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A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA WITH EMPHASIS

UPON SECONDARY EDUCATION IN CROSS RIVER STATE

DISSERTATION

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Koko Okon Akpan Ekpo, B.S., M.Ed,

Denton, Texas

December, 1982 eg

Ekpo, Koko Okon Akpan, A Historical Review of Educa- tion in Nigeria with Emphasis upon Secondary Education in Cross River State. Doctor of Philosophy (Secondary Education/Curriculum Studies), December, 1982, 321 pp., 37 tables, 8 figures, bibliography, 161 titles.

The purposes of this study are to describe the past and the present systems of secondary education in the Cross River State of Nigeria; to examine the goals, achievements, and failures of each with special consideration for the period from 1970 to 1981; and to make recommendations for improvement of the secondary educational system in the Cross River State of Nigeria.

This study is concerned with a concise but broad historical review of secondary education in the Cross River State of Nigeria. An analysis of the historical evolution of the federation reveals that the forces underlying Nigeria's educational problems include the piecemeal acquisition and administration of different areas of the country, and with fragmented and disorganized public policy during the Colonial period. For instance, the policy of restricting Christian missionary activity in the North, while giving access to missionary initiatives in the South contributed to uneven social and educational development between the North and the South, and resulted in additional inter-regional tensions. The review of the related literature consists of three sections. The first section discusses education as it existed prior to the Colonial rule. The second section concentrates on the development of secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria during the British rule. The third section is devoted to secondary educational developments in Cross River State of Nigeria from 1960 to the present. It identifies educational administrative measures, inspection, finance, structure, and organization, the education of secondary school teachers, and the educational problems which influenced the system during the period.

KOKO OKON AKPAN EKPO

Page

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS i*

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem Purposes of the Study Research Questions Definition of Terms Delimitations of the Study Background and Significance of the Study Research Design Summary Chapter Bibliography

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 25

Introduction Purpose and Value of Educational Planning Traditional Education in Nigeria Educational Developments During the British Rule Educational Development after Political Independence Summary Chapter Bibliography III. TRADITIONAL EDUCATION IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA 65 The Curriculum of Traditional Education in Cross River State of Nigeria Purposes of Traditional Education in Cross River State of Nigeria

in Teachers of Traditional Education in Cross River State of Nigeria Summary Chapter Bibliography IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA: 1970-1981 83 Introduction Philosophy of Nigerian Education Objectives of Education in Cross River State of Nigeria Structure and Organisation of the Ministry of Education in Cross River State of Nigeria Goals of Primary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria The Development of Primary Education System in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Enrolment in the Primary Schools of Cross River State of Nigeria Number of Primary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Universal Primary Education (U.P.E.) Scheme in Cross River State of Nigeria Classrooms, Furniture and Equipment of U.P.E. Scheme in Cross River State of Nigeria Fears About the U.P.E. Scheme Management of Primary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Curriculum of Primary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Academic Qualifications of Primary School Teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Criteria for the Selection of a Primary School Headmaster in Cross River State of Nigeria Financing Primary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 In-service Education Programmes for Pri- mary School teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria External and Internal Constraints in Pri- mary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981

IV Roles of Institutions of Higher Education in Primary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Future Plans in Cross River State of Nigeria for Expansion, Growth, and Improvement in the Primary Education Programme Development of Secondary Education System in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Goals of Secondary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria Number of Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Enrolment in the Secondary Schools of Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Number of Teachers' Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Goals of Teachers' Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria Enrolment in Teachers' Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Admission into Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria World Bank Loan for Secondary Education Projects in Cross River State of Nigeria Achievements of the World Bank Loan for Secondary Education Projects in Cross River State of Nigeria Problems of World Bank Loan for Secondary Education Projects in Cross River State of Nigeria Management of Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria The State School Board Structure and Organisation of the State School Board of Cross River State of Nigeria Functions of the State School Board Campus Administration of Post-primary Institutions in Cross River State of Nigeria Curriculum of Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Curriculum of Secondary Commercial Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria

v Curriculum of Secondary Technical/Trade Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Curriculum of Teachers' Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria Academic Qualifications of Secondary School Teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Academic Qualifications of Teachers in Teachers in Secondary Grammer Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Academic Qualifications of Teachers in Secondary Commercial Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Academic Qualifications of Teachers in Secondary Technical/Vocational Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Academic Qualifications of Teachers in Teachers' Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria Criteria for the Selection of a Secondary School Principal in Cross River State of Nigeria In-service Education for Secondary School Teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria Methods of Teaching in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Guidance in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Instructional Spaces in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Equipment in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Laboratories in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Inspection of Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Financing Secondary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria External and Internal Constraints in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Higher Education in Cross River State of Nigeria Roles of Insititutions of Higher Education In Secondary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria

VI Future Plans in Cross River State of Nigeria for Expansion, Growth, and Improvement in Secondary Education Programmes Summary Chapter Bibliography V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 207

Summary Findings Conclusions Recommendations to the Government of Cross River State of Nigeria Recommendations for Future Studies Chapter Bibliography

APPENDIXES . 250 BIBLIOGRAPHY 308

vix LIST OF TABLES

Table Page I. School-age Population and Actual Enrolment in Primary Schools of Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1978/79 School Year 99

II. Number of Primary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1978/79 School Year 106 III. Number of Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria by Division: 1970- 1976 138 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page 1. The General Organisational Patterns of All the Ministries of Education in Nigeria . . 101 2. Organisational Structure of the Cross River State School Board 169 3. Recommended Administrative Structure for Each Independent School District in Cross River State of Nigeria 170 4. The Administrative Structure of Secondary, Technical, and Commerical Institutions Including Teachers' Training Colleges in the Ministry of Education of the Cross River State of Nigeria 171 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Nigeria lies within the tropics between latitudes 4° and 14° north of the equator and longitudes 3° and 14° east of the Greenwich Meridian (21, p. 1). It is bounded on the west by the Republic of Dahomey, on the north by the Niger Republic, on the north-east by the Chad Republic, on the east by the Republic of Cameroun, and on the south by the Atlantic Ocean (21, p. 1). Nigeria, well watered by the Rivers Niger and Benue and their tributaries, has an area of 356,669 square miles [26, p. 459], an area equal to one-ninth of the United States or Texas and California put together, or France, Belgium, and Great Britain combined (10, p. 1). The population of Nigeria is believed to approach 100 million (16, p. 2). Its climate varies from tropical at the coast to sub-tropical further inland. There are two well-marked seasons: the dry season lasting from November to March and the rainy season from April to October (21, p. 1). Temperatures at the coast seldom rise above 90°F, but humidity is high. The climate is drier further north where extremes of temperature are more common, sometimes reaching as high as 110°F and falling to 50°F. The political entity known as Nigeria came into existence in 1914 (21, p. 1). Prior to this date the part of the Sudanic belt which it occupies had a history that was essentially of the movement and fusion of peoples, the rise and fall of empires and the slave trade. Thereafter, the history became that of the establishment of Fulani rule over the Hausa communities of the north in the early 19th century and the gradual imposition of British rule, which commenced from the south with the Cession of Lagos on August 6, 1861 (21, p. 1). Nigeria came into being in its present form when the two protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria were amalgamated by Frederick Lugard (6, p. 21). Flora Shaw, who later married Lugard, first suggested in an article for the London Times that the several British protectorates on the Niger be known collec- tively as Nigeria (17). Any country is, in a sense, an artificial creation. In the case of Nigeria, however, union was so sudden, and included such widely differing groups of peoples, that not only the British, who created it, but the inhabitants themselves have often doubted whether it could survive as a political entity (6, p. 23). Nigeria, the most populus black state in the world, became a sovereign state on October 1, 1960. Independence from Britain was achieved through nationalistic struggle—strikes, agitation, and mass protests. There was no armed struggle (28, p. 1895). The civilian administration that ushered the country into political

independence was elected through democratic elections held

in 1959 (28, p. 1895). That government handed over power

to a military government in January, 1966, after some

sections of the Nigerian army had mutinied in reaction to widespread political unrest and violence in parts of the

country.

At that time, Nigeria was a federation led by a prime minister at the centre and four regional premiers. The

general officer commanding the Nigerian Army took

power as head of the federal military government and

supreme commander of the armed forces. He tended to steer

the country towards a unitary form of government. This

was an unpopular move and after six months his government

was overthrown, and he and one of his military governors

and some army officers were killed (28, p. 1895).

Nigeria's second military government lasted nine

years. During this period, a civil war was fought to re-

unite the country after a section of it had attempted to

secede. The peace was won, because at the end of the

war, the government declared that there was no victor and

there was no vanquished. A general amnesty had been

granted and war victims were rehabilitated. There was

post-war reconstruction followed by an economic boom. By now Nigeria had become a federation of twelve states in response to demands for the creation of new states. A third military government came into being in a bloodless coup on July 29, 1975. It announced a four-year programme that would terminate with the return to democratically-elected government and the shifting of the federal capital from Lagos to Abuja in the central part of the country in response to popular demands. It also created seven new states. The head of this government, the late General Murtala Muhammed, was killed in an abortive coup on February 13, 1976, after six dramatic months in office and was declared a national hero. His chief of staff, General Olusegun Obasanjo, was persuaded by his colleagues to take charge of the government and complete the programme embarked upon by his predecessor (28, p. 1895). On October 1, 1979, the Military Govern- ment handed over power to a civilian administration headed by Alhaji Shehu Usman Aliyu Shagari as Executive President with Dr. Alex Ekwueme as Vice-president (8, p. 44). The Cross River State of Nigeria was created on May 27, 1967. It is one of the twelve states that were created by special decree by the then head of state, General Uakubu Gowon. In a broadcast at 9:00 p.m. of May 27, 1969, General Uakubu Gowon announced a decree dividing Nigeria into twelve states as a basis for stability (25, p. 47). On February 3, 1976, when seven new states were created in the Federal Republic of Nigeria by the then Federal Military Government, the former name—

South Eastern State of Nigeria was changed to the present name—Cross River State of Nigeria (24, p. 131). The then

Military Government announced that states would no longer be identified simply by their geographical locations but would all be given names, to "erase memories of the past politicalties and emotional attachments" (25, p. 131).

Cross River State of Nigeria lies within the Cross

River Basin between Latitude 4°25' and 7° North and longitudes 7°151 and 9°20; East. The state has an area of

28,685 square kilometres, is bordered on the North by the

Benue state, stretches into the Atlantic Ocean in the

South, shares common boundaries with the Cameroun Republic in the East and the Imo and Rivers states in the West

(22, p. 561). The population estimate of Cross River

State is four million and the capital is Calabar (23, p. 251).

Three major ethnic groups are easily identifiable in

Cross River State of Nigeria. These are the EfiM/

Ibibio/Annang group located in the South. The origins of the Ibibio are shrouded in mystery and obscured by con- flicting traditions. They are sometimes referred to as a semi-Bantu group, indicating their linguistic affinity with

the Bantu Congeries of languages in Central, Eastern and

Southern Africa (12, p. 25). It is most probable that

they migrated to their present area from the Cameroun

uplands to the east and from the Cross River estuary, moved

upriver as well as westwards until checked by other tribes

(12, p. 25). The Ibibio language includes many dialects,

the principal ones being Ibibio proper (Uyo), Efik

(Calabar), Annang, Enyong, Eket-Ibibio and Andoni or

Ibeno (12, p. 26). A curious and persistent belief among

many Ibibio people is that they are related in some way to

the Jews of Europe and Asia. Instances are cited of

similarities between Ibibio and Hebrew in sentence struc-

ture, idioms, proverbs and word usage. Common social

customs, such as certain forms of purification, have also

been noted (12, p. 26). The Ejagham group is spread over

the North but divided into two sectors by an intermediary

group—the Ekoi. The Southern sector of Ejagham comprises

the Quas in Calabar Division and the neighboring people

of Akamkpa Division while the Northern sector is made up

of Etung—spreading people of Ikom, Akajuk, Nkum, Nkim,

Mbube, and parts of Ogoja. In the Ekoi group are the

people of Biase, Bahumono, Yakurr, Agbo, and Mbembe Clans

(22, p. 561). Education in Nigeria is no longer a private enterprise, but a huge government venture. It has witnessed a progressive evolution of governmental intervention and participation. The federal military government favored university expansion to remove geographical educational imbalances, to foster national unity and to train high-level manpower. The National Policy on Education describes the way the Federal Government plans to achieve part of its national objectives using education as a tool, and the policy states that education is adopted as "an instrument par excellence for effecting national development" (11, p. 245). The policy states that Nigeria's philosophy of education is based on the development of the individual into a sound and effective citizen and that equal educational opportunities for all citizens of the nation at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, both inside and outside the formal school system should be provided (11, p. 245).

There is an assumption that a relationship exists

between planning and change. This assumption is under-

scored by Morphet's statement that Change can occur without planning, and planning can be accomplished and have no tangible results. But as educational leaders attempt to develop more effective plans that are designed to bring about needed changes in educational environment, they will need, to a greater degree than before, to understand the intimate and interdependent relationships that exist between planning and change, and to find ways of capitalizing upon the inherent strengths of these relationships (20, p. 91). Nigeria, like most other developing nations, is attempting to change at a speed greatly exceeding that attained by most developed nations. While political, economic, social, and technological changes took place gradually and sometimes by change in the older nations, the emerging nations are resorting more and more to systematic planning to effect change, and are placing considerable demands on the educational system to produce the manpower needed for national development (15, p. 9). This is not to say that the most astute planning will solve all educational problems, but that lack of planning or ineffective planning would be a waste of resources. It cannot be assumed that education alone will bring about needed progress and development, but undoubtedly education does improve the quality of life. Developing nations then can no longer afford to leave the education of their youth to chance.

To underscore Nigeria's reliance on education as an instrument of change, the former Federal Commissioner for Education, Col. A. A. Ali, declared during the inaugural ceremony of the implementation Committee on National policy of Education in Lagos that The new national policy on education was aimed at making education an instrument of socio-political as well as economic change, with far-reaching consequences for individuals and the society. . . . The essential character of education should be seen in its capacity to meet declared national objectives, including the inculcation of national consciousness, unity and the right values and attitudes (27, p. 2181).

African leaders have witnessed the powerful influence that education has on underdeveloped countries such as their own, and they regard education as a powerful change agent. Education, they felt, was the magical "something" necessary to produce citizens of appropriate quantity, skills, and attitudes. A Nigerian leader once said,

"In the New Africa education must be accorded priority number one; it is the 'open Sesame' to all problems" (4).

Vaizey, although he was referring to Western countries, remarks that "even in absolute terms, education is a big industry; but in terms of its demand for highly trained people it is the largest single occupation" (4).

Education has become a major, if not the major, concern of the new independent states of Africa. At almost every point in the modernization process, education is the critical factor, for without it, Africa's people would be unable to enter the modern technological world.

For millions of Africans, education is the key that will open the door to a better life and higher living standards, 10

The control and planning of education has become an area of crucial magnitude (8, p. 3).

The importance of education cannot be over-emphasized.

In 1978 the General Conference of UNESCO said, "By the very complexity of the problems which it must help to solve, education must be conceived in an interdisciplinary context as a factor of multidimensional development of which man is both the end and the instrument" (24, p. 1819). In the

"Special Report on Education," (24, p. 1819) the World

Bank clearly delineates the significance of education.

First, education is a basic human need. "People need education to acquire a broad base of knowledge, attitude, values and skills on which they can build a better life"

(24, p. 1819). Thus,education enhances people's ability to learn, adapt to social and cultural activities (24, p. 1819) .

Second, education is a means of meeting other basic needs:

Education influences and is in turn influenced by access to other basic needs—adequate nutrition, safe drinking water, health services, and shelter. In this context, one remembers the argument of experts that health programmes could be accelerated more by teaching the people basic principles of hygiene than by sophisticated medical science. Also, if children are better fed they can learn better, which would improve their overall benefits from education (24, p. 1819). 11

Third, all development programmes depend on education for the simple reason that they all require skilled workers at all levels to manage capital, technology, services, and administration in every sector (24, p. 1819).

In this "special report on education," (24, p. 1819) the World bank laid emphasis on the fact that despite significant improvement in the enrollment of children in all spheres of education, the developing countries still have a long way to go in solving the problems of education.

Nigeria, with its introduction of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1979 did initiate momentous thrust in eradicating illiteracy. The effort has transformed the country into a demanding and changing society. There are numerous basic issues that revolve around this transformation. It may be interesting to determine the extent to which the present administrative machinery is sufficient and capable of coping with the problems of educational change.

It was the ingenuity of the military government in Nigeria that ushered in a free primary education as a weapon against illiteracy, and also brought about a new educational policy to guide the future of the people in attaining the goals of education. Thus, the planned changes in education had the interest and the backing of those at the top of the political ladder. This affirmed 12

the contention of Schramm of the importance of the involvment of political leadership where changes and innovation are planned (13, p. 165).

An addquate secondary school system in Nigeria is a major problem, but it is not a top priority item. Top priority has more frequently been given to expanding elementary education and to establishing universities

(9, p. 298) . Nigerian education is in a period of transition. The contemporary form of education in the new nation reflects the British concepts on which the system was developed prior to political independence. Education is now being "Americanized," although the nation is still experimenting with ideas borrowed from many different countries of the world (9, p. 298). Secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria consists of five years (called "forms") at the end of which students take the west African school certificate examination. After completing this examination, students who wish to attend universities usually must take an additional two years' work ("sixth form") and pass the Advanced Level Certificate Examination (9, p. 298). It is assumed by Nigerian educators that this middle step between the secondary school and the university is no 13

longer necessary, and it is being phased out. Further research will help to validate its assumption. Secondary- education in the Cross River State of Nigeria is neither free nor compulsory (9, p. 298). It is hoped that a historical review of secondary education in the Cross River State of Nigeria will bring to light some of the old and new problems, and thus some major suggestions and recommendations may be made which could contribute to the solution of the problems.

Statement of the Problem The problem of this study is to complete a historical review of the educational system of the Cross River State of Nigeria with special emphasis on secondary education.

Purposes of the Study

The purposes of the study are 1. To describe the past and present system of secondary education in the Cross River State of Nigeria; 2. To describe the curriculum design and instructional activities of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria; 3. To describe the qualifications of secondary school teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria; 4. To examine the goals, achievements, failures and problems of secondary shcools in the Cross River State 14

of Nigeria with special consideration for the period from

1970 to 1981?

5. To draw conclusions and make recommendations for

improvement of the secondary educational system in the

Cross River State of Nigeria.

Research Questions

Specifically, this study will explore the following

questions.

1. What were the purposes of traditional education

in the Cross River State of Nigeria before the introduc-

tion of western education?

2. What are the current purposes of secondary

education in the Cross River State of Nigeria?

3. What is the nature of secondary curriculum and

co-curriculum activities in the Cross River State of

Niger ia?

4. Who attends secondary schools in the Cross River

State of Nigeria?

5. What are the qualifications of secondary school

teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria?

6. How is secondary education financed in the

Cross River State of Nigeria?

7. Which individuals or groups influence the initia-

tion of educational policies in the Cross River State of

Nigeria and to what degree? 15

8. What is the influence of selected individuals or groups on the development of educational policies in the

Cross River State of Nigeria after policies have been proposed?

9. What is the influence of selected individuals or groups on the final approval of educational policies in the Cross River State of Nigeria?

10. What future plans are under way in the Cross

River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth, and improvement in the secondary education programme?

11. As a result of this study, what recommendations might contribute to the improvement of secondary education programmes in the Cross River State of Nigeria?

Definition of Terms

Terms used in this study are defined as follows.

Secondary grammar school.—This secondary school is designed for children thirteen through seventeen years of age who are college-bound. The programme takes five years to complete with a strong academic bias, in the English tradition, leading to the West African School Certificate

Examination (19, p. 158).

Secondary commercial school.—A secondary school designed for children thirteen through seventeen years of age who are career-bound. It is characterized by 16

instruction in commercial vocational subjects. It is therefore a kind of vocational school from which graduates go immediately to work (19, p. 158).

Secondary technical school.—A secondary school designed for children thirteen through seventeen years of age who are career-bound. It is a kind of vocational school where graduates go immediately to work as technicians in government departments.

Comprehensive secondary school.--A secondary school designed for children thirteen through seventeen years of age. The school has each of the programmes that are offered in secondary grammar schools, secondary commercial and secondary technical schools.

Chairman.—This is the chief administrative officer of the state school board that oversees the welfare of secondary schools and teacher training colleges in the

Cross River State of Nigeria. By the American pattern, he is the state superintendent of schools.

State School Board.—This is the board appointed by the Cross River State of Nigeria Ministry of Education that employs and assigns teachers at the post-primary school level. This is similar to the state school board of an American school system. 17

Educated Nigerians.—The term is interpreted to include all Nigerians who complete either the first six years of training in primary schools and obtain Nigerian

First School Leaving Certificate at the end of the six years; those Nigerians, who, after obtaining their First

School Leaving Certificate further their education for five years in secondary schools and obtain the West

African School Certificate after a successful completion of their programmes; and Nigerians who have University education and obtain either a bachelor^, master^, or doctoral, degree (7, p. 41).

Local government area•—This is a geographically delineated unit divided into subdivisions for administrative convenience. A comparable term in the United States of America is the county (2, p. 10).

National certificate of education.—A post-secondary professional teaching diploma awarded after three years of satisfactory work.

General certificate of education.—This is a certification of academic achievement administered by the West

African examination council offered in two tiers:

"ordinary" and "advanced" levels--grade 12 and junior college graduate equivalents in the United State of

America respectively (2, p. 10). 18

Delimitations of the Study

The present study was limited to Cross River State of Nigeria because generalizations to all nineteen states in Nigeria would be meaningless, as the system of secondary education in each of the nineteen states is unique.

The study was also limited to the materials available through the United States Library of Congress in Washing- ton, D.C., U.S.A., the British Library, London, of which the British Museum is a part, the leading United States universities connected with the development of education in

Nigeria, the Ministry of Education of Cross River State of

Nigeria, and the Nigerian universities. The study was also limited to the materials available through government publications, educational laws and decrees, unpublished theses and dissertations, articles in the professional journals, reports of UNESCO, Nigerian educational research institutes, the Nigerian Chronicle (the Cross River State of Nigeria Daily Newspaper), and the Nigerian Daily Times

(Nigerian Daily Newspaper). The study was also limited to the materials available through the World Bank study of Nigerian Education, and interviews.

Cross River State of Nigeria was selected for this study because it exhibits many of the characteristics of the educational systems in those nations classified by economists as "developing nations." Also it faces 19

problems in human resource development similar to those that other developing nations face.

Background and Significance of the Study

This study is concerned with a concise but broad historical review of secondary education in Cross River

State of Nigeria. The relevant literature is replete with references to the Nigerian system of education and the problems facing the system. An analysis of the historical evaluation of the federation reveals the forces underlying Nigeria's problems to include the following: sociocultural and religious diversity, the piecemeal acquisition and administration of different areas of the country, and certain aspects of public policy in the colonial period (3, p. 9).

Nigeria is characterized by social, cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity. The piecemeal acquisition of the country by the British and the system of indirect administration served to maintain the identity of each of the regions, so that local centre of leadership and loyalty solidified before political independence. Certain aspects of public policy, for example, the policy of restricting Christian missionary activity in the north while giving free access to missionary initiative in the south, contributed to uneven social and educational development between the north and south 20

and resulted in interregional tensions (14, pp. 238-239).

The effect of the British influence on the education of

Nigerians has been a subject of much discussion (1). A need arose for studies in this area so that educationists would be aware of the particular characteristics associated with the development of education in Cross River State of

Nigeria. Such studies would aid educationists in their endeavour to lead the young nation at the local, state and federal levels, to examine the purposes, goals, and limitations of secondary school set-up in Cross River

State of Nigeria and thus reveal the weaknesses and problems of the system, and to make available any suggestions concerning the improvement of the secondary education system in Cross River State of Nigeria.

Research Design

This study was designed to review the history of secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria.

Thus, it was a descriptive research.

Data were collected, evidence was synthesized in order to establish the facts pertaining to the study, and conclusions were drawn concerning the past and present.

Finally suggestions were made regarding the secondary education system in Cross River State of Nigeria. 21

Summary

The preceding paragraphs provided the following: a brief political history of Nigeria and that of Cross River

State of Nigeria, a statement of the problem, the purposes of the study, questions to be investigated, the definition of major terms, limitations of the study, a brief background and significance of the study and the research design.

The next chapter contains the development of major concepts and a review of related literature. Chapter

Three deals in detail with traditional education in Cross

River State of Nigeria. Chapter Four is a description of the primary and secondary education systems in Cross River

State of Nigeria from 1970 to 1981. Chapter Five contains the findings, conclusions and recommendations. A general bibliography is appended. CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Adeyinka, A. A., "Impact of Secondary School Education in the Western State of Nigeria," Comparative Education, 9 (October, 1973), 151-155.

