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Nnano.2006.70 Gerber.Indd COMMENTARY How the doors to the nanoworld were opened CHRISTOPH GERBER AND HANS PETER LANG are at the National Competence Center for Research in Nanoscale Science, Institute of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, 4056 Basel, Switzerland. e-mail: [email protected] The invention of the scanning tunnelling microscope 25 years ago, followed by the arrival of the atomic force microscope fi ve years later, were crucial events in the history of nanoscience and nanotechnology. As the recent International Conference on Nanoscience and Technology in Basel made clear, scanning probe microscopes based on these discoveries are still having a tremendous impact on many areas of research. n March 1981 a new type of accepted, so the experiment would not microscope made its debut. Unlike give any new insight; the other report traditional microscopes, however, the described the work as “extraordinary” scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) and a “technical jewel”, but this referee Idid not use lenses. Instead, a sharp tip said that whether such technological work was moved close enough to a conductive should be published in this particular surface for the electron wavefunctions of physics journal was an editorial decision. the atoms in the tip to overlap with the Eventually the results were published in wavefunctions of the surface atoms. When another leading journal, Applied Physics a voltage was applied, electrons started to Letters, in January 19821. ‘tunnel’ through the vacuum gap, causing In terms of science, the real a current to fl ow from the foremost atom breakthrough for the STM came in 1983 of the tip into the surface. Quantum with the experimental observation of one tunnelling had been studied theoretically of the most intriguing phenomena in before, but had never been demonstrated surface science at that time: atom-by-atom so elegantly as in these experiments at the AARHUS INANO, BESENBACHER, F. imaging of the 7×7 surface reconstruction IBM Zurich Research Laboratory in Si(111) (ref. 2). Th e STM images allowed in Switzerland. Figure 1 Keep it clean. Molybdenum disulphide the now widely accepted model of the Moreover, the tunnelling current nanocrystals are used as catalysts to remove reconstruction to be worked out from the 3 depended exponentially on the distance sulphur impurities at oil refi neries. Reducing models of the time . For the fi rst time it was between the tip and the surface: changing harmful sulphur emissions from the combustion of possible to get up close and personal with this distance by just an atomic diameter transport fuel is a major environmental challenge. individual atoms on surfaces in a three- changed the current by a factor of a 6 dimensional representation. Recent STM studies of MoS2 nanocrystals thousand. Th erefore, by scanning the tip — which are triangular — on gold surfaces have It took the small but steadily growing over a sample in two dimensions and clarifi ed how these catalysts work and lead to community another two years to verify keeping the tunnelling current constant, improvements in their performance. the initial results obtained in Zurich, and it was possible to image surfaces on the it was only at a workshop at Oberlech in atomic scale. the Austrian Alps in 1985 that researchers Th e initial results were written up in a started to realize the potential of the new manuscript entitled “Tunnelling through declined by the editors based on the method. Devices such as the atomic force a controllable vacuum gap”, which was following referee reports: one referee said microscope (AFM) have their roots in submitted to a leading physics journal that the exponential dependence of the this meeting, and during the last night of in June 1981. However, the paper was tunnelling current on distance was well the workshop the Alps were buzzing with nature nanotechnology | VOL 1 | OCTOBER 2006 | www.nature.com/naturenanotechnology 3 © 2006 Nature Publishing Group nnnano.2006.70nano.2006.70 Gerber.inddGerber.indd Sec1:3Sec1:3 226/9/066/9/06 111:15:431:15:43 COMMENTARY crazy new ideas for using such microscopes in liquids, at low temperatures, in high DNA, proteins, peptides and antibodies) in many diff erent areas of science and magnetic fi elds and so on), and also for is detected by changes in surface stress technology. People were eager to get back chemical and biological applications when in a way that could have advantages over to their labs and start working right away, the tip is suitably modifi ed. Its ability to standard biomolecular techniques. In although some almost missed the bus to the investigate surfaces with unprecedented general, the possibilities off ered by coating airport the next morning because they were resolution introduced a wealth of related the individual cantilevers in an array with still caught up in the discussions. A year techniques (see Fig. 2). For instance, layers to which only particular types of