Heartbeat: The Voices of First Nations Women

RAYNA GREEN AND HOWARD BASS

woman hums songs to a child. Three family, clan, ceremonial, or work activities, old ladies sing as they pick chokecher­ those who are unfamiliar with these traditions ries or cactus buds, husk corn, or dig rarely see or hear women sing. Thus the com­ camas root. A woman's high-pitched lu-lu-lu-lu mon perception is that women have little rises over the men's voices at the end of an presence or significance in the performance honoring song for returned veterans. "Chorus and preservation of Native musical traditions. girls" back up the men's lead song at the drum A few tribal or regional collections have during a war dance. The pulsating, driving included women's singing and instrumental hand-drum beats and magic-making songs music. Recordings by contemporary Indian women sing at a stick game. The woman women musicians like Buffy Sainte-Marie first whose songs make the circle right. received favorable attention in the late 1960s. These are the voices of Native women. Like Since then, the ranks of such women have the drum whose heartbeat is that of a woman, grown to include Sharon Burch, Joanne these women and their songs are at the heart Shenandoah, Geraldine Barney, and several of Indian Country. But unlike the drum, their groups of women singers. songs and voices are rarely heard beyond their Native men and women, like men and communities. women everywhere, historically had different Along with the first of two recordings roles and ways of being in daily life and in made available on Smithsonian/ Folkways music and dance. In the 18th and 19th cen­ (Heartbeat: Voices of First Nations Women, SF turies, the roles and activities of all Native peo­ 40415) and a two-week presentation at the ple changed radically as disease, war, land 1995 Festival of American Folklife, this essay loss, removal, and relocation shifted popula­ is part of an effort to present an overview of tions and devastated traditional ways. The U.S. Heartbeat: The Voices of music by Native women - traditional, new, government forced men to farm where once First Nations Women has innovative, and little known. Included are tra­ they had hunted and women to sew where been produced in collabora- tion with the Division of ditional women's songs from tribes in the once they had farmed. The government and Cultural History at the and as well as material missionaries forbade the performance of National Museum of usually sung by men and recently taken up by Native ceremonies and the wearing of ceremo­ American History, with sup­ women. We also discuss fresh material, Native nial clothing. New settlers and hunters wiped port from The Recording women's music that m erges traditional music out the once-abundant supply of buffalo, Industries Music Performance with many styles of popular American music. salmon, wild rice, and deer. Indians were sent Trust Funds, the Smithsonian Educational Outreach Fund, Very little women's music is known and to schools and church es to "civilize" them ; in the John Hammond Fund for appreciated, even by those who value and those places they were forbidden to speak the Performance of American know Native American music. People may see their own languages. As for music, dance, and Music, the American Native wom en dan cing wh en public perfor­ song - so integral to traditional life - much Encounters Project, the mances take place, wh ether they are on stage went underground or was altered to be made Smithsonian Special or in a community setting. Still, men's danc­ acceptable to government agents and mission­ Exhibition Fund, the National Museum of the American ing dominates the public arena. Because aries. Some was lost forever, but much Indian, and the National much of Native women's traditional singing remained, has resurfaced, and been renewed Museum of American History. occurs in a private setting associated with in the 20th century. VOICES OF FIRST NATIONS WOMEN

The Crying Woman Singers is a new women's drum group with Cree, Gras Ventre, and Assiniboine singers from Ft. Belknap, Montana.

Photo by Ted Whitecalf

CEREMONIAL AND SOCIAL MUSIC sing in public ceremonials on feast days. In Ruth Underhill, working with T'ohono dance performance, men and women are O'odham people in the 1940s, tells of asking equally represented: the world is divided into the women why only the men sang and male and female domains and spirits; even danced. 11 0h," one of the older women dance steps have male and female parts and responded, 11 you sing and dance to get power" lines. Songs make constant reference to Corn - the inference being that the women already Maidens (and Corn Youths), the Green Earth had power. Although women are thought to Woman, Mother Earth (and Father Sky), Dawn have a substantially lesser role than men in Maidens (and Dawn Youths), to the role of the area of spiritual or religious music, there women in agriculture and new life. Yet wom­ are in fact serious and profound roles for en's voices are not heard in these serious cere­ women in the performance of music associat­ monial events, only in less public, more inti­ ed with ceremonial life. In areas that have tra­ mate ceremonies mostly associated with ditions of female spiritual leadership in heal­ women, such as the Basket Dances. ing, for example, women have significant, Often the singing connected with the most acknowledged roles in public ceremony. powerful of women's rites of passage - com­ Gender differences in vocal range and reso­ ing-of-age or puberty ceremonies - is per­ nance and culturally based notions of male formed by men. In the Apache and Navajo and female performance dictated the varying puberty ceremonies, men sing the songs for roles of men and women, roles that differ from the ceremonial parts of the events. Among the tribe to tribe. Mescalero Apache, however, women sing the On first glance at Pueblo ceremonial morning songs after the Crown Dances and dance, one would never think that Pueblo join the men in singing for the back-and-forth women sing at all. Certainly, women rarely dances that are part of the all-night ritual asso- OF FIRST NATIONS WOMEN

