An Overview of the State of Chinese Nanoscience and Technology

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SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology.

Conducted in collaboration between Springer Nature, the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, China, and the National Science Library of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Ed Gerstner The National Center for Nanoscience and Springer Nature, China Minghua Liu Technology, China National Center for The National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, China (NCNST) was established in December 2003 by the Nanoscience and Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) and the Ministry of Education as an institution dedicated to fundamental and Technology, China applied research in the field of nanoscience and technology, especially those with important potential applications. Xiangyang Huang NCNST is operated under the supervision of the Governing Board and aims to become a world-class research National Science Library, centre, as well as public technological platform and young talents training centre in the field, and to act as an Chinese Academy of important bridge for international academic exchange and collaboration. Sciences The NCNST currently has three CAS Key Laboratories: the CAS Key Laboratory for Biological Effects of Yingying Zhou Nanomaterials & Nanosafety, the CAS Key Laboratory for Standardization & Measurement for Nanotechnology, Nature Research, Springer and the CAS Key Laboratory for Nanosystem and Hierarchical Fabrication. Besides, there is a division of Nature, China nanotechnology development, which is responsible for managing the opening and sharing of up-to-date instruments and equipment on the platform. The NCNST has also co-founded 19 collaborative laboratories with Zhiyong Tang Tsinghua University, Peking University, and CAS. National Center for The NCNST has doctoral and postdoctoral education programs in condensed matter physics, physical Nanoscience and chemistry, materials science, and nanoscience and technology. At the end of 2016, 1699 peer-reviewed papers Technology, China were published. Moreover, a total of 868 patents were applied for, among which 393 patents had been authorized. Shuxian Wu In 2014, the International Evaluation Committee highly applauded the significant achievements and outstanding National Center for contributions in nanoscience, and remarked that NCNST had risen to a position of “by far the best in China”. In Nanoscience and 2016, the Nature Index showed that NCNST has become one of the “Top 10 Institutes of CAS”. Technology, China In October 2015, CAS set up the Center for Excellence in Nanoscience (CAS-CENano) to accelerate the Xiwen Liu establishment of a new model for scientific research. The Center’s tasks are to accumulate innovative talent, focus on National Science Library, the frontier of nanoscience, to achieve major breakthroughs and become an internationally renowned organization. Chinese Academy of Sciences Qimei Chen National Science Library, The National Science Library, Chinese Chinese Academy of Sciences Academy of Sciences Yajuan Zhao The National Science Library, Chinese Academy of Sciences (NSLC) is the research library service system of National Science Library, CAS as well as the National Library of Sciences in the Chinese National Science and Technology Libraries (NSTL) Chinese Academy of system. NSLC functions as the national reserve library for information resources in natural sciences, inter- Sciences disciplinary fields, and high-tech fields, serving the researchers and students of CAS and researchers around Xuezhao Wang the country. It also provides services in information analysis, research information management, digital library National Science Library, development, scientific publishing (with its 17 academic and professional journals), and promotion of sciences. Chinese Academy of NSLC is proactively leading national efforts to build a shared National Scientific Information Infrastructure. Sciences As the key member of NSTL, it organizes research and training activities for strategic planning for STM libraries, Bo Zhang digital library standards, knowledge organization systems, digital preservation technologies and practices, and National Science Library, open access policies, in addition to provision of STM information nation-wide. It collaborates with major domestic Chinese Academy of and foreign libraries for resources sharing and research in library and information services. NSLC is credited, under the auspice of CAS University, to offer master and doctoral degree programs in library Sciences and information sciences, with a yearly enrolment of about 50. The library also hosts senior visiting scholars William Chiuman and organizes vocational training and continuing education programs. It is one of the most published and cited Springer Nature, China research organizations in library and information sciences in China, and the hosting institute for the China Society Juanxiu Xiao of Special Libraries. Springer Nature, China NSLC, aiming at developing a world first-class information service ability and leadership in library development in the country, strives to strengthen its resources, improve its systems, and innovate its services, to best suit its users.

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This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0). To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ [ Foreword ]

research plans. The National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences have also funded a great deal of nano-related research. These initia- tives have strongly encouraged the development of China’s nanoscience and technology. Springer Nature, the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, and the National Science Library, Chinese Academy of Sciences collaboratively produced this whitepaper on China’s development of nanoscience and technology. By looking at publications of high quality academic papers, patent applications, key areas of development, international collaborative networks and other aspects, it reveals recent trends of China’s development in nanoscience and technology in comparison of the world. Having also incorporated experts’ interpretations and views, the study applies both qualitative and quantitative analysis. This whitepaper shows that over the past two decades, the development of nanoscience and technology has achieved great progress worldwide and made much positive impact on society. Meanwhile, it reveals the changes in related fields and the impact it has. The technical application of nanoscience and technology has influenced many fields such as materials and manufacturing, electronics and information technology, energy and environment, and medicine and health. The rapid development of nanotechnology brings new opportunities, as well as posing ethical and security challenges to the society. Chunli Bai The potential risks should be evaluated and studied. President of the Chinese Academy of Sciences The analysis also demonstrates that China has become a strong contributor to nanoscience research in the world, and is a powerhouse of nanotechnology R&D. Some of China’s basic research is leading the world. China’s applied nanoscience anoscience is the study of the interaction, compo- research and the industrialization of nanotechnologies have sition, properties and manufacturing methods of also begun to take shape, with nano-related patent applica- materials at the nanoscale (from the micrometre tions leading the world. These achievements are largely due N scale down to the atomic scale). It encourages to China’s strong investment in nanoscience and technology. integration of many disciplines and fosters opportunities China’s nanoscience research is also moving from quantitative for scientific breakthroughs and innovations. In addition, increase to quality improvement and innovation, with greater nanoscience has a direct impact on our daily work and life emphasis on the applications of nanotechnologies. by leading to discoveries of advanced technologies. There are challenges in the future of nanoscience and Nanoscience and technology started to attract public at- technology. We need to make true breakthroughs in basic tention since the 1980s. In 2000, the United States took the research, close the gap between basic research and applica- lead to initiate the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), tions, and solve issues in energy, environment and health by which evoked a global boom of nano-related research. China applying nanotechnologies. Fostering young scientists with too is committed to the development of nanoscience and strong innovation abilities, as well as building value chains technology, and has set up research plans keeping up with and a broader and more efficient international collaborative the international pace of progress. For instance, China estab- network are highly important. Through our effort, we expect lished the National Steering Committee for Nanoscience and to achieve more original breakthroughs in basic nanoscience Technology in 2000 and founded the National Center for research, apply nanotechnology to serve the country and Nanoscience and Technology in 2003. The national medium benefit people, and contribute to making China a leading and long-term development program includes nanoscience research powerhouse in the world. n

Small Science in Big China | 1 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

FROM A SMALL SEED A MIGHTY TRUNK MAY GROW

n 1992, the study turned out to be pessimistic. A quarter of a century ago, of objects at the Computer chips are now Nature convened a meeting nanometre scale routinely manufactured with in Tokyo that brought I — perhaps better features that are just tens together the world’s described as nanoscience of nanometres in size, with leading experts in a then than nanotechnology — IBM recently announcing emerging area of research was carried out in just a the introduction of commer- that sought to understand handful of (mostly) physics cially produced chips with and manipulate matter on or chemistry labs around transistor features just 5 the scale of atoms1. They the world. There were no nanometres wide. The light called it ‘nanotechnology’, journals devoted to the emitting elements of many though not everyone was topic and barely half a consumer televisions use happy with the name. Don dozen research institutes nanometre-scale fluorescent Eigler, whose demonstra- included the prefix ‘nano’ in particles known as quantum tion of the ability to spell their title. Today, there are dots. Paints, sunscreens, the letters ‘IBM’ with 86 journals included under medicines, sunglasses, individually-placed xenon the category of ‘nanosci- pollution sensors, and gene atoms on a nickel surface ence & nanotechnology’ in sequencers are just a few of produced one of the most the Journal Citation Report the many products that now the involvement of three of iconic images of the field, for 2016 published by Clar- use nanotechnology. China’s most elite research expressed doubt about ivate Analytics. And of the China recognized the institutions — Tsinghua whether such a thing as institutes currently listed in potential contribution that University, Peking University nanotechnology even the Global Research Iden- nanoscience could make and CAS. Over the past two existed. Another dele- tifier Database maintained to its own scientific, tech- decades, organizations like gate from IBM, Paul Horn, by Digital Science, 192 nological and economic the NCNST, the other insti- argued that although the explicitly reference nano- development, early on. In tutes of CAS, and China’s tools they had available science or nanotechnology 2003, the Chinese Academy leading universities have to them were “wonderful in their names. of Sciences (CAS) and helped China to become tools for science” he didn’t Although it is true that we the Ministry of Education the leading contributor to expect them to have any have yet to realize technol- together established the nanoscience and technology impact on mainstream elec- ogies that involve building National Center for Nano- in the world today. tronics technology any time things atom by atom, the science and Technology, In this whitepaper, we in the coming 25 years. caution urged by many of China (NCNST). Key to the have set out to give an the founders of the field has NCNST’s success has been overview of the state of