2. Ahuwan, Abasiya Magaji, "Needs Assessment: An Analysis of Institutional Goals in Post-primary Schools in Nigeria with Special Reference to Kaduna State," unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1981.

3. Ajala, Oyewole Olayioye, "A Historical Review of Secondary Education in Western Nigeria: 1842- 1976," unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1977.

4. Biobaku, S. 0., "Africa's Needs and Africa's Universi- ties," West African Journal of Education, Vol. viii, No. 2.

5. Coombs, Philip H., What is Educational Planning? UNESCO, International Institute of Educational Planning, 1970.

6. Crowder, Michael, A Short History of Nigeria, New York, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., Publishers, 1966.

7. Ekpenyong, Jackson J., "Development of Educational Institution and Social Change in Nigeria: 1953 1973," unpublished master's thesis, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1976.

8. Ekpo, Koko Okon Akpan, "Qualifications of Secondary School Teachers in English-speaking Africa—An Overview," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carolina Christian University, Chester, Virginia, 1980.

9. Encyclopedia Americana, 1970, Vol. 1, pp. 298-299.

10. Fafunwa, Alliu Babatunde, "An Historical Analysis of the Development of Higher Education in Nigeria," doctoral dissertation, New York Univeristy, 1955.

22 23

11. Federal Military Government of Nigeria, Supplement of Official Gazette of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 61, No. 4 (January 24, 1974—Part A), by Federal Ministry of Information, Lagos, Nigeria.

12. Floyd, Barry, Eastern Nigeria: A Geographical Review, London, Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 196 9.

13. Havelock, R. G. and Huberman, A. M., Solving Educa- tional Problems; The Theory and Reality of Innovation in Developing Countries, UNESCO, Switzerland, 1972.

14. Ibim, Geoffrey Mark, "Federal Government and the Development of Education in Nigeria: 1951-1965," University of California, Los Angeles, 1968.

15. Ibiok, Joseph F. D., "The Development of a Model Plan for Evaluating Higher Education Planning in Nigeria," unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1980.

16. Ighoavodha, Frederick J. 0., "Keynote Address Pre- sented to the Nigerian Students Union, Denton Chapter, Denton, Texas, during the Nigerian Independence Anniversary celebration, October 4, 1980.

17. Kirk-Greene, A. H. M., "Who Coined the Name Nigeria?" West Africa, December 22, 1956.

18. Knezevich, Stephen J., Administration of Public Education, New York, Harper and Row, Publishers, 1969.

19. Lewis, L. J., Society Schools and Progress in Nigeria, Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1965.

20. Morphet, E. L., Jesser, D. L., and Ludka, A. P., Planning and Providing for Excellence in Educa- tion, New York, Citation Press, 1972.

21. Nigeria Diary, Federal Ministry of Information, Lagos, Nigeria, 1973.

22. Nigeria Year Book, A "Daily Times" of Nigeria publication, 1979. 24

23. Nigeria Year Book, A "Daily Times" of Nigeria publication, 1980.

24. Obe, Ad'obe, "Special Report on Education," West Africa, West Africa Publishing Company Ltd., London, (September 22, 1980), 1819.

25. Ojiako, James 0., Thirteen Years of Military Rule, A "Daily Times" of Nigeria Publication, Lagos, Nigeria, 1979.

26. Paxton, John, Editor, The Stateman's Yearbook: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1875-1976, New York, St. Martini's Press, 1975, pp. 459-460.

27. West Africa Magazine, West Africa Publishing Company, Ltd., London, (October 24, 1977), 2181.

28. West Africa Magazine, September 29, 1980, p. 1895. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

The Cross River State of Nigeria is one of the educa- cationally backward states in Nigeria. This fact has been accepted by successive administrations of the state since its inception. At the commencement of the third state development plan (1975-1980), the State's education under development was still clearly manifest in acute shortage of high-level and skilled man-power, particularly in the administrative, professional and technical cadres, as well as in low enrollment ratio, particularly at the secondary and tertiary levels of education (6, p. 48).

This situation would appear to have arisen and persisted principally as a result of past neglect of the geographical area now known as the Cross River State of Nigeria in the provision of educational facilities and economic infrastructures for the economic well-being of its inhabitants (6, p. 48).

The history of Nigeria necessitates a need for assessing its educational goals. Ogunsola (36, pp. 105-

127) has synthesized and revealed four distinct eras in the development of education in Nigeria from its

25 26

inception: 1890 to 1925—The Period of Experimentation,

1925 to 1948--The Period of Attempted Reorganization,

1948 to 1966 The Period of Consolidation and Independence,

and 1966 to present—The Period of Evolution of National

Policy on Education. Okafor (37, pp. 1-5) further

explained that these periods each had its organizational,

racial or other imperatives which determined the specific

objectives it pursued.

The dilemma that faces educational planners in

Nigeria has been articulated by Ndamukong (27, pp. 8-12),

where he stated, "We have reached a point where many roads

converge and it is vitally important for the future of our

educational system that we choose the correct road forward."

Other contributions about the educational problems were

cited by George (17, pp. 54-56), stating that the problem

over current trends in education was due to ineffective

planning and coordination. He emphasized that education

should endow pupils with the capacity to contribute

effectively as citizens and workers in social development.

Purpose and Value of Educational Planning

Ibiok (19, p. 15), writing in 1980, stated that before 1950 the term "educational planning" was scarcely used, but that in the last twenty-five years the popularity of that term has soared. He further stated that people who are concerned with the future of education all over 27

the world are showing such renewed interest and concern

for the orderly development of educational systems that a

large body of professional literature has developed and is

roughly doubling each year. He emphasized that educational

planning, as it is known today, is not only growing rapidly

but its discussions are being extended to cover a wider

range of topics, and questions, such as economic develop-

ment, manpower, curriculum, teaching techniques, finance,

and fiscal policy. For our purposes, the function of

educational planning may be defined as a process of study

and foresight which generates action to achieve desired educational outcomes (19, p. 16).

Coombs warns that whatever educational planning is,

it is certainly not a miracle drug for aiding educational systems nor, conversely, is it a devil's potion that breeds only evil (8, p. 14). What seems to give educational planning such popularity among political leaders, legis- lators, administrators, teachers, students, and assorted citizens according to Ibiok (19, p. 16) is the common recognition of educational planning as a key tool of economic and social development.

Poignant argues that education should have a privileged position in the national plan because it trains future workers and aims at raising production and the standard of living, thereby improving every aspect of 28

human society (40, p. 47). He says that education is a

long-term national investment and that the future active

population of a country will derive the benefit of an

expanding flow of better-educated and trained young

people. This, he says will gradually transform the

intellectual and vocational structure of the population.

The higher skills of the active population will make

it possible for production techniques to be constantly

improved and for the steady progress of economic expansion.

He concludes that "the advantages of this type of investment are not restricted to the sort economists try to calculate, but are felt in all spheres, whether social, domestic, cultural or democratic" (40, p. 47).

Several other authors arguing in the same vein, trace the relationship of education and educational planning to economic development. Fernandez (15) says that educational planning has a special place in national development. After reviewing the planning activities in Latin

America and elsewhere, he makes a rather strong ideologi- cal justification of educational planning as a tool of development.

McCusken (25) made a study of the educational system of the Republic of China in 1962 and found that it played a significant role in the economic development of the

Republic. Rodriguez (41) studied the long-term needs 29

for economic development of Puerto Rico and concluded that

the system must be expanded to meet the commonwealth's

trained manpower requirements and recommended the

establishment of an educational planning body. Vaizey

(47) in consideration of education as an economic

phenomenon supports the manpower approach to educational

planning. He sees a direct relationship between educa-

tion and economic development. Dennison (11), attempted

to measure the contribution of education to economic growth

with particular reference to the United States. The

Japanese Ministry of Education acknowledges the "quanti-

tative and qualitative" contributions of education to the

economic growth of Japan, relating this contribution to

the increase in public expenditure in education (21).

As Ibiok points out, the common notion among authors

seems to be that nations should increase the proportion of their resources devoted to education because of the relationship of education to national development and economic growth (19, p. 18). He further states that educational systems all over the world seem to be in the "man—power business" because they are called upon to meet the ever expanding and increasingly sophisticated human resource requirements of national economies. It should however be pointed out that no studies have yet revealed a clear- cut casual relationship between the volume of investment 30

in education and successful national development (19,

p. 19). As Harbison points out, education of the wrong

kind may even impede growth (18, p. 33). Thus, the single

most important reason suggested in the literature for

educational planning for both industrialized and under-

developed nations is for efficient allocation of resources

to produce the needed manpower to help keep the economy

going.

No longer is education viewed as a non-productive

sector of the economy which absorbs "consumption expendi-

ture" but it is now viewed as an essential "investment

expenditure" for economic growth. Coombs observes,

Wearing this impressive new investment label, education is able to make a more effective claim on national budgets. But to justify the claim, educators themselves would have to become more manpower- minded. They would have to plan and try to govern their student intakes and outputs to fit the pattern of manpower requirements certified by the economists to be necessary for the economy's good health (8, p. 22) .

The literature, though thin on the relationship of education and educational planning to social development, as distinct from economic development, does have some arguments in favour of educational planning for non- economic reasons. According to Ibiok, man is a social animal, but he is tending more and more to be an economic robot, and therefore education unquestionably must 31

contribute to the vital non-economic dimensions and forces

of national development (19, p. 20).

Authors with a background in education and sociology,

nurtured on the liberal, humanistic tradition, prefer

to argue that without planning, the educational systems

continue to leave large reserves of ability in the popu-

lation educationally underdeveloped. They prefer to

fight for bigger budgets and more investment in education

on higher ground, arguing that education is the right of

every person who can benefit from it (19, p. 20). In other

words, the moral conception of education in the twentieth

century is the principle of formal equality of educational

opportunity.

The OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development) has sponsored several studies on the social objectives in educational planning. Anderson (28, p. 31),

Vaizey (47), Weinberg (48), and Hayward (28, p. 202) deal with the concept of education as a tool of social development and have carried out several studies to support equal educational privilege and opportunity. They see a need for expansion of educational opportunity and observe that

"educational expansion has not led automatically to more equal participation as between the social strata" (38, p. 26) . 32

Ibiok (19, p. 21) points out that the nature of a modern

industrial society requires that citizens undergo an

education which is essentially intellectual in content

in order that they may become useful citizens. Thompson

and Fogel (44, p. 16) state that universities cannot

determine social mobility as such; but they can contribute

to it, and that in dealing with education we are dealing

with "values."

Curie (10) and Bernier and Williams (3) make the

same non-material argument for educational planning, with

Bernier stating that education then, beyond all other devices of human origin, is the great equalizer of the conditions of men the balance-wheel of the social machinery ... it gives each man the independence and the means by which he can resist the selfishness of other men.

It does better than to disarm the poor of their hostility towards the rich: it prevents being poor. . . . Moral education is a primal necessity of social existence

(3, p. 274) .

The thinking among supporters of the social objectives of education then is that if education helps the economy's slave (19, p. 21), educational planning should aim at developing the recipients first and foremost as individuals and not as a manpower statistic (19, p. 21). 33

According to Ibiok (19, p. 21), both the economic

development and the social development proponents agree

that in order to cope with the concrete and enormous tasks

that face educational systems all over the world, we must

approach them "planfully." He further points out that

sociologists and others concerned with social development,

have some very convincing arguments, but they still have

some distance to cover in translating social and human

development objectives into sufficiently specific terms

to be operationally useful for educational planning and programming.

Ibiok (19, p. 22) then concludes by stating that systematic educational planning is necessary for the following reasons:

1. To cope with the increase in student numbers provoked by demographic expansions,

2. The almost universal acceptance of the principle of equality of educational opportunity for all,

3. The need for skilled manpower for economic growth,

4. The need to minimize wasteful imbalance within the educational systems and to allocate and utilize available resources efficiently and effectively,

5. To alleviate many non-financial bottlenecks like shortage of staff, faculty, and physical facilities, 34

6. Long-range planning provides a commonality of understanding about the mission and goals of the system (and institutions) and the strategies to implement them,

7. Planning helps direct energies away from the non- essentials to the essential activities,

8. It makes evaluation possible in objective terms simultaneously with implementation,

9. Planning assists in generating funds by strength- ening the institutional and systemwide case with the granting agencies, governmental and private,

10. It helps to ensure the survival and growth of the system and component institutions.

Traditional Education in Nigeria According to Fafunwa (14, p. 17), traditional education in Nigeria differed from place to place chiefly because of social, economic, and geographical imperatives. Ajala (2, p. 15) points out that the education of the child in Nigerian society began in infancy, just as was true in European, Asiatic, or American society. The history of Nigerian education is a reflection of the country's richness in culture and tradition. Research indicates that some sorts of systems of education had been in existence in Nigeria as early as 1472 before the arrival of European influence on the Coast of Africa south of the Sahara. This was not only an important source of 35

inspiration to the people but a remarkable portal for the

Europeans to channel their ideas and new philosophies.

Since the people had already embraced some forms of

education, what came with the Europeans was the continua-

tion and extension of what had been known and accepted.

Through time many of the attributes of the early education

had been modified, altered, and changed, yet, the present

system of education in Nigeria has never been completely

divested of those natural elements which were responsible

in alerting the people to act in consort in the past in

response to a given situation. Even with the change in

educational orientations in this era, culture still

exercises no less influence in the social and economic

spheres in the country. The Nigerian value system today

is nothing more than the redefinition and the extension

of what existed before based on the context of today's

societal demands. The parents were responsible for the

early childhood education of their children (14, p. 18).

Fafunwa identified what he called the Seven Cardinal Goals

of traditional education and stated that traditional

education was made up of the following features: Physical

training, development of character, respect for elders and peers, intellectual training, the poetic and the Prophe-

tic apsects, vocational training, community participation,

and cultural heritage (14, pp. 20-49). Fafunwa concluded 36

by stating that traditional education, in spite of criti-

cisms by European and American writers, was not any more

conservative or any less progressive than any other

system (14, p. 48). He added that there was much that the

Nigerian educational system as it existed in 1974, could

learn from the traditional educational system (14, p. 49).

Njoku (33) points out that the first school a child

attended was the home, and early childhood education was

entirely in the hands of the mother. She further states

that precolonial Nigerian society stressed educating for

practical needs of life and for full participation in

all the tribal activities—political, social, economic,

and religious. Parents, relatives, elders, and peer

groups were in essence teachers according to her (33).

Each person knew the customs and traditions of the tribe

and generously cooperated in the education of the children

(2). Research indicates that what the child was taught

was meaningful to him. It prepared him for active

participation in all the activities of the community.

All of his education related directly to his environment

(33, pp. 11-37) .

Research indicates that prior to the arrival of

Europeans in Nigeria, the young were trained to uphold customs and tradition, to respect natural laws, and in the art of trade. The mission of education in existence was 37

to produce good community leaders knowledgeable in civic

responsibilities. Thus the important challenge to the

educational system was the promotion of social loyalties

and of preserving the ideals of institutions of faith

of the time. The functions of education at that time,

was simply that of sophisticating the young minds in the

morals and in the ethical conducts of the time. There-

fore, all efforts of the educational endeavour were to

promote status quo.

However, from this simple beginning the greater

things grew. The formal educational system which came

to Nigeria with the coming of European missionaries

became established. The great test of it all was the acceptance of the change in orientations with little or no resistance. This situation came about because the nature of change that came was incremental according to research. Research further indicates that what was in existence was never thrown away as unfit to make way for the new start. Rather what existed before was accepted and blended into the new system through gradual modi- fication.

Educational Developments During the British Rule

It was trade in slaves that brought North Africa,

Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria together with the 38

Europeans in early part of sixteenth century. The rapidly

increasing demand for slaves as West Indian and tropical

American plantations production began to boom, encouraged

the Europeans to have a close contact with Nigeria, where

they found a large number of slaves they needed (13, p. 6).

Ekpenyong (13, p. 6) points out that, in the 1620s, the

number of African slaves reaching the Americas was about

7,000 to 8,000 a year. In the last quarter of the seven-

teenth century the average American import of slaves was

25,000, and the total number of slaves imported during

that century was estimated at about 1,300,000. In the

1780s, 70,000 slaves were being landed in the Americas

each year (49, p. 768). The volume of slave trade in

West Africa grew rapidly from its inception around 1500

to its peak in the eighteenth century. About 6.3 million

slaves were shipped from West African slave ports and more

than 4.5 million slaves from 1701 to 1810 (28, p. 48).

Ekpenyong (13, p. 7) writing in 1976 pointed out

that missionaries began to go to Nigeria in order to educate and Christianize the people and to help check the adverse effects of the slave trade. He went on to say that when the slave trade was legally stopped by the

British government in 1807, both the missionaries and the

British government worked hand in hand in establishing schools and legitimate trade in Nigeria. According to 39

Ekpenyong (13, p. 7), the legitimate trade (or non-slave

trade) included such commodities as palm oil, palm kernels

and ivory, which the Europeans exchanged for guns, gin and

rum.

Ekpenyong (13, p. 8) points out that the efforts

of the Christian missionaires were more intensive than

those of the non—slave traders. Through their extensive

evangelical activities, the missionaries played a very

critical role in the field of education in Nigeria.

Unlike the legitimate traders, they did not limit their

endeavours to port towns, rail or river lines or commercial

centres; they penetrated into the most remote areas in

the interior with the determination to remain there until

Christianity was firmly established (13, p. 8).

In the mid-1940s, the Wesleyan Methodist missionaries

and the Church Missionary Society began work in Southern

Nigeria. During the next half—century, these pioneer missionaries were followed by the Church of Scotland,

Baptist, Presbyterian, Episcopalians and the Roman Catho- lics in 1900. Research indicates that, by the end of

World War I, fifteen European missionaries and American evangelical groups were operating in the southern pro- vinces and the middle belt of Nigeria. Coleman noted that, more than 600 European missionaries assisted by nearly 5,000 Nigerians, had established close to 3,000 40

churches, and Christendom claimed more than 800,000

communicants by the end of World War I (7, p.. 94). Coleman

points out that the impact of missionaries was first felt

by the Yoruba, Ibo and the Ibibio-Efik (now in Cross River

State of Nigeria) ethnic groups (7, p. 94). According to

him, although the Ibo and Ibibio-Efik groups had very

few converts between 1880 and 1885, the number of converts

grew rapidly from 514,395 in 1920 to 3,915,500 in 1953, and

50 percent of their population was Christianized. Because

of the impact of Islam among the Muslim North group, there

were no Christian missionaries in that region.

The Yorubas had been exposed to Western education

at a much earlier date than any other group in Nigeria.

They were the first ethnic group in Nigeria that had many religious stations and Christians as early as 1875 (42, p. 66) .

The Ibibio-Efik groups in the Cross River State of

Nigeria are the next ethnic groups that felt the impact of missionaries during the later part of the nineteenth century (13, p. 11). The basic social unit among the

Ibibio-Efik has been a single extended family or a kindred composed of several families.

The British government in Lagos Colony first concerned itself with education in 1877, when it approved an annual grant to support mission schools. In 1886, the 41

administration of Lagos Colony passed an education

ordinance that granted the government of the Colony some

control over mission schools (28, p. 177). After a decade,

(1906) about 126 primary schools with an enrollment of

about 11,872 pupils and one secondary school (King's

College in Lagos) with about 20 pupils had been established

in Southern Nigeria (32, p. 169).

Crowder contends that the missionaries, by educating

the Nigerians, played a very powerful role in changing

their social and traditional status (9, p. 132). According

to Crowder, before the end of the nineteenth century, education in Nigeria had been conducted in various parts of the nation.

Coleman (7, p. 107), writing in 1958, pointed out that in most cases, education in Nigeria was based on reading, writing and calculating in the English language.

He further stated that, the curriculum later included

British Empire history, European geography and some practical courses in gardening, sanitation, and personal hygiene. It is regretable that African history was considered either non-existent or unimportant by those well- meaning teachers, who emphasized European wars, Colonial campaigns of pacification, the evolution of the British

Constitution, and the growth of the British Empire (7, p. 115). Most readings in English literature were taken 42

from Shakespeare and the Bible. Thus, it is quite common

m Nigeria today to find semi-educated people, doing

menial jobs, who can name the principal English cities,

quote the Bible, and recite Hamlet, but who have little

knowledge of the geography, proverbs, folk tales, or

prominent leaders and historical events of their own

country (7, p. 115).

The importance of the missionary monopoly of educa-

tion lies in the evangelical approach of mission schools.

These schools, and perhaps mission hospitals and clinics,

were powerful instruments for rapid Christianization (and

hence Europeanization) of the Nigerians (7, p. 113).

In Cross River State of Nigeria, there were very few

schools during this period, most of which belonged to

popular religious bodies like Catholics, Methodists,

Presbyterians, Qua Iboe, the Salvation Army and a few

others (6, p. 9). Buell (4, p. 728) contends that in

Cross River State of Nigeria as elsewhere in British

Africa, education was left mostly to the missionary organizations which established village schools, under village teachers, primarily with a view to training the natives in the principles of the Christian religion. He points out that at Calabar, the capital of Cross River

State of Nigeria, the Scottish Mission maintained an industrial school of high order, the Hope-Waddell Training 43

Institution (4, p. 728). Writing about the Hope Waddell

Training Institution, Oduah and Jennings (35, p. 135)

point out that this institution is the oldest secondary

school in Nigeria. Its former principal, Sir Francis

Ibiam, became the Governor of Eastern Nigeria in 1960 (35, p. 135).

The government was willing to leave the bulk of

primary education to the missionary bodies, which it

assisted by grants-in-aid. Such schools were called

"assisted" schools (4, p. 728). Buell (4, p. 728) points

out that an education code prescr ibed the subjects to be

taught by such schools. According to him, the determina-

tion as to whether or not a school should be given a grant

was based upon the report of a government inspector. In

computing the standard of efficiency, the inspector was

guided by the ratio of instructors to pupils, the manners

and cleanliness of the pupils, the examination, and the

adequacy of the school plant (4, p. 728). These inspectors

were frequently criticized as being unfair. To any infant

school satisfying the qualifications, a grant of six or

eight, or twelve shillings for each unit of average

attendance over the age of four years was paid; in the primary schools, the grants ranged from fifteen to thirty shillings; and in secondary schools, from thirty shillings 44

to three pounds. Likewise, the government made similar

grants to the salaries of native teachers (24, p. 456)

Nsima, in his article stated that the original

philosophy of most schools in Cross River State of Nigeria

was centred on character training and learning the three

R s (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic). The students were

tied down on the learning of subject matter. Group

activities were regarded as a menace to religious prac-

tices/ since most schools were church-related (34).

Hollis A. Moore, Jr., writing in 1954, stated that

only 10 percent of Nigerian children were attending any

school. There was also the problem of getting girls into

schools (26). The federal government of Nigeria began

free primary education in Lagos in 1955. The government of the Eastern Region (of which Cross River State of

Nigeria was a part) began a similar programme in 1957 but had to reinstate the requirement for fees in 1958

(28, p. 180).

Despite the expansion of educational facilities, in

1955, Nigeria was only educating 800 undergraduates and

12,000 secondary school students a year, and most of these came from Southern Nigeria (to which Cross River

State belongs). The need for more clerks, technicians, administrators and professionally qualified men like medical doctors and engineers, for employment both in 45

government service and in commerce, was a constant problem

m the post-war years and severely hampered the execution

of governmental development plans (31, p. 42). in its

expansion of educational opportunities, the government

was submitted to great pressure by the nationalists, who

thought of education as a panacea for most of their

country's ills. These nationalists, once they began

to assume control of government policy, were determined

to ensure that there would be places in schools for all

Nigerian children (39).

Educational Development After Political Independence

On the achievement of political independence in

1960, Nigeria was faced with the paradoxical situation

that her rapid but uneven expansion of educational

facilities had confronted her with two problems: on the

one hand the governments had to decide what to do with

the vast number of unemployed school-leavers, and on the

other they had quickly to provide the higher level of

manpower—administrators, professional personnel, techni-

cians, teachers, officers in the police and army and the

judicial services which had previously been supplied by

the Colonial power and without which they could not pursue their ambitious development schemes (18, pp. 210-16). To consider the latter problem, the Ashby 46

Commission on Higher Education was appointed in 1959

submitting its report in 1960, in which it advocated an

expansion of educational facilities at the secondary,

technical and university level that would cost the

federal, and regional governments nearly 50 percent of

their recurrent budgets (20). Furthermore, it insisted

not only that the primary educational system at that time

be maintained in the South, but that primary education be

extended in the North, so that in fact there would result

an even greater output of primary school-leavers seeking

jobs that did not exist. This improvement of educational

facilities was accompanied by the important if less

spectacular extension of other social services. Hospitals more than doubled in the post-war period. A teaching hospital was established at Ibadan, the most advanced in tropical Africa (8, p. 308). Crowder points out that this teaching hospital even had departments for the training of psychiatric and medical social workers (9, p. 308).