Women members of the Baptist Association sing a hymn in Cherokee at an annual gospel sing.

Photo by Sammy Still, courtesy Cherokee Advocate

ciated with the girls' annual coming-of-age Describing a Sun Dance song, ceremony. In Northern California, men would Angelina Wagon, a Wind River customarily sing the songs for the Flower Shoshone woman, said, 11My mother, Dance, the girls' ceremony celebrating the she found that song. She was sleeping first menstruation. Recently, as this ceremony is being restored, women have begun to sing the first time she heard that song. So these songs. she got up and she went to the room In tribes where women have formidable where my dad was sleeping, and she ceremonial and public roles, they do sing and sang that song for him, and my dad "make" songs, and their songs may be like just caught that song all at once. And those of male spiritual leaders. In the Plains nowadays you hear this prayer song Sun Dance, for example, women always had a all over; even in Idaho {and] Utah, special role in the ceremony, and thus in mak­ ing and singing songs. they sing that song" (Vander 1986). Some peoples, like the Northern California Porno and those on the Halfway The medicine woman, healer, or dream­ River Reserve in Canada, had healers whose er is not always a singer, though she may be healing songs came to them in dreams. Many the center of the ritual aspects of a healing of these were women. The Kashia Porno ceremony. In the Yurok Brush Dance, the Dream Dances were recovered and restored medicine woman is joined by men and by a female dreamer. Navajo women can and young girls who sing and dance, the men do become medicine women and have sever­ beginning on the so-called heavy songs, fol­ al different specialties within Navajo healing lowed by light songs by men and the young traditions. Those who become medicine girls. These light songs may include verbal women must learn the stories, prayers, and interplay, signifying the eligibility of the songs that are an essential part of ceremonial young girls present for marriage. The use healing. and presentation of the voice by young VOICES OF FIRST NATIONS WOME

Nancy Richardson sings in a 11Storysong 11 associated with the Karuk world renewal tale:

((They once told lizard, they said, don't make human beings. They won't get along, but lizard said Tm going to do that."'

Betty Mae Jumper, in a 11Storysong, 11 has the turtle sing to the wolf he has outsmarted:

11Ya ha, ya ha! I told you I was little, and can't run fast, but I can outsmart you. Wolf, wolf, your bones will be quivering. The flies will be buzzing

around you. II

women are different from that of men singers; male relatives, the men have begun to teach Annie Long Tom, a the young women also do not sing with the daughters, nieces, and granddaughters to sing Clayoquot woman who group, except as soloists. In recent times, them instead. kept the old religion in however, some Karuk women like Nancy Yupik musical performance is based in spite of the pressure Richardson have begun to sing the heavy ceremonial dance-drama. Generally, the men to become Christian, songs, using the sobbing, emotion-laden vocal sing, using a large, thin, hand drum with a said, "You must not be characteristics that once belonged only to handle, beaten with a thin stick, and the ashamed to sing your men (Keeling 1989). women dance in front of them. When the own song." In the Northwest Coast, women and men women sing, they might sing challenge songs alike play major roles in the family and in clan or composed songs that commemorate some potlatch traditions. They sing songs honoring event or a person's deeds. Women from St. ancestors, chanting the genealogies, events, Lawrence Island sing a song, complete with and deeds common to the potlatch. Most dance and hand motions, to honor the bush songs are associated with clan, family, and the pilots who fly into their village, even becom­ animal spirits (Raven, Killer Whale, Wolf, and ing the plane, swooping down. In other songs, others) that gave the clan birth. In the modern the women become geese, honking, courting, musical repertoire, family groups from and singing their song, and they sing songs Makah, Spokane, Yakima, and elsewhere sing honoring their relatives, a great hunt, or the their own music, mostly in a community set­ animals pursued by the hunters. ting. Recently, for families in which no sons, In the Victory or Scalp Dance common on nephews, or grandsons are available or inter­ the Southern Plains, the women relatives of ested in the songs usually passed down by warriors returned from victory would dance ICES OF FIRST NAT I O N S WOMEN

