to 0.80%, the harder it can with one or more other elements. These ele be made. Hardness of Rockwell 60-66 can be ments are usually metals. They are intention attained. ally added to obtain properties that are not High-carbon steel is rolled to the desired found in plain carbon steels. Alloying may in shape and is often ground to provide a smooth crease the following properties: as

oil

in

are

100)

are

cor fol

im

use,

to

Gen

their plain

in also

=

steels

many

or steels

plastic gives

classi teeth, 52 65

60 — —

100

130

220

to

rating

It

also

The

1112

wrenches.

heat,

There are with

tool most

than

Machinability

has properties

(B

it. shock-resis

steels.

alloy

alone

referred

shovel

requirements, the

and the

hardened

chrome,

high

alloy

steels,

They

38%,

tool jaws.

punches,

harder

according

be

more

as Included

deeply of used,

often

how

Special

very

power

emerd

Category affect

Service

alloy

are over

toughens

and

are

are

steels,

must

tooling,

hard.

for

tools, 143 163 crusher 170 170

more 155

293 217

to

388

Brinell

with

known

and

content

hardness

and

Each

tool

steels.

they

describe categories

8-2.

resistance,

steels rock air-hardened

making press

extreme

elements

tougher

also

extremely

needed

alloy steels

elements

0.25%

or

harden

in

steels

alloy

steel, foo

and no

alloy

A.yg

to-ni

get ‘fable

wear

26

threading

of

are

to

diHexcnt

total Steels t

punch

those

tool

they

from or

See

‘Therefore,

alloying 565.4 475.7

lugs, 5688 575.7 7102 MPa 544.7

paragraphs 979.1

properties.

that

that

alloy

1379.0

of

include

as

into

The

Special

designed

air.

About

Chronthiro,

steel.

6-2

metals

Tensile

strength

cutters,

molds,

Most or

oil-hardened carbon erally,

tant.

ranges hundreds fied basic

grades.

are

They rosion, steels

such tractor

combination, lowing

of portant or, hardness

(psi)

82,000 69,000 82,500 79,000 83,500

103,000 142,000

200,0CC

best

Table

Properties

hardness al

re

and

are

high

best tool

The tool

auto

works

used

steels

steels

steels

steels:

at

levers,

proper--

Betnell

milling steel

that

are

their

They

relatively

alloy

Metals

connecting

ships.

at Physicc

allay

a

alloy corrosion

These

these

gears,

above

to

1450’

med,um

bridges, Most

hardness

hardness

steels

includes

with

tools.

strength

at

to

of

and and

of

of

reamers,

the

of develop

C)

have

6%.

of

steel

low

tool

Tempered

also

treatment

and

steels.

shafts,

to

of

of

steels,

Condition C)

1427’

steels.

from

pins,

measure as

F,

forming

classes compared

drills,

about

788’ heat steels

Acquainted

Alloy content

allay

alloys

range

F,

800’

to

as

Hot-Rolled hardenability,

Cold-Drawn alloy Cold-Drawn buildings, Cold-Drawn

Cold-Drawn

Cold-Drawn

Hot-Rolled Water-Quenched

and

parts

temperatuxes.

allay

of

standard

hardness

retention

here

piston

a

manufactured three

alloy

important

construction

alloy

of resistance

is

steels.

heat-treated

through as

such

high

0.25%

2—Getting

are

special

and

group

be

content

cutting

the

tool

resistance at

most

high-quality

for

measured

increased

railroads,

Part

Total

.375

Hardness

springs,

and

from

in

1018 1018

1045 1095 This 1095

1112 1113

no. for

must

are

AJS1

trnetianai

alloy

steels

The

Const.ractionoi C C i’here 8 Hardenabihty B Strength Machinability C Corrosion C Strength used C Retention temperatures. Wear

Alloy

Ledloy making

Brinell

56

1. The

2.

3. 4. 6. 7. 5.

ties sistance, strength loys properties.

cons

steels, are bolts,

rods- used constructional frames,

low steels. ranges

in used Unit 6—Kinds of Steel 57 makes the steel’s grain finer and causes the Nickel adds strength and toughness to steel to resist rust, stains, shocks, and steel. Nickel steel does not rust easily and is scratches. Chromium steel is used for safes, very strong and hard. It is also elastic; that is, rock crushers, and automobile bearings. it can stand vibration, shocks, jolts, and wear Chromium is the basis for stainless steel, by bouncing back to its original shape. It is which contains from 11% to 26% chromium. used for wire cables, shafts, steel rails, auto It has a lasting, bright, silvery gloss. Following mobile and railroad car axles, and armor plate. is a list of some important uses for stainless Nickel is also used with chromium to make steel: stainless steel. sinks ball bearings Tungsten is a rare, heavy, white metal that tabletops fine measuring tools has a higher melting point than any other tableware and instruments metal. Tungsten adds hardness to steel. It pots and pans moldings gives steel a fine grain, and allows steel to cutting tools automobile parts withstand heat. Tungsten is used as an alloy plates for false teeth valves for airplane en ing element in tool steels, high-speed steels, dental tools gines and in cemented carbide. It is also used in ar Cobalt is an important metal used in mak mor plate. ing cutting tool alloys. (These alloys include Vanadium is a pale, silver-gray metal. It is high-speed steels, cast alloys, and cemented brittle and resists corrosion. Vanadium gives carbides.) The outstanding property of cobalt steel a fine grain, as well as toughness and is its ability to improve the hardness of cut strength. Vanadium steel can withstand great ting tools when they are hot or even red-hot. shocks. It is used for springs, automobile axles Such properties are called the hot-hardness or and gears, and other parts that vibrate when in red-hardness of cutting tools. Cutting tools use. with high cobalt content retain their hardness Chrornium-vanadiwn steel is hard and has up to a dull red heat. Cobalt also improves great tensile strength. It can be bent double wear resistance. Cobalt content in high-speed while cold and is easy to cut. Chromium-van steels ranges from 5% to 12%. In cast alloys, adium steel is used for automobile parts such it is used in amounts from 35% to 55%. as springs, gears, steering knuckles, frames, Cobalt is also alloyed with aluminum and axles, connecting rods, and other parts which nickel to make powerful Alnico permanent must be strong and tough but not brittle. magnets. Manganese is a hard, brittle, grayish-white High-.Speed Ste& (HSS) metal. It purifies and adds strength and tough High-speed steel, also known as high- ness to steel. Manganese steel remains hard speed tool steel, is another type of alloy steel. even when cooled slowly. It is so very hard Its carbon content may range from about that it is difficult to cut, so it is usually cast 0.70% to 1.50%. Several different grades are into shape. Wear makes the surface harder. available. It generally contains one or more Manganese steel can stand hard wear, strain, metals such as chromium, vanadium, molyb hammering, and shocks. It is used for the jaws denum, tungsten, and cobalt. The first four of of rock and ore crushers, steam shovels, these elements are carbide formers. They chains, gears, railway switches and crossings, combine with carbon to form carbides such as and safes. chromium carbide and vanadium carbide. Molybdenum is called “Molly” for short in These carbides are very hard and wear-resis steel mills. A silvery white metal, it adds tant; therefore, they make good cutting tools. strength and hardness to steel, and allows it to Cobalt is not a carbide former, but it in stand heat and shocks. Molybdenum steel is creases the red-hardness of the cutting tool. used for automobile parts, high-grade ma Thus, the tool retains its hardness at high chinery, wire as fine as 0.0004” [.01 mm) in temperatures. High-speed steel cutting tools diameter, ball bearings, and roller bearings. retain their hardness without significant soft- 58 Part 2—Getting Acquainted with Metals ening at temperatures up to about 1100°F reamers, countersinks, lathe tool bits, and (593°C].This temperature is indicated by a milling cutters. It is called high-speed steel be dull, red heat. On the other hand, plain-carbon cause cutting tools made of this material can tool-steel cutting tools start to soften be operated at speeds twice as fast as those for significantly at temperatures above 450°F tools made of plain carbon tool steel. High- (232°C]. speed steels cost two to four times as much as High-speed steel is made in an electric fur carbon tool steels. nace. It is used for cutting tools such as drills,

—‘.iI

WoD .i tongs ten dowel piflS high-carbon steel steel vanachum doll mcd high-speed steel mo lybdenum iflD

1. i.,ist the three groups of plain carbon steel together with their range of carbon contents. 7, Name several uses for each of the three groups of plain carbon steels. i What is dune to steel to make it free-machining? 4. What is an alloy steel? 5 Why is steel alloyed? 6 Name the three classes of alloy steels and give several u,ses for each. 7. List each ol the ai1ayng elements ducussed, together with tts principal benefit when alloyed with steel. 8. What is high-speed steel? What is it used for? Why is it called high-speed steel? 59 ‘‘IIT

J Nonferrous Metals and L

Nonferrous metals and their alloys are Refining Aluminum those that contain no iron. This unit deals only with the important nonferrous metals Aluminum is made from an ore called that serve as bases for alloying with other bauxite. Important deposits are in Arkansas, metals. In contrast, Unit 6 discussed several Washington, Oregon, and Jamaica. It usually important nonferrous metals that are used for is mined in open pits (Fig. 7-1), then refined alloying with steel. where cheap electrical power is available. One-sixth of the earth’s crust is aluminum ore, but it is difficult to extract the pure metal. Crushed bauxite is changed chemically, or refined, to aluminum oxide, a white powder Aluminum also called alumina (Fig. 7-2). Aluminum is a brilliant, silvery-white Aluminum is obtained from alumina by metal. The chemical symbol for aluminum is removing the oxygen in alumina in a process Al. It is the third most abundant element and called smelting (Fig. 7-3). (In smelting, an ore one of our most useful metals. Although alu is heated until it melts. Often a chemical minum costs four or five times as much as change also takes place, and metal is separated iron or steel, it weighs only about one-third as from the ore.) much, with a density of 2.7. It also machines much faster (two to three times deeper cuts at cutting speeds twice as fast as those used for steel). It costs less to transport, is quite main tenance free, and has a natural surface beauty. Aluminum is a good conductor of electric ity and heat, and it reflects heat when highly polished. It can be drawn into very fine wire, spun or stamped into deep forms, and ham mered or rolled into foil sheets as thin as 0.00025” [.00635 mm). Aluminum melts at 1220°F (660°C). How ever, the temperature for casting aluminum in molds is usually 1300°F [704°C] to 1500°F (816°C]. This is about one-half the tempera ture required for casting iron or steel, making aluminum castings cheaper to produce.

Fig. 7-1 An Arkansas bauxite mine. (Reynolds Metals Company) the to

the

Tubing

in

(ALCOA)

r

(B)

LI

negative electrolyte

cast.

or

Company)

E]ectriciy

the

ore

alumina.

logs

Mc’as

LZZI

to

cathode

tirough

the

aluminum.

as

(Reynolds

bauxite

Alumimur;

e1ecrodes,

meallic

setves

(A)

dravm.

to

is

changing

lining

positIve

for

shopes.

Wire

The

the

alumina

(D)

process

standard

anodes,

deposits.

rolled.

into

Metals

converting

is

refining

for

with

carbon

The

plate)

the

aluminum

7-2

fabricated

process

(and

the

is

from

Fig.