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nanoscience and tech- how it is helping us to diag- platform developed by future direction of Chinese nology in China today. In nose and treat diseases. Nature Research known as nanoscience. And we will the second section, we try In the third section, we Nano (http://nano.nature. explore the ways in which to set the scene with a brief provide the hard numbers com), we hope to provide our experts think that their history of the discipline and that plot the rise of nano- qualitative insight into the institutions, funders and the milestones that have science as a discipline and nature of China’s strengths, policy makers might help to marked that history to date. China’s rapid development weaknesses and areas of ensure the field continues We describe some of the to becoming a leader in emergence in the field. And to thrive. n ways in which nanoscience that discipline. We will look we will survey China patent is changing the materials at the output of nano-re- output in related fields. that make up our world, lated research papers and And in the fourth section, how we communicate, in particular those that we will present what we the development of new are making the strongest have learned from talking to sources of energy and ways impact on the field. Using experts from the commu- 1. Garwin, L. & Ball, P. Nanotechnol- ogy: Science at the atomic scale. to make our use of that a recently developed nity about their thoughts Nature 355, 761–766 (1992); doi: energy more efficient, and nanoscience research on the current status and 10.1038/355761a0

Small Science in Big China | 3 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE OF NANOSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Milestones in the “On the Basic Concept of Nanoscience, in a nutshell, development of ‘Nano-Technology’” on the is the study of extremely nanotechnology use of ion sputtering to etch small things on scales nanoscale structures into of between one and one The development of nano- hard surfaces. hundred billionths of a science and technology as But the use of nanoscale metre — that is, 1–100 a distinct field of research is materials can be traced back nanometres. At such small fairly recent. It has become a centuries ago, such as in scales, the physical, chem- cliché to cite Richard Feyn- the ceramic glazes and the ical and biological proper- man’s posthumously famous decoration of stained glass ties of materials are very “There’s plenty of room windows. Almost a century It is one thing to appre- different to those at larger at the bottom” speech at before Feynman speculated ciate the potential of being scales — often profoundly Caltech in 1959, as the birth on the potential of manipu- able to engineer the world so. Alloys that are weak or of the field. In this Feynman lating matter at the atomic atom-by-atom, but quite brittle become strong and notes that it should in level, British physicist and another to realize this poten- ductile, compounds that are principle be possible to write electromagnetic pioneer, tial. And in this sense, it has chemically inert become the contents of the entire Michael Faraday, already been the development of powerful catalysts, semi- Encyclopaedia Britannica on described the wave- tools for seeing and manip- conductors that are optically the head of a pin, if it were length-dependent scattering ulating matter that has inactive become intense possible to do so atom by of light (Tyndall scattering) determined the timeline of emitters of light. The ability atom. Yet this talk was cited by chemically-produced nanoscience and technology. to change the way matter only a handful of times in gold colloids suspended The invention of the electron behaves by manipulating the immediate decades that in water, what we now call microscope by Ernst Ruska it at the nanoscale has followed. The term ‘nano- nanoparticles of gold. He and Max Knoll in 1931 implications for most areas technology’ itself didn’t noticed the changed colour was the first such tool to of science, technology and come into existence until of gold colloids and recog- be developed —though it engineering and medicine. 1974, when Norio Taniguchi nized the existence of tiny would take many decades introduced it in his paper gold particles. of development before

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these devices would reach optics into the nanoscopic about 250 nm. But it wasn’t Russian physicists Alexei atomic-level resolution. But domain. The wavelength until 1994 that Stefan Ekimov and Alexander Efros it was the demonstration of visible light starts at Hell and Jan Wichmann identified the presence in 1990 of the ability to around 400 nm, which proposed the first practical of embedded nanoscale spell the letters ‘IBM’ using according to classical approach, known as stim- crystals that have subse- individually-placed xenon understanding makes it ulated-emission-depletion quently come to be atoms on a nickel surface by incompatible with struc- fluorescence microscopy, known as semiconducting Don Eigler and colleagues, tures at the sub-100-nm capable of optical imaging quantum dots. Just a few using a scanning tunnelling length-scales associated at the scale of molecules years later, Louis Brus from microscope invented 9 with nanoscience and well below this limit. the Bell Labs demonstrated years earlier by Gerd Binnig technology. In 1928, Edward Improvements in our the ability to grow these and Heinrich Rohrer, that Hutchinson Synge proposed ability to study matter at the particles in solution. heralded the beginning of the construction of a ‘near nanoscale initially led to the In 1985, Harold Kroto, the age of nano into the field’ microscope to beat discovery of many naturally Sean O’Brien, Robert Curl public mind. the so-called Abbe diffrac- occurring nanostructures. and Richard Smalley from It was also in the 1980s tion limit that prevents In 1981, while studying the Rice University in the U.S. and 90s that researchers conventional from resolving optical properties of semi- discovered buckminster- began pushing the limits of any structure smaller than conductor-doped glasses, fullerene (C60), a soccer

Small Science in Big China | 5 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ] ball-shaped molecule which early 2000s saw growing development of nanotech- rackets, bicycles and suit- is composed entirely of applications of nanotechnology has also brought cases to automobile parts carbon and is extremely nology. One example is the ethical and safety issues that and rechargeable batteries. stable. This disproved the invention of electronic ink need to be addressed before In the manufacturing conventional wisdom at in 1998, a paper-like display we can enjoy the desirable industry, nanostructured the time that there were technology consisting of fruits of nanotechnology. materials are used in coat- only two stable allotropes ink made of tiny capsules, ings for machine parts and of carbon — graphite and which is now widely used in Materials and lubricants, reducing the diamond — and ignited e-readers, such as Kindle. manufacturing wear and tear and helping the imagination of chem- Another is the discovery of The benefits of nanotech- to extend the lifetime of ists to the possibility of giant magnetoresistance nology are primarily repre- machines. Nanostructured growing new and much in 1988 by Albert Fert and sented in new materials alloys, with their great larger classes of molecular Peter Grünberg, which created by manipulating strength, high durability structures than they had led to the development of matter at atomic or molec- and light weight, are ideal previously considered. In magnetic read heads that ular scales. With desired high-performance materials 1991, Sumio Iijima reported enabled the drastic reduc- mechanical, chemical, for airplanes and aerospace the growth of carbon tion in size and increase in electrical, thermal or optical components. They are used nanotubes, which exhibit capacity of computer hard properties, these new for airframes, filler materials special electrical, thermal disks. And the quantum dots nanomaterials are applied and other components, and mechanical properties, discovered and developed in everyday commercial offering enhanced corrosion paving the way for wide by Ekimov, Efros, Brus (and products, as well as indus- resistance, resilience to applications of these tube- many others) have made trial manufacturing. vibration and fire, as well as shaped nanostructures. their way into a wide range It is estimated that there excellent weight-to-strength Soon after, Charles Kresge of practical applications, are more than 1,600 nano- ratios. Nanoparticles of and colleagues invented including the light emitting technology-based consumer metals, oxides, carbon and mesoporous molecular sieve elements of flat-screen products on the market, other compounds also make nanomaterials MCM-41 and televisions and as the according to a manufactur- good catalysis and have MCM-48, which are now fluorescent dyes for imaging er-identified list prepared important industrial applica- widely used in oil refine- the smallest structures in by the Project on Emerging tions in petroleum refining ment, water treatment, as living cells and tissues. Nanotechnologies , spon- and biomass fuels. With well as drug delivery. In sored by the Wilson Center2. good surface-to-volume the latter half of the 1990s, The most popular consumer ratios, high catalytic activity Societal impacts of groups led by Charles use of nanomaterials is and low energy consumption, nanotechnology Lieber, Lars Samuelsson and seen in health and fitness nanocatalysis bring benefits Kenji Hiruma developed The scale at which products, such as cosmetics, such as optimal feedstock techniques for growing nanoscale materials are personal care products and utilization, high energy effi- crystalline semiconductor studied is small, but its clothes. An ordinary hair ciency, minimized chemical nanowires — another vital potential impact on the way dryer or straightener may waste and improved safety. step to bring nanoscience we live is large. Scientists have used nanomaterials to to the fields of photonics and engineers around the be made lighter and more Information technology and optoelectronics. The world are making new durable. Sunscreens have Nanotechnology has been a isolation of individual sheets discoveries about the micro- used nanoscale titanium key driver that has powered of graphene, a two-dimen- scopic world and translating dioxide or zinc oxide for sun the advancement of infor- sional, one-atom-thick their scientific discoveries protection, which appear mation technology and the layer of carbon, achieved by to new products and tech- to be invisible on the skin. digital electronics industry. Andre Geim and Konstantin nologies that reshape a wide Nano-engineered fabrics It has enabled increased Novoselov in 2004 has range of industrial sectors, are used for wrinkle- and performance of a range opened the doors to incred- primarily materials and stain-resistant clothes, of electronics, including ible future technologies. manufacturing, electronics which are lightweight and computers, mobile phones Being ultra-light, flexible and and information technology, may even prevent bacteria and televisions. strong and highly conduc- energy and environment, growth. Nanomaterials When Intel’s cofounder tive, graphene was hailed as as well as medicine and are also used in a variety Gordon Moore proposed a new wonder material. health. With the sweeping of products, ranging from the famous Moore’s Law The late 1990s and societal impacts, the rapid lightweight and stiff tennis in 1965 that the number of