Ojibwa women's love charm lyric, from Georgia Wettlin-Larsen:

''Truly, I am arrayed like the roses, and as beautiful as they."

Mary Ann Mean us and Verbena Green from the Warm Springs Geraldine Barney Reservation sing, in an performs her songs - Owl Dance Song, in Navajo and English - at the National "How can you leave me, dear, Museum of American when I love you so, History in 1992. in a hunky-dory way?"

Photo by Rick Vargas, courtesy Smithsonian Institution

with lances in their hands, lances that former­ ial songs, songs sung at wakes for the dead, ly held scalps. They also would sing and make animal songs related to medicine, or "story­ at the end the characteristic high-pitched ulu­ songs." Native men and women everywhere lating noise called a "lu lu" in the Southern also have songs that accompany magic. Plains. The lulu signals the somber end of an Women at San Ildefonso sing Bow and Arrow honoring song or, when made during a song or or Comanche Dance songs as honor songs on dance, the excitement of the moment and Mother's Day. Zuni Olla Maidens sing Rain appreciation of the song or dance. It is a sound and Comanche Dance songs for the women associated, oddly enough, both with mourning dancers, who perform with pottery water jars - it is often heard at funerals or in honoring on their heads. These songs, while part of the songs for the dead - and with celebration. In social or minor ceremonial repertoire, are addition, modern songs that honor men and about the significance of water and a woman's women veterans and earlier songs honoring role in the giving of life. warriors always featured women in a central Christian music, in the context of cere­ role. The War Mothers Societies, revitalized monial performance, is widespread among during World War II from older women's soci­ Indian women. As is true to a large extent eties, had songs of respect that were paid cer­ among many peoples in the United States, the emonially to veterans, some sung by both major participants in Christian ritual among men and women, others sung specifically by Indians are women. Christianity may have women. given Native women - robbed of their tradi­ In most tribal groupings, women tradi­ tional economic and political roles in Native tionally sing the sorts of music associated with culture by missionization, acculturation, and familiar women's roles, with life-giving and the "civilization" policies of the U.S. govern­ renewal. Such songs are numerous but, with ment - one of the few places in which they some exceptions, quite private. Song types could maintain a visible role. In almost all include lullabies, food preparing and gather­ Indian churches, Catholic and Protestant, the ing songs, songs associated with the making of women sing Christian music, some of it com­ clothing and other objects created by women, posed by Indian people and distinctly their songs sung when delivering babies, for child­ own, some of it drawn from the standard less women to have children, as medicine for repertoire of the religious denominations. female illnesses or conditions such as prob­ They sing and compose these hymns and lematic menstruation, and mourning and bur- gospel songs, even masses, in their Native lan- VOICES OF FIRST NATIONS WOME

A spirit came to a young Sioux woman, Wananikwe, and said:

11DO you see the sky, how it is round? .. . Go, then, and tell your friends to make a circle on the ground just like the round sky. Call that holy ground. Go there, and with a big drum in the center; sing and dance and pray to me .. .. You will have one heart" (Hoffman 1891).