Acquainted

Sheet

where

smelting

passes

(C)

pot

The

Aluminium

2—Getting

lining,

7-3

7’

\ Iart

extruded.

\

electrode. Fig.

carbon reducing Fig. is

60

\‘,‘\\

/

I Unit 7—NonferrousMetals and Their Alloys 61

In large tanks called reducing pots, elec Extrude means to push heated material tricity passes from carbon electrodes, which through a die to form a long strip in that are positive, through a mixture of alumina and shape. Extruding is much like squeezing molten cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride). toothpaste from a tube (Fig. 7-6). Many nonfer The reducing pots are also lined with carbon, rous alloys are formed into different shapes by which acts as the negative electrode and com the extrusion process. pletes the circuit (Fig. 7-3). The electric cur rent heats the mixture, and molten aluminum Aluminum Base Alloys is deposited at the bottom of the tank, where Pure aluminum is too soft for many uses, can be drained off. it but more than 350 alloys have made it ideal After smelting, the metal is often alloyed, for many purposes. Some of the common uses then cast, rolled, or extruded into many for aluminum alloys are aircraft and rocket shapes (Fig. 7-4). The rolling mills that process parts; bodies for railroad cars, trucks, and aluminum are similar to mills that process trailers; pistons, blocks, and heads for engines; steel. The shapes produced are also the same: window frames; cooking utensils; and foil and sheets, plates, bars, rods, and wire. The rolling collapsible tubes for packaging. processes may have a dozen or more different steps (Fig. 7-5).

Fig. 7-5 This is one of the rolling mill processes: plate making. Below, a diagram of the important steps. Right, an ingot enters the hot- rolling mill. (Aluminum Association)

TRT;.

/ 7/ a RDLL’ TF.,

F,.AT SHEE 62 Part 2—Gettirig Acquainted with Metals

done by heating the aluminum to 650°F [343°C) (indicated by the heat at which blue carpenter’s chalk turns whitish) and then al lowing the heated metal to air-cool slowly. Annealing softens the aluminum and makes it tougher. Number 2024 is often used for structural or rnachning applications. Number 6061 is used for a number of appications that require high tensile strength and good welding prop erties, such as railings and protective guards. Number 7075 is used for aircraft and other work where the highest strength is required. These three are strong, heattreatable alloys. Metal suppilers furnish data books and charts that list the alI’ys, meanings of numn her designations, pup.iors of the alloys and recommended aopii;ouuils. Refer to these

• .. •. ‘c iYet ir .;‘j;teezed through a data books for mom u’ooiate xnfcrmattnn. .. e- .-h’pe Airnnurn

to pure aluminum y ‘. ..al prOpertte3. Th: i::.yL.i Ath aluminum ni Babbitt metal was invented ‘ri 1839 by Isaac Babbitt. It is an alloy DGCt, L:E1C, li±5SiUmfl, manganese, made of lead, tin, :ncIcsl, chromtu:n, ie, osmuth, iron, and t cnpmr and an many. There are two kinds of babbrtr, When the base or principal metal is i is rJ e’a bahb’ Vbr the the iCrISEiiestrength of alurninurri is one se base meta.I se tm. it is called tin-base babbitt, pe:cty that can be improved by heat treat un. Te:rsris strength varies from about Babbitt metal does not rust, it is used for ,DD0 ps: )89.6 MPa) for pure ciurmnum to bearings to machines and anglacs because it is strong, tough and rout 8h000 nd [558.5 MPa( for special hard durable. ed ai.ioyv ii 1 able Ts four typical alloys are corn- oared with soft and hardened steel. The melt ma point of a mtoonr: and. other metals is given in able 7-2. Lyi1 Beryllium is a gray metal abo’ ic’ Number 1100-0 pure aluminum is soft, color as steel. It m expensive rrd hex weight ductile, and more resistant to chemtcal attack Beryllium 15 more heat-resistant, harder, coo than any alurrrnumn ahoy, it is the form most more brittle than other ligflt metals, such as commonly used for hammering and shaping aluminum and magneslu.rn. A small percent when maxim urn strength is not needed, How age of beryllium, usually less than 2%, makes ever, it grduaiiy becomes hardened as it is a very strong alloy when t s added to copper worked. When this happens, it must be an or nickel Its hght weigh. and heat resistance eaded to remove the hardness. Annealing is are valued n aerosoace appliortions, 3No ‘That ‘Code °No manufacture ‘No ‘Ne

used shield 6061-T6’ 2024T36’ 7075T6’ C1018

brand C oped maloy, 1 35%

coniposed sten-lO%

carbon.L5c/ loys They elements

except iOO-0 1095

with The 6061 2024 7075 1100-0

The ior pail

A -

in Tempered Hot-Rolled A.A.

do

to working

for

number are names contains contains contains

of of

nuclear by

vacuum / machines

first is iso.2

not -

and 50%, the 99%

beryllium. are

very

use

grinding.

to of Aluminum properties Steel

Since wo’kers

respirators

of

contain

Tantung. 4.5% S:eel 5.6% 1.0% pure

include to

the

sometimes Ccitt

20%,

of

chromium-25%

in

hard our

reactors.

dust

.3%. soft copper, zinc, magnesium,

cast

following

rretal-cutting

beryllium

they Old

space aluminum. A

and Assocaton 61S 24S 75S

nickel-.0l% 2.5%

iron,

collectors. 2S

are Small

Pure

Stelliter, = no.

alloys 1

Alloys

while 5% excellent.

Cast

use magnesium,

cannot

capsules

added.

required 0.6% magnestum,

they Hardness

beryllium

Physical amounts brinell

elements:

have

alloys

dust Number 388

are 130 machining 143 150 s,ltcon, 23 95 B

Rexalloy®,

to

are = be Since

tools. 1.6%

equipped used

to superior,

been

35%,

is

to and 0.25%

are

not

machined, follow,ng 200,000

toxic,

5% 41,000

of copper, 69,000 73,000

76,000 Properties1 13,000 (Psi)

wear 06%

is

cast

cobalt-

metals

a

devel steels. strength copper, Some Tensile C other tung

it.

heat

also

Table manganese. and

Ar = the arid

al good, i 0.25% MPA 5033) 2827) 475.7) (524 hyphen 0.3% 1379) 89.6)

0 7-1

holders, milling high tools,

Cast Solder,

of cutting Babbitt Tin Zinc Pewter Magnesium Brass Lead Bronze Aluminum Silver Gold Iron, Copper Berylltum Nickel Iron, Tungsten Titanium Steel chromium. =

of chromium. denotes poor,

high-speed ability Unit work.

The Aluminums Cold Cast Wrought A 0 C E

temperatures, 5050 +

alloy C

as 7—Nonferrous

cutters, speeds = the cast

and Melting not

removable Macbin- Metal amount ability

cutting recommended.

alloys D B B B

steel

as

50%

They

Table and

inserts

Points

up

cutting

are Metals Gas

tools D D A kind

to

tool

retain to Weldability

used

75%

7-2 of

about of Arc and

in Good

may D A B temper

bits

tools.

Metals

as Fahrenheit

faster their Their

tool-holders Degeees after Spot 1204 2200 3047 2323

tips 2646 2500 1218 2700 1700 1675 1945 1761 be

1500°F 6150 1981 400 449 420

in 462 621 A 787 B B treatment heat-treating) Alloys

hardness

operated

lathe

than

on resistance Corrosion

(816°C]. Degrees

cutting Celsius used A B B 3399 1083 1063 120$ 1371 1273 1452 1675 1482 204 232 216 419 327

those 239 651 659 927 913 961

tool-

and 63 in

at

at of

to

to

be

be

yet

we

door

can

alu

ham cost

wires

may

trad

bowls,

make fabric

to

year’s

heating

heaters,

alumni person

can

coat not

reality.

What’s

fashion.

be

we and

practical a

for a someday

used

water.

buildings

by

cans,

high

of

fabrics

when

has

soon

in

cor’,ciuctox

r.ext

electric

has

water

the

may

high the

used

velvet

pop use

use while

clothes

c1othng

economical It “cool”

a is entire

clothes

for aluminum

metal

for

in

window

so:neiiay

may into

So

softened

But

the

ese

in of

hardens

clcthmg.

P’ess

arid

used

ti. be

how

designer

used

used

also recycle

quenching age

coroper more

homes. used

Consider in

everyday

heating

is

second-best

kettles,

and

Copper Paris minum

show be also

for The arrived, easily aluminum “i-eat” benefits of

and

ho ramough iir.ci more, recycled.

still may ng recycled fashions! —

tts

is

a

of can

to

i._’ is

A roofing. heat ir,

is It

(or

Copper

had

trays.

it

lace ma

gold

pipes,

pro ‘-‘

by

metalwork,

cour’

braid.

ladias rions.

red

woven -“- -

and

or

a

Drivers,

but

tubes

i’s the

and

suits

arid a art 1100

Pme’1

the

rums,

spacesuits cables,

dull decorative,

strength - 0”

Coocr

car In

“armor”

s’.sme23

worn

ctotes’

a

of into occupa

into US5C.

for

small

eiectrLcry. Silver and screens, rada vases, to mered,

alumynum

race

around professionals

added

of

Finland,

Elizabeth about

being

ec

‘reed

merar

siecialized

mantle

1500s.

of

In of

worked

worked is

uptu-date

otrer c

riraacl1y

mantle. tubes

In

Today,

mar

the

Queen

border

to form

gold. wool housewife a

brass the

the Besides

were handks:mhefs

of ( of teiirP

and

nceugrsrs, and d.angeroos

This

still

use

Michigan,

Metals

Deposits

the

it

in

to

in

Fb’1c:

VAI

fab’ that

The in

may as

with

known uses

been

Mid

met

years

wear with

corn metal

pants.

many

sheet

Napo

newly

used

for protec

armies

metal.

kmtteci hoa?ced corasid

popular

section

of Peru

&ppaxe.

a

sold Arizona,

of 63 the

of

away

be

first

a

has

aeocm

had

for

metal a

a

future

thr

2,000 in is

his of

ng strange

in really. ‘

in

centuries.

arrrmcscs

sheets.

ao

Fxedsrxck

metal of It

Met

Acquainted

.Ji08 as the

was

kinds

pair

eoveied

D” the

used

could nirsil idea

for

had

France’s

of

throw

dan ‘‘precious”

and

like .for’{

s oldest

Metal

roads

of of It i8O8-73)

Not aluminum all

found

and armor

isn’t

t’.

Utah.

next

the

rings

hior

The squaJ!;. for ill reddish-brown

of

use

uiiiiw.ng

mom Chain

can!

armor,

are

1200e

Ages.

Don’t

is

2—Getting

One apparel

tarra..

plates,

Soldiers

and

armor

alu.:mmusn.