Kimble in his research in 1960, on Nigerian educational development in particular and in tropical Africa as a whole, found out that the attitudes of African parents toward the education of their daughters were unfavorable to white man's schools because several aspects of teaching in those schools dominated by the whites did not conform to the original Africans' way of life— 47

attitudes toward land and Kin, valuation of leisure and

regard for the world of spirits. Kimble says:

• . . most parents contend that all a girl needs to indus?rvSin aS cleanllness, good manners, capable ofS f eaching^her .' ^y^e^s^'

lessadocilePandl1:fflf lndeed the^ might not make her wifely duties *(2^ ^'loo) ^ P-f°~ <* her

Kopytoff, after his research in 1965 on the reasons

why missionary educational progress was delayed in Nigeria

during the first half of the nineteenth century,concluded:

The missionaries were reluctant to send prospective

education^ould^ean^reat^xpendi turenforhthet^8^r Mass -» Gallaway and Musone contend that inadequacy of qualified teachers to teach the child is the main problem

facing the Nigerian School Systems;unless there are well qualified teachers in Nigerian schools, the children will still live in their traditional ways and no social changes can be transmitted into the society. These researchers found that, the enrollment throughout Nigerian schools increased rapidly. Gallaway and Musone contend:

"r^nuaJ^rof^T!! the federati°n increased at W showing increases of 19.5 percent inthe^North Til percent in the West and 14.4 percent in the East .'. 48

The scarcity of adequately qualified teachers was obviously one of the main problems (16, p m"

In 1969 Yesufu conducted a research on the Nigerian

school system and its development. He noticed that the

traditional educational pattern introduced by the European

missionaries has contributed in no small measure to the

failure of social and economic progress in Nigeria. Yesufu writes:

process of change is partly due to the fact t-hat- many of the African leaders are attemptfng to solve their problems with an antiquated tool, which in ^ ™ education

Recent literature on social change and Nigerian

education indicates that Nigeria's educational system

today strongly advocates major social changes in the

secondary school curricula. Ekpenyong (13, p. 37),

writing in 1976 stated that, in the past, secondary

school curricula dealt with non-technical subjects such as

the teaching of English language and its grammatical structures, computations involving heavy numbers applied to the "four rules" namely, mechanical addition, sub- traction, multiplication and division. According to

Ekpenyong, who is a sociologist/anthropologist, the modern educational system should teach environmental subjects that relate to the lives of Nigerians. These subjects 49

should include agriculture in the rural area, technical

subjects that would alleviate the problem of unskilled

workers in the urban areas, social sciences that would

enable the Nigerian citizens to interact socially within

the community and to emphasize social and cultural

development in the near future (13, p. 38). Tims, (1974,

after studying the educational system of Nigeria, sees

the need for a change in the secondary school curriculum and suggests:

federa]',n/^efPandin9 secondary education, both ederal and state investment should concentrate on increasing facilities for the teaching of science related ' • • Science should be elated to the local environment and the academic and' * be adoPted to emphasize the social,

n ft?? development of the individual v(45, P. OO). '

In 1966, the latest period for which reliable country-

wide statistics were available, children attended classes

in 14,907 primary schools (43). Although this figure

indicated a 3.8 percent reduction in primary schools

since 1960, it probably reflected consolidations of smaller

schools (28, p. 180). By 1968 enrolment had risen to

an estimated 3.1 million pupils, or about 30 percent of

all children of primary school age. Voluntary agencies- missions, private individuals, or community organizations- provided schooling for various segments of the primary age group in each of the states. Most primary-level 50

teachers were Nigerians, and many of them had little more

than a primary education themselves (28, p. 181).

The absence of a uniform system in teacher education

in Nigeria is a great handicap to the nation's educational

policy and development. The chairman of the Committee

on National Policy on Education, Professor Sanya Onabamiro

said recently that this situation has introduced dis-

parity in the quantity and quality of teachers turned out

yearly by the various states of the Federation (29, p. 16).

Answering a question on an NTA (Nigerian Television

Authority) Ibadan programme--'"X-Ray," Professor Onabamiro said:

A uniform system m teachers' education might soon was1^10?0 ln uhe Country- He said his committee was not happy with its findings during a recent tour first schoolVn thS C°Untry when ifc discovered that irst school leaving certificate holders were teach- (elenent«y school

According to Professor Onabamiro, (29, p. 16), the

quality of grade two teachers in the nineteen states of

the Federation was not adequate. Onabamiro, a renowned educationist, warned that the situation could jeopardize the Country's educational system as well as other areas of development (29, p. 16).

Professor Onabamiro who is also the chairman of the

Committee on Alternative Sources of Funding Education, in

Nigeria, hinted that, the proposed sixth form system for 51

post-primary institutions would be implemented as from the

1982/83 session. This system, he explained, would ensure

that students would undergo manual skill alongside with

academic work within the first three years (29, p. 16).

Those with academic aptitude would proceed to the senior

secondary schools while those versed in craftmanship

would proceed to technical secondary schools (29, p. 16).

Classes in the lower grades in the primary schools

are conducted in the predominant local language of the

area, and English is introduced usually in the third or

fourth year. Other subjects taught in the primary schools

are geography, history, arithmetic, nature study, hygiene,

cooking, needle work, handicrafts, religious studies,

physical education, handwriting, and drawing (28, p. 181).

A syllabus provided by the state government and keyed

to a Nigerian background is followed by each school.

Textbooks adapted to the Nigerian educational system

have already replaced earlier books of British origin

written for British pupils. The first School Leaving

Certificate (elementary school diploma) is awarded at the end of the programme and is a prerequisite for admission to secondary schools or teacher training institutions (28, pp. 181-182).

The Ministry of Education has responsibility for the overall development of education in Cross River State of 52

Nigeria. Following government's decision to take over all

schools in Cross River State of Nigeria (with the exception

of institutions such as Bible colleges and vocational

training institutions)the amount of responsibility for

the management and maintenance of standards has increased

tremendously in recent years (6, p. 1).

For effective administration of secondary schools

and teacher training colleges in Cross River State of

Nigeria, the state school board was established in 1969."

It was later established as a statutory board under Part V

of South Eastern State (now Cross River) education edict

No. 5 of 1975 (6, p. 41). The Cross River State school

board employs and assigns teachers to secondary and

teacher training institutions (6, p. 41). The chairman

is the statutory head of this board which oversees the

implementation of policies in secondary and teacher training institutions.

As was mentioned earlier, the overall administration and control of the education system in the Federal Republic of Nigeria is vested in each state's Ministry of Education.

Policy matters are largely handled by the Ministry of

Education which is also responsible for the inspection of schools, examinations, certification of teachers and finance. 53

With the rapid expansion of both primary and secondary

schools m Nigeria, the importance of the schools' inspec-

torate in ensuring the attainment and maintenance of uni-

form and high standards of education throughout the Country

cannot be overemphasized. The federal schools inspectorate

has offices in the nineteen states of the Federation (12,

p. 78). Efforts are currently being made to recruit

inspectors in subject areas of need such as technical

education, Arabic, agricultural science, home economics,

and Nigerian languages (12, p. 78).

The Fifth National Conference of Inspectors was held

m December 1979 with representatives from the nineteen

states Ministries of Education attending. The Conference considered through lectures, workshop, symposia and school visits, various ways in which inspectors can ensure quality- education in an ever increasing student population and over-enrolment of classes (12, p. 78).

The second major form of school inspections carried out during this period are full general inspection of schools. in these inspections, subject specialists carry out very detailed inspection of every aspect of the curriculum of selected schools for four days so that broad patterns of teaching and learning in different locations in the country are identified. This is most useful to state Ministries of Education in the formulation 54

of policies on major aspects of school management, organization and administration.

The report of the inspections also provides useful feedback on the physical facilities, resources, textbooks, training needs of teachers and school principals and on general school discipline.

The Joint Consultative Committee on Education (JCC) has approved the core-curriculum for primary school science produced by the science education unit of the Ministry of Education. its science equipment centre organised a workshop in Kaduna in 1979, with the main objecitve of training a group of qualified technicians from each state m the handling and training of laboratory assistants (12, p. 78). In-service workshops on the junior secondary mathematics syllabus were also organised by the science education unit on a zonal basis at five different centres: Ife, Lagos, Owerri, Kano and Jos (12, p. 78).

In Cross River State of Nigeria, the objective of the p ogramme was to provide enough classroom accommodation, equipment and facilities for all children who would attain the age of five as of September 1975. In the first year of the programme, the number of children of primary school age in Cross River State of Nigeria was estimated at 585,228 (6, p. 5). 55

The Universal Primary Education Programme has been successfully launched and steps have been taken, and are being taken, to amend shortcomings. Plans have reached advanced stages for the provision of junior secondary schools in each state to absorb about 40 to 60 percent of the UPE products in September, 1982. This is in accordance with the new educational structure of the country's six years of primary, three years' junior, three years' senior secondary schools and four years' university education (46, p. 2120).

Though UPE at primary level was successfully launched, there were, of course, difficulties and problems- particular ly in the areas of manpower, equipment and financial resources needs (46, p. 2120). When the programme was introduced in September, 1976, some classrooms were conducted under the shade of trees, in community halls, temporary thatched huts and so on, in order to make up for the short falls. Tables and chairs, textbooks and other writing materials were not adequate (46, p. 2120).

The greatest impediment to the success of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme, is teacher production. Efforts have, therefore been intensified to produce trained teachers of all categories. At present, there are 250 Grade II teacher colleges in Nigeria with a total enrolment of 240,000 (12, p. 78). There are also 56

50 institutions offering Nigerian Certificate of Educa- tion (NCE) courses in different subject combinations with a total student population of 3,500 (12, p. 78).

Increasing the supply of the teachers, on which

depends the success of UPE and Secondary education is

being undertaken with vigour by all the governments of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (l, p. 1821).

At the moment, teacher education from the Grade II teachers' colleges up to the bachelor of education degree and Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) is free and at the federal government's expense (30, p. 32). in addition, the National Teacher's Institute (NTI) has been established in Kaduna state of Nigeria, to provide the much needed inservice course for teachers all over the country through postal tuition without the teachers necessarily leaving their classrooms. The immediate concern of the NTI, however, is the training of the untrained teachers who are still in the service (30, P. 31). The NTI is being expanded and strengthened for an effective implementation of its main function of upgrading the level and status of untrained teachers. The NTI, will in due course, take over the conduct of the Teachers Grade II Certificate examination (12, p. 78).

In Cross River State of Nigeria, the total number of postprimary schools increased more than three-fold, from 57

57 in 1971 to 193 in 1978 79. The highest increase of 97

between the two periods came from secondary grammar schools

(5, p. 2). There has been some remarkable progress in

enrollment. Between 1976-77 and 1978-79 school years,

enrollment increased by 62 percent, 68 percent, and 32

percent respectively for secondary grammar schools,

secondary commercial schools, and secondary technical

schools/trade centres (5, p. 2). As of the 1978-79

school year, the average number of pupils per teacher in

Cross River State stood at 1:30 for secondary grammer

school, 1:33 for secondary commercial school and 1:27 for

secondary technical school/trade centres. These ratios

fall short of the planned ratio of 1:26 envisioned in the

third Cross River State of Nigeria development plan (5,

P. 2).

Summary

A review of the literature indicated that Cross River

State of Nigeria is one of the educationally backward

states m the Federal Republic of Nigeria. At the

commencement of the Third State Development Plan (1975-

1980), the state's educational underdevelopment was still clearly manifest in the acute shortage of high-level and skilled man-power, particularly in the administrative, professional and technical cadres, as well as in low enrolment ratio, particularly at the secondary and tertiary 58

levels of education. The review of the literature revealed that there are four distinct eras in the development of education in Nigeria from its inception. In order of evolution they are (1) The Period of Experimentation, (2) The Period of Attempted Reorganization, (3) The Period of Consolidation, and (4) The Period of Evolution of National Policy on Education. The review of the literature indicated also that educational planning, economic and social development are interwoven.

The review of the literature also indicated that there was education in Nigeria before its contact with Europe. Children were thoroughly educated by the indigenous Nigerian parents and community leaders.

The review of the literature also indicated that when Nigeria became a colony of Great Britain, the British brought to that country the Western system of education. While the Colonial forces were establishing their foot-holds on the country, certain Christian missions were forging a link in the chain of civilization through their significant role in education in Nigeria. The Nigerian system of education during the British rule was designed to serve the needs and interests of the English and not necessarily the best interest of Nigeria.

During that time the educational system produced educated Nigerians destined to serve in a subordinate position as 59

clerks, artisans, assistant engineers, etc., under British supervision.

Since 1960, when Nigeria became independent, giant steps have been taken to develop the secondary schools. The number of students enroled in primary and secondary schools and of teachers has increased significantly every year, CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adenaike, Felix, "Exciting New Year," West Africa West Africa Publishing company LtdTT^L^nHorP' (September 22, 1980), 1821.

2. Ajala, Oyewole Olayioye, "A Historical Review of ?^°nJary Education in Western Nigeria: 1842- 1976, unpublished doctoral dissertation, North exas State University, Denton, Texas, 1977.

3. Bernier, Norman R. and Williams, Jack E., Education ±21 Liberation, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1973.

4. Buell Raymond Leslie, The Native Problem in Afr^, London, Frank Cass"lTc3TTTtd7rT965.

5- Cross River State of Nigeria Education Statistics Ministry of Economic Planning, Statistical ' Division, Calabar, Nigeria, May, 1980.

6* Cross River State of Nigeria Ministry of Education Handing Over Notes from the~Militarv Administration to the Cwm^MmTHstFiH^T mistry of Education, Calabar, Nigeria, 1979.

7. Coleman, J s. Nigeria: Background to Nationalism, Berkeley, University of California PT^ii";

8. Coombs, Philip H. , What I_s Educational Planning? Pans, UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning, 1970.

9. Crowder, M., A Short History of Nigeria, New York,

10 Curie, Adam, Planning for Higher Education in P|ii£tan, A Personal Case Study, Cambridge. Mass., Harvard Uhiversity Press, 1966.

11. Dennison Edward F The Sources of Economic Growth *§£ "Bited States and the AlternativeF~B^f^ T962 York' Committee for Economic Development,

60 61

12. Ebon^ Ma

13. Ekpenyong, Jackson J., "Development of Educational iq7q "U ^an Social Change in Nigeria: 1953- unpubll hed Stlit* n f master's thesis, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1976.

14. Fafunwa, Alliu Babatunde, History of Education in Nigeria, London, George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.,

15. Fernandez^H. Rafael, Planeaminen toy Ednr^inn, Caracas, Fundacion Editorial Escolar, 1962.

16. Callaway and Musone A., "Financing of Education in UNESc"'l969UCatl°nal DeveloPment in Africa,

17. George, B s..Education in Ghana, Department of Ma?ch^'l974?ati°n and Welfare Publication,

18 Harbison, F., Educational Planning and Human Resource Development, Paris, UNESCO, Int^rnational Institute for Welfare Planning, 1967. 19. Ibi°k^ Joseph F.E>. , "The Development of a Model Plan for Evaluating Higher Education Planning in Nigeria, unpublished doctoral dissertation North Texas State University, Denton, Texas!

20. Investment.in Education, The Report of the Commission . M school Certificate and Higher Education ^Q(;n 1^c^la' London: st- Clement's Press, Ltd I960, Sir Eric Ashby, Chairman.

21. Japan, Ministry of Education, Japan's Growth and Education, Tokyo, Ministry of EducatToH, Government of Japan, 1963.

2zo Kimble, George H. T. , Tropical Africa. New York, 1960. " '

23. Kopytoff, J. H., A Preface to Modern Nigeria, Madison, 1965. 62

24 Laws, Vol. in, p. 456>

25, McCusken, Henry F., and Robinson, Harry J., Educa- ti|23l I^logjnent: The Role of Luc^TShU

Menlo ParP ^.Economic Development of China. Tn2J°4- ? California, Stanford Research Institute, October, 1962.

26, Moor8' H* ^* Jr-f "Nigeria Looks to Schools Maro"i954?0nditi°nS'" Hatl°nS' Sch°°ls-

27 Ndairmkong, L* M. , "Education at the Crossroads," es t ^ 1 Cameroon Teachers Journal, Vol . JT Number 2, June7~19677~pp7"~8=l2.

28. Nelson Harold, and others, Area Handbook for Niaeria Office? 1972?'C" ' S-^e^iSHiHTPrTHtiKg2^'

29 — A Publication of the Cross River State Newspaper Corporation, Calabar, Nigeria, (January 19, 1982), p. 16. 30 "Nigeria Embarks on Educational Revolution," Nigeria 32 US Vo1* I' (July-September, 1917),

31, Nigeria Works it Out," Economist, (July 7, 1962),

32. Niven, Rex, Nigeria, London, Ernest Benn Ltd., 1967.

33. Njoku. Scholastics Ibari, "The Development of the British System of Eeucation in Nigeria " o^Oregont'l^'0"1 dlssertati°»< "niiersity

34. Nsima, J L., "Group Activities in Nigerian Schools," ^221 Acltrvities, 15:276, April, 1944. 35, Oduah, S 0., and Jennings, J. H., A Geography of the ff^FeilTTsilT ~ ' ^®nd5^nI7e~ 36 Ogunsola, A. F., "Teacher Education: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow," Proceedings of the Zariiar7?h Education in Nigeria, A.B.U., zana, 7th-12th August, 1977, pp. 105-127. 63

37. okafor Nduka, The Development of Universities in M1 gerla, Longman, 1971, ppTirj; — 38, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development gf*ho?5 ^ Statistical Needs for Educational Planning, OECD, Paris, 196T! • 39, Phil i n S ne a d \ ?™ :f fh y; " .Adebo, s. 0., Nigerianisa- £f the Civil Service; A Review of Policy and Machinery, Lagos, 1954, and~Report of th| Commission to Make Recommendations About the Recruitment and Training of Nigerians for i G?vernnient-' Lagos, NlgiFTa, iy48, and Statement of Policy on the Niger iani

40. P°19np^' R:' Relation ££ Educational Plans to 1967°mi~ Social. Planning, ParisT UNESCO,

41. Rodriques-Pacheo, Osvaldo, Some Aspects of Educational Ripn"1^ ~ Puerto Rico, Commonwealth of Puerto— Rico, Department of Education, 1963.

42. Schwarz, F. A. 0., Nigeria: The Tribes, the Nation or the Race, The MassachTTi^tti^titITte-1?^' Technology, 1965.

43, ^£|i.I®a£book, 1969, Paris, United Nations tion iS?n Scientific and Cultural Organiza- Ministrv of Rep"blic of Nigeria Federal Ministry of Information, Second National Development Plan, 1970-1974, Lagos, Nigeria,

44. Thompson, Kenneth W., and Fogel, Barbara R., Higher Education and Social Change: Promising Co""tries, London,

45, Tims, Wouter, Nigeria: Options for Long-term gl^il^^London, The Johns HSgkiTnTun i ver- 64

46. Umaru, Musa, "Pacing the Cost of Education," West Africa, West Africa Publishing Company, Ltd" Lonaon, (September 14, 1981), 2119.

47. Vaizey, John, The Economics of Education, London Faber and Faber, 19627 °n,

48. Weinberg, Carl, Education and Social Problems Coordination of HigheF^ducationT

49* "west(chfi^; 50, Yesufu, T M., Manpower Problems and Economic Development in Nigeria, Ibadan: " Oxford University Press, 1969. CHAPTER III

TRADITIONAL EDUCATION IN CROSS RIVER

STATE OF NIGERIA

There was education in Cross River State of Nigeria

before its contact with Europe (10). "Education," declared

the anthropologist Westerman, "is not something which the

African has received for the first time from the white

man. The 'primitive' African is not uneducated" (14, P. 209).

In the ongoing evolution of humanity, civilizations

and cultures they produce are judged by two relative

standards, relative in the sense that the standards arise

out of human value preferences. One standard is the

breadth and depth of the intangible substance of these

cultures that survives their material acquisitions. This

includes the arts, philosophies, faiths, sciences, morals,

manners, and other refinements with which each culture is

identified. The other standard is the extent and depth

of the contributions these refinements make in the lives

of those to whom they are bequeathed (9, p. 9).

Education, according to Nakosteen (9, p. 9), is not only the art that awakens and cultivates these refinements within each society in each individual according to

65 66

his gifts and opportunities, but it is also the skills

that help transmit, preserve, and further cultivate them

in the experiences of those who inherit them. Of particu-

lar importance in this transmission are those elements

that have substantially sustained and profoundly changed

the course of human life in the various societies that

have been in the path of this heritage. In this sense,

human history is an inner continuity in which each

individual, group, or society carries over and utilizes

something of the substance that gives content and meaning

to this process (9, p. 9). This is what we mean when we

say that the present holds the past in retrospect and the future in prospect (9, p. 9).

Since the people of the Cross River State of Nigeria had already embraced some forms of education, what came with the Europeans was the continuation and extension of what had been known and accepted. Even with the change in educational orientations in this era, customs and tradition still exercise no less influence in the social and economic spheres in the Cross River State of Nigeria.

The Nigerian value system today is nothing more than the redefinition and the extension of what existed before, based on the context of today's societal demands.

Thus, in spite of the ethnic complexity which is reflected in the cultural diversity in Nigeria, in spite 67

of the country's being looked upon as the treasure chest of

African culture in terms of ceremonies and drama, in art

and architecture, in language and literature, there is

still greater difference in existence between the past and

the present, between customs and today's impersonal and

secular state systems, between early customary simplicities

and today's sophistication in the way of doing things,

between individual growth and national progress.

Education can be viewed as a formal instruction in

the classroom (1, p. 46). m Cross River State of

Nigeria, education is generally viewed as "preparation

for life" (2, p. 134). Preparation means preparing an

individual for "his responsibilities as an adult in his

home, his village, and his tribe" (12, pp. 3-4). it has,

therefore, been observed that in precolonial Cross River

State of Nigeria, education was a deliberate attempt

made by the "mature members ... to guide the growth of

the immature members in accordance with the life aims of

the group" (7, p. 20). m order to fulfil this objective,

all the skills and techniques necessary to make an individual a useful and responsible member of his society were carefully transmitted to him. 68

The Curriculum of Traditional Education in Cross River State of Nigeria

The curriculum of traditional education in Cross

River State of Nigeria consisted of traditional norms and

practices, handed down by oral tradition from one generation to another.

It varied from locality to locality in response to

regional differences. Intimately related to the life of

the child in the community, education was gradually

employed to suit the different stages of physical and

mental growth of the child (8, p. 15).

The education of a child during this time began with

the social attitude toward the expectant mother (6, p. 27).

The primary force in marriage was (and still is) the

desire to have children. An expectant mother was treated

with great concern. Her welfare was the affair of all

within the community. Men, women, and children alike

made every possible sacrifice in order to show their

interest in the unborn baby. Fruits were gathered from

the farms; the right type of meat was brought by friends and relatives for the expectant mother. Necessary efforts were made to "secure physical beauty according to prevalent tribal ideals" (6, p. 11).

From birth to about four years of age, a child's curriculum of traditional education was devised by the parents according to the tradition which they themselves •59

had learned from their parents and elders. if the child

was a male, from five years upwards, he was trained in the

and crafts of his people, farming techniques, care of

himself, and his junior brothers and sisters (leadership).

Above all, he was trained to obey and respect his parents,

elders, customary law and practices of the community.

When he came of age, and his parents were wealthy enough,

he was initiated into the cults of the society. if the

child was a female, she was trained principally by the

mother m homecraft (home economics), farming, customary

law, and conventions of the community.

From the age of twelve, if the parents were wealthy

enough, the girl underwent "fattening" at which period

she was trained in mothercraft and housewifery. After

fattening she was given out in marriage.

In adult life of the female, if she was rich enough,

she was initiated into women's cult which strongly upheld

chastity, integrity, honesty and propriety of conduct.

The chief secret societies (cults) of the Cross River

State of Nigeria are "Ekkpe," "Idiong," "Ekkpo," "Ekong,"

and Isong (13, p. 170). The "Idiong" secret society

(cult) is a powerful society among the Ibibios (the principal tribe in Cross River State of Nigeria), at least among old men. To raise the sum necessary for 70

entering this cult, aspirants sometimes reduce themselves to penury (13, p. 171).

The "Idiong" initiatory ceremonies are said to bear

a strong resemblance to those of Freemansonry. when a man

wishes to join it, he goes with the head priest of the cult

and his own father, should the latter already be a member,

into that part of the bush consecrated to the deity.

First, a cock must be sacrificed that "Idiong" may

recognise the desire of the aspirant to enter his

society (13, p. 172). it is strictly forbidden for any

non-member to be present at such a ceremony, or even to

watch the procession on its way to the sacred bush. An

infringement of this rule is fraught with grave danger to

the neophyte (13, p. 172).

In precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria, observa-

tion, imitation, and participation were some of the major

learning processes. The adolescent learned the geography

and history of his community. Botany and zoology were

taught or understood through observation, and actual

instruction was often accompanied by demonstration. Pro-

verbs and riddles constituted a formidable exercise.