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nanotechnology contributes nanostructured electrode to our environmental protec- materials that support a tion efforts. In the field of wider range of electrochem- traditional energy sources, ical reactions could improve oil or gas extraction and fuel the capacity and perfor- combustion are made more mance of rechargeable efficient with nanotechnolo- batteries. Not only could this gy-based approaches or new improve the storage capacity catalysts. This has helped of future generations of with reducing the pollution batteries, it should reduce and energy use caused the weight and therefore by power plants, vehicles, improve the efficiency and and other types of heavy range of electric cars and equipment. other forms of transport. For many years, Nanotechnology also researchers have been finds applications in water working to improve the treatment and contaminant performance and cost-ef- clean-up. Membrane-based fectiveness of photovoltaic nanomaterials, such as devices for converting molybdenum disulphide sunlight to electricity by (MoS2) membranes have transistors on an integrated nano-scale semiconductor nanoscale engineering of assisted water desalination chip would double every year quantum dots, which are the materials and struc- via more efficient filtering, (later revised to every two able to detect and generate tures on which they are while porous nanomaterials years), nanotechnology was single photons, are applied based. For instance, the can work as sponges to still in its infancy. Thanks in cryptography systems, inclusion of quantum dots absorb toxins from water, to the development of enhancing the performance can enable these devices such as heavy metals or oil nanotechnology, integrated and security of information to absorb more light. spills. Nanoparticles can chips and transistors have networks. Another appli- And the use of materials also be used for cleaning become smaller and smaller cation of quantum dots, or such as conducting poly- pollutants in industrial water as Moore predicted, while inorganic semiconductor mers and metal-organic through chemical reactions. the computational speed nanocrystals, is in the display perovskites that can be Moreover, nanofibers can is increasing, even though industry. Nanotechnology grown at low-temperature trap small particles in the air Moore’s Law is stalling in has enabled ultra-high on inexpensive substrates, and be used as air filters to recent years. In 2016, the definition, energy-efficient, offers a potentially cheaper clean up air. world’s first one-nanometre and even flexible displays alternative to conventional Applications of nanotech- transistor was born. Made for televisions, computers photovoltaic materials such nology in environmental from carbon nanotubes and mobile devices, which as silicon. remediation also lie in the and molybdenum disul- produce more vivid images. Beyond assisting efficient detection of contaminants phide, rather than silicon, Using carbon nanotubes harvesting of sunlight, in air, water and soil. With the nanotube transistor or silver nanowires, new nanomaterials can also be unique chemical and phys- demonstrated the potential transparent conductor used to transform waste ical properties, nanoparti- to further shrink electronics, materials are designed, heat, such as car exhaust, cles have higher sensitivity keeping Moore’s Law alive, opening the door to a variety into useful energy. For to chemical or biological at least a while longer. of electronic devices with instance, nanoparticles that agents and can be used as Deeper understanding of flexible touchscreens. convert carbon dioxide into sensors to identify toxins the physics of nanomaterials methane, a clean fuel gas, in a simpler and faster way has promoted development Energy and environment and new nanoparticulate than conventional on-site of quantum devices, with By enhancing the develop- photocatalysts that increase tests and may even remove applications in photodetec- ment of alternative energy hydrogen production have contaminants at the same tors, lasers and transistors, sources, making energy been developed, enhancing time. which allow high speed data consumption more efficient promises of alternative transfer with lower power and offering new solutions to sources of renewable energy. Medicine and health consumption. Devices using environmental remediation, In energy storage, Arguably the most mature

Small Science in Big China | 7 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

1974: Nanotechnology coined 1985: Buckyballs discovered 1994: Stimulated-emission-depletion microscopy 2013: Artificial Scienti c Norio Taniguchi coins the term Harold Kroto, Sean Stefan Hell and Jan Wichmann describe a technique for optical ribosomes ‘nano-technology’. O’Brien, Robert Curl & 1988: Giant magnetoresistance imaging features below the diffraction limit by stimulated-emis- David Leigh creates Richard Smalley sion-depletion fluorescence microscopy. a molecular milestones Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg report [ [ discover C60 machine that acts as giant magnetoresistance in thin film buckminsterfullerene an artificial 1974: Surface-enhanced multilayers. molecule. 1994: Bistable molecular shuttle ribosome to join Raman spectroscopy together amino Fraser Stoddart demonstrates a bistable Martin Fleischmann, Patrick Hendra and acids in a specific chemically switchable molecular shuttle. James McQuillan report anomalous 1991: Carbon sequence. enhancement of Raman scattering, 1983: Growth of semiconductor nanotubes subsequently explained by Richard van Duyne quantum dots Sumio Iijima 1856: Observation of and Alan Creighton to be due to field-enhancement by nanosized metal structures. Louis Brus reports synthesis of reports growth of 1994: Templated nanowires carbon nanoparticles colloidal semiconductor quantum Martin Moskovits grows aligned nanowire nanotubes. A Michael Faraday dots. arrays using porous anodic aluminium oxide year later Millie describes the 1974: Molecular electronics as a template. Dresselhaus and 2006: DNA origami wavelength-dependent Mark Ratner & colleagues Paul Rothemund scattering of light Arieh Aviram 1981: Scanning (Tyndall scattering) by propose a theory 1996: Nanopore gene sequencing demonstrates a 1931: Electron microscopy propose the idea tunneling that accurately chemically-produced John Kasianowicz, Eric Brandin, Daniel Branton, and method for folding of a molecular microscopy predicts the ratio gold colloids suspended Ernst Ruska and Max David Deamer demonstrate the ability to thread a individual strands diode. of metallic to in water. Knoll demonstrate the 1959: Plenty of Gerd Binnig, single strand of DNA through a nanopore in a lipid of DNA complex semiconducting first electron room at the Heinrich Rohrer bilayer membrane. two-dimensional nanotubes. microscope. bottom invent the scanning shapes. tunneling Richard Feynman microscope. speculates on the 1997: Cs corrected scanning potential of tunneling microscopy manipulating matter Ondrej Krivanek demonstrates at the atomic level in the ability to correct spherical his ‘Plenty of room aberration in a scanning at the bottom’ 2001: Nanowire lasers tunneling electron speech at a meeting 1983 microscope. Peidong Yang demonstrates 1928 of the American 1981 room temperature nanowire Physical Society at 1985 1997 laser. Caltech. 1974 1996 1982 1988 1856 1980 1986 1991 1931 1959 2006 1976 1990 1994 1998 1968 1992 2004 2001 2013 1928: Near-field 1999 1976: Atomic optical microscope 1993 1946 layer deposition Edward Hutchinson Synge Tuomo Suntola proposes the near-field 1935 invents atomic layer 1999: Molecular motors 2004: Isolation of graphene scanning optical epitaxy thin film microscope to obtain Ben Feringa and Ross Andre Geim & Konstantin growth technique. 1993: Quantum corrals images beyond the Kelly report light-driven Novoselov describe a Michael Crommie, Christopher Lutz and diffraction limit. and chemically driven technique to isolate Don Eigler report the confinement of 1980: Observation of molecular motors individual sheets of electrons by quantum corrals formed by respectively. graphene. 1935: Single molecule thin films naturally occurring iron atoms on a copper surface. Irving Langmuir and Katharine Blodgett quantum dots invent technique for growing monolay- Alexei Ekimov and Alexander 1998: Extraordinary er-thick molecular thin films. Efros report existence and optical optical transmission properties of nanocrystal quantum dots. Ebbesen, Lezec, Ghaemi, Thio, & Wolff report observation of extraordinary 1946: Molecular self-assembly transmission of light through an array of Zisman, Bigelow and Pickett report the self-assembly of subwavelength holes in a metal film. well-ordered molecular monolayers on a surface. 1992: Molecular sieves Charles Kresge invents mesoporous molecular 1998: E-Ink 1982: DNA nanotechnology sieve materials MCM-41 and MCM-48. Comiskey, Albert, Yoshizawa & Jacobson Nadrian Seeman proposes the idea of report the invention of E-Ink. 1968: Molecular beam epitaxy DNA nanotechnology. John Arthur Jr and Albert Cho develop molecular beam epitaxy for growing high-quality single-crystal thin films. 1990: Atom-by-atom manipulation Don Eigler and Erhard Schweizer demonstrate the use 1998: Crystalline nanowires 1986: Atomic force microscopy of an STM to manipulate Charles Lieber, Lars Samuelsson and Gerd Binnig, Calvin Quate and individual xenon atoms on a Kenji Hiruma independently develop Christoph Gerber invent the atomic nickel surface to form the techniques for growing of crystalline force microscope. letters ‘IBM’. semiconductor nanowires.