Denrraiic

2lurninu.’

poncho

Crazy? pop your

fashions re well

nc. clothes sounds.

ing Part used

was ago. non

small together

sweater dle form leon

in ered ‘ileTefl’t al, rnjSSOOeC! d.icovereJ of make

of

A use the completely small

tough,

bars,

a

Copper

75

is . ‘F

l

64 ‘Ii’)

p.

j

It copper Montana, I wire, . called

Unit 7—Nonferrous Metals and Their Alloys 65

Today there are about 300 copper-base al White gold, a silvery metal used for jew loys. One of these, beryllium copper, is copper elry, contains 15% to 20% nickel. The nickel to which a small amount of beryllium has content changes the color of the metal to sil been added. This very tough alloy is used for ver. corrosion-resistant springs. Because it is non- Green gold has a greenish cast and is also sparking, it is used for wrenches and other used for jewelry. Fifteen karat green gold, for

metal objects in plants that manufacture ex example, is 15 parts gold, 8 parts silver, and 1 plosives. part copper. Most copper-base alloys are brasses and bronzes. Both alloys are closely related, al though bronzes are generally harder than brasses. Brass is chiefly an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze is chiefly an alloy of copper and tin. However, both brass and bronze often in clude other metals such as lead, phosphorous, Lead nickel, antimony, aluminum, and manganese. Silver is also alloyed with copper in sev Lead is a very heavy, bluish-gray, poison- eral special alloys. German silver contains ous metal. about 50% copper, 30% zinc, and 20% nickel. It is used in costume jewelry as a relatively () inexpensive substitute for real silver. Persons working with lead must guard against a disease lead poisoning. Do not handle lead with bare hands or breathe the fumes from the overheated molten metal.

Lead is the softest metal in general use. Gold When freshly cut, it is very bright; this bright ness soon disappears when exposed to the air. Gold is a precious, heavy, beautiful, bright Water and air, however, have less effect upon yellow metal. Pure gold is too soft for general lead than most other metals. use and is therefore alloyed with copper, sil ver, or other metals. Lead is used in auto batteries and is al loyed with tin to make solder and pewter. Gold can be hammered into very thin White lead, a pigment used in making some sheets called gold leal, which is much thinner paints is made from lead. A small amount of than the thinnest tissue paper. The art of cov lead added to other metals improves their ma ering something with gold leaf or gold powder chinability. is called gilding. Gold is used mostly for jewelry, coins, and fillings in teeth. United States gold coins were made of 90% gold and 10% copper. Since gold does not corrode, an important use is for coat ing electrical switch contacts in computers Magnesium and and other electronic devices that require high ; reliability. Its Alloys The purity of gold is measured in karats. Magnesium is a silvery-white, light, Pure gold is 24 karats. An 18-karat gold ring is malleable metal that is much lighter than alu made of 18 parts by weight of gold and 6 parts minum. It is abundant in nature but is always by weight of some other metal. Jewelers ab alloyed with another metal because of its high breviate karat as k: for example, 14k gold. cost and low tensile strength. Magnesium he

for

are

be’

test

to

used

parts little

made

and

a

3

is

contain

is

vehicles.

alloys inconel®,

clothing,

here

metal

It

It

process

and ic

for

contain

spece grades

Wasualoy®

seh

applied

u.sed

metal.

plating

Britain.

clasps a

and

Britannia

and

high

in

in

being lower

pewter antimony,

metal

white

and

is ternpe:ca’ures.

work.

of

ive

names.

called

The

made

hcu

parts

oject. .cig

5

silvery

plating

tin.

grades also bre:’!d Pewter buttons

thc

a rnut

first

HasteHuy,

is

tin,

is

metal

is

ornamental

less

res!st

rocket

of

their was

Nickel

Other Chemcs

41®,

or it of metais

parts to

7-7

Nickel and

other

Pewter

Pewter

tableware,

92

varisy S’tfer

i’g.

able jet Such Rene

some

of copper. more

some cause

for and

be

to

is

ve

has

ap

one

be

light

(Fig

Mo

It

62%

chro

easily,

steel

it

copper,

usually

mag silvery alloys, contrib

of valves

plating must

small and

copper,

include

create

vehicles,

cooking

is

space

it

nonmag it

liquids.

Moy

for

containing

and polished

about must

Metals It

where

burns

under

manganese,

so

can

silvery.

made and

reason

and

be shiny, toughen

ignite

silicon,

nickel

elements.

with

tin. is

used

which appearance

from

to

and

also used

one-third

metal

light,

to

tools

this stems, can

machining

or

is copper.

corrosive

nickel-base

to

chiefly

with

automobiles silicon,

be tungsten.

zinc,

propellers,

It other

tough,

resistance. and

used

and

For

N

missiles,

transportation

chemical

care 60

nickel(

Dull heat

for

magnesium

white

white valve

iron,

of arid

parts ranging

used when may Acquainted

iron, improve

in

a

(a

boat

with

also

heat

for

rust

alloyed

carrying

hard,

is

trim

is

nickel

finish,

is

to

form

three about

chips.

a

aluminum

care.

and

not for

coin

Ncke rust-resistant, aircraft,

on

intense

Special

taken nesium,

aircraft,

used

plating

is

contents motor

frictional

amounts

important.

titanium, and

in

pure 2—Getting

an are

of

alloyed metal

is

brass

with

does

used

with silvery Nickel

manganese,

is

Elements

aluminum,

its

off

Part tough,

It

applications

be

plating

twothirds

strength

and

small

parts Nickel

nickel

five-cent

In

nickel

Magnesium

Nickel

metal pipes 79

There

Monel

enough

magnesium

99%.

bright

66 may

nickel,

alloyed utes giving handled

many r weight L. especially

hicles.

a metal. 77(. iron

mium pliances. part to ‘The with copper, chromium, about with strong,

nel equipment, and netic Unit 7—Nonferrous Metals and Their Alloys 67

713 Titanium and Its Silver Alloys Silver is a beautiful, shiny, white metal. Titanium is a silvery-gray metal with high Pure silver is very soft. For most commercial strength and heat resistance. It weighs about uses, it must be alloyed to make it harder and 44% less than steel alloys, yet its tensile stronger. It is used for ornamental work, jew strength is equal to or greater than common elry, tableware, mirrors, and coins. United structural steel alloys. Temperatures up to States silver coins formerly contained nine 800°F [427°C]do not weaken titanium, and it parts silver and one part copper. will tolerate temperatures up to 2000°F Sterling silver is silver with copper added l093°Cj for short periods of time. Because of to make it harder. It is used for tableware and these properties, it is used for many super jewelry. sonic aircraft parts, which are exposed to high and heat. Silver is the best conductor of electricity. degrees of vibration (that is, it does It is used for bearings in aircraft and diesel en Titanium is relatively inert gines because it has a higher fatigue rating not react chemically with many other sub than any other bearing material. Photographic stances). Thus, it is used to replace bone and film also uses large quantities of silver. cartilage in surgery. It is also used as a liner for pipes and tanks in the food-processing in dustries. There are about 30 titanium alloys. The chief alloying elements are tin, aluminum, zirconium, manganese, molybdenum, vana I 2 dium, chromium, and columbium. Tin Tin is a shiny, silvery metal. “Tin cans” are made of steel coated with tin. The tin is actually less than 1% of the weight of the can. Tin does not rust. c £4 Very few articles are made of pure tin, it is used in making bronze, babbitt, pewter, sol Tungsten der, and other alloys. When used, it always Tungsten has the highest melting point of whitens the resultant metal and increases its all metals, 6098°F (3370°C).It is used chiefly hardness. as an alloying element in steels, see Unit 6-4, Tin is soft and can be rolled into very thin and for making tungsten carbide. sheets. Tinfoil can be made as thin as .0002” Tungsten carbide, also known as ce [.005 mm]. It was long used for wrapping tea, mented tungsten carbide, is the hardest metal tobacco, drugs, cheese, candy, etc., to keep made by man. It is made by heating, or sinter away air and moisture. Because tin is expen ing, powdered metals, including tungsten, co sive, aluminum foil and plastic are now used. balt, and carbon in a mold. (Sintered metals Tubes such as those used for toothpaste once are heated and fused together without melt were made of tin. ing.) Tungsten-carbide metal-cutting tools re Tin plate, sheet steel coated with tin, is tain their hardness at temperatures as high as used for pots, pans, cans, pails, and metal roof 1700°F [927°C] without significant softening. ing. It is often incorrectly called “tin.” “Cop Such tools, known as carbide tools, cut two to per” kettles, used for cooking, are coated with four times faster than high-speed steel. Tung tin to keep the copper from entering the sten carbide is widely used for wire-drawing cooked food. dies and other die making. by of of

die

Zinc

hous

parts

parts surface applied

zinc. is

mskng

I

and

of

engines,

carbide

for

silver spangled

gas

gold coating Institute)

alloys

used

carburetors, plate The

handles, zinc Steel

small

sintering

smelting sterling tin tin titanium tungsten

white

zinc & the steel.

fox

door widely

standard Iron

tools.

engines,

16 when .

are

car

blocks

are

small

electnc Arnencrn Galvanized

pot results

alloys

metal

for

gold

engine 7-8

There dipping. Fig. pattern

based cast

rugs typewritexs,

portable

green karat lead monel magnesium nickel reducing silver pewter

Continued)

is

be

re

the

dip

It

and

zinc

pro 7-8).

paint

called

result

brass,

coated it protec can

by

smooth

roofing,

the

is

must

It

(Fig.

make

steel

(Review

for

tungsten

The

metal.

copper

automobile

As

silver Metals

done

silver,

that

zinc

These

metal Alloys

electroplating,

superior

is steel

heated,

steel

leaf alloys

Like

with which

cooling.

alloy.

bonded,

zinc.

is

by

carbide

with

and

buckets,

cast cemented hammered. copper extrude

galvanized German galvannealing gold gold

fences, German

metal.

slow

products

Base

steel

provides

done

in bluish-white

iron

tightly

molten

crystals,

batteries.

arni

galvanized Acquainted

wire

when

pipes,

galvanizing

zinc-steel

Coating

a

for

other

KNOW

that

also

on of used

for

into

cell

into

Zinc

brittle,

and

is

rust.

TO

water

Some

a

dry

heating

zinc also

used hardens

galvanized 2—Getting

galvannealed

coating

is

metal

forms is

by

of

a coating pattern

produces

and

signs,

are it Part a

tanks,

zinc

as

the

against

Zinc

corrosion.

When

Zinc

745

called

alumina aluminum

anneal antimony babbitt bauxite beryllium brass

bronze

WoRDs

68

tion used ping cools, galvanizing. spotted Galvanizing which coating duces adhesion. is sist metals water softened frames, brass, brne, Unit 8—Metal Designation and Identification 69

REVIEWQUESTIONS

1. What is aluminum? What are its important properties? List several important uses. 2. Describe copper. What states is copper mined in? What are its important properties and uses? 3. What is brass? What is it used for? 4. What is bronze? What is it used for? 5. Describe zinc. What are its main uses? 6. Describe magnesium. What are its important properties and uses? What hazard is in volved in machining it? 7. Describe nickel. List several uses for it. 8. What is titanium? List its major properties and uses. 9. What are the cast alloys used for? 10. What is babbitt metal? What is its major use? 11. What is beryllium? What is it used for? 12. What are the chief properties and uses of gold? 13. What is lead? How is it used? 14. What is pewter used for? 15. What are the chief properties and uses of silver? 16. Describe tin. What is it used for? 17. Describe how tungsten carbide is made, and name two main uses.