Folklore was also used to elevate the moral tone of the children. Stories to illustrate the importance of treating orphans well and the evil consequences of mal- treating them were commonplace. Stories that extol 71

diligence, honesty, bravery, and other desirable virtues

and those that condemn idleness, greed, and other undesir-

able attitudes were told to children (6, p. 27).

In precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria, a child

was also introduced early in life to counting. This was

done by means of concrete objects, counting rhymes,

folklore, plays, and games at home and on the farm. The

use of the cowry as currency offered effective practice

m enumeration. In counting, the people of Cross River

State of Nigeria had a name for every number, no matter

how large the number might be. This name might be long

and involved, but it was precise and definite.

Agriculture was, and still is, the mainstay of the

Nigerian economy (11). in precolonial Cross River State

of Nigeria, serious attention was paid to teaching children

how to produce good crops. Children were taught how to

distinguish between fertile and infertile soil. The

children were taught how to determine the suitability of the

land by dipping the cutlass into the soil. if, during the course of dipping the cutlass into the soil, the cutlass hit stones, the conclusion was that type of soil would never be suitable for deep-rooted crops. If it were, on the other hand, porous, it was suitable for groundnuts and all other creeping crops such as melons, beans, and gourds. The boys had to be given instructions on how to 72

weed on the farms where seeds had already been planted.

This was achieved by making the then future farmers (young

people) work between the father and an older brother. The

instruments used, such as cutlasses and hoes, were small

in size so that the boys could easily handle them. Both

the father and the older brother kept watchful eyes on

the boys. Whenever any mistakes were made, the father

appealed to the children's good sense, but if the same

mistakes were made repeatedly, corporal punishment was

administered.

Another important stage in agricultural education was

the need to understand the different planting and harvest-

ing seasons. There were only two seasons apparently known

to the people: the rainy season and the dry season.

Despite the fact that no calendar was in use during that

time, the knowledge of different months of the year was

still essential. The lunar months were used, and there

were ways of knowing what to plant in each of the seasons.

For example, the appearance of certain butterflies in an

area was an indication that the rainy season was approach-

ing and it was time to plant early maize. Planting of some other crops was patterned on the appearance of new leaves on certain types of trees. The migration of some birds indicated the beginning of a certain season. The 73

arrival of cattle egrets indicated the beginning of the

dry season when harvesting of some crops began.

Talbot (13, p. 219), writing in 1923, stated that,

land m precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria was

communal, belonging to the town, but in the first place to

the person who cleared the bush. Each family divided out

its own share yearly, but any one in the town could take

any unclaimed land (13, p. 219).

The chief crops, in order of importance, in Cross

River State of Nigeria are, yams, coco-yams, cassava,

maize, plantains, okra, and groundnuts. The area under

cultivation at any one time was left to fallow from three

to seven years, to ensure a time for recovery, since no

manures or fertilisers of any kind were used (13, p. 219).

Another form of traditional education in the Cross

River State of Nigeria found expression in trades and

crafts. in the trades such as weaving, blacksmithing,

cimcumcising of babies, and drumming, the practices were

restricted to certain families. These trades needed a

high degree of specialization, and it was in these kinds of trades that the apprenticeship system was mostly used.

The children did not have any freedom of choice as far as determining their own trade was concerned. They were bound to learn the particular trade that the family introduced to them. For an effective education, parents usually 74

apprenticed their children to their relatives, friends, or

any known competent craftsman. Girls were also apprenticed

to certain trades, the only difference being that they

were apprenticed to mistresses instead of masters.

In the weaving industry, women were as prominent as

men. The only trade that was exclusively for men was

blacksmithing. it was a highly hereditary trade which

required a long period of internship. The trade was held

in high esteem because it dealt with the working of iron.

Just as blacksmithing was exclusively for men, so the

dyeing trade was exclusively for women who collected

locally manufactured chemicals to prepare the dye water.

Hair plaiting was also exclusively for women. it was

then, as it is now, a way of decorating women's heads.

Palm oil making was a trade for both men and women

in the sense that the men had to climb the palm trees to

collect the fruits before these could be made into palm oil. After the collection of the cones, the women completed the process.

Traditional education also cared for the handicapped, thereby making each one a functioning member of society. The lame and hunchback, for example, were taught sedentary occupations such as weaving, carving, 75

blacksmithing, among other trades. Some of them were

educated as priests, barbers, and native doctors (5, P- 43) .

According to Fafunwa, hundreds of Nigerian communities

continued to utilize the apprenticeship system as a vital

medium for vocational education (5, pp. 43-45). This

system absorbed millions of Nigerian youths, both literate and nonliterate and provided jobs for thousands of

Nigerians who would otherwise have been unemployed (1, p. 60) .

Purposes of Traditional Education in Cross River State of Nigeria

The purposes of traditional education in the Cross

River State of Nigeria were firstly to keep the stock pure and homogeneous. Secondly, to provide for the survival of the stock, and thirdly, to make life worth living for the rising generations. The purpose of traditional education in Cross River State of Nigeria was also to produce responsible adults who could fit harmoniously into the framework of the then existing society.

Fafunwa, writing in 1974 stated that

Traditional education is all embracing and every social institution involves educational activities which lead the_individual to acquire behaviour patterns, abilities, and skills necessary for effective citizenship in the community in which he lives (5, p. 19). 76

In defining traditional education, it is perhaps

permissible to quote the words of Frederick Lugard, the

former Governor-General of Nigeria?

In the first place, I hold that the most important jCu10n °f educati°n is the formation of character, and by the word "character" I mean the principles and standards which guide and control thought and action, and involve the exercise of self-control and discipline. The second most important function of education is to adapt the individual to his environment, so that he may have every prospect of leading a life both happy and progressive, so far as he himself is concerned, and useful and stimulating to the community in which he lives (13, pp. 340- 341) »

The aim of traditional education in Cross River

State of Nigeria was, therefore, multilateral, and the goal

was to produce an individual who was honest, respectable,

skilled, cooperative and who conformed with the social

order of the time.

It was however, difficult to distinguish the objec-

tives of traditional education in Cross River State of

Nigeria (5). Fafunwa identified seven aspects of the

purposes of traditional education in the Cross River State of Nigeria:

1. To develop the child's latent physical skills,

2. To develop character,

3. To inculcate respect for elders and those in position of authority,

4. To develop intellectual skills, 77

5. To acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude towards honest labour,

6. To develop a sense of belonging and to participate actively in family and community affairs, and

7. To understand, appreciate, and promote the cultural heritage of the community at large (5, p. 20).

Thus, the important challenge to the educational system in precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria was the promotion of social loyalties and of preserving the ideals of institutions of faith of the time. Hence, all efforts of the educational endeavour in precolonial

Cross River State of Nigeria were to promote status quo.

Teachers of Traditional Education in Cross River State of Nigeria

Research indicates that the education of the child in precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria began in infancy, just as was true in European, Asiatic, or

American society. The parents were responsible for the early childhood education of their children (4, p. 18).

The first six to eight years was spent in great intimacy with the mother. She fed and cared for the child and did all she could to protect him from harm. She slept on the same bed with him, breast-fed him for about two to three years (8, pp. 16-17). During the early stages, the child noted the social activities that surrounded him 78

as his mother carried him to the farm, market, funeral

ceremonies, marriage festivities, and other social

activities of the village.

The parents occupied their time with the physical

ornamentation of the children, especially the girls.

Costly coloured beads were provided for body decoration.

Ochiagha, expanding on the fact that the home was

the first "school" a child attended, stated:

The hearth is where the instruction and inspiration of his parents help him to acquire knowledge, high ideals, and right attitudes; it is a training ground where he forms and strengthens virtuous habits. No sooner is a child born than he is prepared for the type of life he will lead within the framework of the society into which he is born. Thus, as soon as a child takes its first breath of life, the grandmother hastens to a fortune-teller for instruction. He tells her which ancestor has come back to life . . . (10, p. 25).

Ekpenyong (3, p. 59), writing in 1976, stated that,

before the introduction of education by missionaries into

Cross River State of Nigeria, socialization was con-

centrated only on the family. The parents were the main agents for socializing their children by teaching them the norms and values of the society. Values that included good

table manners, personal cleanliness, promptitude of action, respect for family authority, obedience, and moral conducts were transmitted to the children at an early age (3, p. 59). 79

The child's education at this stage was not the

business of the parents only. Rather, it was everybody's

concern, especially when the parents were not present.

As soon as the child left his parents' house, his educa-

tion was, in large measure, everybody's business (8,

p. 18) .

The elderly members of the community were also

teachers of traditional education in Cross River State of

Nigeria. The child was supposed to run errands for the

elderly members of the community. According to Moumouni,

the child considers it natural to be called and sent away

by an adult or older child, scolded, corrected, or advised,

consoled, or rewarded by them (8, p. 18). As the child

grew older, his extended family members might assume

responsibility for his education. An aunt or uncle could

take him for a stay of a year or longer.

In precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria, the

education that a child received from his elders encouraged

intellectual growth and development. Local history was

taught by the elders in each household. Teachers of

traditional education in Cross River State of Nigeria

also included the cults (secret societies), trades and crafts guilds. 80

Summary

Traditional education in Cross River State of Nigeria had no standardized curriculum and there was no need to worry about who paid for a child's education. Precolonial

Cross River State of Nigeria stressed the importance of educating for the practical needs of life and full participation in all the tribal activities—political, social, economic, and religious. The education of a child was the concern of all. Parents, elders of the community, peer groups, cults, trades and crafts guilds were in essence teachers. The education a child received in precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria prepared him for active involvement in all the activities of the community in which he lived. CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ajala, Oyewole Olayioye, "A Historical Review of Secondary Education in Western Nigeria: 1842- 1976," unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1977.

2. Castle, E. B., Principles of Education for Teachers in Africa, London, Oxford University Press. 1966.

3. Ekpenyong, Jackson J., "Development of Educational Institution and Social Change in Nigeria: 1953-1973," unpublished master's thesis, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1976.

4. Fadipe, N. A., The Sociology of the Yoruba, Ibadan, Ibadan University Press, 1970.

5. Fafunwa, Babs, History of Education in Nigeria, London, George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1974.

6. Hambly, W. D., Origins of Education Among Primitive Peoples: A Comparative Study in Racial Develop- ment, London, Macmillan, 1926.

7. Knight, Edgar W., Twenty Centuries of Education, New York, Ginn and Company, 1940. ~

8. Moumouni, A., Education in Africa, London, Deutsch, 1968.

9. Nakosteen, Mehdi, The History and Philosophy of Education, New York, The Ronald Press Company, 1965.

10. Ochiagha, Gregory Obinna, "A History of Education in Eastern Nigeria to 1960," unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Catholic University of America, 1965.

11. Ogundijo, M. I., "Indigenous Education in Ejigbo District of Oshun Division in the Pre-colonial Days and the Coming of the Missionaries," unpublished bachelor's thesis, School of Educa- tion, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, 1970.

81 82

12. Scanlon, David G., Traditions of African Education, New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1964.

13. Talbot, D. Amsury, Life in Southern Nigeria: The Magic Beliefs and Customs of the Ibibio Tribe, London, Macmillan, 1923.

14. Westerman, D., The African Today and Tomorrow, London, Oxford University Press, 1939. CHAPTER IV

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA:

1970-1981

Introduction Education is a social process. As a social process, it has been a part of the social order as long as there have been societies, for it is impossible to conceive of a society with nothing to pass on to succeeding generations

(30, p. 221). As societies grew more complex certain apsects of the educational process became formalized to a degree, and the function of educating the young became a specialized one which was entrusted to certain individuals. Ultimately, the school appeared to become one of the institutions of the society (30, P« 227). According to Mercer and Carr, the school expresses the

philosophy of the society which it serves (30/ P- 227). That philosophy may be that of a dominant group, which has imposed it on the rest of the population, or it may be one which is generally accepted without coercion or indoctrina- tion. It may be explicit, as in the case of a highly centralized society whose ministry of education dictates what shall be taught, or it may be implicit as m the case 84

of the United States where by common consent it is agreed

that the school's function is to pass on the values and

traditions of democracy (30, p. 227). Mercer and Carr

conclude that, in any case, the school develops and per- petuates a particular economic, political, or social point of view—whichever one happens to serve as the set of societal guideposts (30, p. 227).

Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist working around the turn of the century, was the first social scientist to analyse systematically the social functions of the schools.

He concluded that education serves primarily as a means for "the methodical socialization of the young" (15, p. 71)

The schools, he contended, serve to transmit the values, norms, and intellectual heritage of the culture to each new generation, thereby ensuring the solidarity and survival of the entire society (15., p. 71).

Professor John Thompson, writing in 1976, stated that every society has to make certain fundamental choices about education. Major policies must be made regarding who will attend school, what will be taught and who will teach, how the educational system will be governed and administered, and how education will be financed (66, p. 17).

According to Thompson, how these questions are answered depends on the interaction of a host of economic, social, psychological, cultural, and political variables (66/ P- 17). 85

The highest function of education, according to Friedenberg is to help people understand the meaning of their lives, and become more sensitive to the meaning of other peoples' lives and relate to them more fully (24, p. 221). Friedenberg contends that education increases the range and complexity of relationships that make sense to us, to which we can contribute, and on which we can bring to bear competent ethical and practical judgement (24 , p. 221). Friedenberg further contends that if we are to transcend our own immediate environment, we must have access to the record of past and present, learn the skills needed to interpret it, and learn to tell good data from poor, whether it be the empirical data of the sciences or the moral and aesthetic data of humanities (24, p. 221). Friedenberg concludes by stating that we must be able to read and to know where what we read fits into the structure of human experience; and to write with enough subtlety and complexity to convey the special quality of our mind to others. We must explore and we must have the privacy and authority necessary to protect our- selves from intrusion if we are to use our energy for exploration rather than defense (24 , pp. 221-222).

Education in Nigeria is no more a private enterprise but a huge government venture. It has witnessed a progressive evolution of government's complete and dynamic intervention and active participation. The national policy 86

on education describes the way the federal government of Nigeria plans to achieve part of its national objectives using education as a tool, and the policy states that education is adopted as "an instrument par excellence for effecting national development" (21, p. 3). It is government's wish that any existing contradictions, ambiguities, and lack of uniformity in educational practices in the different parts of the Federation should be removed to ensure an even and orderly development of the country. The government of the federal republic of Nigeria has also stated that for the benefit of all citizens the country's educational goals in terms of its relevance to the needs of the individual as well as in terms of the kind of society desired in relation to the environment and the realities of the modern world and rapid social changes should be clearly set out (21, p. 3).

Philosophy of Nigerian Education Since a national policy on education is government's way of achieving that part of its national objectives that can be achieved using education as a tool, no policy on education can be formulated without first identifying the overall philosophy and objectives of the nation. The five main national objectives of Nigeria as stated in the second national development plan, and endorsed as the 8?

necessary foundation for the national policy on education are the building of

1. a free and democratic society, 2. a just and egalitarian society, 3. a united, strong and self-reliant nation, 4. a great and dynamic economy,

5. a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens (21 , p. 4) .

Nigeria's philosophy of education therefore, is based on the integration of the individual into a sound and sffsctive citizen and equal educational opportunities for all citizens of the nation at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, both inside and outside the formal school system. In consequence, the quality of instruction at all levels has to be oriented towards inculcating the following values:

1. respect for the worth and dignity of the individuals ,

2. faith in man's ability to make rational decisions, 3. moral and spiritual values in inter-personal and human relations,

4. shared responsibility for the common good of society,

5. respect for the dignity of labour, and 6. promotion of the emotional, physical and psychological health of all children (21, p. 4). 88

As it is contained in the national policy on education, for the philosophy to be in harmony with Nigeria's national objectives, it has to be geared towards self- realization, better human relationship, individual and national consciousness, national unity, as well as towards social, cultural, economic, *political, scientific and technological progress (21, p. 4). The national educational aims and objectives to which the philosophy is linked are therefore

1. the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity,

2. the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society,

3. the training of the mind in the understanding of the world, and

4. the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competencies both mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of his society (21 , p. 4) .

Objectives of Education in Cross River State of Nigeria The building of a modern state or nation depends upon the development of the people and the organization of human activity. Capital, natural resources, foreign aid, and 89

international trade, all play important roles in economic growth, but none of them is more important than the quality of manpower (12, p. 146). Since one of the major goals of the society today is rapid economic growth, the educational development programmes should be designed intentionally to help increase the production of essential goods and services which will ultimately preserve and enhance the freedom, dignity, and worth of the individual.

Cross River State of Nigeria is underdeveloped not because the basic raw materials are not available, but because most of the people are underdeveloped, having had no opportunity of expanding their potential capacities in the service of our society. The concept of an egalitarian society demands that the educational opportunities should be made available to every child in our society irrespective of his place of origin (12, p. 146). The objectives of education in Cross River State of Nigeria are therefore as follows:

1. to enrich an individual's knowledge and develop his full potentiality, and,

2. to prepare individuals to undertake specific tasks and employment functions which are essential for the transformation of the environment (12, p. 146). 90

Structure and Organisation of the Ministry of Education in Cross River State of Nigeria

The ministry of education has responsibility for the overall development of education in the state. Following governments' decision to take over all schools, (with the exception of institutions such as Bible colleges and vocational training institutions) the volume of responsibility for the management and maintenance of standards has increased tremendously. The primary function of the ministry of education consists of coordination of all educational matters, guidance on government policies on education and maintenance of high standards (11 , p. 1).

The ministry is headed by the Commissioner for Educa- tion with the Permanent Secretary as his chief administrative officer. The Permanent Secretary is responsible to the Commissioner not only for the organization and efficiency of the ministry, but also for the advise given to the Commissioner by the ministry through the whole range of its duties, even though soma of the advice reaches the Commissioner direct from lower down the line (33 , p. 321) . The Permanent Secretary is the chief civil servant of the ministry. "No government can succeed in Nigeria without the fullest co-operation of its civil service," according to Professor Adedji, an experienced Nigerian administrator and at present executive secretary of the 91

Economic Commission for Africa (4, p. 667). He said further:

The governments, both federal and state, will have to continue to depend on their higher civil services for assistance in policy formation, for policy execution, for providing the bridge between the past and the present, between an outgoing government and an incoming administration and, at the federal level, for being a unifying force containing in its ranks people from virtually all the ethnic groups of Nigeria. Apart from the armed forces, the federal bureacracy and the federal parastatals are the only institutions that reflect through their staffing the diversity in unity and the pluralism of Nigeria (4, p. 667). As a result of a re-organisation that took place in 1979, the ministry of education in Cross River State of

Nigeria is now divided into seven divisions whose functions are briefly outlined below.

1- Administration and Finance Division.—This division is responsible for the internal administration of the ministry including personnel functions. Headed by a Secretary for Administration and Finance, it has sections dealing with internal audit accounts, projects and general administration. A special branch of this division is responsible for the implementation of the international bank for reconstruction and development (IBRD) or world bank projects in the state as well as projects under the international development agency (IDA) in the state (11, p. 1).

^• Educational Administration Division.—This division is headed by a chief inspector of education. The division is responsible for all aspects of educational 92

administration which are not of an inspecting or standard control nature. Separate subsections in this division are responsible for matters relating to primary schools, secondary schools, adult education, home economics,

special education, physical and health education. Each of these subsections is headed by an officer of at least the rank of senior education officer.

3" Scholarships and Student Affairs Division.— Responsible for all scholarship matters, this division is under the charge of the secretary of the scholarship board. It is also the secretariat of the state scholarship board and in addition deals with related matters such as student advisory services, passages and general welfare of government scholarship holders both within the country and abroad. The division consists of three subsections—scholarships, student affairs and scholarship accounts (3-1, p. 2)

4* Schools Inspection Division.—This division is concerned solely with the maintenance of standards in schools. Headed by a deputy chief inspector of education, it is divided into pre-primary, primary, and post-primary schools inspection sections. It consists of various inspectors who are specialised in particular subjects. Their duty is to carry out regular inspections in schools. They note short-comings and advise on policies and 93

procedures which would ensure higher standards of learning in the different teaching subjects (n, p. 2).

5* Educational Services Division.—The main function of this division is to provide support services in the educational sector. It consists of a guidance and counselling section, a curriculum development and training

ction and an instructional materials and school libraries section. It is headed by a chief education officer (n, P. 2) .

6. Examinations and Registration Division.—This division is responsible for the conduct of entrance examinations for admission into post-primary institutions (secondary schools and teacher training colleges in the state). This division is responsible for the first school leaving certificate examination (final examination for elementary school students) and the state papers for the teachers Grade II examination. It is also responsible for the registration of teachers and is the secretariat for the newly constituted teachers' council. It is headed by an assistant chief inspector of education and consists of an examination, registration, and certificate subsection (11 , p. 2) .

7 * Planning and Research Division.—This division is responsible for support services in the areas of educational planning, research and statistics. The division also 94

collects and supplies statistical and other required information as a guide to policy formulation in such areas as enrolment projections, capital development, financing and training to meet manpower requirements. It is headed by an assistant chief education officer. This division is made up of planning, research and publications, and statistics subdivisions (11, p. 3).

There is a divisional education office in each local government area (a county) in the state. A divisional education officer is in charge of divisional education office. These offices serve as a link to provide feedback to the headquarters of Calabar (the capital of Cross River State of Nigeria) on the basis of which policies and procedures may be revised as necessary. Divisional education officers are also performing the major functions of the ministry such as schools inspection and the conduct of examinations at the field level (11, p. 3).

In addition to the above structure, there are a number of special agencies concerned with the organisation and management of various aspects of the ministry's overall responsibility. These are (a) the Cross River State school board, (b) the Cross River State Library board, (c) the College of Technology, Calabar (now a polytechnic), (d) the College of Education , Uyo, (e) the School of Basic Studies, Akpamkpa (temporarily located at Okuku, Ogoja), (f) the 95 school of Arts and Sciences, Uyo, (g) the Scholarship board, (h) the teachers' council, and (i) the local government committees (11, p. 3).

In 1979, responsibility for the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) was transferred to the ministry of education with the commissioner for education as chairman of the state committee of the NYSC (LI , p. 3) .

Figure 1, as compiled by Dele Ogundimu, lecturer at the University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, shows the general organisational patterns of all the ministries of education in Nigeria, with minor modifications in a few states.

Goals of Primary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria The stated goals of primary education (elementary education) in Cross River state of Nigeria are 1. to develop communicative language, 2. to develop basic practical or minipulative skills through the teaching of arts and crafts, 3. to develop national consciousness through the teaching of cultural subjects,

4. to develop pupils' interests in science as well as their spirit of inquiry and investigation, and, 5. to develop character through religious studies (57 , p. 6) . 96

5 o

** ZL *-*

OP -tu

t- CD "V S~ -S5'> t +3 li O- 3: s | U -c- c | >» o _ fd 5 -<2 5 -2-5 Q o O -3 s w - . u a < M 9 "d V fd yj a rf . - O ' o -|i|—5£ • « c •H -M fd fd •H 0) .5 •H 0) 3 2 t* * a Cn fd H e Q O* tn£; a uJ£ •H «—1 2 £ <-1 o fd a u o ~l~ii i . £• H : s c • j—:j" ee a -P <3 a) (d fcr* O 3 c Q) "2 rG a) CJ -i- o i m 5 i o rH W • CD !jv-H •H ^-1 r \J Pm +> W •H "i - v> <2 •H 97 Legend for Figure 1 P.I.E.—Principal Inspector of Education S.I.E.—Senior Inspector of Education I.E.--Inspector of Education

H.A.I.E.—Higher Assistant Inspector of Education C.R.P.O.—Curriculum, Research and Planning Officer E.O.—Education Officer P.A.S.—Principal Assistant Secretary P.E.0.--Principal Executive Officer S.E.O.—Senior Executive Officer

S.A.E.).—Senior Assistant Executive Officer F. and E.—Finance and Establishment R.A.G.—Registration, Assessment, and Grants A.S.—Assistant Secretary R. (X)—Registrar (Examinations) Senior Acct.—Senior Accountant S. and S.—Students and Special Subjects A.V.A.—Audio Visual Aids R.L.—Regional Librarian 98

The above goals reflect a determination to prepare the child for life in his/her environment. It is presumed that by the time the child leaves primary school (elementary school) he/she must have had some preparation to grow and become an effective socialized individual who can adapt to the changing society responsibly. Implicit in the goals is an assumption that all primary school children in the state must follow a fixed curriculum (14, p. 108)

The Development of Primary Education System in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Primary education in this study is referred to as education given in an institution for children normally between six to about twelve years of age (.21, p. 7) . since the rest of the education system is built upon it, the primary level is the key to the success or failure of the whole system (21, p. 7).

The South Eastern State of Nigeria (now Cross River State of Nigeria) was created from the former Eastern Region of Nigeria on May 27, 1967 (45, pp. 1-2; 48, p. 13).