Photo by Andy Wile, courtesy Smithsonian Institution guages. Christian Mohawk women on the songs, however, some with much bawdy Sadie Buck, from Six Canadian border sing wake and burial songs wordplay, are quite frequently both the Nations, Canada, that bear a strong resemblance to 17th-centu­ province of women and men. On the Southern leads Iroquois women ry French Catholic laments, and Salish Plains and in the Northwest, women have in a song for a New women in Montana sing both traditional always sung the social dance songs known as Women's Shuffle Salish and Catholic songs during the mourn­ the "49 songs" or Owl Dance songs. These are Dance at the 1975 ing period. Others, like the Tewa Indian sung at the end of a dance, late at night, when Festival of American Women's Choir at San Juan Pueblo, sing for courting and flirting C'snagging") go on. In Folklife. Only men used weddings. Many are involved in language these songs, both men and women sing about to sing for the preservation in the tribe, and the church love, though more about thwarted or lost love, women's dance. music and work allow them to merge their and their roles in the performance of that interests in cultural preservation with their music - with the exception of who sits at the daily caretaking of the church. drum - are relatively equal. Another example Apart from their role in ceremonial and would be in Navajo skip and two-step singing, religious performance as well as in music that where both women and men perform in the accompanies the rituals of daily life, women same styles and genres, accompanying their from many different traditions often sing singing on the drum, and where wordplay and songs for social dance and play. Iroquois jesting are common features of the singing. women, for example, are now singing eskanye Competition singing, as in Inuit throat ganiseh or New Women's Shuffle Dance songs singing, was done by both men and women in - Iroquois social dance music that has been the Northwest Coast and among Inuit and sung primarily by men accompanying the other Arctic peoples. Women in the women's dance. This dance represents the Midwestern tribes historically played peach or respect and honor paid in public ceremonials plum stone games, and there were magic to women, the significance Iroquois give to game songs associated with them. As a living the role of women. They also sing war songs tradition, however, gambling songs for the and stomp dance songs (Pigeon and Duck) hand, stick, or bone game are everywhere usually associated with Southeastern tribes. sung by women. Among Northwest Coast and The women sing, like the men, in a full-throat­ Great Basin peoples, Ute, Salish, Kootenai, ed chorus which emphasizes unity of voice and other women sing in hand games as parts rather than harmonies and different parts. of a team, as lead singers, and, occasionally, as Women also sing some love songs. Such part of an all-female team. In Southern ,l~\7i, ~, 72 ··:1. OF FIRST NATIONS WOMEN .~.

Margaret Paul says, ''I have always looked after the drum; that is prob­ ably why they chose me to be drumkeeper. I felt the drum should not be alone; I felt that someone should look after it. I had to leam more about it.... The drum and I are not apart. We are one. When that drum beats, I beat, my heart goes the same way the drum goes" (Sound of the Drum 1990).

committee and by those putting money on the drum for the singing of honoring or "give­ away" songs. Referring to the electrifying sound of the nearly 100 women singing behind the drum at Red Earth, an annual pow­ wow in Oklahoma, LaVonna Weller, a long­ time dancer and singer, said, "Boy, that really made my fringes snap." In the Northern Plains and Woodlands, women's singing roles were presumed to be modest and supportive and were carried out in the context of group singing (Hatton 1986). Women sat behind the male singers at the drum, responsible for performing the correct songs in sequence and for give-aways, the pre­ sentation of gifts to others by those honored in song. In the Ojibwa Drum Dance, the wom­ Photo courtesy Heard Museum en's role was confined to maintaining activi­ Developed by Zuni California, women singers sing songs called ties surrounding the dance and to the impor­ women in the 1930s, peon songs for their gambling games. tant, though subsidiary, activity of "helping" the Olla Maidens gave the drum by singing the songs with the men. women a role in the SINGERS, SONG MAKERS, Ojibwas did, however, have a Women's Dance new business of AND INSTRUMENTALISTS and developed a smaller women's drum and performing for As vocalists, women have had varying roles in repertory of songs for women (Vennum 1982). tourists. Some women Native music. According to most scholars, the According to Plains belief, the Great Spirit sing while the other traditional vocal role of women in the is said to have given the first drum to a women dance with Northern and Southern Plains is that of assist­ woman, instructing her to share the drum pottery on their ing the male singers (Hatton 1986). On the with women of all Native nations. heads. Southern Plains, women in the role well Despite this oral tradition linking women known as "chorus girls" have always sung to the drum, in the Plains and Great Lakes behind the drum, seconding the leader one women generally have not sat at the "big" octave higher than the men. Chorus girls are drum or the medicine drum. There are prohi- usually associated with a particular drum and, bitions against touching the drum for many. A in the powwow context, are paid part of the woman's coming to the drum is not always money given to the drum by the powwow accepted equally by men and other women. VOICES OF FIRST NATIONS

[left to right) Matilda Mitchell, Nettie Showaway, and Sylvia Wallulatum from Warm Springs Reservation in sing a celebratory song at the 1976 Festival of American Folklife.