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Small Science in Big China | 9 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ] form of nanotechnology is to healthy tissues, bringing Ethical and safety issues commercial products, the that realized by life itself. significant advantages over New technologies are like economic impacts and From the organelles of conventional medicines. For double-edged swords, societal upheavals that will cells down to the operation example, carefully designed bringing in both benefits and incur are still unclear, which of biomolecules such as nanomedicines are able to potential risks. Nanotech- require careful judgement ribosomes, DNA, and ATP, leak into cancerous tissues nology is no exception. Its about the ethics of tech- these living systems are a via leaky blood vessels rapid development, while nology use. source of continual inspi- and accumulate in target much hailed, also deserves In response to these ration for nanoscientists. locations, offering higher cautions to the unintended various concerns, many Or, as synthetic biologist precision of targeted cancer environmental, health and governments around the Tom Knight once remarked, therapy. Additional applica- social effects. world have taken actions. “biology is nanotechnology tions include encapsulating The biggest current The US government has that works!” As such, biologically-active molecules, concern is the health threats launched the National nanotechnology is having such as antibodies, within of nanoparticles, which can Nanotechnology Initiative, an increasing impact in the nanoparticles to facilitate easily enter body systems with supporting responsible field of health and medicine, target-specific drug delivery. via our lungs or skin. For development of nanotech- with steady progress in Nanoparticles, given their instance, contaminated nology as one of its main drug delivery, biomaterials, small size and chemical metals in carbon nanotubes goals, and organized several imaging, diagnostics, active properties, show particular and diesel nanoparticles are working groups to explore implants and other thera- promise for use in medical found to have detrimental and address ethical, legal peutic applications. imaging. Conventional health effects. While worker and societal issues of nano- Perhaps the most remark- fluorescent dyes are made exposure to nanopollutants technology. In collaboration able development in the of organic compounds that during manufacturing with the U.S., the European application of nanotech- are often short lived and processes is a high risk, Union has also set up a nology to biomedicine is the whose optical properties are consumers of nanotechnol- platform to develop proto- advent of so-called nanopore difficult to tailor to operate ogy-based products also cols to address emerging genetic sequencing. This at arbitrary wavelengths. By face health risks. The use issues associated with method works by driving using inorganic quantum of nanomedicines, while the development of nano- individual strands of DNA dots whose operating promising, may also have technology. The Chinese through a nanometre-sized wavelengths can be tuned unintended consequences, government has invested hole in a thin membrane by their size, both these given the lack of under- in nanosafety research — or nanopore — using an limitations can be overcome. standing of whether or how since 2001, with around electrical field. By measuring What’s more, they could they are metabolized in 7% of research budgets for the electrical current that be more easily designed human bodies. The long- nanotechnology flowing flows across the nanopore to accumulate in specific term effects of their use are into scientific investigation as a strand of DNA passes tissues or tumour sites, still unclear. of environmental, health through it, one can deter- enabling easier and better Furthermore, industrial and safety implications of mine the sequence of genes diagnoses and more effec- emissions during the nanotechnology. It also that is encoded in the strand. tive treatment. production of nanoma- supports the development This technology is expected Nanotechnology has also terials and recycling of of standard methods to to significantly reduce the found applications in tissue used nano products cause quantify the environmental cost and increase the speed engineering. Nanomaterials contamination risks to the and health hazards, as well of genetic sequencing. such as graphene, nano- environment. The high as guidelines to monitor and Another promising tubes, and molybdenum reactivity and small size of regulate nanopollutants. medical application of disulphide can be used as nanoparticles may adversely With careful consider- nanotechnology is in drug scaffolds to help repair or affect the bio-ecological ations of the potential risks, delivery. Nanotechnology reshape damaged tissue. system, posing threats to nanotechnology can be enables drugs to overcome Nanostructured scaffolds plants and other animals. harnessed to change our chemical, anatomical and mimic the tissue-specific And as nanotechnology will lives and environment in a physiological barriers to microenvironment, facili- dramatically alter the way desirable way. n reach diseased tissues, and tating cell adhesion, prolif- we produce products, with increase the accumulation eration, and maturation, molecular manufacturing of drugs at target sites, and fostering normal cell as an example, and change 2. See http://www.nanotechproj- while reducing the damage functions and tissue growth. the dimension of many ect.org/cpi/

10 | Small Science in Big China [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

THE RISE AND RISE OF CHINESE NANOSCIENCE

It is no secret that over the past two decades, China’s scientific output has grown at a rate that is unprecedented in recorded human history. In 1997, China-based researchers coauthored around 2 per cent of the scientific papers published globally by journals listed in the expanded Science Citation Index (SCI, compiled by Clarivate Analytics). China now contributes almost a quarter of all the primary research published in the world today. In few areas of research is this trend reflected more strongly Publication output microscopy’ (see Appendix 1 from 820 papers in 1997 to than in nanoscience and for the past 20 years for a more detailed descrip- over 52,000 papers in 2016, technology. tion of the methodology). a compound annual growth To get a better under- To begin our survey of In 1997, around 13,000 rate of 24% (Figure 1). standing of the rise of the state of nanoscience nanoscience-related papers Unsurprisingly, the rela- Chinese nanoscience research in China, we were published globally. tive contribution of nanosci- we looked at the China’s obtained the numbers of By 2016, this number had ence research as a fraction research output relative papers published year-on- risen to more than 154,000 of the total scientific output to the rest of the world year by the world’s leading nano-related research has also grown considerably in terms of numbers of countries in scientific papers. This corresponds to (Figure 2). Twenty years primary research papers, research, filtered by nano- a compound annual growth ago only around one-in- research contribution science- and technology-re- rate of 14% per annum, fifty papers published in contained in Nature lated keywords, according almost four times the growth the world involved research Research’s recently to the extended SCI data- in publications across all related to nanoscience or launched Nano database, base. This included papers areas of research of 3.7%. technology. Today, that has and finally patents. containing terms such Over the same period of increased to over one-in-ten. as ‘nanotube’, ‘quantum time, the nano-related Throughout that time, nano- dot’, and ‘atomic force output from China grew science has made a more

Small Science in Big China | 11 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

FIGURE 1 | GROWTH OF NANOSCIENCE. FIGURE 2 | CONTRIBUTION OF NANOSCIENCE TO TOTAL The total output of papers related to nanoscience and technology published SCIENTIFIC OUTPUT. in ournals listed in the SC has been growing for the past two decades. Papers related to nanoscience and technology represents an ever growing fraction of the total scientiﬁc output of most countries. For China, South Korea and India, that fraction is now well above the global average.

x) F e Citation Inde

e papers to total scientific output)

(Number of papers in the Scienc

(Contribution of nanoscienc

FIGURE 3 | GROWTH OF CHINESE NANOSCIENCE. FIGURE 4 | GROWTH OF HIGH-IMPACT NANOSCIENCE. As a fraction of the global output of nanoscience papers published in China is now the largest contributor to the top 1 mostcited papers ournals in the SC, the contribution from researchers based in China has related to nanoscience and technology. been growing steadily for decades.

F ) e output) e papers

obal nanoscienc

e papers to gl

(Contribution of to the top 1% most-cited nanoscienc (Contribution of nanoscienc

significant contribution nanoscience contribution to as a fraction of the global contained in the SCI. By than the global average to their total output is around output (Figure 3). China’s 2010, this grew to match the research output of just twice that of all other contribution to global total the output of the USA. They two countries — China and leading countries in the field. has been growing steadily. now contribute over a third South Korea. These have The growth of Chinese In 1997, Chinese researchers of the world’s total nanosci- now been joined by India, nanoscience is even more co-authored just 6% of ence output — almost twice as countries for which the impressive when viewed the nano-related papers that of the USA. Against this

12 | Small Science in Big China [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

backdrop of the rapid rise of challenging. There is no rate. It overtook the USA in later, MOST funded a China, only South Korea and universally accepted metric 2014 and its contribution national Nanomaterial India have seen growth in for assessing research is now many times greater and Nanostructure basic their contribution, with most quality. But one way of than that of any other research project and other countries either seeing measuring the impact that country in the world. provided sustained funding a gradual decline or levelling a piece of research has had in this area, boosting the off in their relative nano- is the number of times that Chinese institutions lead research output of nanoma- science output. It must be it has been cited. And so, the world terials. During the 1990s, stressed, though, although to this end we have anal- Much of the progress in the National Natural Science the relative contribution ysed the top 1% most-cited China’s rise to become the Foundation of China (NSFC) of these countries may papers in the field of nano- world’s leader in nanosci- also funded nearly 1,000 be falling, the total output science and technology in ence has been driven by small-scale projects in nano- of most continues to rise the SCI (Figure 4). CAS. Ten years ago, CAS’s science3. In the National (Figure 1). Here we find that not only contribution to the top-cited Guideline on Medium- is the precipitous growth research was already and Long-Term Program Rise of high-impact of Chinese nanoscience in impressive, ranking third in for Science and Tech- research in China terms of the total volume the world behind the Univer- nology Development (for When it comes to measuring matched by a similar sity of California System and 2006−2020) issued in early the impact of any given increase in its contribution the United States Depart- 2006 by the Chinese central contribution to scientific to the most-cited papers, ment of Energy. Since then, government, nanoscience research, it is important to it is exceeded by it. Since its position has improved was identified as one of four note that sheer quantity 2007, China’s share of the even further, to become the areas of basic research and is not the same as quality. most cited nanoscience largest producer of high received the largest propor- What’s more, although papers increased at a higher impact research by a wide tion of research budget out measuring the quantity of rate, year on year, than its margin. It now contributes of the four areas4. a country or institution’s total nanoscience output, more than twice as many With the robust govern- output is relatively straight- with a compound annual papers in the 1% most-cited ment funding support, forward, determining the growth rate of 22% — more nanoscience literature than a growing number of quality of that output is more than three times the global its closest competitors. Chinese scientists have In addition to CAS, five been attracted to nano- other Chinese institutions materials research. The FIGURE 5 | LEADING INSTITUTIONS IN HIGH-IMPACT NANOSCIENCE. are ranked among the global brain boomerang, with nstitutions with greatest contributions to papers in the top 1 mostcited top 20 in terms of output more and more foreign- nanoscience papers of the past decade of top cited 1% nanosci- trained Chinese researchers ence papers — Tsinghua returning from overseas, IN F IN NII F IFNI University, Fudan University, is another contributor to NI N F N Zhejiang University, Univer- China’s rapid rise in nano- NNN NI NII sity of Science and Tech- science — a trend that is N nology of China and Peking expected to continue into I University (see Figure 5). the foreseeable future. N I NF NII The rapid growth of nano- NII Insights from the science in China has a lot to NIN NII F IN Nano database IN NII do with its consistent and N NIN strong financial support To get a more detailed I INI F N for research in the field. picture of the particular NN NII As early as 1990, the State strengths and focus of FN NII Science and Technology Chinese nanoscience, IN NII Committee, the predecessor we turn now to the Nano NII F IN N F IN of the Ministry of Science database — a compre- IN NII NII F and Technology (MOST), hensive platform that has I launched the Climbing Up been recently developed

project on nanomaterial by Nature Research to science. Nearly a decade help researchers keep up