UNIT

Metal Designation and Identification

Metal manufacturers make thousands of American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). Both different alloys, and continue to develop new systems use four-digit code numbers to iden ones. This has made it necessary to develop tify the basic composition of plain carbon and standard alloy numbering and marking sys alloy steels. Certain alloys have five-digit code tems for efficiency in specifying, ordering, and numbers. inventory control. The first digit of the number usually indi cates the basic steel type as follows: 1. carbon 2. nickel 3. nickel-chromium 84 Steel Numbering 4. molybdenum 5. chromium Systems 6. chromium-vanadium Two major steel numbering systems have 7. tungsten been developed, one by the Society of Auto 8. nickel-chromium-molybdenum motive Engineers (SAE), the other by the 9. silicon-manganese. 0

in

se

the

im

steels

high

of

with

035%

different above carbon other

the

or

purity 025%

0.12% 0.20%

0.25% 035% 0.12% 0.12%

025%

series,

In

Mo

Mo0200r035%

Mo

Mo Mo Mo Cr0

mm. Mo Mo

Mo

SAEAlSl

0.20%

metal,

Molybdenum Nickel Silicon Vanadium steels

control

or

or rn

1000

steels

Mo Ni Si V

99%.

the

steels

identify

0.15%

indicates

rcsulphurized

0.12

025% 0.25%

1.55%

0.65% 84

0.50

1.45% 1.05%

or 0.50%

0.40% 1.20% 0.80% 0.50% 0.50% 0.05% of

0.40% mentioned

0.80%

1.00% standard 2.00% the

aluminum

Code

carbon Ct Cr

Mo Cr

and

Mo CrO.45% Mo

Cr

c Cr

Ct Cr over Ci Cr of Cr Si Cr Cr

or

carbon

series.

In

mirt.,

Nine

indicates

0.50%

0.95% list

than

Table

095,

or

or

numbers the Types Steel 10%

machining) 0.25% machining) 095%

0

digit

or 0.40 or indicate

090,

0.80 percent

current

Desintlons

free other

production

(free

a

two

control.

control.

00%

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1.25% the 5.00% 3.50%

1.80%

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0.40% 0.52% 1 1.00% l.00%

3.50% 025, 0.80,

0.60, 0.12%, 0.55% 0.30% 0.55% 1.00% 0.85%

0.45% 0.85% 3.25%

of

within

of in

the

no

Mn Ni Ni

Ni Mo Cr

Ni

Mo Mo digits . Ni Ni Ni

Cr C . last . Cr C Cr . . Cr Ni .Ni . V Ni Ni Ni . . Ni Mn Ni . . Ni Carbon Chromium . Manganese . second .

. .

. . .

. .

. .

...... in .

. . Series .

. .

.

.

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.

used

element

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the

two lxx included

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l2xx

l3xx

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44xx unassigned. 4Sxx 46xx 47xx

48xx

SOxx Slxx

lxxx S0xxx

CIxx •25xx S2xxx 8lxx 86xx 87xx 88xx

92xx 93xx 94x.x

98xx

Not

Abbreviations

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9.

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hundredths alloys ries,

e

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for

are

fifth

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Write

Matching. ______

12-16.

belu\.

14 ______

Part 2 Getting Acquainted with Metals Name Score

UNIT5 Steelmaking

1-12. Multiple Choice. Write the letter of the correct response to each statement or question in the space at the left.

1. The percentage of carbon in steel ranges from A. 0.05 to 1.7 percent C. 2 to 4.5 percent B. 1.7 to 6 percent D. 0.05 to 6 percent

2. The steelmaking process that blows pure oxygen through pig iron to burn off excess carbon and impurities is the A. electric process C. open-hearth process B. basic oxygen process 1). blast process

3. The most important advantage of the open-hearth steel-making process is that it allows A. heavy iron and steel scrap to he used C. steel to he made in very large hatches B. short production time U. close control of the chemical analv sis of the steel

4. The furnace used for making high-carbon steel, stainless steel, and other steel alloys with high melting points is the A. electric induction furnace C. basic oxygen furnace B. electric are furnace 1). open-hearth furnace

5. Most steel made in the United States is now made by which process i A. open-hearth C. basic oxygen B. electric arc U. Bessemer

6. A high-technology tool now being used in the production of sheet steel for mea surement, inspection, alignment, and improvement of magnetic properties is the A. robot C. laser B. nuclear gage D. electron beam

7. Converting liquid steel directly into slabs, blooms, or billets is called A. rolling C. ingot casting B. direct reduction U. continuous casting

8. Steel is made into sheets, plates, bars. and other shapes in machines called A. rolling machines C. rolling mills B. presses U. continuous casters

Continued on next page

15 a

die

in

a

bar

size

dies

cost

through

round

it

low

a

accurate

half-round

and

and

pulling

around

with

it

by

it

finish

strength

rod

or

forming

press

Wrapping grinding smooth

machining

pultrusion

greater pulling

bar

C.

C. D. C. D.

D. C.

D.

steel

by

by

are cold

ring

a

pipe

steel

of

steel

round

sizc

cost

finish

the

bell-shaped

into

hot-rolled

a

low

water

cold-rolling

made

from

and

smooth

of

is

acid lime

reducing

through

and

size

in in of

it

steel

removed

cost forming

is

advantages

strip

process

roll pulling

pickling pickling low accurate

drawing

extruding

called

A.

B. Flat A.

B. A. Scale B. h. A.

Two is

The

9.

10.

11.

12. ______

16 ______

Part 2 Getting Acquainted with Metals Name Score

UNIT6 Kinds of Steel

1-19. Multiple Choice. Write the letter of the correct response to each statement or question in the space at the left.

1. The two main kinds of steel are A. low-carbon steels and high-carbon C. low-carbon steels and medium- steels carbon steels B. plain carbon steels and high-speed D. plain carbon steels and alloy steels steels

2. The carbon content of low-carbon steels ranges from A. 0.005-0.03% C. 0.50-3.0% B. 0.05-0.30% D. 5.0-30.0%

3. The carbon content of medium-carbon steel ranges from A. 0.05-0.30% C. 0.60-1.50% B. 0,30-0.60% D. 3.0-6.0%

4. The carbon content of high-carbon steel ranges from A. 6.0-15.0% C. 0.05-0.30% B. 0.60-1.50% D. 0.06-0.15%

5. Because of the kind of products for which it is used, high-carbon steel is also called A. high-speed steel C. all-purpose steel B. tool steel D. free-machining carbon steel

6. Round bars of high-carbon steel that have been ground and polished to accurate sizes are called A. drill rod C. drill stock B. tool steel rod D. dowel rod

7. Steels that are specially made for easy machining are called A. high-speed steels C. free-machining steels B. high-machining steels D. easy-machining steels

8. Two materials added to steels to improve their machinability are A. zinc and lead C. lead and sodium B. sulfur and zinc D. lead and sulfur

9. A new metal made by melting two or more metals together is called am) A. mixture C. compound B. alloy D. amalgam

(Continued on next page)

17 at

and

steel

of

carbide

about

strength

is

of

steels?

and is

toughness

steels

plate

properties

cemented

its

alloy

steels

is

alloy

of

and

Cj

armor hardness C

hardness

resistance

temperature

resistance

steel

of

and and a

improve important

1816°

1927°

alloys,

is

to

machinery

F

F temperatures

shock

categories

and

most

up

axles,

cast

stainless

point

corrosion

retention

high alloy and constructional copper

cobalt

molybdenum

cobalt molybdenum

chromium

strength

manganese machinability

vanadium manganese 1500°

tungsten nickel 1700°

vanadium

its

three

grain

three

C.

D. C.

D.

C.

D. C.

D. C. steel,

D. C. C. D.

D. C.

D. C.

D. C.

D.

cables,

wear make

the

the

hardness

fine

melting

to

of

its

a

of

improve

make it

their

one

to

one

steel

to

high-speed

highest

give

not

not

improve keep

of

steel

with

is

steel to

is

the

to

treatment

alloying?

tools

with

with

steel

by

with

steel

heat

making

alloyed

following

following

one

the

with

steels

with Cl

cutting

alloyed

C}

alloyed

the

in

the metal

the

steels

is

is

resistance

through

improved

of

of

alloy

steel

1593°

204°

tool

be

F

used

resistance

alloyed

alloyed

metal

is

tools F

one one

metals,

can

principle

hardenability strength

special alloy

chromium

nickel

chromium nickel

tungsten manganese

corrosion

wear

chromium nickel

tungsten vanadium 1100°

chromium

nickel

400°

all

metal

metal

tough

metal

A. that B. Which

A. Which B. 13. A.

A. B.

The A

cutting A.

B. A B. A.

Molybdenum B. A.

A. B.

A Of

A. B.

strength A A. B.

High-speed

10.

9.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

1 ______

18 ______

Part 2 Getting Acquainted with Metals Name Score

UNIT7 Nonferrous Metals and Their Alloys

1-29. Multiple Choice. Write the letter of the correct response to each statement or question in the space at the left.

1. Aluminum melts at a temperature of about A. 600° F 1316° Ci C. 1800° F [982° C[ B. 1200° F [649° C[ D. 2400° F [1316° C[

2. The ore from which aluminum is made is A. alumina C. taconite B. bauxite D. cryolite

3. The alloy number of pure aluminum is A. 2024 C. 7075 B. 6061 D. 1100

4. Work-hardened aluminum can be softened by heating and slow cooling. How hot should it he heated? A. 350° F [177° Cj C. 850° F [454° C[ B. 650° F [343° C[ D. 1100° F [593° C[

5. The strongest of the following aluminum alloys is A. 7075 C. 2024 B. 6061 D. 1100

6. Babbitt is an alloy made of lead, copper, antimony, and A. zinc C. tin B. aluminum D. magnesium

7. Babbitt is used mostly for A. protective coatings C. bearings B. die castings L). costume jewelry

8. Why must special care he taken when machining beryllium? A. Its dust is toxic. C. It wears tools out quickly. B. It burns easily. D. It breaks easily.

9. The cast alloys are a special group of alloys used mainly for making A. cutting tools C. tough castings B. cutting tool holders ID. springs

Continued on next page

19 is

what

of

quenching

paper

and

tissue hazard

quickly

color

percentage

than

red

tools

health

high

copper?

a

a

because

dull

is

out

is

a

thinner

to weight

much

water oil

it

dust

contain wears

bronze copper

beryllium nickel

in

in

40% 50% lead

nickel zinc

nickel silver

with platinum

28

silver

nickel zinc copper ductility

light its it chromium how copper

sheets

it

C. poisonous

D.

C.

D. C.

D. C. magnesium

D. C.

D.

C.