later, in 1986, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich local electric charges on the tip or surface biomolecules can attach are enormous11. Rohrer shared the Nobel Prize in Physics lead to electrostatic forces that allow Indeed, even the sky is not the limit “for their design of the scanning tunneling the distribution of electric charge on a for AFM technology. Th e Rosetta mission microscope”. A signifi cant number of the surface to be visualized (electrostatic force to comet 67P launched by the European protagonists in that meeting are still going microscopy). Similarly, magnetic forces Space Agency in 2004 includes an AFM in strong in the fi eld today. can be imaged if the tip is coated with a its MIDAS (Micro-Imaging Dust Analysis In the years that followed the magnetic material, such as cobalt, that System) instrument. Th e goal of this excitement of the mid-1980s, Don Eigler has been magnetized along the tip axis mission, which is expected to touch down and co-workers at the IBM Research Lab in (magnetic force microscopy). on 67P in 2014, is to analyse particle size Almaden, California, used an STM to write Information on force gradients can distributions in cometary material. Th e next the IBM logo with 35 xenon atoms on a be obtained if the cantilever is forced to NASA mission to Mars is also expected to nickel surface4, and later moved iron atoms oscillate. Depending on the amplitude include an AFM for similar studies. on a copper surface to make a quantum of the oscillation we can operate the corral5. Some researchers discussed the AFM in ‘tapping’ mode or perform OUTLOOK possibility of using such structures for dynamic force microscopy to provide quantum teleportation, whereas others have true atomic resolution8, which, in turn, With the emergence of scanning probe tackled important environmental problems. allows us to perform force spectroscopy microscopy (SPM) and related techniques Flemming Besenbacher and co-workers on specifi c sites. Material properties, in the 1980s, the door to the nanoworld was at the University of Aarhus in Denmark, especially diff erences in elasticity, can be pushed wide open. Today these methods are for instance, have recently used STMs to locally discerned using ultrasonic force still making a tremendous impact on many understand how molybdenum disulphide microscopy. But this is only the tip of the disciplines that range from fundamental nanoclusters act as catalysts to remove iceberg (Fig. 2). physics and chemistry through information potentially harmful sulphur compounds In addition to imaging surfaces, the technology, quantum computing, from crude oil6 (Fig. 1). Th ese are just two AFM can also be used to modify surfaces spintronics and molecular electronics, and of many examples that demonstrate the and manipulate individual atoms and all the way to life sciences. Indeed, some enormous potential of the STM. molecules. By depositing, removing or 4,000 AFM-related papers were published modifying material from the tip and/or last year alone, bringing the total to 22,000 MAY THE FORCE BE WITH YOU sample, it is possible to write and read since it was invented, and the STM has information to and from the surface. inspired a total of 14,000 papers. Th ere are Th is, however, is just half of the story. Th e Meanwhile, measuring forces as a function also at least 500 patents related to the various encore came with the development of the of the tip–sample separation (that is, forms of scanning probe microscopes. AFM 20 years ago7. Th is work has now been measuring force–distance curves) allows Commercialization of the technology cited more than 4,700 times, which makes us to draw conclusions regarding the started in earnest at the end of the 1980s, it the second-most-cited paper published in material characteristics of surfaces and and approximately 10,000 commercial Physical Review Letters in the last 25 years. their chemical properties. It is also possible systems have been sold so far to customers As with the STM, the AFM relies on a sharp to tether one end of a molecule (such as in areas as diverse as fundamental research, tip that is scanned over a surface. Th is tip is DNA) to a surface, and the other end to the the car industry and even the fashion part of a cantilever that can measure forces AFM tip, and investigate the mechanical industry. Th ere are also a signifi cant down to the lower piconewton range. In a and elastic properties of the molecule by number of home-built systems in operation. sense the AFM resembles a record player — stretching it (force–distance spectroscopy Today some 30–40 companies are involved the forces between the surface and the tip and single-molecule spectroscopy). in manufacturing SPM and related cause the cantilever to bend in the vertical Magnetic resonance force microscopy instruments, with an annual worldwide direction, and by measuring this defl ection, — the mechanical detection of electron or turnover of $250–300 million.
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