A military/civilian government was established in 1968 at the height of the Nigerian Civil War and was headed by ^ military governor who appointed civil commissioners to assist as political heads in the different ministries performing administrative duties for the state ( 53, pp. 34-35). 99

The new state inherited the school system of former Eastern Nigeria. Because of the civil war at that time, schools in the state were temporarily closed. It was not until many parts of the state were liberated that the schools were ordered to re-open in 1968 (57, p. 1).

The education law of the former Eastern Region of Nigeria was modified by an amendment edict No. 19 of 1971, and adopted for the new state (61).

Enrolment in the Primary Schools of Cross River State of Nigeria According to William Carr, changes in curriculum and in methods are not the principal cause for the increased total cost of education in the United States. Far more important have been the increasing numbers enroled and the steadily decreasing purchasing power of the dollar. Nevertheless, he points out that part of the increased cost can be ascribed to curricular and pedagogical changes (14, p. 383) .

Roger Freeman points out that the factors that are responsible for the increase in school operating costs are the following: (a) greater enrolment, (b) decreased purchasing power of the dollar, and, (c) other factors (curriculum and operating changes, etc.) (26, p. 21). Enrolment growth often is held to bear the main responsibility for rising school costs. 100

TABLE I

SCHOOL-AGE POPULATION AND ACTUAL ENROLMENT IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA: 1970-1978/79 SCHOOL YEAR

Projected Population Actual Enrolment Year of 6 Year Olds in Primary I

1970 136,606 157,549 1971 140,027 • 151,566 1972 143,561 141,876 1973 147,561 162,662 1974 150,746 167,419 1975/76 154,515 161,938 1976/77 158,399 223,907 1977/78 115,327 199,619 1978/79 118,203 193,703

Source: South Eastern State of Nigeria Education Statistics (1970-197 6), Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, 1976; and Cross River State of Nigeria Education Statistics (1975-19 7 9), Ministry of Econonic Planning, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, May, 1980.

Note: (1) Increase in actual enrolment over the projected population of 6 year olds shows that children above 6 years and slightly below 6 years were enroled. (2) Actual enrolment was apparently incomplete.

Table I indicates that long-range projections of population and enrolment appear easier at first glance than they frequently turn out to be. The same view is 101 contained in the report that was submitted to the committee on Ways and Means of the United States House of Representa- tives in 1946 (26 , p. 207) . For example, as it indicated in Table I, in 1970, the school-age population projection in Cross River State of Nigeria was 136,606 but the actual enrolment in primary I was 157,549. Again the school-age population projection for the 1978/79 school year was 118,203 but the actual enrolment in primary I that school year in Cross River State of Nigeria was 193,703.

According to Roger Freeman, the factors that will determine the magnitude of school revenue requirements include the following. 1. Enrolment.—Enrolment is affected not only by the number of school-age children in the population but also by policies on retention, dropouts, kindergarten, etc. Public preference for nonpublic schools may have a major bearing (23 , p. 24).

2. Teacher Demand.—A continued reduction in the teacher-pupil ratio will raise the number of teachers to be employed. The number and type of courses offered by the schools and policies in regard to the grouping and promotion of pupils will have a major effect on the number of teachers required (23 , p. 24) . 3. Teachers Salaries.—The level to which teachers' salaries are raised may easily be the main factor in the 102 school finance picture. As important as the size of the average increase, or possibly even more important from a quality point of view is the method employed in awarding the higher salaries, either across the board or by individual merit (23 , p. 24) .

4. Classrooms.—There is little doubt but that classrooms to take care of increased enrolment must be built unless methods are adopted for using the existing plant more fully. The rate at which older buildings are replaced or improved is somewhat more flexible (23, p. 24). 5. Building Costs.—Costs on a per classroom or per pupil basis vary in a ratio of 1:6 and even more. Expendi- ture standards of new construction have a major effect on the total sums that will be required. Space allowance per pupil, number and size of auxilliary rooms, elaborateness and quality of materials and design, all have a bearing on school building costs (23, p. 24).

Number of Primary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Table II indicates that between 1970 and 1978/79 school years, the number of primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria increased from 1,492 in 1970 to 1,640 in 1978/ 79 school year, an increase of about 10%. As of 1981, there were 1,645 primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria with an enrolment of 831,153 103

(representing nearly 100 per cent of that age group population) (46 , p. 291) .

TABLE II NUMBER OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA: 1970-1978/79 SCHOOL YEAR

Number of Year Primary Schools

1970 . 1,492 1971 1,486 1972 1,446 1973 1,480 1974 1,480 1975/76 1,599 1976/77 1,579 1977/78 1,622 1978/79 1,640 Sources: South Eastern State of Nigeria Education Statistics (1970-1976) , Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, 1976, p. 4; and Cross River State of Nigeria Education Statistics (1975-1979), Ministry of Economic Planning, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, May, 1980, p. 23.

Universal Primary Education (UPE) Scheme in Cross River State of Nigeria The 1966-1979 federal military government of Nigeria deserves to be commended, and complimented, for introducing 104

universal free primary education (UPE) in Nigeria. Other

African states are preparing to follow suit, and these

stand a good chance of learning from the Nigerian experience (68 / P- 2119) . The Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme was started initially as a wholly federal government funded programme but later became a joint responsibility of the federal, state and local governments as well as of communities and parents. In the Cross River State of Nigeria, the objective of the programme was to provide enough classroom accommodation, equipment and facilities for all children who would attain the age of five as of September 1975. In the first year of the programme, the number of children of primary school age in Cross River State of Nigeria was estimated at 585,228 (11 , p. 5). Based on this estimate, projections were that a total of 1,663 classrooms additional to those already in use would be required. At the cost of about M3,000 (one naira is approximately $1.62) per classroom, it was therefore estimated that a total sum of M4,980,000 million would be required. This was exclusive of the provision for text books and other equipment (li,, p. 5). An inter-ministerial UPE implementation committee was formed to assist the ministry of education to successfully implement the scheme (11, p. 5). 105

The Universal Primary Education scheme was the greatest single social programme undertaken by the 1966- 1979 federal military government of Nigeria during the third national development plan (1975-1980). Its introduction was a commitment to certain fundamental principles of our national philosophy of education, one of which is to create a just and egalitarian society and a land of equal opportunity. It was a fulfilment of the promise made to Nigerians by the 1966-1979 federal military government that primary education shall be free for all children of school age.

The launching of the scheme in Cross River State of Nigeria on Monday, September 13, 1976 marked the climax of activities which started with the announcement of the proposal in January, 1974 (1.1 , p. 5). Massive operations were mounted for the construction of the required classrooms, the provision of furniture, equipment, and the training of teachers to man the schools. For example, the number of primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria rose steadily from 1,599 in 1975/76 school year to 1,640 in 1978/79 school year. The enrolment in the primary schools of Cross River State which stood at 743,385 in 1976/77 school year rose to about 769,460 in 1978/79 school year (11, pp. 5-6). As of 1981, there were 1,645 primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria with an 106 enrolment of 831,153 (representing nearly 100 per cent of that age group population) (46, p. 291).

Classroom, Furniture, and Equipment of UPE Scheme in Cross River State of Nigeria The hopes raised by the massive construction work which followed the contract awards made at the initial stage of the UPE scheme were short lived. Generally, a good deal has been achieved. But as a result of financial constraints, the rate of progress in the construction of classrooms has been very slow. A number of classroom contracts awarded since 1976 have been completely abandoned (11, p. 5).

Fears About the UPE Scheme

Many Nigerians have expressed fears that graduates of the UPE scheme will be turned out at the age of thirteen without being adequately prepared for life, especially since the children will have no vocational preparation in the schools (40). A few others argued that Nigerian's labour code for employment disallows any youth who is under the age of seventeen to be employed and therefore the UPE will compound problems of juvenile delinquency. Thus, it is argued that it would jeopardize the aims and objectives of the UPE. To ease the fears expressed, the federal commissioner of education in 1974 announced that a unanimous agreement 107 had been reached by all the states' commissioners responsible for education that "all graduates of the UPE will have free secondary education for the first three years of the proposed six-year secondary school" programme (64, p. 1). It was further explained that "since education is responsible for character training, the first aim of the UPE is to mold the first generation of its scheme to be true Nigerians," (64, p. 1), and that the pupils would be taught ethics, civics and moral instruction (64, p. 1).

There was a guarantee that the proposed secondary school would provide vocational courses in different fields as to accommodate students who, for any reasons, might not find it possible to pursue the academic aspects of the programme.

The Universal Primary Education has been successfully launched and steps have been taken, and are being taken to amend shortcomings. Plans have reached advanced stages for the provision of junior secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria to absorb about 40-60 per cent of the UPE products in September, 1982. This is in accordance with the new educational structure of the country's six years of primary, three years' junior, three years' senior secondary schools and four years' university education (6-3-3-4). 108

Management of Primary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria The management of primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria was under the control of the ministry of education up till the end of 1977/78 financial year. The management of primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria was handed over to the ministry of local government at the beginning of the 1978/79 financial year. Each local government area (a county) has an education committee with a supervisory councillor for education as chairman. Superintendents and assistant superintendents of schools are appointed by the local government service board to assist the local governments in the management of primary schools (H , p. 6).

Parent/teacher associations operating in the different schools are making worthy contribution towards the management of the schools (11 , p. 6). Today, there are 47 local government areas (counties) in Cross River State of Nigeria.

Curriculum of Primary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria The very diversity of curriculum practices, programmes, and interpretations throughout the United States makes it difficult to explain just what a curriculum is (47, P- 6). Albert Oliver writing in 1977 stated that curriculum is 109

(1) 9-11 the experiences the child has, regardless of when or how they take place, (2) all the experiences the learner has under the guidance of the school, (3) all the courses offered by a school, (4) the systematic arrangement of certain courses designed for certain pupil purposes, for example, "college-preparatory curriculum," (5) courses offered within a certain subject field, for example, "the science curriculum," "the language arts curriculum" (6) the program in a specialized professional school, for example, "the science curriculum," "the language arts curriculum" (7) the program in a specialized professional school, for example, "the two-year curriculum in nursing," (8) those courses taken by an individual, for example, John and Peter may both be college- preparatory, but John's "curriculum" might be different in that he takes French instead of Spanish, or that he has a different teacher in English (47, p. 7).

In a sense, the first idea, that a curriculum is one's life experiences, is the child's curriculum. It is not a manageable concept from the point of view of organized education. A more practical outlook is expressed in the second statement that the school curriculum is that part of an individual's day for which the school has direct responsibility. However, educators are becoming ever more aware that out-of-school experiences can supplement the in- school experience. Thus, the curriculum worker will seek both to utilize and to influence nonschool living (47, p. 7) .

For those who envision the curriculum as "experiences for the learners," it must be recognized that there are always planned experiences which may have learning potential 110 but which do not come under the practical interpretation of curriculum responsibility. For example, a child might fall in a classroom and skin his knee badly enough to require medical attention. This incident may teach the youngster more about safety and first aid than will a whole course, but it would be absurd to expect the school to add toe- stubbing and knee-skinning to its offerings (47, p. 7).

Between April 1968 and June 1973, primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria continued to use the primary school (elementary school) curriculum and syllabus which it inherited from the former Eastern Region of Nigeria. However, the new state subsequently provided its primary schools with a new curriculum. The state ministry of education sent some of its experienced educationists to a conference of the national workshop on primary school curriculum (3, p. 1). Representatives came from all the Nigerian states to discuss the new curricula for Nigerian schools (3, p. 1). After deliberation, the curriculum conference wrote its report and made recommendations, calling for changes in school curricula as well as syllabi inherited from former Nigerian Regions (3, p. 3). The South Eastern State (now Cross River State) studied the report and at the same time the state ministry of education compressed the old primary and secondary school syllabi which temporarily reduced the schemes of Ill work from a nine-month to a six month academic year (57, p. 3) .

Before Setpember 1972, an academic year ran from January to December for the primary and secondary schools; and in the higher institutions of learning from September to June. By compressing the syllabi of the lower schools, they were given the same academic calendar as the upper levels and adversely affected the efficiency of the primary and secondary students before the ministry of education had finished their perusal of the reports of the national curriculum conference. When the study was completed, the state government modified some of the recommendations pertaining to primary education, and adapted them to meet the needs of its younger students (39 , p. 4) . A new curriculum and syllabus for the primary schools in South Eastern State of Nigeria (now Cross River) was issued in June 1973, and copies distributed to all the primary schools in the state displacing the old ones from the former Eastern Region of Nigeria (39 , p. 4).

Additional subjects were included in the new curriculum and contents of the old subjects enriched, except in the case of moral and religious instruction (Bible knowledge) . All primary schools in the state put the new curriculum and syllabus into use as of September 1973

(39, p. 5) . 112

A list of the subjects in the new curriculum included Efik language (the principal language in Cross River State of Nigeria), English language, handwriting, health education, physical education, agricultural science, creative and cultural arts, general science, home economics, modern mathematics, social studies, moral and religious instruction/Bible knowledge (37, p. 2). Each of the subjects had its aim, contents and recommended textbooks. For example, the declared aims in offering the Efik language were "to develop in the pupils the love for and pride in Efik," to encourage the children "to think and express themselves in Efik" and to use the language as a tool for preserving and reviving the culture of the people. However, each ethnic group would substitute its language for Efik.

Some ethnic groups that live in Ogoja, Obudu and Ikom speak languages which differ from Efik, and those languages are used in their respective schools instead of Efik (19, p. Ill) . Recommended textbooks for the Efik language (the principal language in Cross River State of Nigeria) were listed, the authors of which were indigens of the South Eastern State (now Cross River). It should be noted that unlike the new syllabus, the old one did not recommend textbooks for the Efik language (19, p. 111). 113

In Cross River State of Nigeria it is presumed that English is a part of the primary school curriculum and it is hoped that it can satisfy the language needs of the child in his/her society. Although native language is generally used as a language of instruction in the first year in the primary school, still English language may be introduced to the child even in primary I. This approach is used with an assumption that the child must have acquired sufficient knowledge of the vernacular at home before entering school (19, p. 111).

Today, the government prescribes the following curriculum activities for the primary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria:

1. the inculcation of literacy and numeracy, 2. the study of general science, 3. the study of the social norms and values of the local community and of the country as a whole through civics and social studies, 4. the study of health and physical education, 5. moral and religious education, 6. the encouragement of aesthetic, creative and musical activities, and 7. the teaching of local crafts and domestic science and agriculture (21/ P- 7). Academic Qualifications of Primary School Teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 All over Africa, and in every other continent, too, governments are faced with a growing number of pupils without comparable increases in the number of trained teachers (20, p. 207). A teacher cannot enlighten his pupils if he himself is ignorant. He can lift them no higher than himself. It is important therefore that a good deal of emphasis should be given during the preservice training to making the student a well-informed teacher. After the preservice training, and throughout his career he should always be learning and improving himself. He must have an active mind and he must keep it sharp by constant activity. This is done through private study, discussion with others on topics that exercise the intellect and by developing habits of mental activity. If a teacher ceases to learn, his mind will become stagnant and this is the worst enemy of education (20, p. 207). It is a great temptation for teachers to teach the same lessons in the same way year after year, but to do so is fatal. Once a teacher is in a rut he has virtually closed his mind to other truths and other ways. Like the Pharisees he has forfeited his right to be a teacher and has become a blind leader of the blind (20, p. 207). 115

Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, a former premier of the Eastern Region of Nigeria and a former Governor-General of the federation of Nigeria,once postulated that scholarship is coterminous with social progress. He further added that it is the scholar who makes or unmakes the society. He may not be appreciated by his generation, or even by generations after him, but time offers reward to scholars who lay foundations for the society of tomorrow, by immortalizing them in human history (5, p. 23). The African should go beyond the veneer of knowledge. Ability to quote Shakespeare or Byron or Chaucer does not indicate original scholarship. The capacity to know what is the periphrastic conjunction, or to solve the Pythagorean problem, or to understand the principles of heat, light and sound, or to translate Aramaic, or to know all the important dates of British history, does not indicate true academic scholarship. These are the super- ficialities of a decadent educational system. These do not make for a dynamic social order. They are by-products of the imitative complex which Gabriel Tarde expounds excellently in one of his books (5, p. 23). 116

Originality is the essence of true scholarship. Creativity is the soul of the true scholar. Initiative, emulation, and the urge to be intellectually honest are the earmarks of research and academic freedom (5, p. 23).

The criticism of teacher education in Nigeria is that teachers to be are recruited among people with initial low academic qualifications. The academic qualifications of primary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria are as follows.

1. Trained Teachers.—These include Grades I, II and III teachers. For one to become a grade I teacher, one was required to have a grade II teaching certificate. One also had to have two advanced level general certificates of education (GCE) papers. These are his teaching subjects. The acceptable teaching subjects include religion, geography, and history. Recently, economics was accepted as a teaching subject. One was also required to pass ordinary level GCE in English language. When the above criteria are met, one was then admitted into a teacher training college (TTC) for teaching practice. Upon successful completion of the teaching practice the grade I teaching certificate was awarded. Alternatively, to become a grade I teacher, one had to go to the Umudike Rural Science school (in Imo State of Nigeria) for two years. A lot of practicals were involved. After passing the final examination, one then 1X7

returned to a school of his choice to practice for one year. He had the choice to practice in a primary school, secondary school, or in a teachers' training college on condition that he passed the ordinary level GCE in English language. Upon the successful completion of the teaching practice, a grade I teaching certificate was awarded.

After the two years in rural science school, if one did not pass the final examination, the grade I teaching certificate was not awarded.

2. Grade II Teaching Certificate.—This was opened to those who had grade III teaching certificate. If one had grade III teaching certificate one was qualified for entry to read for the teachers grade II teaching certificate .

In recent years the government conducts a common entrance examination for primary school (elementary school) graduates, among whom the government selects candidates for the teachers' training colleges and secondary schools. Each candidate has the option of choosing teacher education or secondary education. When the result of the common entrance examination is published and if he/she is successful one gets into the teachers' training college for the grade II teaching certificate programme for five years. Upon the successful completion of the programme the student is awarded the grade II teaching certificate. 118

High demand for teachers led to the recruitment of primary school graduates. They were called pupil teachers. The headmasters of their respective schools organized classes for the pupil teachers in English composition, arithmetic, and teaching methods. After the first year, they took tests in English composition, arithmetic, and teaching methods (school organization, etc.).

Those who passed the Part I of the examination then continued to teach and the headmasters continued to organize courses in English composition, arithmetic and teaching methods. Those who failed the Part I examination were removed from the programme.

At the end of the second year, the pupil teachers were again evaluated by written examination in English composition, arithmetic, and teaching methods. After the successful completion of the second year, the pupil teacher was then registered in the teacherfe register as a "C" teacher. At this stage, the "C" teacher was given three chances of passing an examination after which he was sent for training. If the "C" teacher did not pass the examination in any of the attempts, he never went in for training. He remained a "C" teacher for 15 years and was then referred to as "c/s" (c-special) teacher. He was then allowed to teach for the next ten years (now twenty- five years) and was then awarded the honourary grade II ii9 teacher's certificate after attending several seminars. By law he could only teach up to elementary IV. Then came the Preliminary Training Centre programme. It was a one year programme. Scholarly qualifications in primary V was a predetermined factor for entry into the Preliminary Training Centre (PTC). The first ten students in the final examination of primary V were allowed to take the entrance examination. The PTC programme lasted one year after which he was allowed to take the Part II examination of the teachers programme. If he was successful, he was registered in the register of "C" teachers. If he was unsuccesful in the Part II examination of the teachers programme, he was sent away.

Those who were successful in the Part II examination of the teachers programme were given three chances for passing an entrance examination into the teachers training college. If one failed to pass the entrance examination in any of the three attempts, he was allowed to teach for fifteen years after which he became a "C/s" (C-special) teacher. After the next ten years he was awarded an honourary grade II teaching certificate.

3. Elementary Training College (ETC).—Those who had "C" teaching certificate took examination into the ETC. The programme lasted for two years and upon succesful completion of the programme the grade III teaching certifi- certificate was awarded. If unsuccesful at the end of the 120

two year programme, he was categorised as a "CTR III" teacher. This means that he is a "C" teacher but trained.

Those who passed the grade III teachers' examination were registered in the part "A" of the teachers register.

Those who had grade III teaching certificate were allowed to practice for two years after which they were qualified for entry into a Higher Elementary Training Centre (HETC). They were in HETC for two years. Graduates of this programme earned the grade II teaching certificate. Unsuccessful candidates were referred to as "CTR II" teachers. This means that they failed the HETC examination after the two years of training. The PTC was later abolished. The PTC and the ETC.programmes were regarded as a waste of time. Nothing was heard about the PTC and the ETC programmes in the 1970s. This was brought about by the high increase of secondary school graduates who demonstrated their interest in teaching.

Those who were in the secondary school for three years (junior high school graduates) were admitted for a three-year program. Upon successful completion of the porgramme, the grade II teaching certificates were issued to them. Those who were in the secondary school for four years (10th grade drop outs) were admitted into the teacher education programme for two years. Upon successful completion of the programme, the grade II teachers 121 certificates were issued to them. A secondary school graduate completed the programme in two years and was then awarded the pivotal teacher's certificate. This means that he has the West African school certificate (high school diploma) and a teacher's training college certificate.

With the introduction of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme in 1976, high school graduates completed the programme in one year and obtained the pivotal teacher's certificate. Those who had been in a secondary school for four years (10th grade) completed the grade II teacherfe programme in two years. Those who had been in secondary schools for three years (junior high school graduates) completed the grade II teacherte programme in three years. Long standing "C" teachers completed the grade II teachers programme in three years. This kind of programme was referred to as the crash programme.

In 1970, there were 7,313 trained teachers, 103 rural science teachers, 176 technical teachers in the primary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria. Other teachers of unspecified category were 4,514 (58 , p. 11) . In 1971, there were 5,651 trained teachers in the primary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria. Other teachers of unspecified category were 6,529 £58 , p. 12). In 1972, there were 4,528 trained teachers, 1,813 "CTR II" teachers, 40 "CTR III" teachers, 693 "C-special" teachers, 122 and 1,860 uncertificated teachers in the primary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria (58, p. 13).SH In 1973/74 school year, there were 5,549 trained teachers, 1,604 "CTR II" teachers, 9 "CTR III" teachers, 538 "c-special" teachers, and 2,632 uncertificated teachers in the primary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria (58, p. 14).

In 1975/76 school year, there were 7,089 trained teachers, 1,568 "CTR II" teachers, 60 "CTR III" teachers, 214 "C-special" teachers, and 4,068 uncertificated teachers in the primary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria

(58 , p. 15) .

In 1978/79 shoool year, there were 7,487 trained teachers, 5,301 "CTR II" teachers, and 8,095 uncertificated teachers in the primary schools of cross River State of Nigeria (10, p. 28).

As of 1981, there were 18,008 trained teachers and 6,300 unqualified teachers in the primary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria (46, p. 291).

There is no uniform systen in teacher education in Nigeria. This is a great handicap to the nation's educational policy and development. According to Professor Sanya Onabamiro the chairman of the committee on national policy on education, this situation has introduced disparity in the quantity and quality of teachers turned out yearly by the various states of the federation (44 , p. 16) . 123

Criteria for the Selection of a Primary School Headmaster in Cross River State of Nigeria The criteria for the selection of a primary school headmaster in Cross River State of Nigeria are as follows: (a) educational qualification, (b) years of teaching experience, (c) years of experience in a post of responsibility, (d) age, (e) personal integrity, and, (f) administrative competence.

Financing of Primary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 As of 1970, primary education in Cross River State of Nigeria was one-half fee-free, the other half was fee- paying. For instance, primary I, II, and III were fee- free, while school fees were charged in primary IV, V, and VI. A child in primary IV paid N12.00 a year, and in primary V and VI, the school fees charged for one year was M16.00. This meant that children whose parents were unable to afford the tuition fees might drop out and become socially isolated &9 , pp. 106-107). In 1976, when the Universal Primary Education was introduced by the 1966-1979 federal military government of Nigeria, primary education in Cross River State of Nigeria became free. The federal government of Nigeria was financially responsible for the funding of the universal primary and teachers training education in Cross River State of Nigeria. 124

In 1980, the federal government of the republic of Nigeria relinquished the responsibility of funding the universal primary and teachers training education to the state and local governments (43, p. 1).

In-service Education Programmes for Primary School Teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria In-service education programmes are organized for primary school teachers in the state three times in a year. The state ministry of local government is responsible for organizing these programmes.

External and Internal Constraints in Primary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 There are four major problems. The first is the high degree of congestion in the primary schools. Class- rooms are grossly inadequate. In a majority of the schools children still use mud and wattle buildings and sit on the floor for lack of desks and benches. The contribution of communities in helping to solve this problem is very encouraging. While some have been able to provide additional classrooms others have provided desks and benches (11 , p. 6) .