D. C.

D. C.24

D. C.

D. C.

D. C. D. C.

D. C. D.

heating

into

its

also

by

is

Hastelloy®

contains

for

alloying

and

and

is

by

and that machining

that

softened

and

hammered

chiefly

man

copper

be

copper

when tough alloy

be metal

to

of

gold

of

Inconel®

karats?

can

can

of valued

very air

as

taken alloy

copper

alloy

known

that a

be an

many

alloy

copper

an metal such

made point

is

a widely-used

an

be

how metal

easily

is must

air

metal is

easily

chiefly is

compressed

alloys

silver

can

chiefly

strength

is

melting

care

heavy,

still

gold

is

oldest

burns gold breaks

iron aluminum

tin zinc

with in

20% 30% tin zinc tin lead 18

aluminum gold

aluminum platinum

tm lead

high low

it it

titanium nickel

precious

soft,

A. B. The

Copper A. B.

A. B. Work-hardened A. it B.

German

A. B.

Brass

B. A. Bronze A. B.

A Pure A.14 B.

A. B. White B. A.

A A. Magnesium B.

Special A. B.

Space-age A. B. metal?

10.

11.

12.

l..

14

15.

16.

17.

18. 19.

20.

21.

22. ______

20 ______

Name

Unit 7 (continued)

23. A tin alloy used for tableware and ornamental work is A. babbitt C. muntz metal B. pewter D. monel metal

24. Of the following, the best conductor of electricity is A. copper C. silver B. gold D. aluminum

25. Sterling silver is an alloy of silver and A. gold C. copper B. nickel D. tin

26. By weight, what percentage of a tin can is made of tin? A. 100% C. 10% B. 50% D. less than 1%

27. A strong, light-weight, heat-resistant metal used for supersonic aircraft parts is A. magnesium C. tungsten B. tantalum D. titanium

28. Combining this metal with carbon and cobalt produces an extremely hard metal widely used for cutting tools. A. chromium C. tungsten B. manganese D. vanadium

29. Galvanizing protects iron and steel from rusting by coating it with a layer of A. lead C. tin B. zinc D. copper

21 22 ______

Part 2 Getting Acquainted with Metals Name Score

UNIT8 Metal Designation and Identification

113. Multiple Choice. Write the letter of the correct response to each statement or question in the space at the left.

1. The first digit of the SAE/AISI steel numbering system indicates A. the percentage of alloying metal C. the basic kind of steel B. the percentage of carbon D. whether the metal is ferrous or non ferrous

2. The second digit of the SAE/AISI steel numbering system is often used to indicate A. the percentage of alloying metal C. the basic kind of steel B. the percentage of carbon D. a variation of the basic kind of steel

3. The last two or three digits of an SAE/AISI steel number arc used to indicate A. the percentage of carbon C. the basic kind of steel B. the percentage of alloying metal D. a variation of the basic kind of steel

4. A steel numbered 1045 has how much carbon in it? A. 45% C. 0.45% B. 4.5% D. 0.045%

5. What is the main alloying element in a steel numbered 4130? A. carbon C. tungsten B. chromium D. molybdenum

6. By what system are commonly used tool and die steels identified? A. the standard SAE/AISI system C. a special system using a letter fol B. a special system for each steel man lowed by one or more numbers ufacturer D. a special name for each steel

7. What does the first digit of the wrought aluminum alloy numbering system indicate? A. the percentage of alloying element C. the percentage of carbon B. the name of the main alloying dc- D. the percentage of impurities men t

8. What is the main alloying element in an aluminum numbered 2011? A. lead C. aluminum B. zinc D. copper

(Continued on next page)

23 the

metal

indicates

the

System

Numbering

supplied

metals?

alloy

made

all

number

alloy

mean?

the

for

mill

Standard

of

the

alloy

test

Numbering

of

wholesaler

content

sparks

steel

content

middle

adopted

of

spark

what

the a

National

what

Unified

alloy carbon

aluminum

being

machinability

weldability

System

The

tells

The metal tells

with

from volume low

low

C.

D.

C.

D. C.

D. C.

D. C.

D.

high

start wrought

system

a

bars

the

all

bar,

the

that

a

does

to

to

steel

with

for

System of

from

numbering

is

what

Numbering

it

ends

new

steel

compared

compared

included alloys

end

possible

steels,

of

as steel

the

as

the

end

of

of

Standard

of Numbering

on

piece

content

a

kind

protection content

hardness

hardness

aluminum unpainted

painted

name

designation

hardness

cut

of

painted of

rust

the the

the what

American carbon alloy

Universal

you spark-testing

is

for

temper

color

degree

alloy wrought range relative

System

The The is tells

from from

high

high

the

A.

The the B.

A. B. B. A.

What

A.

When The 13.

B. A.

In

9.

2.

3.

11.

10.

I ______

24 Metals Processes Week 4

75

UNIT

Reading Drawings and Making Sketches

Drawings of several types are used by 3. Kind of material. product designers, engineers, technicians, and 4. Kind of finish. skilled workers. Pictorial drawings are often 5. How many pieces of each part are needed. used at the design stage because they show Working drawings are made according to a how the product will look in three-dimen language understood by engineers and skilled sional form. Such drawings often start out as workers. They are the manufacturing language sketches on an engineer’s or designer’s sketch of the entire industrial world. pad (Fig. 9-1). They may also be drawn elec To be able to read a working drawing, you tronically with a Computer-Aided Design or must learn the meaning of the different kinds Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD) system (Fig. of lines, symbols, dimensions, and abbrevia 9-2). tions it shows. You also need to understand The designer usually makes many differ how the different views of the object are re ent pictorial sketches of a product before find lated to each other. ing the best design. Pictorial sketches of draw ings, however, usually do not provide all the information needed to make the product. Production drawings are usually ortho graphic (multiview) drawings that provide de tailed front, top, and side views of the product. Views These drawings are also called engineering or working drawings. On a working drawing, each view usually shows the outline or shape of the object as seen from the front, top, and right or left side.

Fig. 9-1 A designer made this pictorial sketch Working Drawings of the space shuttle during its development. (Hewlett Packard) A working drawing gives all the informa tion needed to make a product (Fig.9-3). It en ables workers in different factories to make 4 the same objects to the same specifications so that the parts are interchangeable. Automo bile and aircraft parts are made in different parts of the country; yet when assembled they fit together and work properly. The working drawing makes this possible. Working drawings must show the follow ing: 1. Shape of every part of the object. 2. Sizes of all parts. the the

9-5)

two

will

at

of

work

late fac

fuel Use De

new

a thou A

(Fig. design Today

perfor

greater

looks

greatly

only

changes

views

side at

the

increased

by

Company

with

station.

Computer-

in

companies

extensively

in the

designers

view

and

needed.

analyze

high

the

1970s.

make

also needs

drawing.

work

cylinder

engineer top 700

performance

and

top,

engines,

Motor

increased

a for other

CAD

been

using

and

of

late

products An ide.

With

used

Design

of

CAD and

of

than unfolded,

use

is has

front,

Ford computers

9-2

working

cylinder

Computer-Aided

the

is

produce

a tionw

view

a

view

the

1960s. quickly. designs

began Aided

demand efficient mance tors analysis view. of typical therefore in more Ford to Fig.

designs. sign

sands no

box

on

of

on

a

is

as

front

to

or

side

the the

the front

the use Computers op re

De

dc

the

pro and call the the

pen

rou

lines

com

draw

he

their begun

model prod. its the

opera

data like

to

of

to up

the

design. in

the

the same

to

drawn to the The

with Design

is

as

way

the

or

When

drawing

the

of

clay

The

on

attached

computer’s the

This

Then,

dimensional pen

a

by enlarged,

picks

designs

looks

front

drawing This

analyze

determine

work

views be see box. ing same because views,

computer. angle.

ratios,

turned

console be

the

set.

design

keys

through

lines of

much

car,

drawings.

a in

light

to

displ-2yed

three-dimensional designer,

banks, can

a any

details.

then

can

given thus

three

and

which be

re

uses

the does from

new

sits

into that

“space.” work

such

When computer

figuring “tube” previous

more the The places

view. a

uses

made

can The

from

cathode-ray-tubes

the

or

on is surface with

put computer signers

of duce structu.ral

tor, CRT,

television tine puter and erator

the

up memory parts on she

The one signals and sign.

drawing

CRT duced, operator should

uct ers

a

Blackboards

a

objects,

of up imagine two

in

9-4)

so

his

de the

the

Mr. only and

but

way: start

third

good place

with

of

tools

to

from

pens.

thing get

few

Motor

special you

and a Henry

(Fig.

a

design understand

model.”

“special

came

A

manufac

to if

hours with a (drawing)

necessary this

one with the chair

in

design

himself

idea chalk

to

From we’ll

Fix

filled

One

box

get

main

it

Ford

arranged

process, light as to

car are

an on

new

Ford told

there

long completely, same:

the

want your

and

you

car.

and views back, not

place

at

the

a

needed.

Computet-Aided boards glass

got just

He

rocking

idea

cathode-raytubes everything

could than about

and.

up described

the

the a

are

1907,

(CAD).

Get everything

T.

help new

on are

way

Henry

time,

in

these

the object

I’ve the designs be

at

in

angle.

a

he

would at

yourself

In 3—Planning designing

Today

today, of

is

usually

an

will

views

can

favorite

turer Part

“Joe, with Model

drafters sign

floor, for boards room. blackboard work During the

Ford a It

have new that look

Company rooms”

blackboard.s with (CRTs)

These used Design

ers remains Ford’s

look every

are

‘1

ball,

more

object

show

5’

a

76

b

views To No as lationship drawn. the Unit 9—Reading Drawings and Making Sketches 77

—CENTER LINE —CUTTING PLANE LINE Inch mm 1/4 6.35

1/2 12.7

2 1/2 63.5 3.000 76.2 5.000 127

6.500 165.1

Fig. 9-3 Working drawings convey the information skilled .50 workers need to make the products we use. The metalworking industry could not function without working drawings. —DI’IENS!DNLINE

Fig. 9-4 Imagine that the object you want to draw is inside a glass box. (A) Viewing the object through the glass box. (B) Unfolding the box. (C) The three views.

TOP VIEW

A

r-iFRONTVIEW Fig. 9-5 Front and top views of a cylinder.

Lines on Working Drawings The different kinds of lines used on work ing drawings are shown in Figure 9-6. They are also identified in the working drawing in TOP VIEW c Fig. 9-3. An object line is a thick line used to show Li jj::i [fOil FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW all edges that can be seen. a

9- is A

an

38

be

off.

ar

like the

The

line.

two

used

sheet

with give small

from mm)

other

to

given drawn

num

is thick-

a

points with shown

like

and

by

the

horizon

working

It

sectional Figure be

[4.8

circle)

[19

is that or and

radius. the

object away.

broken object, always of

a dimension a

lines

that drawn a

line in

the centerlines.