Small Science in Big China | 13 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

there are variations across FIGURE 6 | HOT NANOMATERIALS. countries. For instance, China The number of papers in each of the eight most commonly researched nanomaterial types in the Nano database is the strongest contrib- suggests that Chinas output is strong in most. utor to papers in catalysis

research, while the United States leads in nanomaterials for electronics (see Figure 7). F China has a clear leading edge in catalysis research,

which is the most popular

area of the country’s quality nanoscience papers. The strength in catalysis (Number of papers in the Nano database) research has its tradition in China, possibly driven by the needs for the development NN NNI NNNNI NN NNFI NNI NN I I of chemical engineering industry, according to some interviewed Chinese to date with the latest information that was used which have seen much larger nanoscience experts. Many research in nanoscience to construct the Nano data- increases in research output well-established Chinese and technology. The database, which consisted of from 2014 to 2016 compared chemists focus on research base includes detailed information extracted from to other nanotypes, supra- of catalytic materials and information on properties, the paper published in the molecular chemistry is the have fostered a group applications and prepara- corpus of 30 journals in the most commonly studied of younger generation tion methods of thousands years 2014–2016. among the eight big research researchers in the area, of materials and devices countries analysed here. boosting the continued extracted on a regular basis Leading research areas in In addition, other nano- growth of research output in from the top 30 journals nanoscience structures into the use of nanocatalysis. that publish nanosci- Analysis on the Nano data- which research is rapidly Nanomedicine is the ence, including Science, base of nanomaterial-con- increasing in China also second largest area of Nature, Advanced Materials, taining articles published include fullerenes, DNA China’s contribution to Nano Letters and more 2014–2016 shows that origami and nanogels. While the research in the Nano (see Appendix 2 for the Chinese scientists explore in other countries, like the database, particularly in the complete list). It was built a wide range of nanomate- United States, Germany, area of diagnostics. This by enlisting the support rials, the five most common South Korea and Japan, it is might come as a surprise of over 60 nanoscience of which are nanostructured research into nanocapsules to some as both the output experts to curate and materials, nanoparticles, that is growing faster. and impact of China’s life categorize the information nanosheets, nanodevices science research typically contained in the papers and nanoporous materials. Differing applications of lags behind that of the published in these jour- This is similar to the most research United States and Europe. nals. This knowledge was popular nanotypes observed Studies of nanostructures This suggests that nano- then used to train machine in other research power- typically can lead to develop- medicine is an area in which learning algorithms to houses (see Figure 6). It is ment of functional materials. China could leverage its automate the process and worth noting that China has Research papers in the Nano strengths in chemistry and enable it to extract up to relatively higher research database reporting various material science to carve out the minute information intensity on nanoporous nanomaterials usually have a significant niche in the life from research articles materials and its papers on also discussed possible sciences. published in 167 peer-re- nanodevice have seen a soar applications. Of the eight big Energy-related applica- viewed journals, in parallel in the past three years. research countries investi- tions, specifically, energy to the manual extraction For newly emerging gated, catalysis, electronics, storage and power gener- process. For the purposes nanostructures, defined as medicine- and energy-related ation is another frequently of this whitepaper, we nanostructures not in the applications are the most studied nanoscience area use the manually curated top 10 most studied, but commonly explored, but in China. The area also sees

14 | Small Science in Big China [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

the fastest growth in the of nanoscience in China, of research publications, United States, Germany, the past three years among defined as those not among different countries present UK, Japan and France (see China’s top 10 popular appli- the top 10 applications different strengths. Figure 8). Only South Korea cation areas of nanomate- but show rapid increase in In contrast to the global and Australia exhibited a rials. With mounting public research output in the recent trend but similar to Japan similar trend. pressure to tackle the deteri- three years. Moreover, nano- and South Korea, China The guidance of the orating environmental prob- science papers addressing has a higher rate of patent governmental funding policy lems, China is putting great photonics and data storage applications per SCI paper and the research evaluation effort into the research and applications also show compared with the United system plays an important development of new energy, strong growth in China. States and most of the role here, according to as well as technologies European nano research some interviewed Chinese enabling efficient energy use Applied versus funda- powerhouses. In the three nanoscience experts. Gener- and environmental remedia- mental research Asian countries, nano-really, national governments tion. The potential exhibited Nanoscience and nano- lated patent applications worldwide all tend to look by nanomaterials has made technology, with its broad usually outnumber their for the application value of energy nanotechnology a range of potential applica- SCI publications, while it is research. In China, with the promising area, attracting tions and societal impact, the reverse in most western robust government funding many Chinese researchers, is highly applied in nature. countries. support to research, the who are leading in nano- As a result, nanotechnolo- Analysis using the Nano guiding role of the govern- structures and nanomate- gy-inspired patent applica- database tells a similar ment just tends to be rials for batteries and energy tions are large in quantity story. The fraction of papers amplified. storage and conversion. and are increasing steadily. listed in the database that China is relatively But at the global scale, the explicitly mentions appli- The role of collaborations weaker in nanomaterials growth in patent applica- cations of the nanostruc- Collaboration draws in for electronics applications is not as fast as that tures and nanomaterials diverse scientific resources, tions, compared to other of the SCI research papers. described was notably expertise and perspec- research powerhouses. When comparing number higher for research coming tives and is becoming But robotics and lasers are of nano-related patent from China than most other an important element in emerging applications areas applications against that leading nations such as the scientific research. For

FIGURE 7 | HOT APPLICATIONS. FIGURE 8 | APPLIED VERSUS PURE RESEARCH. Chinas output is strongest in the maority of the most freuentlycited Among papers included in the Nano database in the years 2014–2016 those application areas listed in the Nano database, with the eception of electronics, from China were the most likely to cite a speciﬁc application of the research. optoelectronics, and power generation, in which the USA is in the lead.

% of papers mentioning one or more applications

F 86.7 13.3 CATALYSIS 81.4 18.6 MEDICINE/ OPTOELECTRONICS VETERINARY 73.3 26.7

70.0 30.0

ENERGY DRUG DELIVERY STORAGE 66.3 33.7

63.8 36.2

63.8 36.2 SENSORS DIAGNOSTICS EXCLUDING BIOSENSORS F 59.4 40.6

% not mentioning application ELECTRONICS POWER GENERATION

Small Science in Big China | 15 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

about one third of Australia’s patent families from 1997 to FIGURE 9 | ROLE OF COLLABORATIONS. research output in top 30 2016 (based on the earliest Leel of international collaboration for papers in the Nano database. nanoscience journal titles. priority year, or basic patent application date) shows a

% of nano papers with international authors global trend of rising patent China’s patent applications related to nano- output technology. The number

Although patents are only increased from around a small part of the process 2,826 in 1997 to more than 6 of translating fundamental 51,389 in 2015 . The number knowledge into commer- of patents in China has been cial technologies, they are rising particularly fast and a leading indicator of the is leading the world now. areas in which research is Meanwhile, areas of nano- having a direct practical technology-related patent impact. Using nanoscience applications cover a broad F and technology-related range in China, though with patent data for the last varying growth patterns. 20 years, drawn from the Consistent with its role as Derwent Innovation Index a research powerhouse in (DII) database of Clarivate nanoscience, China has the Analytics, we analysed the largest number of nano-re-

trends in the application lated patent applications in of China’s nanoscience to the world, which amounts China’s nanotechnology. to 209,344 for the accu- nanoscience, a highly inter- China’s level of international A search by International mulative total in the last 20 disciplinary field, collab- collaboration, similar to Patent Classification codes years, accounting for 45% oration is even broader. that of South Korea, is still and key words of 466,884 of the global total. China’s Nano-related research much lower than that of the nanotechnology-related accumulative total number output generally presents a western countries and the higher level of international rate of growth is also not as FIGURE 10 | NANOSCIENCE PATENT OUTPUT. collaboration compared fast as those in the United Number of patent applications in areas related to nanoscience and technology with total research output States, France and Germany. from 17201 for top countries. in the SCI. The United States is

With great emphasis China’s biggest international on international collab- collaborator, contributing oration, the number of to 55% of China’s interna- Chinese papers with inter- tionally collaborated papers national coauthors has on nanoscience that are F been increasing. According included in the top 30 jour- ) to data from the SCI, the nals in the Nano database. It proportion of Chinese has collaborated with China total research output with on 2,123 papers published international collaboration 2014 to 2016, accounting for (Number of patents has increased since 2010 21% of the total number of and reached 24% in 20165. quality nanoscience papers Looking at quality nanoma- published by US authors. terial-containing articles Germany, Australia and in the Nano database, the Japan follow in a descending percentage of internation- order as China’s collabora- ally collaborated papers tors on nano-related quality increased from 36% in 2014 papers. Particularly, China to 44% in 2016 for China is an important collaborator (see Figure 9). However, for Australia, contributing to

16 | Small Science in Big China [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

FIGURE 11 | PATENT OUTPUT BY INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION. Total output from 1997–2016 in areas related to nanoscience and technology by Cooperative Patent Classiﬁcation subclass.