The second problem is the poor quality of work in the schools. Despite the increase in the number of trained teachers, the quality of work in the schools has not made corresponding progress. The one year crash programme 125

course teachers are found to be very poor in classroom management. The short duration of the course does not adequately equip them as efficient and effective classroom teachers (11, pp. 6-7).

Another constraint is the shortage of school inspectors (11, p. 7).H Shortage of funds is also one of the constraints facing the primary school system in Cross River State of Nigeria (11, p. 58).

Roles of Institutions of Higher Education in Primary Schools of Cross River State of Nigeria

The roles of institutions of higher education in primary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria include the following:

1. influencing the curriculum as regards what to teach and the level of performance, 2. running in-service courses for teachers, and 3. training teachers (pre-service training).

Future Plans in Cross River State of Nigeria for Expansion, Growth, and Improvement in Primary Education Programme Plans for expansion, growth, and improvement in the primary education programme of Cross River State of Nigeria include the following: 1. Provision of adequate and sufficient classrooms (11, p. 6) , 126

2. Organising series of in-service courses during the long vacation for elementary school teachers in order to improve the quality of teaching (11, p. 7),

3. In order to solve the problem of school inspection, the ministry of local government that is responsible for the administration of primary schools has been re- organised. There is now a school inspection division whose main responsibility is quality control and maintenance (11, P. 7) ,

4. From September 1982, Cross River State of Nigeria will adopt the new system of 6:3:3:4 years as well as introducing some technical subjects, local crafts, and more commerical subjects like typing, and shorthand at the primary levels.

Development of Secondary Education System in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria is defined as the form of education children receive after primary education and before the tertiary stage (21, p. 10) .

In Cross River State of Nigeria, secondary education is provided in secondary grammar, commercial, technical/ trade schools and in teachers' training colleges (57, p. 9). Each of these schools has its aims, and places emphasis on certain subjects, but the main purpose of any of the schools 127 is to provide an education which can help the learner to be a responsible and useful citizen prepared for gainful employment (57 , p. 10) . Most secondary schools are modeled after the British grammar schools, offering a five-year academic education leading to the West African School Certificate (WASC) examination. It consists of a series of tests in prescribed subjects, six of which must be passed to obtain the certificate, which is graded I, II, or III. All instructions in form I through form V are conducted in English language (36, p. 182).

The West African School Certificate examination is controled by the West African Examinations Council with its headquarters in Accra, Ghana. The Council consists of a chairman; four members nominated by the federal government of Nigeria, including a representative of the federal ministry of education; four members nominated by the government of Ghana, including a representative of the mininistry of education and culture, Ghana; three members nominated by the government of Sierra Leone, including a representative of the ministry of education, Sierra Leone; two members nominated by the government of Gambia, including representative of the ministry of education, Gambia; two members nominated by the government of the republic of Liberia, including a representative of the 128

Ministry of Education, Liberia; one member each nominated by the Senate or equivalent academic body of each university or university college in the member countries served by the council; two members representing the universities of Cambridge and London; and seventeen members elected by the national committees: eight from Nigeria, five from Ghana, two from Sierra Leone, one from Liberia, and one from Gambia. The elected members represent primarily the interests of secondary schools. The Registrar is the chief executive of the council (69 , pp. 7-8) .

In 1980, The Federal Republic of Nigeria changed her educational system from British system to the American system of 6-3-3-4 plan. This means six years of primary education, three years of junior secondary (junior high school) education, three years of senior secondary education, and four years of university education.

The new system of secondary education will commence with the first set of universal primary education (UPE) products in September 1982. According to Professor Onabamiro,the chairman of the committee on national policy on education, this system would ensure that students would undergo manual skill alongside with academic work within the first three years in junior secondary schools. Those with academic aptitude would proceed to senior secondary 129 schools while those versed in craftmanship would proceed to technical schools (44, p. 16).

Professor Onabamiro is equally optimistic that the new system would eliminate a situation whereby millions of secondary school leavers who could not secure places in the universities roamed the streets in search of white- collar jobs (44, p. 16). He asserted that the existing fifth-form system was designed for imperial nations, saying "The grammar school education is outdated" (44, p. 16). Professor Onabamiro further stated that the new system would accelerate technological advancements in the country (44, p. 16).

As an interim measure the present system of a common entrance examination into secondary schools will be allowed to continue until the junior secondary school has taken off. In the meantime, selection for entry into the secondary schools will as soon as possible, be improved by incorporating headmasters' continuous assessment into the common entrance examination results (21, p. 11).

The first school leaving certificate examination will ultimately be abolished and primary school leaving certificates (elementary school diploma) will be issued by the headmasters of individual schools and will be based on continuous assessment of pupils and not on the results of a single final examination (21, p. 11). 130

Junior secondary school leaving certificates (junior high school diplomas) will also be based on the continuous assessment method. The final secondary leaving certificate (high school diploma) will be based on a national examination. Nigeria will for the present time continue to use the West African examination council as its national examinations body since this does not prejudice Nigerian national interests and in fact has advantages (21, p. 11).

The universities will be expected to change their conditions for admission in the light of the new secondary school structure. The universities will also have to restructure their courses from the three-year to the 4-year degree course pattern to suit the six-year secondary school system (21,, p. 11).

Goals of Secondary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria The broad goals of secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria include the following:

1. preparation for useful living within the society, and 2. preparation for higher education (21 , p. 10). In specific terms the goals of secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria include the following: 1. providing an increasing number of primary school pupils with the opportunity for education of a higher 131 quality, irrespective of sex, social, religious, and ethnic background,

2. diversifying its curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities and roles possessed by or open to students after their secondary school education ,

3. equipping students to live effectively in our modern age of science and technology,

4. developing and projecting Nigerian culture, art, and langauges as well as the world's cultural heritage,

5. raising a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, and appreciate those values specified under our broad national aims, and live as good citizens,

6. fostering Nigerian unity with an emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our diversity, and, 7. inspiring students with a desire for achievement and self-improvement both at school and later in life

(21 , p. 10) .

Number of Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 It has been indicated that Cross River State of Nigeria inherited 4 0 secondary schools from the former Eastern Region of Nigeria. However, most of the schools 132

were in bad condition, their buildings destroyed, library books were burned and science equipment was looted during the Nigerian Civil War. When the school officials were ordered to re-open the schools, the state government embarked upon a programme of school rehabilitation and reconstruction (58 , p. 21) .

TABLE III

NUMBER OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA BY DIVISION: 1970-1976

Division 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

Abak 4 6 5 6 7 6 6

Akamkpa • • • • • 1 1 Calabar 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Eket 5 4 4 5 5 5 4

Enyong 4 • • • • • • Ikom 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 Ikot Ekpene 2 5 5 6 7 7 7 Itu 4 4 7 7 7 6 Obubra 2 2 2 3 3 3 Obudu 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 Ogoja 3 2 2 2 2 2 5 Opobo 2 2 2 4 5 5 5

Oron • 3 2 3 3 3 3 Uyo _9 _3 _3 _5 _5 _5 _7

Total 40 48 46 58 64 63 70

Source: South Eastern State of Nigeria Education Statistics: 1970-1976, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, 1976, p. 21.

Table III indicates that in 1970, there were 40 secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria. In 133

1971, the number of secondary schools was increased to 48. In 1972, the number of secondary schools was decreased to 46. In 1973, the number of secondary schools was increased to 58. In 1974, the number of secondary schools was increased to 64. In 1975, the number of secondary schools was decreased to 63. In 1976, the number of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria was increased to 70.

The total number of secondary schools increased more than three-fold from 40 in 1970 to 193 in 1978/79 school year. The highest increase of 97 between the two periods came from secondary grammar school (10., p. 2).

As of 1981, there were 291 secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria (46 , p. 291) .

Enrolment in the Secondary Schools of Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 There has been a tremendous increase in enrolment in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria. In 1970, there were only 967 students in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria (58. , p. 1) .

Between 1976/77 and 1978/79 school years enrolment increased by 62 per cent, 68 per cent and 32 per cent respectively for secondary grammar schools, secondary commercial schools, and secondary technical schools/trade centres. As of 1978/79 school year, the average number of pupils per teacher in Cross River state of Nigeria 134 stood at 1:30 for secondary grammar schools, 1:33 for secondary commerical schools, and 1:27 for secondary technical schools/trade centres. These ratios fall short of the planned ratio of 1:26 envisaged in the third Cross River State of Nigeria development plan (1975-1980) (10, p. 2).

As of 1981, 92,701 pupils were enroled in secondary grammar schools, 21,055 pupils in secondary commercial schools, 9,385 pupils in secondary technical schools bringing the total enrolment in all the secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria to 102,040 (46, p. 291).

Number of Teacher Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 Teachers' training colleges provide a two-year programme for prospective primary school teachers who are holders of a teacher's grade III certificate, and a five- year programme for primary school graduates who have the first school leaving certificate (elementary school diploma) (57, p. 3). Secondary school graduates who plan to teach as professional teachers in the primary schools may be given direct admission into a one-year programme which leads to the grade II teachers' certificate. However, admission of primary school graduates to the programme is by entrance examination. 135

Between 1969 and 1972, there were nine teachers'

training colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria (19,

p. 153).

Upon realization by the education authorities in 1973

that the annual output of the nine colleges was only 270

trained teachers, and also that the enrolment of students

in the colleges had rapidly declined because fewer grade

III teachers were available for training and because holders of the West African School Certificates (high school diplomas) were reluctant to be trained as teachers, the state government decided to run a five-year grade II course in the nine centres for holders of the first school leaving certificate (elementary school diploma). The programme started in the 1973/74 school year (60, pp. 4-5).

The state government embarked upon a programme to expand all the teachers' training colleges in the state by providing more classrooms, students, dormitories, workshops, laboratories, equipment and staff quarters. The expansion took the form of a minor extension of science workshops. Both the Cross River State of Nigeria and

International Development Association (World Bank) funded the expansion programme (19, p. 154).

The number of teachers training colleges rose from nine in 1972 to thirteen in 1978/79 school year (an increase of 44.4 per cent) (10, p. 2). As of 1981, the 136

number of teachers' training colleges still stood at thirteen (46, p. 291).

Goals of Teachers' Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria As in other post-primary institutions, the teachers' training colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria have definite goals. Their goals are

1. to produce knowledgeable, efficient teachers for primary schools, 2. to produce specialist teachers for post-primary institutions, 3. to offer a Nigerian-oriented course while at the same time not losing sight of courses that relate to Africa and other parts of the world (60, p. 7).

Enrolment in Teachers' Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 There was a steady increase in enrolment in the teachers' training colleges from 1970 through 1976/77 school years (see Appendix C). In 1970, 1,250 students were enroled in the teachers' training colleges, In 1976/77 school year enrolment increased to 7,622. In 1981, enrolment in the teachers' training colleges increased to 10,764 (46, p. 291). 137

Admission into Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria All children who have at least completed primary education can attend secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria. "All" includes normal and handicapped children. Admission of students into a secondary school in Cross River State of Nigeria is by entrance examination, usually taken by primary school graduates at the age of twelve ro thirteen. The examinations and registration division of the ministry of education in Cross River State of Nigeria is responsible for the entrance examination. Each candidate must indicate in his/her entrance application form the specific type of secondary school (including the teachers' training college) that he/she wishes to enter and must also choose among three schools within the type of school selected (19, p. 160). The common entrance examination is usually taken by all the candidates on the same day and time in different centres in and outside the Cross River State of Nigeria. Examination papers are graded and the results returned to each successful candidate by the ministry of education with instructions to report at one of the schools selected by the candidate. The principal of the school and other 138

representatives conduct the interview to determine the candidate's admission (L9 , p. 161).

In the past, each secondary school arranged for its entrance examination to admit new students, but that practice is now discouraged by the state ministry of education in favour of the common entrance examination to determine the eligibility of each applicant (19, p.

161) .

World Bank Loan for Secondary Education Projects in Cross River State of Nigeria Two educational projects are executed with the help of the World Bank loan in Cross River State of Nigeria. The first is the IDA (International Development Association Education Project, 72-UNI). The second is the IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Education Project 814-UNI). Programmes involved in the two projects are geared at the provision of practical courses in some post-primary institutions (secondary schools and teachers' training colleges) in Cross River State of Nigeria (19, p. 23).

A- The IDA Education Project, 72-UNI.—This project was started about seventeen years ago in the former Eastern Region of Nigeria and was reactivated after the Civil War. 139

The programme provides for the construction of science workshops at four teachers' training colleges (Ifuho- Ikot Ekpene, Ogoja, Oron, and Ukam-Ikot Abasi). Trainees in these institutions are expected to learn in these workshops how to repair and make simple tools for the teaching of science in elementary schools. Two trade centres are also being built under the project and are located at Ogoja and Ikot Ada Idem in Itu local government area. A three year programme leading to the city and guild diploma is to be provided in these trade centres (11, p. 23) .

B. IBRD Second Education Project, 814-UNI.—This programme started about twelve years ago after the Civil War. Under the scheme, some selected secondary grammar schools are being expanded to include some practical courses in their curriculae. Institutions involved in the project were selected with the help of some international (UNESCO) experts. Originally eight schools were involved in the project,but after some time the government secondary school, Eket,was dropped and the programme envisaged for that school was provided with state funds. The institutions now involved in the project include the following:

1. Code 23: St. Patrick's College, Ikot Ansa, Calabar, 140

2. Code 25: Etinan Institute, Etinan,

3. Code 26: Mary Knoll Secondary School, Okuku, Ogoja,

4. Code 27: Cornelia Connelly Secondary School, Uyo,

5. Code 28: Methodist Boy's High School, Oron, 6. Code 29: Union Secondary School, Ibiaku, Itu, and,

7. Code 30: Government Secondary School, Ikom (11 , p. 23) . In addition to the expansion of traditional secondary grammar school courses, some practical courses to be provided in most of these institutions (boys or mixed) include arts and crafts, technical drawings, motor vehicle mechanics, electrical and mechanical installations, wood and metal work. Agricultural science is provided in one of the schools (Government secondary school, Ikom). In the girls' schools special emphasis is placed on domestic science (11 , p. 23) .

Achievements of the World Bank Loan for Secondary Education Projects in Cross River State of Nigeria A. IDA Education Project, 72-UNI.— 1. Science Workshops: One of these workshops (teachers' training college, Oron) has been completed and handed over to the school. Work 141

on the others are virtually completed. Equipment for the workshops have been procurred (11, p. 24).

2. Trade Centres: Building construction work at Ikot Ada Idem, Itu is at an advanced stage. The buildings have been roofed, plastered, floored and provided with doors and windows. What is holding up work at the site is delay in the award of electrical sub- contract. This award is now being processed. Work at the Ogoja trade centre site has been disappointingly slow. Blockwork on the buildings is yet to be completed. Equipment for these trade centres has been procurred (11, p. 24) .

3. Finance: A total of about M3.6 million has been committed for the execution of the project. Thus far, payment totalling about

Ml.6 million has been made for work accomplished in the project. It means that at least over two million naira is still required to complete the execution of the project. In February 1977, the federal government of Nigeria made available to Cross River State the sum of »278,007.68 for 142

the execution of the project. A total and final reimbursement of about 8325,476.76 has been received from the World Bank in respect of the project (11, p. 24) . B. IBRD Second Education Project.—

1. New Buildings: Work on the construction of new buildings has been completed at three sites (Cornelia Connelly Secondary School, Uyo; Union Secondary School, Ibiaku;

Government Secondary School, Ikom) and virtually completed at St. Patrick's College, Ikot Ansa, Calabar. Work at two sites (Etinan Institute, Etinan and Methodist Boys' High School, Oron) is progressing rather slowly while work at Mary Knoll Secondary School, Ogoja, is nearly at a standstill, but effort is being made to get the contracting firms concerned to complete work at these sites (11, p. 24).

Internal electrification of the new buildings has been completed at four sites (Ikot Ansa, Uyo, Oron, and Ibiaku). At Etinan Institute, Etinan; Mary Knoll Secondary School, Ogoja,and Government secondary School, Ikom work on internal electrification is at 40 per cent, 25 per cent, and 80 per cent 143 complete respectively. Progress of work on external electrification is going on at all sites and level of completion is 80 per cent at St. Patrick's College, Ikot Ansa, Calabar, 60 per cent at Etinan Institute, Etinan, and 80 percent at Cornelia Connelly College, Uyo, 70 per cent at Methodist boys' high school, Oron, 60 per cent at Union Secondary School, Ibiaku, and 40 per cent at Government Secondary school, Ikom respectively. The level of work at Mary Knoll secondary School, Ogoja, cannot be determined since work done on external electrification is not in accordance with the specification (n , pp. 24-25).

A new generator (52 KVA) has been delivered at each site. A generator house has been erected at three of the sites (St. Patrick's College, Ikot Ansa, Calabar;

Cornelia Connelly College, Uyo, and Methodist boys' high school Oron) (11, p. 25). Rehabilitation and Conversion Works: Work on these has • been completed at Government secondary school, Ikom. Some work has been 144

undertaken at Etinan Institute, Etinan,but much still has to be done at that site. No rehabilitation work has been undertaken at any of the other sites. However, recommendation on jobs to be done at sites where rehabilitation and conversion works have not been undertaken has been submitted to the state government and government approval is being awaited for the execution of these jobs (11 , P. 25) .

3. Furniture: Awards have been made on this and items of furniture are being delivered to schools (11 , p. 25) . 4. Equipment: Order has been placed for kitchen equipment. Tenders on workshop and science equipment have been appraised and are being processed for consideration and award by the tenders board (II , p. 25) .

5. Water Supply: Consultants have been called upon to submit requirements on water supply for institutions involved in the project. Some submissions have been received on bore hole and tanks required in the schools. Information has been received on water 145

distribution for Etinan Institute, Etinan, while such information on other institutions is being awaited (11, p. 25). Dormitory and Staff Quarters: Work required on this has been submitted to the project unit, but action is being withheld because the expenditure on work accomplished in these areas is not reimburseable with the World Bank. However, the need for the execution of these jobs has been sufficiently stressed to the Cross River State of Nigeria Ministry of Education (11, p. 25).

Staff Requirements: Under the scheme two teacher trainers are attached to the College of Technology, Calabar (now Polytechnic, Calabar) for the production of intermediate staff required for work in these schools, particularly in the area of practical courses. The Cross River State of Nigeria State School Board has been requested to approach these teacher trainers and arrange to make staff required at these institutions available for work in the post-primary institutions concerned (11, pp. 25-26). 146

8. Finance: As far as the execution of the IBRD secondary education project is concerned, availability of funds has thus far not been a problem. The federal government of Nigeria made available to the government of Cross River State of Nigeria the sum of M5,560,000.00 for the execution of the project. A special account was opened with this amount with the ministry of finance and economic development for payment to all concerned as project implementation progresses. A total of M4 ,965,104.03 has so far been committed for the execution of the project. A total payment of M3 ,508 ,631,53 has been made in respect of the project. A total reimbursement of Ml, 660,625,82 has been secured from the World Bank on funds expended on the project. The Cross River State of Nigeria is entitled to a total of M2.118 million reinbursement in the project (ll, p. 26).

Problems of World Bank Loan for Secondary Education Projects in Cross River State of Nigeria A. IDA Education Project, 72-UNI.—The major problems facing the execution of this project include the following: 147

1. Lack of Funds: This is the greatest impediment to the execution of this project. The federal government of Nigeria subvention for the project was grossly inadequate. The government of Cross River State of Nigeria/ which was expected to bear most of the financial burden in the execution of the project, has not been able to do so. Con- tracting firms executing these jobs are owed various sums of money. One of the contracting firms is owed over M250,000.00.

2. Attitude of Some Contracting Firms: The attitude of some contracting firms has been rather disappointing. One has nearly abandoned the job because the firm is owed on only one interim payment certificate. The work of a number of others appears to be at a standstill even though they are not owed on any interim payment certificate issued in their favour. Consultations have been made with these lukewarm contracting firms,but they are reluctant to get these jobs completed, since they tend to believe that they may not be paid promptly for work done (11, p. 26) 148

3. Delay in the Award of Subcontracts: The work of the main contractor at the trade centre, Ikot Ada Idem in the local government area is hindered by the delay in the award of electrical subcontracts. This award has been delayed because of lack of funds. It is imperative that consideration be given to taking action on the award, if equipment procured for work in the trade centre must be put to use (11, pp. 26-27).

B. IBRD Second Education Project, 814-UNI.—With the setting up of a task force for the execution of the project, many of the problems which plagued the execution of this project disappeared temporarily, bat a number of problems persist and include the following.

1. Insufficient Staff: The project unit has not been able to get its full complement of staff (li , p. 27) ,

2. Transportation: Lack of transport facilities has adversely affected speedy inspection of project performance, e.g., in the checking of deliveries by suppliers (n , p. 27) . 3. Delay in the Execution of Rehabilitation/ Conversion Works: Problems arose from the 149

calculations and submissions of the consultants which delayed execution. These have now been sorted out and execution should commence soon. 4. Delay in the Consideration of Equipment Awards: Tenders were submitted in respect of equipment in the project several months ago. The processing of documents having to do with procurement of equipment has been rather slow (H., p. 27).

5. Staff Quarters and Dormitories: Improvement in accommodation for staff and boarders was not part of the project. It is necessary to include these if the expected standard of

work in the project schools is to be attained and maintained (11, p. 27). 6. Problem of Site: The problem at Mary Knoll Secondary School, Ogoja requires some special mention. The contracting firm executing the buildin'g construction work at this site tends to be most uncooperative. Sometimes the firm shows some reluctance in effecting corrections which the consultants draw to its attention. The firm has written to complain of undervaluation and underpayment in the job 150

it has accomplished, but the consultants have insisted that valuation and payment so far made are satisfactory. The contracting firm has brought work at the site to a standstill, failed to pass on payment made through it to the electrical subcontractor and has been a source of delay in the work of the electrical subcontractor (11, p. 27).

Management of Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria The management and proprietorship of Christian mission post-primary schools were in the hands of voluntary agencies. Private schools were managed and controlled by

individual proprietors (19, p. 191). The local councils ran their post-primary schools in the former Eastern Region of Nigeria. Under the above system, the former government of Eastern Nigeria provided grants-in-aid to schools which were managed and controlled by the voluntary agencies. The government did not participate in the management of schools nor did it have a say in the day- to-day control of them (59, p. 1). Most voluntary agencies regarded the schools which they managed as their personal property,notwithstanding the community,which paid a greater part of the school expenses by way of assumed local contribution and personal labour 151

(59, p. 1). Sectarian rivalries were common among the

religious groups that ran schools; for example, a pupil

who wanted a transfer from one denominational school to

another would sometimes be required by the new school to

readjust his/her faith before admission could be guaranteed

(19, p. 192).

Under the voluntary system, mobility of teachers from

the service of one mission to another was not encouraged,

because teaching service conditions varied from mission to

mission. Thus, artificial restrictions were unnecessarily

imposed on teachers within the limited bounds of each voluntary agency. Worse still, a voluntary school pro-

prietor could dismiss his teachers at will (19, p. 192).

The voluntary agency system of management was wasteful

in that each mission employed more school management than necessary just to enable the missionaries to draw allowances. Most voluntary agency school managers were foreigners. The common practice among Catholic priests, reverend sisters, and mothers who were school managers was that a greater part of their salaries was donated back to the mission for charitable reasons (19, p. 192).

The community people and the government tended to spend too much on school management, whereas a part of the money spent 152 on school management could have been utilized on other apsects of educational development (19, p. 193).

Above all, the voluntary system was inefficient because most of the mission managers had no preparation nor sufficient skill needed for management and administration of schools (19, p. 193).

When schools in Cross River State of Nigeria reopened in April 1968, voluntary agencies continued to manage and control their schools in the state as in the pre-war period (59, p. 2). The local council schools became government schools and were managed and controlled directly by the state ministry of education, but the state government assumed the responsibility of paying the salaries of all the teachers, both in voluntary and nonvoluntary agency schools (19 , p. 193) .

The state government realized that it was spending too much on education because of poor management by the voluntary agencies. At this time the state was fighting a civil war, its finances were low, and it needed money for rehabilitation (19, p. 194).

To end the wasteful school management and administration of the voluntary agency system, and in order to provide security and tenure for teachers in the state, the state government determined to establish the school board system of management and administration to 153 replace the voluntary agency system. The government achieved this aim by passing the Education (school boards) Edict in 1971 and implementing it (19, p. 194).

The State School Board The Education Edict of 1971 established a state school board and empowered it to manage all voluntary agency schools and teachers' training colleges which received grants from the state government.

The board was later established as a statutory board under part V of the South Eastern State (now Cross River) Education Edict No. 5 of 1975 (H, p. 41). In 1978, under Edict No. 12 the board was granted the status of a department, but still answerable to the Commissioner of Education on policy matters. Section 20, sub-section 3 of the principal edict provides that the secretary of the board shall be an administrative officer not below the rank of head of a department (11, p. 41).