It with Dimensions where

it,

is

of

by

an its

is

line. of leader

cut the as dashes

to of

end 3/16”

separated

in

a

It The

of

of

lines. should

bold of inches

height

9-7).

lines separated

should

45° 9-7).

a

parallel object are

circle’s part

object.

been long

places

parts

each

at working

is drawn with about size

holes and

are location

dimensions

parts

(a

arrowhead

(Fig. followed

1-1/2

irregular at object. circle

light

the (Fig.

the

length the

has the

be

holes

light the that are

drawing.

the a

center.

the an line R, of any

wo:rkers. an to to an

arc

of

are extension

form sign

the of

are to

making

is of

slanted the

hand that

on width,

dashes

from overall give radius

an

3/4

part

space to the

with

of

important

show should

for box.

plane

letter

by

a dashes

shows

lines

points metal of

size line

of

a

between lines

the

and

It view

give long

centerlines

center

features

line

of the mm] bent

used

usually

surface dimensions

that length,

for

touch

and diameter specifies that most

size diameter drawn lines

mrn[

is a

drawn

by break

line. than cutting

The

is arc’s

[1.5

are ‘‘

other

from

dashes

and [3

the

Bending and

sides

Lines A Section

the

A

object Dimensions

9 that total The

show The

Always

cutaway

Arrowheads the

circle These metal the

to across lines tal 9-6 1/8” 1/16” or object long mm. each

location drawing important are lines 6,

long rather after rowhead Dimensions given shown ber to leader the

drawings.

Fig.

is

as in

1” or is to of

an

ob

the the

hid the

3/8” past It

mm]

from Note

from

sepa

of

is

in

dashes just

of center

circles

axis

the

center

[1.6

object

of

mm] of line,

A Extension

objects

rnmJ

object

!TJ about axis

the that

lines,

L

an

through

of centerline

edges, line.

touch

[3.2

center

the dimension, 1/16” distance alternating [1.6

in thin

line. opening

A

made object’s

line

(The

lines

a

show

mm)

of centers

rotate.) not

LH;

is 1/8”

the

the

and

the dimensioned. The

edges

to

hole

thin

the

1/16”

It

up hidden arc.

the line,

[3.2

also

a as to can V55LE

in

slots. object be

vertically

does spaces.

through

the

long

one is is

dimension

about

OEJTtJ used

to and

an

1/8”

extension view. about object.

E’•S(i

show

L’N and

hole made

line

is locate

mm]

the

object right line

line are

mm] locate placed through

also from from

to

the and

the

EXT

circle

on

is

extend start one

to line

the

line (1.6

dimension

HIDT)EO

are

13.2

look that

line

of used

3—Plaririing

dimensioned

and O3JCT lines

the

from t.ensim drawn and a

particular

thin

every is

1/8” extension

1/16” is

d:istance

a They

of

Part

should

which a

between is

could

It

hidden horizontally of

dimension Centerlines

are

by

are mm) it

the

in

mm] is

cerner A drawing

An arrowhead object A

The

object

arcs.

you

78

9.5

den that apart. if lines the that the ject3 the drawci

measurement, middle another the other. or an object around line (25.4 drawn rated center Unit 9—ReadingDrawings and Making Sketches 79 ness of the object (Fig. 9-3). A dimension should be repeated only when there is a spe cial reason for doing so. If the space is too Metric small for a dimension, use one of the ways Dimensioning shown in Figure 9-8. Dimensions are most often read from the When drawings are dimensioned in the In bottom or right side of the drawing. Some ternational System of metric measurements, companies have all their drawings dimen the same rules generally apply as when they are sioned so they can be read from the bottom of dimensioned in the U.S. customary system the sheet (Fig. 9-3). Make fractions of an inch (Fig. 9-9). The American National Standards with a horizontal line, as 1/2”, 3/4”. When all Institute recommends that drawings dimen sioned in millimeters carry the following dimensions are in inches, the inch marks (“) can be omitted. Metric dimensions should al note: ways be in millimeters. UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS :)25

Fig. 9-7 Dimensioning ± the diameter of a circle and the radius of an arc. HH*

Fig. 9-8 Dimensioning for small spaces.

Fig. 9-9 Metric dimensioning.

SECTION B-B

UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED SECTIONA-A ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS -

It is a

is

the

the

the

di

of

the

on

of

the

½”

space

and

of

by

shows

screw

in

easily

unless

away list

all

worth Coarse.

and

and Internal

(no

a drawing

meaning surface

used

‘/2”

section,

a

note,

inside that

industrial each

cut

neatly

read interference,

a

is

information

give

cut is

inch

LH,

the

9-10.

be for

holes gives

threads

an

The

to

external

been

negative

on determined

The

per

National

of

working makes

more

9-1

for symbols

can

drawing

thread

simply lines,

lettered

a

be

had 9-11.

given

Sections

are

Screw

Figure

initials

9-3).

lettering

or

it

be

give and

who Diawng those

on the

Table

also

in

of

showing

threads

shapes

as right-hand

necessary

Unified

the

provide

(Fig.

Figure section

lettering

working threading.

that

13

of

19-21

is

to

a

may

part

should

in

by

section

Cross anyone

the

How tolerances (such

Show Threads

often if

and

of

Lettering

Freehand

parts

shown

inside

Allowances

always

has

as

drawings.

for

of

They

parts)

means

ways Units

are

includes

information that

cross

fit.

part These

thread

parts. are are

shown abbreviations shown

or the -

and

a

fit.

so

threads

threads

of

skill

are

object The

97 note

9-3).

force Two

9

UNC,

Notes

9r9

everyone.

ning, between or dimensional mating

the called

shows thickness

usually

13

threads

screw

nut) ameter kind kit-hand. the

Threads about

necessary (Fig.

plainly by

while sketches standard drawings.

a

a

be

or

in

be

di

on

an

di

sys fit

the

For

un in

un

may to

zero

They indi only

ma

1.25”

draw

fit

run-

should

of

a

is the

is

(space

can

by

in

dimen

that

or

larger

pr2.cticc

are

as

both

will

unilateral

shown

they

indicates part

tolerances, acceptable

(Metric after

in as:

nd (— the

INCHES

part

A

system. usually

made

±

placing of

part if

(parts

precision

much

variations such

fractions).

not

dimension

IN

positivç

inches

mm

SPECIFIED be

tolerance are sliding,

tolerance

one

the

of such

in

by

common

nm].

States, the mm].

as

a

mm).

to

in be he

are

that

how

metalworking

parts

without

the

smaller

ARE

on .005”

0 the

0

0.13

use

frctionai

only

for

is,

used

sign,

10.4

amount

stated,

well

+ —

(0.13

ox

a

may

cases,

(0.13 in

immediately —

given

that

dimensioned

United

acceptable

mm], The

or

that

the

mm],

indicated

¼4”

term

or mm

rpating

Tolerances

how

indicate

(÷) allow

assumes

.005”

variations a

is

l.375’±

the

with

are

note:

± OTHERWISE .005”

+ these

tolerances dual

9-3). to

±

never Toecnces It is ANowrce

of

dimension dimensions

dimensioned

119.05

In ± drawing

tolerance

be

(19.05 34.93 be

They

the

be

larger

3—Planning

indicate

are

DIMENSIONS

given

allows

(Fig.

product. Allowances

of

between the the to

tolerance

affecting

to

3/4”

parts)

dimensioned inch similar

not

.750”

to

recommends

mm)

Part

UNLESS a

outside on

are

as

be

either

ALL

as

Tolerances direction.

final

9

either drawing.

Sometimes

drawings

Allowance

m.etalworkng

If carry

used 80

ANSI ings tems. should

dimension. smaller

without the cated mension

bilateral amount be tolerance (31.75

one after

the

sions in derstood

inch, mensions decimal such derstood

clearance chining together). between Unit 9—Reading Drawings and Making Sketches 81

Table 9-1 Abbreviations and Symbols Used on Drawings

Fig. 9-10 Two time-saving ways of showing Feet, or Minutes external screw threads. Inches, or Seconds Degeees Plus or minus, more or less Centerline 0 Diameter R Radius 3 uNCB 0 Counterbore or spotface / V Countersink I Depth P Pitch RH Right Hand LH Left Hand USF United States Form USS United States Standard SAE Society of Automotive Engineers Fig. 9-11 The usual way of showing internal Thds. Threads threads. NC National Coarse NF National Fine UNC Unified National Coarse UNF Unified National Fine CS Carbon Steel HRS Hot-Rolled Steel CRS Cold-Rolled Steel 91 0 HSS Hig1-Speed Steel Scale of Drawings Oftentimes, an object is too large to be drawn full-size. In such cases, the drawing is reduced or drawn to scale. It may be drawn sign of the part is fixed. In this case it would he a half-size, quarter-size, or even to a smaller needless expense to make a drawing. Very often the worker in shop also scale. On a half-size drawing, for example, 1” the has ideas about the design In = 2” [25.4 mm = 50.8 mm], and on a quarter- of an object such cases a sketch size drawing, 1” = 4” [25.4 mm = 101.6 mm]. or freehand drawing can be quickly However, the dimensions are placed on draw made using only paper and pencil. A sketch of ings the same as if the drawing were full-size. a bracket is shown in Figure 9-12. Sketches as If the drawing is other than full-size, the scale ;iuld be carefully m.sdc as a working drawing, giving that is used must be given in a note on the all the information needed to drawing. make the part. And they should be neat so they can be read easily by others.

9i Freehand 942 Sketching Sketchh’içi lines Sometimes it is necessary to make a part The straight edges of a paper pad may help so quickly that there is no time to have an a worker sketch straight lines. By using a fin engineering drawing made. Or, only one part ger as a guide along the edge of the pad (Fig. is to be made, as for testing the first, experi 9-13), the worker can produce a fairly straight mental prototype of a product before the de line.

to

the

is

under

shows

circles

paper.

turn

the

pencils.

the

9-15

paper

circles

9-16).

Large

and

marks.

two

the

(Fig.

using

the

way.

rotating

c;rcle.

Figure sketch

(‘

by

with

and

compass

this

to

finger

a

turning

circle

circle

through

\/

/\

a

pivot

a

way

by

pencils.

circle

like

sketching

arcs

a

the

middle

in

the

easy

as

and

circle.

short

Sketching

Steps

Sketching

pencils

/j\

\J/

sketched

sketch

finger

under

be

to

two

9-16

9-1l

pencti

9-15

Another

Draw

Finish

I

the

use how may

E.

D.

paper Fig. middle

Fig.

Fig.

—+

is

the

Fig

of

in

that

the

of

each

1i

point

shown

on

Crce edge

--

bracket

is

the

the

a

05

circle.

of

circle

near

circles

lines.

the

the

through

line

of

of

sketch

a

sketch

Sketching

diagonal

to

radius

center

freehand

centerlines

the

two

the

A

Sketching

way

be

9.12 9-14:

One

9-13

lines.

Mark

to

Draw

Draw

C.

A.

B.

ure

82

Fig.

Fig. paper. Unit 10—Product Planning 83

WORDS TO KNOW

allowance diameter full-size drawing section lines axis dimension hidden line sketch bending line dimension line object line symbol blueprint dual dimensioning overall dimension tolerance break line end view pictorial drawing top view centerline extension line radius visible line cross section front view scale drawing working drawing cutting plane line

REVIEWQUESTIONS

1 What are pictorial drawings? Why are they used? 2. What are working drawings? Why are they important? 3. What views of an object are shown in a working drawing? 4. Describe the basic lines used on working drawings. 5. Name two systems of measurement used in dimensioning metalworking drawings. 6. What is an overall dimension? 7. What is a cross section? 8. What is the difference between tolerance and allowance? 9. Where and how are tolerances shown on working drawings? 10. What is meant by a scale drawing? How is the scale indicated on the drawing? 11. Why is the ability to make freehand sketches useful?