Photo by Paul Framer, courtesy Smithsonian Institution

"We got a lot of flack at first about One Plains singer was reluctant even to sitting at the drum, but gradually demonstrate a song using a hand drum. "My [male relative]," she said, "would kill me if he we got a lot of people supporting us. saw me with this drum." Now they ask us to come .... In recent years, however, particularly in We get asked to sing, it's an honor. the Northern Plains, changes are underway So, we have to be humble, with respect to the place of women at the down to earth, 11 drum. Increasingly, women describe being says Celina Jones of the called to the drum, to sit at the drum, to be the Crying Woman Singers. drumkeeper in the way that men have talked about it. At the Maliseet Reserve near Fredericton, New Brunswick, Margaret Paul ((Northern Lights, II and other women and men have formed a theme song of the Drum Society. Crying Woman Singers: Increasingly, powwow singing in the Northern Plains has brought the advent of 11Listen to the heavens. mixed drum groups. Usually these are family The spirits are singing. groups, with women and girls actually sitting Listen to the songs! at the drum. Most women and girls sing with The spirits are singing. 11 the men, generally an octave below. Others sing in the higher-voiced male register. Many "We make all our own songs. of the women singers in these recently formed mixed drum groups are inspired by The songs just come to you. the need to train young people in cultural You have to wait for them, II says preservation. This is one reason we have seen Celina Jones of the the women increasingly sitting at the drum Crying Woman Singers. and singing in major roles in the Plains. More OF FIRST NATIONS WOMEN

From a contemporary Iroquois song sung by the Six Nations Women Singers:

"The earth, our Mother, is crying tears. Earth is shedding tears for the bad things our 'younger brothers' [white people]

have been doing to her. II

In the words of Joanne Shenandoah, the music is 11Creative, lively, and rooted in ancient traditions [but] it isn't all drums around a fire. Give us a listen and watch as we peel

away your misconceptions. II Photo by Rayna Green

Sweethearts of of the mixed drum groups are from Canada like "Now That the Buffalo's Gone." Her strong Navajoland sing a skip and the far Northern Plains than from any­ lyrics about love and the evocative power of dance song at Lillian where else, though some are beginning to homeland find expression in "Until It's Time Ashley's home in appear in the Dakotas. for You to Go" and 11 Piney Wood Hills." Chinle, Arizona. No women's drums that we know of exist Other women have addressed alcohol in Southern Plains music. Yet among Crow, abuse, spouse abuse, alienation in the city, Shoshone, Cree, and Assiniboine-Nakota, all­ and Native political issues such as environ­ female drum groups have formed. They sing mental destruction, the preservation of sacred the same songs and types of songs as all-male lands, and threats to Indian sovereignty. groups. The all-female groups sing in the Musically the songs may still have a strong lower female register for the Northern Plains, tribal base, but they are rearranged for and they also sing as though they were both Western instruments, along with traditional males and females, an octave apart. instrumentation and lyrics that integrate trib­ Women's roles as songmakers generally al languages with English or, in Canada, have been smaller than that of men. In the French lyrics. new all-female drum groups, women use, with Women historically have played a small permission, some men's songs as well as songs role as instrumentalists in traditional Native in the collective repertoire. They also make music. In recent years, however, young new songs. women like Geraldine Barney and Lillian In contemporary music, Native women Rainer have taken up the Plains courting flute. have brought an extraordinary presence to Some -Navajo, Apache, Pueblo, and others - songwriting, not only composing new lyrics compose songs on the Indian flute. Singer for traditional songs but composing music and Georgia Wettlin-Larsen has even adapted flute lyrics for a new day and for increasingly songs for the voice, and others h ave trans­ diverse audiences. Buffy Sainte-Marie's songs posed flute music for the piano and synthesiz­ from the 1960s, often too narrowly described er. as protest music, brought commentary and a Iroquois, Navajo, and Apache women use First Nations perspective to war, treaty viola­ the small water drums common in the music tions, and treatment of Indians through songs of their peoples. Where tribes use hand drums VOICES OF FIRST NATIONS WOME

Women from San Juan Pueblo strike baskets with a stick rasp in the Basket Dance, 1978.