Other aspects associated with the enhanced status of the board which are provided in Section 25, sub-sections 1-5 in the amendment edict, accord the secretary as head of department the same power enjoyed by permanent secretaries in ministries. Such powers include appointment, promotion and discipline of the non-teaching staff up to grade level 06 (11, p. 41). 154.

Structure and Organisation of the State School Board of Cross River State of Nigeria

The State School board in its set up and organisation is composed of three principal units, namely: 1. the board's full time members, 2. the secretariat, and, 3. field administration.

!• The Board's Full-time Members.—They are made up of the chairman and two full-time members. They deal with the statutory functions of the board relating to school management and control, deployment of teachers, recommendation of policy matters connected with the opening, closing and merger of schools. In doing this, the board depends largely on the briefs which are submitted to it by the secretariat (H , p. 42).

Other members of the board consist of four persons of probity not in the teaching service of the state and the chief inspector of education. They are normally summoned to the board's general meeting which is held as needs arise (11 , p. 42) .

2« The Secretariat. The secretary of the board per- forms the functions usually attached to a head of department. He executes all the policies and directives of the board in accordance with the provisions of the edict establishing the board. The secretary is the chief accounting officer of the board and also the chief advisor 155

on all the subjects placed under the superintendence of the board. He is also the custodian of the documents and squipment of the board. The work of the secretariat is scheduled out into divisions and sections with public officers of the state government in charge of each schedule (11 , pp. 42-43) .

3. Field Administration.—By the enactment of Edict No. 12 of 1970, published as a supplement to Cross River State of Nigeria extraordinary gazette No. 49, Vol. 11, of November 29, 1970, Part A, whose commencement date was January 2, 1978, the board now operates four zonal offices, namely, Abak, Calabar, Ogoja, and Uyo zones. A supervisor of schools, directly responsible to the secretary of the state school board has been appointed for each zone. The supervisors monitor the management of post- primary institutions and provide necessary feedbacks from the field to the state school board headquarters. Their duties include: (a) initial inquiry and reports of school riots/demonstrations, (b) supervision of community school projects and other capital projects of schools, (c) supervision of revenue collection in schools and cash verifica- tion, (d) annual performance evaluation reports on principals below salary grade level 15, and (e) statistical survey for schools in collaboration with principals of 156 post primary institutions in Cross River State of Nigeria (11 , p. 43) .

Functions of the State School Board The main functions of the state school board are as follows: A. In relation to the Ministry of Education:

1. to advise the commissioner for education on general development of education in Cross River State of Nigeria,

2. to advise the commissioner on the type of capital development projects required in new and existing schools,

3. To advise the commissioner for education on the opening of new schools, closure or merger of existing ones,

4. to advise the commissioner for education on the appointment of board of governors for every relevant secondary school and teachers' training colleges (n, p. 41).

B. In relation to the Teaching Service Commission: 1. to recommend to the teaching service commission appointment, transfer, confirmation of appointment, promotion and discipline of teachers (n, p. 42). 157

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~~C. In relation to post-primary institutions:~~

~~1. To control and manage schools placed under its superintendence by or under the edict establishing the state school board (11., p. 42) .~~

~~2. To collect and disburse:~~

~~a. funds by way of subvention from the government,~~

~~b. voluntary communal contributions form communities where the schools are located, c. fees payable by students,~~

~~d. funds voted by the government for capital development of schools placed under its superintendence by or under the education edict, and,~~

~~e. to authorise the award of contracts by the boards of governors of each post- primary institution (11, p. 42).~~

Funds for capital projects in post-primary institutions in Cross River State of Nigeria were formerly controlled by the ministry of education headquarters* but this function was transferred to the state school board by the education (amendment) edict of 1978. A total of M4,800,000.00 was provided in the 1978/79 estimates for capital projects in schools. These projects are: 161

~~1. expansion and improvement of existing secondary- schools ,~~

~~2. development of secondary technical education, and 3. building of staff quarters for teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria post-primary institutions (11 , p. 43) .~~

Campus Administration of Post-Primary Institutions in Cross River State of Nigeria Board of Governors: Each post-primary institution (a secondary school and a teachers' training college) in the Cross River State of Nigeria has a board of governors. Members of the board of governors are appointed by the commissioner for education after consultation with the state school board. The board of governors normally consists of five people.

According to V. 0. Udo, the principal of Community Girls Secondary School, Ikot Ebak in Ibiakono,local government area in Cross River State of Nigeria, members of the boards of governors are normally people of integrity and substance (41 , p. 10) .

The board of governors is authorized to prepare a budget of the secondary or teachers' training college which it serves and to present the budget to the state school board for consideration (61 , p. A-134). Another function of the board is to recommend any significant 162

~~educational development for the secondary school or teacher~~

~~training college to the state school board. It is empow-~~

~~ered to award contracts relating to the feeding of boarders~~

~~provided that the awards were authorized by the state~~

~~school board (19., p. 203).~~

~~Other functions of the board of governers are to~~

~~ensure that the principal collects all fees which accrue~~

~~to the secondary school or teachers' training college~~

~~and to see that the principal pays the fees, except board-~~

~~ing fees, into the government treasury. Besides the above,~~

~~the board of governors is to make sure that the proper~~

~~accounts of authorized income and expenditure of the~~

~~secondary school or teachers' training college are kept~~

~~(19 , p. 203) .~~

~~Each post-primary institution (a secondary school ar.;~~

~~a teachers' training college) in Cross River State of~~

~~Nigeria has a principal who does the day-to-day adminis-~~

~~tration of the school. The vice-principal and the tutors~~

~~assist the principal. Directly under the vice-principal~~

~~and tutors are the school prefects that help in maintain-~~

~~ing law and order in the schools.~~

~~Curriculum of Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria~~

~~Curriculum of Secondary Grammar Schools: The curricu-~~

~~lum of the secondary grammar schools in Cross River State 163~~

~~of Nigeria contains these subjects: English language,~~

~~English literature, French, biology, agricultural science,~~

~~chemistry, physics, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, modern mathematics, geography, fine arts, economics, bible~~

~~knowledge, government, and history (65, pp. 6-7).~~

~~Most schools require students to study all the sub-~~

~~jects that are offered in their schools until the students~~

~~reach class 4. After class 4, each student selects~~

~~eight or more required subjects for entry into the West~~

~~African School Certificate Examination. By and large,~~

~~the curriculum in a secondary grammar school is geared to~~

~~meet the specific requirements of the West African School~~

~~Certificate Examination (WASCE) (65 ) .~~

~~Most secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria~~

~~offer history. In the past, history courses were on the~~

~~British Empire largely, but there has been a shift to~~

~~African history in classes 4 and 5, while in classes 1,~~

~~2, and 3, the concentration is on general history (54, p.~~

~~8) .~~

While other students take the promotion examinations, students in class 5 register for the West African school Certificate Examination at the end of their final year. Each candidate is to sit for eight or more subjects, which must include English language and other subjects selected from groups II, III, IV, V, VI, and VII as follows: 164

~~Group I English language, Group II General subjects: English literature,~~

~~bible knowledge, Islamic studies, geography,~~

~~history, government and economics,~~

~~Group III Languages: French, Latin, Greek, Fante,~~

~~Ewe, Ga, Efik, Tiv, Hausa, Ibo, Yoruba,~~

~~Arabic,~~

~~Group IV Mathematical subjects: Mathematics,~~

~~additional mathematics,~~

~~Group V Science subjects: General science,~~

~~physics, biology, chemistry, agricultural~~

~~science, botany,~~

~~Group VI Arts and Crafts: Music, art, dressmaking,~~

~~woodwork, general housecraft, cookery, and~~

~~Group VII Technical and commercial subjects: survey-~~

~~ing, commercial subjects, commerce,~~

~~mechanical engineering, technical drawing,~~

~~principles of accounting, health, science~~

(67 , p. 85) . Each candidate has to reach a satisfactory standard in the examination as demonstrated by the aggregate points received in six or more subjects including English language before he/she can obtain the certificate. Conditions as regards the number of subjects which a candidate is to pass with some credits before a school certificate is 165

~~awarded change from year to year. Most candidates in~~

Cross River State of Nigeria select their subjects from the following: English language, English literature, geography, history, government, biology, chemistry, physics, French, mathematics, general science, and economics (19, p. 148). Music, fine arts, physical education, gardening, cultural activities are regarded as co—curricular activities in the secondary schools in Cross River State of

~~Nigeria.~~

~~Curriculum of Secondary Commercial Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria~~

Like the secondary grammar school, a secondary commerical school offers a five-year programme. Unlike the secondary grammar school, the secondary commercial school programme leads to a Royal Society of Arts Commer- cial School Certificate (RSA), London. A holder of RSA certificate can enter government work or a commercial enterprise as an accounting clerk, a stenographer, a typist, etc. (51, p. 76). Subjects of instruction in the secondary commercial school include: typing, shorthand, commerce, economics, arithmetic, bookkeeping, geography, accounting, history, English literature, and English language. Some secondary commercial schools in Cross River State of Nigeria offer 166

~~additional subjects such as mathematics, biology and health~~

~~science (19, p. 150). By and large, secondary commercial schools adjust~~

~~their programmes to meet the requirements of the Royal~~

~~Society of Arts Examination (RSA), London. The Royal~~

~~Society of Arts Examination is administered by the West~~

~~African Examination Council (19, p. 150).~~

~~Curriculum of Secondary Technical/Trade Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria~~

Most secondary technical/trade schools in the state offer training in electrical wiring, motor mechanics, technical drawings, carpentry, electronics, local crafts and welding for boys, while typing, accounting, stenography, and home economics are provided for girls. Some general education courses which include English language, English literature, Bible knowledge, history, and government are also taught in many secondary technical/trade schools in Cross River State of Nigeria. The courses offered for boys are geared toward the examinations of the city and guilds of London, and those for girls lead to the Royal Society of Arts Examinations. Both examinations are administered by the West African Examinations council (55, p. 13). Unfortunately, Nigerian society does not tend to accord tradesmen prestigious status, therefore trade 167

~~technical teachers do not seem to enjoy equal respect with their counterparts in the secondary grammar schools.~~

~~The writer believes that with the change to the American~~

~~system of education this attitude towards tradesmen in~~

~~the Nigerian society will change.~~

~~The Cross River State of Nigeria has recognized the~~

~~need to expand technical education and has therefore~~

~~provided some funds to aid Abak, Calabar, Xkot Ada Idem~~

~~and Ogoja trade schools in the state (19 , p. 152).~~

~~To give prominence to technical education, the~~

~~federal government of Nigeria declared technical educa-~~

~~tion free, but this gesture was not fully backed finan-~~

~~cially. Nevertheless the federal government of Nigeria~~

~~gave subvention and grants which were advised by the~~

~~federal ministry of education office in Cross River State~~

~~of Nigeria. A total amount received was Ml,129,900.00~~

~~as follows: 1. 1977/78 school year: 8141,650.00 subvention, 2. 1977/78 school year: 8385,000.00 grant for free~~

~~technical education, 3. 1978/79 school year: 8603,250.00 grant for free~~

~~technical education (11 , p. 12) . Most of this amount has been committed in ordering equipment and planning building workshops. The most 168~~

~~important workshops planned are agricultural workshops at~~

~~Etukm Uruk Eshiet and Ikot Uboh Udom in Cross River State~~

of Nigeria (11 , p. 12) . 1978/79 School Year Subvention: M197,000.00 was sent to the federal pay office, Calabar (capital of Cross River State of Nigeria), for the 1978/79 school year subvention but after holding the cheque for a short time, the federal pay office at Calabar returned the money to Lagos (capital of the federal republic of Nigeria). Attempts to have this amount revoted have not succeeded but efforts are

~~still being made (11 , pp. 12-13) . In the 1979/80 financial year the government of Cross~~

~~River State of Nigeria budgeted M300,000.00 for secondary~~

~~technical/trade schools. This was the state contribution~~

~~to secondary technical/trade education development in the~~

~~1979/80 school year. This contribution and that of the~~

~~federal government of Nigeria were used to equip and~~

~~build secondary technical/trade schools in Cross River~~

State of Nigeria (11, p. 13). Technical Education Exhibition: This is an annual event which started on July 3, 1979 for the first time in the history of Cross River State of Nigeria. The programme and innovation were so successful that there was a general demand for a longer exhibition period (11, p. 13). 169

~~Industrial Training Programme: This was launched in~~

April 1979. With this programme the final year students in secondary technical/trade school in Cross River State of Nigeria are to be attached to industries for three months for practical experience before graduation. In

~~1979, 102 students participated in the industrial training programe at the cost of about N18,000.00 (11 , p. 13).~~

~~The national board for technical education and the~~

~~industrial training fund have not unfortunately been able to provide financial assistance in the industrial training~~

~~programme. Funding from the Cross River State of Nigeria ministry of education is being considered (11, p. 13).~~

~~Curriculum of Teachers' Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria~~

~~The curriculum of teachers' training colleges in~~

~~Cross River State of Nigeria consists of the following~~

~~subjects:~~

~~1. English language,~~

~~2. English literature,~~

~~3. rural science (theory),~~

~~4. rural science (practical),~~

~~5. physical and health education,~~

~~6. principles and practice of education,~~

~~7. arithmetic,~~

~~8. handicraft, 170~~

~~9. history,~~

10. geography, 11. approved African language (Efik), and 12. christian religious education. English language, English literature, principles and practice of education, and arithmetic are referred to as federated courses because they are mandatory courses for all the students in the teachers' training colleges in the federal republic of Nigeria.

Students in the teachers' training colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria are required to pass examinations which are usually given every semester. Finally, students must take the grade II teachers' certificate examination. To qualify for the certificate, a candidate has to satisfy the state ministry of education in teaching practice, health education and physical education. In addition, the candidate must pass in the English language which embodies comprehension and grammar, and has to satisfy the examining body in mathematics and general science (19, p. 156).

The grade II teachers' certificate examination is partly conducted by the Cross River State Ministry of Education and by the West African Examination Council. Subjects such as the English language and mathematics are administered by the council and the rest by the state ministry of education (67, p. 35). 171

Academic Qualifications of Secondary School Teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria: 1970-1981 It is difficult to determine the scholastic qualities of the teachers since the desired qualities are not only based on professional qualifications. Formal education which contributes to a sound educational background for

~~teaching is one aspect (25, pp. 15-16).~~

~~The second aspect for determining the scholastic~~

~~qualities of teachers is the professional qualifications~~

according to Ruth Sloan (52, p. 374). The third factor which might be used for determining the scholastic qualities of teachers is the spirit of the teachers. There is no substitute for teachers who are dedicated to their nation and to their pupils. This emphasizes the importance of getting the very best people possible into the teaching profession and making an effort keep them. The future of any nation rests in the hands of its teachers because their qualities today will be reflected in the citizens of tomorrow. The spirit which contributes to effective teaching is hard to define. Some teachers possess it and some do not. It is sad to realize that on account of limited opportunity to get other reasonable jobs or to enter into a higher institution of learning, many people enter the teaching profession as a stepping stone to other jobs. Some of these people develop a love for teaching and make it their life's profession. 172

Others who do not like teaching and have no qualifications for another job remain unhappy in teaching. These people are a serious drain on the vitality of a developing nation like Nigeria (18, pp. 27-28).

~~Educationists should look for the following qualities when choosing students and planning programmes for teacher education which will meet the needs of Nigeria, according~~

~~to Ikejiani (25, pp. 74-79). 1. The teacher respects and cares for all his~~

students. 2. He respects knowledge and therefore is able to apply his knowledge of facts to human life and creativity. He encourages and recognizes improvement of learning. He shows deep interest in what the behavioral scientists tell him about his work. He constantly seeks after knowledge about the contemporary world and his community. 3. He never ceases to be a student himself. The insight he derives from readings and research enables him to motivate his students and teach them how to learn . 4. He promotes the spirit of inquiry among his students.

~~5. He cultivates creativity, spontaneity, and~~

~~innovation. 6. He respects the community in which he serves and all those who do productive work therein. 173~~

~~7. He has respect and pride for his profession by supporting its organization.~~

Academic Qualifications of Teachers in Secondary Grammer Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria In 1970, there were 593 teachers in the secondary grammar schools, but in 1978/79 school year, the number of teachers increased to 2,697 (see Appendix D). Holders of bachelor's and master's degrees teach secondary classes four and five. Holders of the Nigerian Certificate in Education teach classes one to four in any secondary school and grade II teachers' training colleges. Holders of the higher school certificates teach English language, English literature, elementary mathematics, elementary sciences, religion, history, and geography to secondary classes one to three. They have no teaching certificates.

The grade I teachers have more than four years of professional training and also have special certification in at least two subjects (rural science, history, geography, religion, and health education) as the areas of their specialization. Grade I teachers teach their subjects of specialty to secondary classes one to five, for example, rural science (18r P« 44). Grade II teachers include students who have been trained for four years after completion of elementary school education and students who have been trained for one year after graduation from 174

secondary school. They teach such subjects as English language, handiwork, geography, history, physical education, music, home economics, and mathematics to secondary classes one to three (18, p. 42) . Holders of the West African School Certificates (high school diploma) teach elementary mathematics, religion, elementary sciences, history, geography, art and English language to secondary classes one and two. Most of the principals of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria hold master's degrees. Their duties are managing the schools, collecting fees, applying for teaching personnel, reporting to the state school board their school progress, and acting as school counselors. With a school population of more than 300 students, the principals do not teach any subjects at all. They concentrate on the managerial duties only (18, pp. 44-45).

Academic Qualifications of Teachers in Secondary Commercial Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria In 1970, there were 45 teachers in the secondary commercial schools, but in 1978/79 school year the number of teachers increased to 501 (see Appendix E). The Polytechnic at Calabar offers a three-year programme leading to the Nigerian Certificate in Education (business) with specialization in the following: 175

1. accountancy/economics, 2. accountancy/commerce, 3. economics/commerce, and 4. stenography (42, p. 4). The minimum entry requirements for the above programmes is any of the following: 1. The West African School Certificate or its equivalent, with credits in at least four subjects, one of which should preferably be a commercial subject such as economics, commerce, bookkeeping, accounting, shorthand, business methods, typing, or commercial law plus at least a pass in English language and mathematics, 2. The Royal Society of Arts State II Certificate in five relevant subjects including English language and mathematics, and, 3. Teachers Grade II Certificate with at least four merits in relevant subjects and at least a pass in English language and mathematics (42, p. 6).

Academic Qualifications of Teachers in Secondary Technical/ Vocational Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria In 1972, there were 57 teachers in the secondary technical/vocational schools, but in 1978/79 school year, the number of teachers increased to 261 (see Appendix F). The Polytechnic, Calabar in Cross River State of Nigeria offers a three-year programme leading to the Nigerian 176

~~Certificate in Education (technical) with specialisations in the following:~~

~~1. automatic engineering, 2. mechanical engineering, 3. electrical engineering,~~

~~4. electronics and telecommunication,~~

~~5. building construction, and,~~

6. wood technology (42, p. 4). The minimum entry requirement for the above programmes is either the West African School Certificate or its equivalent with at least four credits one of which must be in a relevant science/technical subject plus at least a pass in English language and mathematics or the City and Guilds Part I in any of the following: 1. mechanical engineering craft practice, fabrica- tion engineering craft practice, or welding practice, 2. the City and Guilds Part II in motor vehicle mechanics work, 3. the City and Guilds Course B in electrical installation work, and, 4. the City and Guilds Craft Level Certificate in carpentry and joinery or blocklaying and concreting (42, p. 4) . The Polytechnic, Calabar also offers a one-year programme leading to the National Technical Teachers 177

~~Certificate. The minimum entry requirement for this programme is any one of the following:~~

~~1. a university degree in a relevant technical or commercial subject,~~

~~2. a higher national diploma obtained in a recognised college of technology/polytechnic, 3. an advanced/final or full technological certificate of the City and Guilds of London Institute,~~

~~4. corporate membership of the Institute of Chartered~~

~~Secretaries, and,~~

5. the West African School Certificate or its equivalent with 120/50 words per minute (WPM) in shorthand and typing respectively plus at least a pass in English language and a minimum of one year post qualification experience perferably in relevant educational institutions, and/or industrial or commercial establishments (42, p. 6).

Academic Qualifications of Teachers in Teachers' Training Colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria In 1970, there were 94 teachers in the teachers' training colleges, but in 1978/79 school year, the number of teachers increased to 367 (see Appendix G). New developments in teacher training will emerge as a result of the Universal Primary Education and the 3-3 Secondary Education system. Beginning with the first products of the Universal Primary Education, a supply of grade II 178

teacher trainees will be available from some of the com pleters of the junior secondary who will be streamed into teacher training colleges at the same time as their colleagues are moving into trade centres and other vocational institutions and into the senior secondary schools for those aiming at tertiary institutions for other professions. This three-year post-junior-secondary will therefore replace all the existing teachers' grade II programmes. All future teachers' grade II trainees will complete the three-year junior secondary before entering the teacher training college (21, p. 26).

The second development will be the cancellation of the existing "pivotal" teacher programme (one year post West African School Certificate course). From this point, secondary school graduates will train at the Nigerian Certificate in Education or degree levels (21, p. 26).

It will be the ultimate policy that only candidates whose minimum qualification is the West African School Certificate (high school diploma) or its equivalent will be admitted into teacher training colleges in Nigeria. Since once the six-year secondary education system has been started, this will mean that the Nigerian Certificate in Education will ultimately become the minimum basic qualification for entry into the teaching profession. How early it is implemented will depend not merely on the 179

~~availability of secondary school leavers but more importantly on the state of the national economy (21, p. 26)~~

Criteria for the Selection of A Secondary School Principal in Cross River State of Nigeria According to Thomas Johnson, the principal of a secondary school today has become the keeper of the keys, the director of transportation, the coordinator of correspondence, the quartermaster of stores, the devisor of intricate schedules, the publisher of handbooks, the director of public relations, and when time permits, the instructional leader capable of exercising significant leadership of an educational nature within the secondary school (28) • In Cross River State of Nigeria today, the criteria

~~for the selection of a secondary school principal include~~

~~the following: 1. educational qualification, 2. years of teaching experience, 3. years of experience in a post of responsiblity,~~

4. age, 5. personal integrity, 6. administrative competence. Principals of secondary schools must be able to utilize the community to provide support for needed change. They should also be skilled in interpreting to the community the policies prescribed by the board of education and central administration. It is essential that they be able to mediate differences of opinion concerning 180

educational matters which exist among those in their school district (70, p. 25). The increasing demand for accountability forces principals of secondary schools to provide to the community relevant information concerning educational progress being made by students. It would appear that the principals of secondary schools today, in order to remain informed of the desires of the school community, need to become involved in community activities outside the school building. Further, principals of secondary schools often need to assess the resources available in the community for use by the school to provide a more relevant education (70, p. 25).

In order to cope with the changing secondary school and its myriad of problems, the student preparing for the secondary school principalship or related leadership positions in secondary schools should develop a dynamic set of usable skills. One group dedicated to developing the new educational leader of the secondary school is repre- sented by professors of secondary school administration and supervision. This group, working closely with the National Association of Secondary School Principals in the United States of America has sponsored studies and workshops to develop realistic preparation programmes. 181

They have agreed that the continuous progress model should be utilized in designing individual preparation programmes for leaders of secondary education. That is, determine the present state of development of each candidate and develop a programme which could provide needed skills to bring the graduate student along the way toward effective leadership of the secondary school. Areas of preparation that they consider important for the secondary school principal are listed alphabetically as follows:

1. change, innovation, diffusion, 2. curriculum and instruction, 3. effective communication, 4. finance, 5. human relations, 6. learning environment, 7. negotiations, 8. organization and development, 9. political science, 10. problem solving, 11. research and evaluation, 12. school law, 13. social awareness, and, 14. systems analysis for educational planning (7, p. 32) 182

~~Nickerson conducted a survey of professors of secondary school administration and supervision in 1972 and came to the following conclusions:~~

1. The principal should spend the greatest part of his on-the-job time in the improvement of instruction, 2. The principal must work directly with teachers and students as resources for improvement of ideas, 3. The principal must delegate routine matters plus supervisory activities to assistant principals, department chairmen, and administrative assistants,

4. The principal1s preparation programme must include human awareness training and be different from that of researchers and other administrators, 5. The principal's preparation programme must be wide and varied. It should include work in industrial relations, the humanities, political science, and business administration, 6. The principal's preparation programme must be made more flexible, tailored to the individual's unique strengths, weaknesses, and interests, 7. The principal's competencies rather than credit hours are preferred measures of adequacy of preparation, 8. The administrative internship is a highly desirable part of the preparation programme and should be required, 183

9. Clinical experiences other than the internship should be required at the Master of Arts (M.A.) level, 10. Simulations, small group projects, role playing, using resource people from the field, and field trips should be used as instructional techniques,

~~11. In recruitment of students for graduate education programmes, less importance should be put on standardized tests, and,~~

~~12. Colleges and universities must expand their in- service programmes (38, p. 20).~~

According to Charles Wood and his associates, among trends that will affect the role of principals of secondary schools in the future are the following: 1. Increased demands by students and teachers for a larger role in making decisions along a wide spectrum.