UNIT . .

‘I , h — -. Product Planning

Manufacturing industries plan carefully the lowest possible market prices. Manufac for every item they make, whether a tin can turing and tool engineers, technicians, and or a space satellite. Design engineers work out skilled workers assemble the tools, equip the ideas and design for each product, and ment, and machinery needed to manufacture drafting departments make working drawings the product. They also plan each manufactur for every part. Engineers select the proper ma ing step to get the most economical produc terials for the parts. Cost estimators calculate tion. As you plan your product, you will learn costs to the third or fourth decimal place. to do many of the same things done in indus Then, purchasing agents buy the materials at try. 84 Part 3—Planning

1O’4 Making a Product 1Q2 Plan Billof Materials Before attempting to construct a product You must have the correct metal before of your own design, you should carefully pre you can make a metal product, therefore, it is pare a product plan. A product plan contains necessary to know how to specify and order all the information needed for successful con metals. The working drawing gives all of the struction of the product. A good plan includes information needed to make a bill of materi the following information; als. The bill of materials made in the proper I. A working drawing of the product, care form (Fig. 10-2) should show: fully sketched freehand or even drawn in 1. The parts of the product, identified by final form with drafting instruments. A names; numbers, or letters. pictorial sketch or drawing can also be used 2. The number of pieces needed for each part. (Fig. 10-I). 3. The size of the standard stock needed 2. A bill of materials (see Section 10-2). (thickness, width, length). :i. A list of the steps for making the product; 4. The shape and the kind of material. placed in the right order. 5. The standard parts used in the product. 4. Approval of your instructor (if required) be 6. The unit cost of the material (the cost per iure i.i;aking the produ.cr. pound; per foot, per square foot; or per ki.1 It is easier to prepare the product plan if ogram, per meter, per square meter, etc.). you use a plan sheet designed for the purpose. 7. The total cost of the materials. A plan sheet of the type shown in Fig. 10-2 may be used, unless your instructor provides you with a different one. The working draw ing should be attached to the completed plan sheet; thus completing the product plan. 1O3 tidard Parts A standard part may be made by several Fig. 1D4 Y/orkir drawing of a desk-top companies. No matter which company makes pencil holder. it, the part is always the same. Five or six standard bolts of the same size are identical,

PENCIL HOLDER /. ?Q))’;

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3, çH,- / i 1 L.

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x

x

size

(Fig.

914

exam-

[38

that

exam- exam

x length,

drawing

The

size mm]

x

described,

or

for

36”

mm] for

for

mm] to

x

or

metal

wall 108

size.

standard

108

x

of

108

dimensions

(flats)

working x

wall

length,

length,

length,

mm

example:

extra SIDES)

x SIDES)

object

44

x (6 (8 x

x

the Dia.

mm)

specified

sides /id’ finished

for

25

Shapes

the

x

4.76

the

x

is

on

x

Octcigon

it

108

(3 mm

the

stock,

flat

x HEXAGON OCTAGON

10-3

to width

x

is width

[25

Strip

[50

length,

stock 4¼”

angle

given x

x

crnd

thickness

metal

Fig.

(32 x

or

x

across

cross-sectional

Shps

angle 4¼”

as

finishing

4¼”

added 11/2”

x

cu

x

4¼”

drawing

wall

w

x

1¾”

for

Beam:

part

mm 1”

x

Standard x

have

x

Sheet

x

Dia. 11/2”

Thickness mm] 38 Distance

Diameter

Thickness

Overall

example:

any

follows: TEE ‘/s”

1¼”

1”

2”

Angle ANGLE

10-4).

working of must needed as

Flat

Hexcgonal plc:

Pourd for L...

Sqre Structurol plc:

shape

ple:

or

fas

and

dif

the can bill

cer

such

used

Steel sizes

differ

stock TUBING

means ROUND

to

is

on

the

standard

standard

standard

hardware

other

and

sizes

many

supply,

o2

on

also

is of

mill

that

many a

of

Stock

and

Use

given

as

hardware, products.

Stock standard

about of

kinds the

mill

given

of

by

at

stock”

shapes

size standard

the

carries

metals Manufacturers 10-3.

parts.

material

size

of of

to

steel

washers,

types

finished

made

The mm))

the

standard THICIER)

the

of

Figure

size the

is

are

produced

shapes.

kinds OR (6.35

information

Common

made

‘standard

in

standard

Other

screws,

using

wholesaler the

that

order.

are

Meanrig

UStondord

Mesunng

Stcmdord

they

from

arid stock

get

are

is

by

also THAN-k

term 3—Planning

materials. will

that

to

shown

different

metal

rivets, r

are

that

sizes

manufacture

The Part

of

comes are

though and OU

the money

dimensions.

companies.

Standard

Remember

it LAT

nuts,

‘(!4

the

materials PLATE(-(6.35mrn) metals F SQUARE SHEET(LESS

86

even teners ent shapes as catalogs

parts

in as stock. that

ferent of stock, tain save stock

that

of Unit 10—Product Planning 87

Base

Cut rough length. edges. Mill first end, Mill second end.

Bore hole in lathe.

Mill chamfer.

Face off first end in Face off to length. lathe. File off sharp edges. Cut rough length. File off sharp edges.

Assemble Satin finish with abrasive cloth.

Fig. 10-4 Operational sequence for manufacturing the parts for the pencil holder. The standard stock must be machined to the part dimensions given on the working drawing. 88 Part 3—Planning Tubing Solution: Since the length required is less than a foot [meter), find the cost per inch Outside dimensions x wall thickness x [mm] by dividing the cost per foot by 12 length, for example: [1000]: Inch: $3.84± 12 = $0.32/in Round Tubing: Metric: $12.60± 1000 = $00126/mm /8” Dia. x .049” wall x 12” Then multiply the cost per inch [mm) by [22 mm Dia. x 1.24 mm wall x 305 mm) the length required: Inch: .32 x 2/s = .32 x 21/8 = 6.72/8 Square Tubing: = $084 1” x 1” x .062” wall x 18” Metric: .0126 x 66.67 = $0.84 [25 x 25 mm x 1.57 mm wall x 457 mm) B. Standard stock required for the body: 1 piece 2” [50.8 mm] Dia. x 3/” [92.08 The length of metal needed to make a scroll mm] long or spiral may be measured by first making the Cost per foot [meter]: $1.80 [$5.91] shape out of soft wire, then straightening it Solution: Since the length required is less out and measuring the length. The length may than one foot [meter), first find the cost per also be measured by using dividers as ex inch [mm]: plained in Unit 13, Section 13-6. Inch: $1.80÷ 12 = $0.15/in Metric: $5.91 - WOO = $00059/mm Then multiply the cost per inch [mm] by the length required: Inch: $0.15 x 3/s = .15 x 29/8 = 4.35/8 = $0.54 iO6 How Stondrd Metric: $00059 x 92.08 = $0.54 Stock Is Priced Metal wholesalers normally sell all metals FOTmaterial sold by the square foot (meter): General Formulas: by weight. Prices are quoted as so many dol Cost x lars and cents per hundred pounds. School = # of sq. ft. [sq. m] cost per sq. ft. m] suppliers, however, tend to sell bar stock by [sq. the lineal foot, sheet materials by the square To find # of sq. ft. [sq. m): foot, and casting metals by the pound. The 1. Multiply length in ft. [m] times width in ft. [m], or prices charged for materials in your shop or lahoratory very likely follow the pricing poli 2. Multiply length in inches [mm] times cies of school suppliers. width in inches [mm], then divide by 144 [1,000,000] Following arc examples of how to calcu Example: Find the cost of a sheet of galvan late the cost of materials according to the way ized steel 11”[279.4 mm) x 15” [381 they are priced by school suppliers. mm]. Cost: $0.65 per sq. ft. [$7.00 sq. m] For material sold by length: Solution: pencil holder in Fig. 10-i as an Using the 11 x 15 165 example, the cost of the bar stock and tubing Inch: 1.146 sq. ft. 144 = are calculated as follows: --- 1.146 sq. ft x $.65/sq. ft. = $0.74 279.4 x 381 106,451.4 General Formula: Metric: length in feet (meters) x cost per ft. [m) 1,000,000 = 1,000,000 = A. Standard stock required for base: 1 piece .10645 14 sq. m ½” [12.7 mm] x 2½” [63.5 mm], 2/8” .10645 14 s. m x $7.00/sq. m =

[66.67 mm] long. $0.75 (the 1 cent difference is due

Cost per foot )meter]: $3.84 [$12.60) to rounding) Unit 10—Product Planning 89 All materials sold by weight: Cost: $0.87/lb. [$l.914/Kg] General Formula: Solution: weight in pounds [Kg] x cost per pound jKg] Inch: 3/4 X 0.87 = 2.61/4 = $0.65 Example: Find the cost of a 3/4 lb. [0.34 Kg] Metric: 0.34 x $1914 = $0.65 zamac casting. fr]l/7

WoRDS TO KNOW

distance across flats angle I-beam spiral bill of materials channel octagon standard part product plan hexagon tee standard stock scroll

REVIEWQUESTIONS

1. What is a product plan, and what information is generally included on it? 2. What is a bill of materials, and what information should be on it? 3. Where may the information be found for making out a bill of materials? 4. What is meant by “standard stock”? 5. What are standard parts? 6. Should the size given on the bill of materials be that of the standard stock or of the finished part? Why? 7. Explain how the length of a curve or scroll can be measured. 8. What is the cost of 16” [406 mm] of 1/2” [12.7 mm] dia. 1018 steel rod that is priced at 15 per foot [49.2c per meter]? 9. Figure the cost of 8¾ pounds (3.98 kg] of ¼” [6.35 mm] 1012 steel plate that is priced at 12c per pound [26.4t per kilogram]. 10. Find the cost of 520 sq. inches [.33 sq. meters] of 22 gage sheet metal that is priced at 24 per square foot [$2.58 per square meterl. a a

it

to

he

He

the

the

in

was

cus as sub read

as

read

prop

trade.

plant.

at are

A

and

it

applying

part

and

:

work,

easy

school.

apprentice - been

as

duties second

skilled

instruments.

and

his .

take

milling

a

“add

metals

has difference handle

In

instrument high

metalwork

accurate. not to

in

of

The

to

major

and

in the

large the

was

best

technician

a

junior His

measuring

again.

certainly

variety instrument

that

part,

learned

in

products.

a

a

living

with

the

of

he

opportunity

consistently

internship

interested

could

vernier

club

his

four-year

the

a

the micrometer

machines,

measured

he

now

and

a

earn

discovered

holding

measured

he program

company’s

as

he

to.

are

be

became

properties practice,”

for

and

given

rap

new

he

he

night

was moti

the

Pierre

Engineers

milling using of through a

of

could

metal

though

it broken

the

age, his

years.

was

and first

completed he

WiLson

a

degree

he

lot

at for

time

works

out

himself,

Soon

that

goal

‘lechnician

he

Engineering that

Mechanical

micrometers

“a

early

plant. he

way Future

three

lay

that

Highly

first

learned

“internship” different

send

his

skilled

a

an

Pierre

Wilson

check

for

says steadily

found the

continues measures of

plain the progressing

1.879’.