Photo by Barbara Strong, courtesy Smithsonian Institution

Ojibwa gospel singer and actress at the New Mexico Pueblos of San Juan and Elin Sands recalls, "I heard all Santa Clara, the women scrape rasp sticks kinds of music at home.. .. [Mjy over baskets, creating a percussive role not found anywhere else in Pueblo ceremonials. parents were into Eddie Arnold and Women in many places use rattles - the small Jim Reeves, and my sisters were women's cow horn of the Iroquois social into the Beatles. Then there were dance songs or the gourd rattles of the the powwows .... So I grew up Southwest. appreciating all kinds of music" As with men, the movement of objects on (Sound of the Drum 1990). women's dance and ceremonial outfits creates percussive sounds accompanying song. The , an increasingly strong presence for gambling, stick, bone, or hand games and on the Northern Plains over the past 30 years, for social dances, women play them. This is a major percussive instrument, with the practice is common among Inuit and sound of hundreds of cones fashioned from Northwest Coast peoples as well as among Copenhagen snuff-can lids jingling together. peoples in the Great Basin and Plateau areas The turtle shells (and modern tin-can substi­ of the United States. In the rare 11 Navajo" tutes for turtle shells) of women shell shakers dance, a clowning piece performed at the in Southeastern stomp dances have always set Pueblos of San Ildefonso and Santa Clara, a the unifying rhythm for the dance. woman dressed in imitation Navajo garb may In the mid-19th century, Indian women beat the drum. and men took to Western instruments, both to Zuni Olla Maidens use the small Pueblo accompany traditional music and to partici­ log drum and the frog box, a wooden painted pate in Western, often Christian, music. The box with bottom side open, scraping its rasp piano, the fiddle, the accordion, the tam­ handles with sticks. During the Basket Dance bourine, and especially the guitar have been F FIRST NATIONS WOMEN

Heth, Charlotte. 1992. Cherokee Hymn Singing in Oklahoma. In Festival of American Folklife Program Book, ed. Peter Seitel. Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution, p. 95-97. Hoffman, Walter J. 1893. The Midewiwin, or "Grand Medicine Society" of the Ojibwa. BAE Seventh Annual Report, 1885-86. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of American Ethnology. Keeling, Richard. 1992. Cry for Luck: Sacred Song and Speech Among the Yurok, Hupa, and Karok Indians of Northwestern California. Berkeley: University of California. Keeling, Richard, ed. 1989. Women in North American Indian Music: Six. Essays. Bloomington: The Society for Ethnomusicology, Inc. O'Grady, Terence J. 1991. The Singing Societies Photo by Rayna Green of Oneida. American Music 9:67-91.

Mescalero Apache adopted and played by Indian women. In Sound of the Drum: A Resource Guide. 1990. Brantford, Ontario: Woodland Indian Cultural women listen to their Canada, both women and men participate in Centre. recording of a back­ marching and concert bands at some reserva­ Vander, Judith. 1988. Songprints: The Musical and-forth dance song, tions, and everywhere young Indians play Experiences of Five Shoshone Women. Urbana: customarily sung Western instruments in school bands and University of Illinois. before dawn after a orchestras. Using keyboards and synthesizers, __. 1986. Songs and Religion of a young woman's women add to the old instrumental mix with Wind River Shoshone Woman. Monograph coming-of-age blues, folk-rock, jazz, and reggae riffs and Series in Ethnomusicology, No . 4. Los ceremony. beats. Others, like the group Ulali, use tradi­ Angeles: University of California. tional hand drums and rattles, though with Vennum, Thomas, Jr. 1982. The Ojibwa Dance vocal sounds and harmony never before heard Drum: Its History and Construction. in Indian music. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. All these ways of singing and music-mak­ Suggested Listening ing once existed among Native women. Much Traditional of the old music exists today, joined by newer Antiste, Mary, and others (Kootenai). Eighteen ways. Native women's music is vital and Stick Game Songs. Canyon Records CR 8017-C. dynamic, very much a part of the process through which Native peoples are preserving Bennett, Kay. Kaibah: Navajo Love Songs. Canyon Records CR 7167. and revitalizing Native life and culture. Note: Thanks to Ann Haag and Carol Keesling, Cassadore, Patsy. I Build the Wickiup and Other Apache Songs. Canyon Records CR 6102. National Museum of American History, for research assistance. Chinle Valley Singers. Navajo Two-Step Dance, Skip Dance, & Double Time Songs. Canyon Records CR 7134. References and Suggested Readings Crying Woman Singers (Cree and Nakata). Giglio, Virginia. 1994. Southern Cheyenne Dancing Spirits. Sweet Grass Records SGCW Women's Songs. Norman and London: 022194. University of Oklahoma. George, Delores (Yakima). Treaty of 1855. Green, Rayna. 1992. Women in American Indian Canyon Records. Society. New York: Chelsea House. Klagetoh Maiden Singers (Navajo). Klagetoh Hatton, Orin. 1986. In the Tradition: Grass Maiden Singers. Indian House IH 1508. Dance Musical Style and Female Powwow Midge, Nanaba. Traditional Navajo Songs. Singers. Ethnomusicology 30:197-222. Canyon Records CR 7146-C. VOICES OF FIRST NATIONS W