F )

(Number of patents

SEMICONDUCTOR MACROMOLECULAR USE OF NON USE OF MEDICAL, DENTAL ANALYTICAL NONMETALLIC COLLOIDAL OR PAINTS AND LAYERED ELECTRONICS COMPOUNDS MACROMOLECULAR NANOSTRUCTURES AND HYGIENE CHEMISTRY COMPOUNDS CATALYTIC OTHER COATINGS MATERIALS COMPOUNDS PROCESSES of patent applications for and France, more than 70% Range of applications Japan are mainly for elec- the past 20 years is more of patent applications are of China’s nano-related tronics or semiconductor than twice as many as that filed overseas. patents devices, with the United of the United States, the Five Chinese institutions, Globally, nano-related patent States leading the world in second largest contributor including the CAS, Zhejiang applications are primarily the cumulative number of to nano-related patents. At University, Tsinghua Univer- concentrated in the areas of patents for semiconductor a remarkable growth rate sity, Hon Hai Precision electricity and electronics, devices (see Figure 11). This much higher than the world Industry Co., Ltd. and Tianjin chemistry and metallurgy, is generally consistent with average, China surpassed University have emerged medicine and health, super- the results from the analysis the United States and among the global top 10 fine techniques and materials. of applications mentioned ranked the top in the world institutional contributors to Patents for medical, dental, in research papers included since 2008 (see Figure 10). nano-related patent appli- or hygiene related devices in the Nano database. Confident of their cations. CAS has ranked in or technologies, polymer Looking at the growth research or technologies, the global top since 2008, materials, as well as catalysis trend of China’s nanotech- many Chinese researchers with a total of 11,218 patent and colloid chemistry-related nology-related patent appli- are also seeking interna- applications for the past 20 patents have been increasing cations, polymer composi- tional patent applications, years. Interestingly, most of consistently over the past tions and macromolecular the number of which is the other big institutional 20 years; while those for compounds are also the increasing steadily in China, contributors among the semiconductor devices, the fastest growing areas. These from barely 10 in 2000 to top 10, like South Korea’s most common category for may include paints, inks, 748 in 2014. However, the Samsung Group and LG nano-related patents, are dyes, adhesives and textile increase in international Group, Japan’s Fuji Photo declining since after 2012. treating techniques or fibres. patents is not as fast as that Film Co., Ltd and the United Patents for superfine technol- Patents for technologies or of the total patent applica- States’ IBM are commercial ogies rapidly increased in the apparatus enabling chem- tions related to nanotech- enterprises, while in China, first three quarters of the last ical or physical processes, nology. Compared to other research or academic 20 years, but declined after a such as catalysis are also technologically advanced institutions are leading in peak in 2011. increasing fast in China. n countries, the number of patent applications. This China has high numbers nano-related patents China reflects the emphasis that of patent applications in 3. See Bai, Chunli. Ascent of Nano- science in China Science 2005, applied overseas is still very Chinese researchers place several popular technical 309, 61– 63 low, accounting for only on translating their research areas for nanotechnology 4. See Weiss, P. S. A Conversation 2.61% of its total patent into applications and the use, and is strongest in with Dr. Chunli Bai: Champion of Chinese Nanoscience ACS Nano applications for the last relative strength of Chinese patents for polymer compo- 2008, 2(7), 1336– 1340 20 years accumulatively, academic institutions in sitions and macromolecular 5. See Nature Index-China 2017 http://www.nature.com/nature/ whereas the proportion in R&D. But it also highlights compounds. In compar- journal/v545/n7655_supp/full/ the United States is nearly the relatively weaker role ison, nano-related patent 545S39a.html 6. Data after 2014 are incomplete due 50%. And in some Euro- in R&D played by Chinese applications in the United to the requirement for confidential pean countries, like the UK enterprises. States, South Korea and period associated with patents.

Small Science in Big China | 17 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

EXPERT VIEWS ON THE OUTLOOK FOR CHINESE NANOSCIENCE

The rapid rise of China’s research output and Opportunities in nanoscience and tech- patent applications has painted a rosy picture nology in particular will for the development of Chinese nanoscience. With the promise of continue to grow. In both the traditional strength subjects and continued economic Relevant ministries and newly emerging areas, Chinese nanoscience growth and the Chinese organizations under the presents great potential. But as with all government’s commitment Chinese state government opportunities there are also challenges. to support and promote have set up research plans To better understand both, we conducted innovation in science to provide consistent interviews with a range of experts from the and technology, it is funding in nanoscience and Chinese nanoscience community. expected that investment technology. These include

18 | Small Science in Big China [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

instance, Chinese scientists Energy recently developed a cata- The importance of energy lyst that enables the direct and the need to develop conversion of synthetic renewable energy resources fuel gas to light olefins, the are widely recognized, basic building blocks of particularly in China, plastics — a process that is where rising environmental already being considered for problems have caused industrial applications. The serious attention from the growing needs of industry government. The Chinese continue to drive develop- government’s dedication ment of nanocatalysists and to long-term investment China is expected to main- into new energy study tain its competitive edge. brings bright prospects for

“ If there is one change that I want to see most, that would be greater “ investment into the R&D of nanotechnology.

Yet, interviewed experts the development of nano recognize that more precise energy in China. “The use control of nanostructures of nanotechnology in the remains a challenge, which energy industry is very is required to produce cata- promising and we are likely lysts with high efficiency, to make big breakthroughs the Ministry of Science and manufacturing, catalysis activity and selectivity, as within the next five to ten Technology, the Ministry of and medicine. Several areas well as long lifetime. Some years,” said a young expert Education and the NSFC, of nanoscience are identi- point out that synthesizing in the field. China has which are major research fied by interviewed experts a new catalyst and getting the upstream of the solar funding agencies in China. as most promising. the research published are energy industry, which In the recent five years, probably relatively easy; benefits researchers doing Chinese universities have Catalysis more focus needs to be new energy R&D with received more than 500 Catalysis and catalytic nano- devoted to finding novel abundant resources. With million RMB research materials are considered by methods for synthesis and the government’s strong budget on nanotechnology several interviewed experts better control of assembly. capacity for mobilizing from the Ministry of Educa- as a most promising nano- Also, the goal is not simply resources, China has an tion alone. The CAS has science area for China. This to publish more papers. edge over the United States also launched a Strategic is unsurprising given China’s “Are these [articles] really in developing nano energy Priority Research Program already well-developed that important and [synthe- technologies and popular- on nanotechnology with expertise in the field more sized catalyst] really izing renewable energy. an investment of around generally. By speeding up applicable in industry?” Some of the nano energy 1 billion RMB. Specifically, chemical reactions, nano- An expert pointed out that research done in China great stock has been put structure-based catalysts researchers need to ponder is already leading the into basic and applied have wide applications in the the value of the research world, particularly in the research on nanomaterials, chemical or chemical engi- and take China’s develop- development of lithium characterization tech- neering industries, as well as ment of nanocatalysis to ion batteries. Recently, a niques, nanodevices and the oil refining industry. For the next level. Chinese team invented a

Small Science in Big China | 19 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

foldable graphene oxide in medical devices and “To me, basic research is Challenges film-based device that medical imaging is also an to generate new knowledge, produces desalinated area that held high pros- Boosting research impact concepts or theories, while water using solar energy, pects by interviewed scien- The Chinese government’s applied research is geared with minimized heat loss tists. “The integration of significant investment towards applications and and high efficiency. And a nanomaterials in electronic in nanoscience and new products that make number of groups around devices or wearable devices technology is aimed at an impact. But now many China are making important for medical use will make developing technologies people are doing something contributions to the devel- highly desirable products,” that can be industrialized in between and there is lots opment of low-cost, high said an expert in the field. to boost economic growth. of repeated research; many efficiency perovskite-based However, China is However, despite the high people are just following suit. solar cells. relatively weaker in basic numbers of academic paper I personally think we need [to publications and patent focus] more on applications.” applications, the industrial Currently, the industry Innovation comes in impact of China’s nano- is involved to some “ technology is still limited. degree. Many nanoscience different shades. Chinese There is still a gap between researchers collaborate nanoscience research and with enterprises frequently researchers are probably the industrialization of and a growing number of