measurements

of

After

and

a

has

associate

The

school,

blueprint early

where

is

To

by he

may

successfully

a

to

education

now since

an

His

and both

toward

Apprentice

was

Pierre

He

Pierre

Pierre

Machinist

high

moving

member decided In four-month Pierre 1.872”. ship

plant measure functions uses tract,” seemed. ing caused erly. tomer carefully pressure. shaft draws school, part. mal ward coming a is Technician. vated idly worker. ______

Part 3 Planning Name Score

UNIT9 Reading Drawings and Making Sketches

1-7. Matching. Match the drawing lines with their names by writing the correct letters in the blanks at the left. A 1. Hidden line

2. Break line B 3. Center line C 4. Section line

5. Object line D

6. Bend line E — —

7. Dimension line F ‘-

G ---——---—--——------

817. Multiple Choice. Write the letter of the correct response to each statement or question in the space at the left.

8. A two- or three-view drawing of an object that has all the information needed to make the object is called a A. pictorial drawing C. orthographic drawing B. working drawing or blueprint D. both B and C

9. In a working drawing, what view appears directly below the top view? A. front view C. back view B. end view D. bottom view

10. Metric dimensions on working drawings should always be given in what unit of measurement? A. meters C. centimeters B. decimeters D. millimeters

11. The amount of acceptable variation in a dimension on a working drawing is known as a(n) A. allowance C. variable B. tolerance D. deviation

(Continued on next page)

25 ______—______

12. An intentional difference in the size of mating parts to provide for a certain kind of fit is called A, allowance C. variation B. tolerance D. deviation

13. The kind of size difference that must be provided for a sliding or running fit is ca]lcd A. positive C. plus B. negative D. minus

14. The kind of size difference that must be provided for an interference or force fit is called A. positive C. neutral B. negative D. normal

15. What kind of tolerance is indicated by the following dimension ±0.005” [0.127 mm] 2.250 [D7.15 mm] —0.001 [0.025 mm] A. positive unilateral C. bilateral B. negative unilateral D. none of the above

16. The part of a drawing that shows the object as if part of it were cut away is called a A. section C. sectional view B. partial view D. A or C

17. A drawing that is made using only a pencil and paper, without the use of drafting instruments, is called a A. pictorial drawing C. blueprint B. working drawing D. sketch

1826. Matching. Match the lettered abbreviations with their numbered meanings by writing the correct letters in the blanks at the left.

18. Cold-rolled steel A. DIA B. THDS 19. Right-hand C. RH D. LH 20. Countersink E. R F. UNC 21. Unified National Coarse G. UNF H. CRS 22. L)iamcter I. CSK

23. Threads

24. Left-hand

25. Unified National Fine

26. Radius

26 ______

Part 3 Planning Name Score

UNIT10 Product Planning

1-5. Multiple Choice. Write the letter of the correct response to each statement or question in the space at the left.

1. Most of the information for making a bill of materials for a product can be found A. in catalogs C. on the pictorial sketch B. on the working drawing D. on specification sheets

2. The material sizes listed on the bill of materials should be which size? A. the size of the finished parts B. the rough size of the metal needed to make the parts

3. Parts that arc the same no matter who makes them or where they are made are called A. common parts C. standard parts B. custom parts D. universal parts

4. Materials such as metal sheets, rods, bars, and tubing that are made to standard sizes arc called A. common stock C. custom stock B. standard stock D. universal stock

5. The unit of measure normally used by wholesalers in pricing metals is A. length C. weight B. volume D. area

6-9. Short Answer. Solve the following material cost problems. Write your answers in the blanks at the left.

6. Figure the cost of 18’ [5486.4 mm] of ks” 9.5 mm] diameter hot- rolled steel rod that is priced at 48c per foot [304.8 mm].

7. What is the cost of 1’/4”131.8 mm] of 2” [50.8 mm] diameter aluminum that is priced at S9.50 per foot 1304.8 mm]?

8. Calculate the cost of a piece of 24-gage galvanized steel mea suring 14” x 16”[355.6 x 406.4 mm] that is priced at S1.65 per square foot [Sl7.76 per square meter].

9. Figure the cost of an aluminum casting weighing 12 ounces ]0.34 kg] if cast aluminum is priced at 80e/lb 11.76/kg].

(Continued on next page}

27 the

in

D

H

letters

correct

the

C

G

writing

by

B

F

names

their

with

E

A

shapes

standard

rod

the

rod

iron

rod tubing

rod

tubing

iron

strip

iron

Match

Round

I-beam

Hexagonal

Flat Angle Square

Channel

Square Round

Tee

Octagonal

10.

11. 12.

13.

14 15.

16.

17. 18. 19.

20.

Matching.

1O.20. ______

blanks.

28

Activity

Introduction

Equipment

Procedure

There There

When

heard

generalize

still

language

communicate

and Lines

had

Complete

presentation.

2. 1.

3.

•

•

What •

What

What another

when

the

of

people Gateway

are

is

you

GTT

Pencil

Eraser

samestyle,

varying

another

is

are

are

uses

many

to

this

use

and

the

form

notebook

To

use

some

the speak

graphic

1.4.1

activity

symbols Techno’ogy

gestures

communicate

purpose

different

style

language

them

of

advantages

common communication.

thickness,

other

and

messages

as

will

GTT

or

of

and

kinds

your

Sketching

thickness

languages,

formulas

help

used sketching?

—

hand

uses

Unit

technological

of

teacher

weight,

of

your

to

sketching?

about

1

languages.

of symbols.

—

communicate

in

are These

Lesson

sketches

sketching?

such

mathematics

discusses

and

an

used

object’s

4

symbols as

consistency. ideas.

—

You

in

Activity Spanish,

look

specific

Techniques

that

the

know

geometry.

cleaner

or

and

1

Sketching

is

4

science

not

French,

English.

1

ways

Understanding formulas

—

and

Sketching

orally

Imagine

to

class,

Project

Techniques

more

Korean

develop

You

spoken.

describe,

Techniques

you

professional.

may

Lead

if

line

or

all

Copyright

and

are

The

Sign

have

Italian.

the

types

using Way,

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Conclusion 1. Why is it important that you learn how to sketch?

2. Why is it important to use the proper line types?

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visible

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your

sketch.

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to

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the

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Inc. 1 o GTT notebook Pencil • Eraser • Straight edge or ruler • Isometric graph paper • Orthographic graph paper Wooden blocks, sugar cubes, plastic linking cubes, and other shapes to form various objects for students to draw Procedure

In this activity you willcreate a portfolio of sketches and drawings that willenable you to learn and understand the terminology and different methods of sketching. These skills willallow you to better communicate your ideas. Follow along as your teacher discusses the Sketching Practice presentation.

1. Describe a pictorial sketch.

2. Practice pictorial sketching with the two objects that your teacher provides. Remember to use a pencil and sketch lightly. Darken your final image.

3. Create an isometric sketch of a cube using the isometric graph paper below. Pay close attention to which lines are vertical and which lines are parallel. Label the sketch.

Project Lead The Way, Inc. Copyright 2010 GTT — 1 — Unit Lesson 4 — Activity1.4.2 — Sketching Practice — Page 2

the

parallel lines

Finish Add

axis. parallel Try line.

your the parallel Add now

4. Isometric Start

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subtractive

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axis.

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the cube

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like the

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To add a shape using Notice lines are still the Additive Method, parallel to their cut away the back resDective axis and corner by using the lines that are parallel to the width and depth axis. Be sure to connect the lines and keep them parallel.

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Finish off the addition of the new shape by completing the width and height of the top of the new shape. Remember to keep the lines parallel with the respective axis. K

To remove a shape from an object using the Subtractive Method, draw two vertical lines and a line parallel to both the width and depth axis as shown on the drawing below.

Project Lead The Way, Inc. Copyright 2010 GTT — Unit I — Lesson 4 — Activity 1.4.2 — Sketching Practice — Page 4 Vertical lines

Parallel lines to the depth and width axis

Add lines on the top New lines on top added to surface to complete complete cut away the area that willbe removed. Be careful to keep your lines parallel and the same length.

Erase the front corner lines, those that come together in a point in the section to be removed.

Add the isometric axis to the inside of the area cut away. Your final figure should look like the one below.

ProjectLeadThe Way Inc. Copyright 2010 GTT — Unit 1 — Lesson 4 — Activity 1.4.2 — Sketching Practice — Page 5

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10.What factors should you consider when deciding which side of an object is the front?

11.What is meant by precedence of lines?

Conclusion 1. Your teacher will provide you with an object to sketch as well as isometric and orthographic graph paper. a. Draw this object as an isometric drawing and an orthographic (multi-view) drawing. b. Title each sketch and label the views of the orthographic drawing. Be sure that your orthographic drawing is properly oriented. 2. What determines the best type of sketch or drawing to complete when you want to communicate your idea about a solution to a technical problem?

Project Lead The Way, Inc. Copyright 2010 GTT — Unit 1 — Lesson 4 — Activity 14.2 — Sketching Practice — Page 8

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parallel to the plane of projection; only one vanishing point is required. ihr’ T:.-

Two-point Perspective: In this type of perspective drawing, the object is situated at an angle with the picture plane but with vertical edges parallel to the picture plane. Two vanishing points are required due to the turning of the object from the picture plane; the result is a two- point perspective. This is the most common type of perspective drawing.

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Orthographic Drawing (commonly referred to as multi-view drawing): A photograph or a perspective drawing shows an object as it appears to the observer, but not as it truly is. Such a picture cannot describe the object fully, no matter from which direction it is viewed. It is said that a perspective drawing doesn’t show TS&S (i.e., true size and shape). What is needed in industry is a complete and accurate description of the shape and size of an object that in the end will be made by the manufacturer. In order to provide information clearly and accurately, a number of views must be systematically arranged so that anyone in the world can understand. Using Universal Language Drawing practices with many views to describe an object accurately and clearly is called Multi-view Drawing or Orthographic Drawing. :S’ .

You will learn to look at objects in Design and ModelingTMin a way that “normal humans” do

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Activity 1.4.3 Language of Sketching Page 3 of 4

not. When you look at an object as a human, you see three different dimensions (width, height, depth) all at once (like a perspective drawing). In an orthographic drawing, you will look at the object in three different ways. You will look at the front view and observe two dimensions — height and width; the top view shows width and depth; and, finally, the right side vievi shows height and depth. You must also keep in mind that this is a Universal Language; therefore, the positioning of the views is standard. The front view is placed in the lower left, the top view is placed directly above the front view, and the right side view is placed to the right of the front view.

Isometric Drawing: Orthographic Drawing: J2P Notice, the top view is on top of and directly in line ver1iclly with the front view.

Notice, the right side view is to the riciht of L. and directly in line U horizontally with the front view. Front \/i cvi Rt Side !i ew

Isometric Drawing: An isometric drawing is often used for quick sketching to explain an idea quickly. It does not show how we actually see an object. The objects are drawn at an angle so that you can see three sides at once. All parallel lines are drawn in parallel, with no vanishing points, so that lengths do not diminish in the distance. Diagonal lines representing horizontal edges are drawn 300 from a horizontal base line.

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