Middigak, Quanaq, and Timangiak Petaulassie Goodh ouse, Sissy. The Third Circle: Songs of (Inuit). On Deadly Ground. Varese Sarabands. Lakota Women. Meyer Creative Productions Songs of Love, Luck, Animals, and Magic. New MC 0113C. World Records. Horne, Paula (Sioux). Heart Songs of Black Hills Songs of the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. Women. Meyer Creative Productions DU Phoenix: Canyon Records. P001D. Southern Maiden Singers. Navajo Skip Dance La Rue, Lisa (Cherokee). Beloved Tribal Women. and Two-Step Songs. Indian House. SOAR 104. Sweethearts of Navajoland. Navajo Traditional Shenandoah, Joanne. Joanne Shenandoah. Canyon Records CR 545. Two-Step & Skip Songs (Vols. I and II). Canyon RAYNA GREEN Records CR 7159, CR 7160. __. Once in a Red Moon. Canyon Records CR [Cherokee) is the 548. __. Exploring Europe (Vol. III). Canyon Director of the Records CR 7162. Shenandoah, Joanne, with Peter Kater. Life American Indian Blood. Silver Wave Records SC 809. __.Social Songs (Vol. IV). Canyon Records Program, National CR 7162. Shenandoah, Joanne, with A. Paul Ortega. Museum of American Loving Ways. Canyon Records CR546. __.Sweethearts of Navajoland (Vol. V). History, Smithsonian Canyon Records CR 7164. Sainte-Marie, Buffy. The Best of Buffy Sainte­ Institution. A folklorist, Marie. Vanguard 73113. Tewa Indian Women's Choir of San Juan cultural historian, Pueblo. Songs from the Tewa Mass. From __.The Best of Buffy Sainte-Marie, Vol. II. writer, lecturer, and Libby Marcus, Box 27, San Juan Pueblo, NM Vanguard 33-44. activist, she is the 87340. __. Coincidence and Likely Stories. Chrysalis author of three books 21920. Contemporary on Native American __. It's My Way. Vanguard 73142. Aglukark, Susan (Inuit). Arctic Rose. Aglukark women. Entertainment, Inc. __.Little Wheel & Spin. Vanguard 79211 .

__. Dreams for You. Canadian Broadcasting __.Performance. Warner Brothers Records, HOWARD BASS Corporation. Inc .. is a program coordina­ Barney, Geraldine (Navajo). Shi Hooghan: The . She Used to WannaBe a Ballerina. tor in the Division of Eight Walls of Comfort. Institute of American Vanguard 79311. Cultural History, Indian Arts. Ulali (Formerly Pura Fe & Soni). Ladies Choice. National Museum of Begay, P. M. (Navajo). Stars in the Desert. Sound Available from the American Indian American History, of America Records SOAR 152. Community House, 404 LaFayette St., 2nd where he produces floor, New York, NY 10003. Bird, Jackie (Sioux). Lady. Featherstone FR2014. exhibition-related pub­ Ulali, with and the Red Road Burch, Sharon (Navajo). Yazzie Girl. Canyon lic programs and Ensemble. Music for The Native Americans. Records CR 534. recordings. He has Capitol 0472438. Burch, Sharon, with A. Paul Ortega. Blessing produced two record­ Way. Canyon Records. ings for Smithsonian/ Folkways: Music of New Mexico: Native American Traditions [SF 40408) and Music of New Mexico: Hispanic Traditions {SF 40409).