nanotechnologies. enterprises are willing to

good at turning 1 to 10, but Most of the interviewed work with scientists at nanoscience researchers universities or research breakthroughs that turn “ agree that the government institutes by funding their from 0 to 1 are still rare and needs to invest more in research and developing applied research to drive the new technologies or this is our challenge. translation of nanoscience products with them. research. “Support to basic Some also invest heavily nanoscience research in R&D by establishing Medicine life science research and provided by our government their own research arms. As with energy, health and biomedical R&D compared is relatively abundant now,” But this is not enough. medicine are closely linked with some advanced said one researcher. “But The level of industry to everyone’s daily life, western countries. This has the investment in commer- collaboration in Chinese making nanomedicine a limited the development cialization of research is nanoscience, indicated by new promising field. “The of nanomedicine, given the still inadequate.” By applied the percentage of papers exciting thing for nanomed- lack of expertise in biomed- research, he meant R&D with industry coauthors, icine is its diagnostic and icine. Scientists currently work that is aimed at though increasing, is still therapeutic features,” said conducting nanomedicine commercialization of prod- relatively low compared an expert in the field. “By research are primarily ucts. Such applied research with other big research using nanotechnology, we with chemistry or material can be more costly than basic countries. As one nano- can control drug release science backgrounds, who nanoscience research and science researcher said, and have better targeting.” have limited experience industrialization of a product “the government needs to China’s large population in animal models and or technology, or scaling up further encourage the R&D base provides plenty of clinical studies. “The lack the production may cost work of enterprises and cases and patients for of expertise in biological billions of RMB, according improve the system that carrying out clinical studies, and medical sciences is one to some researchers. “The facilitates translation of facilitating the development of the biggest challenges enterprises, which have an research.” It is recognized of translational nanomedi- for my research,” said an edge on product R&D work that to really mobilize cine research. expert in nanomedicine. and commercialization, need enterprises to invest into In addition to the great The Chinese government to be involved,” said another R&D, established systems potential of nanomaterials has put great stock in the researcher. “As a key player are needed that bridge used for drug delivery and development of life sciences in nanotechnology devel- dialogues between the nanoparticles made into and biomedicine and quality opment and its application, scientific community and therapeutic drugs, the research outputs in the area they need to be encouraged the industry, streamline use of nanotechnology are rapidly growing. to invest more in R&D.” the processes of research

20 | Small Science in Big China [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

translation and industri- research is essential when are considered applied commented, “as long as alization, and keep the highlighting science and research by scientists you do something good [do investment channels open. technology innovation with included in that study, while good research], it doesn’t “If there is one change that an emphasis on research basic research refers to matter whether it’s basic or I want to see most, that would application. fundamental studies of life applied research.” be greater investment into the Most of the world’s sciences, physical sciences In this sense, allowing the R&D of nanotechnology.” profound innovations or geosciences that have room for scientists to freely How to enhance the originate from basic science no clear signs of immediate explore their creative ideas, application of nanoscience discoveries. Yet, China is application. While the following their intrinsic research is identified as one considered lagging behind applied research referred interest in science is the of the biggest challenges in truly innovative research. to by most nanoscience key. Too much emphasis for China’s nanoscience To pave the ground for researchers in this study on the sheer numbers development. This is a long- genuine innovation that is actually translational of journal publications term task and researchers goes from zero to one, research, transforming or patent applications advised that the process more high-quality basic lab results to products on can skew the purpose of of industrialization needs research is needed. As one the market. Yet, as some research from the discovery to be taken step by step researcher noted, “There researchers suggest, of new knowledge to merely and that caution needs to are lots of discussions on perhaps commercial a means to generate papers be taken against seeking applications now, but [we] companies should take a and patents. instant benefits. It is good also need to do more basic leading role in closing this “It is important to enhance news that the Chinese research to understand the gap in commercialization is, the application of research, government is committed fundamental structures of while “the remit of profes- but when the quantitative to funding the entire different nanomaterials and sors should still be focusing measures of application are development chain of nano- better control the struc- on scientific studies.” Or, too much emphasized in technology. To scale up the tures.” Indeed, that is what probably as a researcher the research evaluation, the societal impacts of their ultimately drives devel- research, scientists should opment of new catalysts, play a more significant role efficient solar cells, or novel in guiding the direction of drug delivery approaches. the funding, as with the “Innovation comes in It is important knowledge of cutting-edge different shades. Chinese “ science, they have better researchers are probably to enhance the prescience of disruptive good at turning 1 to 10, but technologies compared breakthroughs that turn from application of with industrial leaders or 0 to 1 are still rare and this is research, but when the policy makers. our challenge.” Statistics suggests that quantitative measures Balancing applied and in general, only a small basic research proportion of China’s total of application are too Achieving research research expenditure is much emphasized translation and making spent on basic research, positive impacts are the compared with most in the research goals of nanotechnology western countries. This development, but funda- seems to be contradictory evaluation, the mental research is still the to the perceptions of most practical value of a “ basis and fuels application. nanoscience researchers For most scientists at interviewed for this paper. patent application universities or research Different definitions of institutes, their research applied versus basic tends to be reduced. activities should still be research play a role here. driven by their scientific As in a survey conducted by curiosity. Therefore, Nature Research two years keeping a balance between ago suggested, nanoscience fundamental and applied and nanotechnology

Small Science in Big China | 21 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ] practical value of a patent complementary expertise complementary expertise. fostering truly interdis- application tends to be and skillsets. “Researchers And while personal rela- ciplinary approaches to reduced.” from different countries tionship plays a significant understanding are crucial to “Research is like a Gaussian have different backgrounds role in collaboration, improving progress in nano- curve — there are very few and their own niche areas,” “fostering a culture of science and technology. really bad research and only said a nanoscience expert. collaboration is important “Nanoscience is very a few of highly impactful “For instance, we recently to make collaborative broad and is interdisciplinary research. Just using citations collaborated with Japan research really sustainable.” in nature, which is in line may not be a good way to on a gene expression He suggested that change with the global trend of judge the importance of intervention project for the is slowly emerging with integration of different research.” treatment of pancreatic the recognition of the need scientific fields. There should cancer. We are good at to improve the research be more cross-disciplinary Encouraging collaboration preparing the nanomate- evaluation system. collaboration.” With the growing number rials, while the Japanese Following the global of foreign-trained Chinese researchers have strong Enhancing collaboration trend, many Chinese scientists returning from medical backgrounds and between the disciplines universities and research abroad and the strong are highly experienced with As has already been noted, institutes are emphasizing interdisciplinary research these days. However, China Nanoscience is very broad and is is still relatively weaker in “ interdisciplinary research, interdisciplinary in nature, which as one researcher points out. “Most funding orga-

is in line with the global trend of nizations, such as NSFC, categorize their funding integration of different scientific“ programs by traditional fields. There should be more cross- academic subjects, which is not supportive to the disciplinary collaboration. development of interdisciplinary fields, such as nanoscience,” he said. government support in this animal models. We can nanoscience is inherently The categorization effort, interviewed nanosci- complement each other.” interdisciplinary, spanning of funding programs by ence experts are confident Moreover, China is as it does many different conventional disciplines that internationally collabo- taking a greater leadership traditional disciplines does not bother most rative research will grow in role in more and more including chemistry, interviewed researchers China and that the network international collaborative physics, engineering, much, as most nanoscience of international collaborators projects, as China has built biology and medicine. Prog- researchers are chemists will expand. Several younger up its expertise in certain ress in the development of and can simply apply for researchers explained that areas of nanoscience. everything from the next funding in the chemist they collaborate frequently “We are already leading generation of computer category. Also, the NSFC with their former coworkers, in energy conversion and chips to the future of does have some special supervisors or colleagues storage research and play a cancer treatment relies on programs focused on based overseas as they have predominant role in several our understanding of how nanoscience, and so does already established close collaborative projects on the world works at the MOST. However, some ties with them. new energy batteries,” said nanoscale. And yet, even did note that the limited Different from more one researcher specializing researchers from neigh- scope of cross-disciplinary than a decade ago when in nano energy. bouring disciplines such as integration may hamper international collaborations As one senior researcher physics and chemistry often diversified growth of in China was primarily commented, program- use very different language nanoscience. Most of driven by the needs to driven collaboration needs to describe the world times, the collaboration is learn foreign expertise or to be further encouraged so they see. Breaking down within material scientists advanced skills, it is now that research can be made the boundaries between or chemists themselves, more out of the need to find more efficient by pooling traditional disciplines and though with different

22 | Small Science in Big China [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

sub-area expertise. A funding programs targeting other advanced countries. of Waterloo in Canada to mechanism that encourages the young. Examples are the We need more effort to establish the College of greater cross-disciplinary NSFC’s National Science promote the advancement Nano Science and Tech- collaboration between Fund for Distinguished of the field … This is not nology, the first of its kind in chemists and life scientists, Young Scholars, the just about support in the China. Aimed at cultivating environmental scientists Thousand Young Talents facilities or funding, the soft talent with expertise in or even geoscientists, for Program initiated by the environment is essential. To nanoscience, the college instance, is lacking. Organization Department encourage the sprouting of pioneers coherent training “Currently, interdisciplinary of the Central Committee fresh ideas, young scientists programs on nanoscience collaboration on nanoscience of the Communist Party of need to be given more say.” for undergraduate, Master’s is still too narrow. Say, the China, as well as the One Also, many of the current and PhD students. It majority of people [doing Hundred Talents Program funding programs for the attempts to integrate nanoscience] are from of the CAS. Not confined young are based on proven student training, scientific chemistry or material science to any specific subject track records of established research and application of backgrounds, while [there areas, these programs allow achievements. The current nanoscience and technology are] not many coming winning young scientists evaluation system is also and represents China’s first from physics or medicine some freedom to explore geared towards past stab at an interdisciplinary backgrounds. In this sense, their interested fields. achievements or inclined nanoscience educational true cross-field exchange is Several interviewed nano- towards overseas experi- program. still not enough… We may science experts who are ence. Some talented young To address the growing need more forums for such based in the United States researchers may never be needs for talent with cross-disciplinary exchange, acclaimed that the funding able to obtain the resources nanoscience expertise, and need to learn each other’s support received from the needed to explore their CAS has also decided to languages for a dialogue of government by Chinese ambitions. How to select establish a nanoscience mutual understanding.” young scientists in nanosci- promising researchers and technology college at ence exceeds the funding before they have made the University of Chinese Fostering the young received by their peers in their discoveries remains Academy of Sciences. Led A common theme we the United States or other an issue and an improved by the NCNST, the new encountered in our inter- advanced countries. talent selection mechanism college will be dedicated views with experts in the But the competition is needed. to integrating nanoscience field is the expectation for research funding is Fostering talent starts research with undergrad- that the greatest source of becoming more intense, from improving educational uate and graduate educa- the ideas and inspiration as more and more young programs. For the devel- tion, aiming to become a that will drive innovation in scientists enter the field or opment of nanoscience, world-class educational nanoscience (and indeed all return from abroad. While making it sustainable base for multidisciplinary of the sciences) is the next too much competition as a subject of science, talent with expertise in generation of researchers. may hamper innovation, enhancing interdisciplinary nanoscience and tech- Taking advantage of this most interviewed young collaboration, and improving nology. The development precious resource isn’t just scientists generally do not the quality of research all of various industries, such about ensuring that China’s worry that much about require targeted educational as biomedicine, energy and young researchers have the increasing competition programs on nanoscience. information technology also sufficient funds to carry for funding, rather, they Over the past few decades, requires multidisciplinary out their research, but that emphasize that the soft with the rapid development talent with nano knowledge, they are supported in their environment is more of nanotechnology, quite said the NCNST director. career development and, important. They expect a few world-renowned A nanoscience college also perhaps most importantly, establishing channels that universities have established helps with establishing a that they are able to find allow the suggestions or academic programs on new knowledge framework their own voices and that creative ideas of the young nanoscience and nanotech- that integrates multiple those voices are heard. to be heard. nology for training master’s subject areas to enable The Chinese govern- “In Chinese scientific or PhD students in the area. better understanding of ment has already offered community, the new super- In 2010, China’s Soochow nanoscience and make it generous support to young sedes the old at a relatively University partnered with an interdisciplinary new scientists, with the launch slower rate than in the the Suzhou Industrial subject in our academic of several high-profile United States and some Park and the University systems. n

Small Science in Big China | 23 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

OUTLOOK

ifty years ago, the publication output, by a collaboration and avoid the science and applied science, idea of manipulating substantial margin. It has creation of research siloes and between applied science the material world reached this level largely by that classify projects as and its development into F at the nanoscale building on its traditional either physics, chemistry, practical solutions. seemed like a fantasy. strengths in chemistry and biology or other traditional Finally, the most common Twenty-five years ago, even materials science. And it is disciplines. theme in the discussions we those who were inventing gradually developing new It is no coincidence that had with our experts — and the tools to turn this vision strengths in the application the first label to describe the most important one for into a reality did not believe of nanoscience to biotech- the field as a whole was the future of Chinese nano- those tools would lead to nology and the life sciences. nanotechnology rather than science — is their expecta- commercial nanotechnolo- But such rapid growth brings nanoscience. Although this tion that the most potent gies any time soon. Today inevitable challenges. term was coined decades source of innovation in the machines that sequence Although it was founded before the tools of nanosci- field is the next generation of genomes by threading by physicists and chemists, ence would enable practical Chinese nanoscientists. This individual strands of DNA nanoscience has evolved commercial nanotechnolo- will be no surprise to funders through nanometre-wide into a field that is intrinsically gies, a guiding principle of such as the NSFC, who have holes, sunscreens that use interdisciplinary, intrinsically the field has been that these already taken a lead in this ceramic nanoparticles to broad and intrinsically tools would help us make with funding programmes block harmful ultraviolet collaborative. The pace of the world a better place. that are specifically targeted rays, and computer chips progress in the field relies This is not to say that there at young scientists. But built from transistors with on being able to draw on shouldn’t be continued and adequate funding is just one features just 10 nanometres the expertise of researchers robust support for curiosity part of the picture. Educa- wide are commonplace. from many different disci- driven research for its own tion is just as important, and The remarkable pace at plines. This in turn relies on sake — not least for the one which the NCNST and which nanoscience and physicists, chemists, biol- unexpected, world-changing other institutions in China technology has developed ogists, material scientists, discoveries that this type of are addressing through the is matched only by China’s clinical researchers and engi- research regularly produces. development of dedicated own scientific and techno- neers developing a common But the consensus of the curricula that equip students logical development. China language. It also means that experts we talked to while with a wider variety of skills is now the world’s leading institutions, policy makers researching this whitepaper that they might get from contributor to nano-related and funders need to develop suggest that there is more to more traditional physics, research in terms of both and extend programmes that be done to bridge the gaps chemistry or biology its total and high-impact encourage cross-disciplinary that exist between basic programmes. n

24 | Small Science in Big China [ An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology ]

[ Appendices]

Appendix 1 | Data collection methodology

This paper uses both quantitative analysis and qualitative information to assess the trends of China’s development in nanoscience and nanotechnology, and to identify opportunities and challenges. The quantitative analysis uses Nano data developed by Nature Research and Web of Science citation data as well as the Derwent Innovation Index data, both from Clarivate Analytics to examine nano-related research output and patent applications. Specifically, a Topic search using nanoscience and nanotechnology related key words of articles in the Science Citation Index (SCI) database, with copyright years of 1997 to 2016, resulted in 1,372,510 papers. The cut-off date for data retrieval is June 16, 2017 and terms used for the search include nano, self-assem- ble, atomic simulation, molecular electronics, quantum dot, atomic force microscope, scanning tunneling microscope and many others. Year-by-year changes of nano-related research output from 1997 to 2016 are analyzed at the world level and for key countries that are major contributors of nano-related papers. The key word search is also applied to the Derwent Innovation Index, a comprehensive database of patent information compiled from more than 40 patent-issuing authorities worldwide, in combination with a sorting by the international patent classification codes. Altogether, 466,884 nano-related records of patent families with application years (referring to priority years) of 1997 to 2016 are retrieved. The cut-off date of data retrieval is June 9, 2017. The analysis of the Web of Science and Derwent Innovation Index data was conducted by the National Science Library, Chinese Academy of Sciences, while the analysis of the Nano data was conducted by Nature Research staff. Furthermore, qualitative data are collected from a roundtable discussion and several individual interviews or conversations with nanoscience experts active in China’s academic community for insights about challenges and opportunities in China’s development of nanoscience and technology. The roundtable discussion was organized with the support of National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences at the 12th Sino-US Symposium on Nanoscale Science and Technology held in the end of May, 2017. Individual interviews were conducted via phone by Nature Research staff in early June, 2017.

Appendix 2 | Introduction to the Nano database

Nano.nature.com, known as Nano, was launched in June 2016 as a non-journal platform under the Nature Research portfolio. It aims to provide highly indexed and structured information related to nanoscience and technology, including detailed descriptions of thousands of different nanomaterials and devices, their physical, chemical and biological properties, their potential uses and the various methods and protocols by which they have been prepared. The data are derived from articles published in peer-reviewed journals, compiled from many different sources, and are made into manually curated nanomaterial summaries. Here, a nanomaterial is defined as any material that typically contains at least one feature with a dimension in the range of 1 to 100 nm. In parallel, data indexes are generated by machine learning algorithms that scan over 167 journals including leading titles from Springer Nature — whose brands include Nature Research, BioMed Central and Springer — and other publishers including AAAS, Elsevier and Wiley, on a regular basis. For this whitepaper, nanomaterial summaries that contain information on properties, synthesis and application are manually extracted and curated by nanotechnology experts from primarily 30 journals (see below for the full list) that are recognized as highly impactful to the nanoscience research communities. These manually extracted data obtained from papers published in these 30 journals from 2014–2016 were analysed to provide insights of the nanotechnology trend described in this whitepaper.

Journal titles covered for this analysis

Publisher Journal Publisher Journal

AAAS Science Nature Research Nature Materials ACS ACS Nano Nature Research Nature Medicine ACS Chemistry of Materials Nature Research Nature Nanotechnology ACS Journal of the American Chemical Society Nature Research Nature Photonics ACS Nano Letters Nature Research Nature Physics APS Physical Review Letters PNAS PNAS Elsevier Biomaterials RSC Nanoscale Elsevier Materials Today Springer Journal of Nanoparticle Research Elsevier Nano Energy Taylor & Francis Nanotoxicology Elsevier Nano Today Wiley Advanced Energy Materials Elsevier Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine Wiley Advanced Functional Materials Nature Research Nature Wiley Advanced Healthcare Materials Nature Research Nature Chemistry Wiley Advanced Materials Nature Research Nature Communications Wiley Angewandte Chemie International Edition Nature Research Nature Energy Wiley Small

Small Science in Big China | 25 SMALL SCIENCE IN BIG CHINA An overview of the state of Chinese nanoscience and technology.

Conducted in collaboration between Springer Nature, the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, China, and the National Science Library of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

AUGUST 2017

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