~~These include salaries, supervision, and the content of the educational programme,~~

2. increased action by the superintendent to encourage team management, 3. increasing world, population with continued national and international tensions of living together in a changing world, 4. increasing automation and improved technology which free workers for more leisure time activities, 184

~~5. increasing public acceptance of the value of education as a means for fulfilling personal needs and demands,~~

~~6. increasing participation by all people in governmental processes,~~

~~7. pressures to move away from local control of the public schools to a more centralized control, and,~~

~~8. increasing median years of schooling for our population (70, p. 27).~~

In-service Education for Secondary School Teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria In-service education refers to professional learning experiences of people who are employed as teachers. The primary characteristic of this type of teacher education is that it takes place after completion of some programme of teacher preparation, known as preservice education (70, p. 94).

In Cross River State of Nigeria, in-service education (staff development programme) is organized three times a year for the secondary school teachers. The Cross River State Ministry of Education and the State School Board are jointly responsible for this programme.

~~Methods of Teaching in the Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Teaching methods most frequently used in the secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria include the following: 185~~

~~1. Lecture method, 2. discussion method, 3. recitation method, and,~~

~~4. British style debate method.~~

~~1- Lecture method: In lecture method, the teacher talks according to a preplanned, structured scheme,~~

~~expecting the students to listen to the teacher while he lectures and then the students copy the notes from the blackboard written by the teacher. No student interruption is tolerated (35, p. 37).~~

This method is appropriate to introduce a topic or unit. It is used to summarize and synthesize important information that cannot be found in the textbook or available references. It is valuable in clarifying discussion, explaining a process, presenting a point of view, or summarizing progress (18, p. 20).

Blount and Klausmeier frowned at the use of the lecture method by saying that there should be no instructional field in the secondary schools in which lecturing should be used extensively or even as the major instructional technique (6, p. 265). Stovall in his research concluded that although the lecture method leads to an initial acquisition of information, other methods facilitate retention of information better (63, pp. 225-258). This method makes no provision for reinforcement, differing 186

responses, utilization of student's curiosity, or knowledge of progress in learning. It thwarts the explanatory aspects of learning as the students are supposed to accept the reliability of the information in the lecture. It affords the students no opportunity to practice communication skills. It overlooks the generalization that learning is best accomplished through active participation, not through passive reception, that learning is best internalized when the students are experiencing, doing, and reacting (49, p. 11). 2. Discussion method: The discussion method is a teaching technique in which an entire class of thirty or forty students work as a unit during which time interest is aroused and the students become involved in and moti- vated for the learning experience. The teachers help the students choose the best method for solving and answering problems. The students can pose questions, answer questions, and interact with each other (18, p. 21).

The discussion method in the classrooms of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria is dominated by the teacher in an authoritarian manner. The teacher initiates problems and receives answers to all questions posed in a one-to-one relationship (32, p. 56). This method if used wisely helps in developing a feeling of belonging, security, worthiness on the part of the students, 187 and establishes group goals. Information is shared with the entire group, communication skills are practised, leadership abilities are developed, and group conduct is formed (18, p. 22) . 3. Recitation method: Recitation is the most commonly used method and it involves three steps: a. The teacher assigns textbook passages, b. The students study the text material in the class or at home, and,

c. The teacher questions the students on the material (18/ p. 22). If the students fail to give the correct answers to the questions they are punished. This creates bad feelings between the teacher and the students. The teachers is regarded as an inquisitor rather than a helper. It promotes highly individualistic and competitive attitudes. On the other hand, recitation helps the students to obtain immediate feedback on the correctness of their responses. The students study the assignment more carefully in order to give the correct answer when asked (2, p. 162). 4. British style debate method: The British style debate method is based on House of Commons procedures. A problem is formulated by the teacher and the class is divided into two groups with a leader assigned to each group. Both the leader for the affirmative and negative 188 make a five-minute formal presentation. The other members from each side add points left out. The speeches must be in affirmative-negative sequence so that equal numbers of people speak on each side of the questions. Both speakers summarize their points (32 ) .

Guidance in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria In a study that was done in 1970 by Atim Ekpenyong, she found out that choosing as well as planning for an occupation was the students' responsibility in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria (18 , p. 51) . Research reveals that guidance in Nigerian secondary schools was unknown until very recent times. The home, the primary institution for the socialization of the child was the guidance agency. Guidance was concerned with morals and the mores of society. The first school counselor for Nigerian secondary schools graduated with a doctor's degree in educational psychology from the University of Southern California in 1956. In 1957, the University College of Ibadan, Nigeria set up an institute of education to train counselors and professional teachers (17, p. 9). At present, guidance in Nigerian secondary schools is poor in quality, the percentage of trained personnel is low, and the teachers are unwilling to 189

~~cooperate with the school administration, especially where guidance issues touch off a religious conflict (18, p. 52).~~

Instructional Spaces in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Assembly halls in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria are equipped with movable chairs which could be folded away and the space used for large group instruction. Each classroom provides space for small group instruction for about forty students, having the floor space of ten square feet per student. Each of the forty students has a chair and a desk. Space for independent study and instructional material centres are not available. Teaching machines such as radio and television are available in each classroom for the students to use for school broadcasts and other school lessons. Social areas are used for social dances, clubs, handwork, physical education, music, and games

~~(18, p. 53).~~

~~Equipment in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Equipment that is inadequate in the secondary schools~~

of Cross River State of Nigeria are blackboards, records, film strips, maps, globes, charts, scientific 190 apparatus, projectors, and tape recorders. Projected materials which are supplied by the United States of America and the United Kingdom include slides, filmstrips, motion pictures, and transparencies.

Laboratories in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria Three types of laboratories are available in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria. These are biological science, chemical, and home economics laboratories. Much emphasis has been on the teaching of the girls to sew, cook, and manage the home. As a result, home economics laboratories have been well-equipped with both cooking and sewing appliances (18, p. 55).

According to Atim Ekpenyong, each girl has a sewing machine, a pair of scissors, measuring tape, pins, lined construction paper, ironing board and iron, and a cutting table. Again, each girl has a well-equipped cooking unit which she can use any time to prepare any meal she wishes. Cooking books are written in the Nigerian languages for better understanding of recipes. Few electric stoves and ovens are available in urban secondary schools, but in rural secondary schools tri-pot and zinc ovens are used

~~(18, p. 55). 191~~

~~Inspection of Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria With the rapid expansion of secondary schools in~~

Cross River State of Nigeria, the importance of school inspection in ensuring the attainment and maintenance of uniform and high standards of education throughout the state cannot be overemphasised. In Cross River State of

Nigeria, the secondary schools are inspected three times a year. The fifth national conference of secondary school inspectors in Nigeria was held in December 1979 with representatives from the nineteen states ministries of education attending. The conference considered through lectures, workshops, symposia, and school visits various ways in which secondary school inspectors can ensure quality education in an ever-increasing student population and over-enrolment of classes (16, p. 78). During inspections, subject specialists carry out very detailed inspection of every aspect of the curriculum of secondary schools for four days so that the broad patterns of teaching and learning in different locations in the state are identified. This is most useful to the state ministry of education in the formulation of policies on major aspects of school management, organization and administration. The report of the inspections also provides useful feedback on the physical facilities, 192

~~resources, textbooks, training needs of teachers, secondary school principals, and on school discipline.~~

Financing Secondary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria Secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria is financed principally by the state government since the government took over all the secondary schools. Communities, parents-teachers' associations (PTA), and parents/guardians cooperate in financing secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria. Communities are involved in the construction of new classrooms especially in community secondary schools.

The Cross River State of Nigeria is one of the educationally backward states in Nigeria. This fact has been accepted by successive administrations of the state since its inception. At the commencement of the third state development plan (1975-80), the state's educational underdevelopment was still clearly manifest in acute shortage of high-level and skilled man-power, particularly in the administrative, professional, and technical cadres, as well as in low enrolment ratio, particularly at the secondary and tertiary levels of education (11, p. 48). This situation would appear to have arisen and persisted principally as a result of past neglect of the geographical area now known as the Cross River State of Nigeria in the 193

~~provision of educational facilities and economic infrastructures for the economic well-being of its inhabitants~~

~~(11, p. 48).~~

The state's student financing programme was therefore designed to ensure that children who could benefit from secondary education were not prevented from doing so simply because of inadequate finance from family sources. The broad objectives of the Cross River State of Nigeria student financing programme therefore have been as follows:

~~1. to assist in raising the level of enrolment at secondary institutions, 2. to alleviate man-power shortage in the public and private sectors of the state's economy,~~

~~3. to encourage and reward academic excellence,~~

4. to help needy students who cannot finance their education without state scholarships or bursaries to have the benefit of education, and, 5. to promote even development of the state through creation of equal educational opportunities for its citizens (11 , p. 48) . The Cross River State of Nigeria student financing programme is implemented through the state's scholarship and loan board. The state government increased its secondary education funding from N16 million in 1979/80 school year to M40 million in 1981 (13, p. 19). 194

~~External and Internal Constraints in Secondary Schools in Cross River State of Nigeria~~

~~The main constraints facing secondary education in~~

~~Cross River State of Nigeria can be divided broadly into the following:~~

1. shortage of funds, 2. shortage of teachers, and, 3. inadequate teaching facilities. 1. Shortage of funds; A lot of money is required to make the implementation of government policies in respect of secondary education a success. A lot of construction work has either had to be halted or scaled down as a result of this situation. One consequence of government being in heavy arrears of payment to the contractors handling the various projects is that classrooms, staff quarters and other buildings required for the students have not been made available. Expansion has therefore not met the actual desired goals in terms of additional intakes and increased opportunities (11, p. 58). There are, for instance, thousands of primary school graduates who are qualified and willing to receive secondary education, but the number of schools is limited and facilities in existing schools are also limited so that only a fraction of such primary school graduates can obtain places. This has adversely affected the target transition ratio of 100 per cent. A rational re-assessment of the 195

~~targets already set will have to be undertaken to ensure a smooth growth rate in the light of available financial resources (11, p. 58).~~

2* Shortage of teachers: Qualified manpower has continued to be a major constraint in the educational development of Cross River State of Nigeria. The problem permeates both the professional staffing of the ministry of education as well as the teacher requirements in the secondary schools. The proportion of non-graduate and non-N.C.E. teachers in secondary schools in the state is still very high. Out of the total requirement of about 3,290 teachers, there are only about 1,402 graduate/N.C.E. teachers, or just about 50 per cent. This shortage is even more pronounced in such subject areas as the natural sciences, mathematics and English language (ll , p. 58).

Part of the problem in the past has been the reluctance of univeristy graduates to make teaching a career because of the poor conditions of service relative to their counterparts in the state civil service. In the past few years, there have been far reaching changes such that service conditions in both services have been harmonised and it is expected that the teaching profession would now attract more qualified personnel (n, pp. 58-59). 196

3* Inadequate teaching facilities: Because of shortage of funds, most of the secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria do not have the right quantity or quality of equipment necessary for an effective educational programme. Communities have been encouraged to open new schools and provide buildings and basic equipment while the state government assists with staffing and recurrent costs. There is a limit to the amount of facilities which these communities can provide. Im most cases the system has had to rely on basic minimum in order to increase the number of qualified students who seek secondary education. There are also shortages of residential facilities for teachers in the rural areas of Cross River State of Nigeria (11, p. 59).

~~Higher Education in Cross River State of Nigeria~~

When the South Eastern state of Nigeria (now Cross River) re-opened its primary and secondary schools in 1968, it did not own a single institution of higher learning (53, p. 10). The state needed well qualified teachers in the lower classes of the secondary school, and it required a technological institute that would provide pre—vocational courses in different phases of engineering and business administration so as to produce middle level manpower for rapid economic development. The state needed 197 an institution of higher learning that would transmit culture, teach the professions, conduct research, train new scientists, and produce higher level manpower for the state and the nation (19., p. 165).

Today, in Cross River State of Nigeria the following institutions of higher learning exist: 1. School of Arts and Science, Uyo, 2. School of Basic Studies, Akamkpa, 3. College of Education, Uyo, 4. The Polytechnic, Calabar, and,

~~5. University of Calabar, Calabar.~~

~~Roles of Institutions of Higher Education in Secondary Education in Cross River State of Nigeria~~

~~The roles of institutions of higher education in secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria include the following:~~

~~1. Influencing the curriculum as regards what to teach and the level of performance,~~

~~2. running in-service courses for teachers, and, 3. training teachers (pre-service training of secondary level teachers.~~

Future Plans in Cross River State of Nigeria for Expan- sion, Growth and Improvement in Secondary Education Programmes Future plans in Cross River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth and improvement in secondary education 198

~~programmes include the following:~~

1. attainment of a transition ratio of 100 per cent, 2. distribution of educational facilities to permit increased accessibility to secondary education, 3. involvement of religious bodies and private individuals in the opening and running of secondary schools, 4. diversification of the curriculum, and, 5. from September 1982, Cross River State of Nigeria will adopt the new educational system of 6-3-3-4 years (six years of primary, three years in junior high school, three years in senior high school, and four years in the university) as well as introducing technical subjects, local crafts, and more commercial subjects like typing and shorthand at the primary levels.

Summary Primary education is now free in Cross River State of Nigeria. Today, in Cross River State of Nigeria, primary education is under the control of the ministry of local government. The number of primary schools in the state is steadily increasing every year. Enrolment in the primary schools in the state is also increasing every year.

Teachers in the primary schools in the state consist mainly of grades I, II, and III teachers. The main constraints in primary education in the state are inadequate classrooms, poor quality of work of teachers in the schools, shortage 199

~~of personnel (trained teachers), and shortage of primary school inspectors.~~

The philosophy and the primary functions of secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria implies mass secondary education, not education for the elite. There is a positive attitude toward the aspirations and needs of the dynamic Nigerian society on its march toward industrial and technological progress, agrarian revolution, social, political, and economic stability.

The number of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria is increasing every year. Enrolment in secondary schools in the state is also increasing every year. As of now, the state school board is responsible for the management of all the secondary schools in the state. Teachers in secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria consist of graduate educationists, subject graduate teachers, N.C.E. teachers (holders of the Nigerian Certificate in education), pivotal teachers with the West African school certificate and the teachers' training college certificate, holders of the West African school certificate (W.A.S.C.), holders of the higher school certificate (H.S.C.), and grades I, II, and III teachers. The proportion of non-graduate and non-N.C.E. teachers in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria is 200

~~still very high. This shortage is even more pronounced in subject areas as the natural sciences, mathematics, and English language.~~

~~The most frequently used teaching methods in the secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria are lecture, discussion, recitation, and the British style debate methods.~~

Three types of laboratories exist in the secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria. These are biological science, chemical, and home economics laboratories. Secondary education in the state is financed by the state government, communities, and by parents.

~~The main constraints in secondary education in the state are inadequate funding, shortage of trained teachers, and inadequate teaching facilities.~~

~~Today, there are five institutions of higher education in Cross River State of Nigeria. CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY~~

~~Aaron, Ira E., Byron Callaway, and Arthur V. Olson, Conducting In-service Programmes in Reading, Newark, Del., International Reading Association, 1965.~~

~~Adams, Samuel C. Jr., "Nigeria: Where Education Has Not Kept Pace with Politics," Phi Delta Kappan, XLI, (January 1960).~~

~~Adaralegbe, Adeniji (ed.), Report of the National Curriculum Conference, Ibadan, Nigeria, Heinemann Educational Books, 1969.~~

~~Adedeji, Adebayo, "Civil Service Problems," West Africa, West Africa Publishing Company Ltd., London, (March 20, 1981), 667.~~

~~Azikiwe, Nnamdi, Zik, A Selection from the Speeches of Nnamdi Azikiwe, Ibadan, Nigeria, Cambridge University Press, 1961.~~

~~Blount, Nathan S., and Klausmeier, Herbert T., Teaching in Secondary Schools, New York, Harper and Row. 1968.~~

~~Brandewie, Donald; Johnson, Thomas; and Trump J. Llody, "The Preparation and Development of Secondary School Administrators: A Summary," NASSP Bulletin 56:352, (March 1972), 32.~~

~~Cerch, and Ladislav, The Integration of External Assistance with Educational Planning in Nigeria, Paris: United Nations, 1967.~~

Comras, Jay, and Robert Masterman, "A Rationale for Comprehensive In-service Programmes," The Clear- ing House, 46, (March 1972), 424-426. 10 Cross River State of Nigeria Education Statistics: 1975-1979, Ministry of Economic Planning, Statis- tics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, May 1980.

~~201 202~~

~~11. Cross River State of Nigeria Ministry of Education Handing over Notes to the Civilian Administration, October 1979.~~

12. Cross River State of Nigeria Third National Develop- ment Plan (1975-80), published by the Ministry of Economic Development and Reconstruction, Calabar, Nigeria, 1975. 13. Daily Times, published by the Daily Times of Nigeria Limited, Lagos, Nigeria (January 9, 1982), p. 19. 14. Dewhurst, J. Frederick & Associates, America's Needs and Resources, New York Twentieth Century Fund, 1955.

15. Durkheim, Emile, Education and Sociology, Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1950. 16. Ebony Magazine, Chicago, Johnson Publishing Co., Inc., (February 1982). *

~~17. Eastern Nigeria Government, Academic Programmes in the University of Nigeria, The Government Printer, 1965.~~

18. Ekpenyong, Atim Etukudo, "Educational Methods in the Secondary Schools of Nigeria: Recommendation for Change," unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, 1970. 19. Essien, Dominus Okon, "Educational Reforms in the South Eastern State of Nigeria," unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1975.

20 Farrant, J. S., Principles and Practice of Education, London, Longman Group Limited, 1964. 21. Federal Republic of Nigeria, National Policy on Educa- tion, Lagos, Nigeria, Federal Ministry of Information, Printing Division, 1977. 22. First Fruits: Graduation Ceremony of the A.T.T.C., Uyo, Ministry of Information and Cultural Affairs, Calabar, Nigeria, 1973. 23. Freeman, Roger A., School Needs in the Decade Ahead, Volume 1, Washington, D.C., National Publishing Comapny, Inc., 1958. 203

24. Freidenberg, Edgar Z. , Coming of Age in America.: Growth and Acquiescence, New YorF7 Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, 1965. 25. Ikejiani, Okechucwu, Education in Nigeria, New York. Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1965.

26. Issues in Social Security, A Report to the Committee on Ways and Means of the United States of America House of Representatives, January 1946. 27. Jarolimek, John, "A Model for In-service Teacher Education," Social Education, 34, (March. 197m . 329-332. '

~~28. Johnson, Thomas J., "Who Is the Principal?", Education Canada, (December 1971).~~

29. Koontz, Elizabeth D., "A Consumer's Hopes and Dreams for Teacher Education," The Tenth Charles W. Hunt Lecture delivered at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, Chicago, Illinois, February 26, 1969 (ERIC-ED027273).

~~30. Mercer, Blaine E., Carr, Edwin R., Education and the Social Order, New York, Rinehart & Company, Inc., 1956.~~

~~31. Mttzger, Brother Paul, "Staff Evaluation of In- service Education Techniques," The Catholic Educational Review. LXIII, (April, 1965), 247-253.~~

~~32. Mitchison, Lois, Nigeria: Newest Nation, New York, Frederick A. Praeger, 1960.~~

~~33. Morrison, Lord, Government and Parliment: A Survey from the Inside, New York, Oxford University Press, 1964.~~

34. NEA, "Teachers' Needs for In-service Training," NEA Research Bulletin, 46, (October, 1968). 35. Nduka, Otoni, Western Education and the Nigerian Cultural Background, Ibadan, Nigeria, Oxford University Press, 1964. 204

36. Nelson and Others, Area Handbook for Nigeria, Washington, D. C., 1972. 37. The New Curriculum and Syllabus for Primary Schools in the South Eastern State of Nigeria, Calabar, Nigeria: The Government Printer, 1973. 38. Nickerson, Neal C., :Status of Programmes for Princi- pals," NASSP Bulletin 56:352, (March 1972), 20.

39. The Nigerian Chronicle, printed and published by the Cross River State of Nigeria Newspaper Corpora- tion, Calabar, Nigeria, (February 6, 1973), pp. 4-5. 40. The Nigerian Chronicle, printed and published by the Cross River State of Nigeria Newspaper Corpora- tion, Calabar, Nigeria (September 21, 1974). 41. The Nigerian Chronicle, printed and published by the Cross River State of Nigeria Newspaper Corpora- tion, Calabar, Nigeria, (January 7, 1982), p. 10. 42. The Nigerian Chronicle, printed and published by the Cross River State of Nigeria Newspaper Corpora- tion, Calabar, Nigeria, (January 9, 1982), pp. 4-6. 43. The Nigerian Chronicle, printed and published by the Cross River State of Nigeria Newspaper Corpora- tion, Calabar, Nigeria, (January 16, 1982), p. 1. 44. The Nigerian Chronicle, printed and published by the Cross River State of Nigeria Newspaper Corpora- tion, Calabar, Nigeria, (January 19, 1982), p. 16.

45. Nigerian Record: Creation of States, Washington, D. C.: Embassy of Nigeria, 1967. 46. Okoli, Joe Enukora, "Cross River: The Present and the Future," West Africa, West Africa Publishing Company, Ltd., London, (February 1, 1982), 291- 294. 47. Oliver, Albert I., Curriculum Improvement: A Guide to Problems, Principles, and Process (second edition), New York, Harper & Row Publishers, 1977. 205

48. Painter-Brick, S. K., Nigerian Politics and Military Rule: Prelude to the Civil War, London: The Anthlone Press, 1970. 49. Rogan, William B., Modern Elementary Curriculum, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. 50. Sax, Gilbert, Empirical Foundations of Educational Research, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice- Hall Inc., 1968. 51. silman, M., "Progress in Commercial Education in the South Eastern State of Nigeria," West African Journal of Education, Vol. 6, No. 1., 1973. 52. Sloan, Ruth, The Educated African, New York, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1962. 53. South Eastern State of Nigeria; An Introduction, Ministry of Information and Cultural Affairs, Calabar, Nigeria, 1970. 54. The South Eastern State Aspects 1: Features on the South East, Calabar, Nigeria, Government Printer, 1974. 55. The South Eastern State: A Report on Educational Progress, 1968-1973. 56. South Eastern State Compressed Syllabi and Recommended Textbooks for Elementary Schools in South Eastern State, January 1972 to June 1973, Calabar, Nigeria, Ministry of Education, 1971. 57. South Eastern State Educational Review 1968/69—1971/72, Ministry of Education, Calabar, Nigeria, 1973. 58. South Eastern State of Nigeria Education Statistics: 1970-1976, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, 1976. 59. The South Eastern Educational Review, Ministry of Education, Calabar, Nigeria, 1972. 60. The South Eastern State Educational Review, Ministry of Education, Calabar, Nigeria, 1968-1973. 206

61. The South Eastern State of Nigeria Gazette, Vol, 4, No. 55, Ministry of Information and Cultural Affairs, Calabar, Nigeria, December, 1971. 62. Stewart, Charles E., and Helen A. Hart, "Teacher Education in an Urban School System," Theory Into Practice, XI (December 1972), 285-290. 63. Stovall, Thomas F., "Lecture versus Discussion," Phi Delta Kappan, XXXIX, (March 1958), 155-158. 64. Sunday Times, published by the Daily Times of Nigeria Limited, Lagos, Nigeria, (September 29, 1974), p. 1. 65. Syllabus for West African School Certificate Examina- tion, Lagos, Nigeria, West African Examination Council, 1973. 66. Thompson, John Thomas, Policy-making in American Public Education; A Framework for Analysis, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1976. 67. Ukeje, B., Education for Social Reconstruction, Lagos, Nigeria, 1966. 68. Umaru, Musa, "Facing the Cost of Education," West Africa, West Africa Publishing Company Ltd., London, September 15, 2119-2122. 69. The West African Examinations Council: Regulations and Syllabuses for the Joint Examinations for School Certificate and General Certificate of Education (ordinary level) and for the General Certificate of Education (advanced level), 1981. 70. Wood, Charles L., Nicholson, Everett W., Findley, Dale G., The Secondary School Principal; Manager and Supervisor, Boston, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1979. CHAPTER V

~~SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS~~

~~This chapter presents a brief summary of what is involved in this study—a resume of findings, the conclusions, and accompanying recommendations.~~

Summary The purposes of this study were to describe the past and the present system of secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria, to examine the goals, achievements, and failures with special consideration for the period from 1970 to 1981, and to make recommendations for improvement of the secondary educational system in Cross River State of Nigeria.

This study was limited to only one of the nineteen states of Nigeria, because generalizations to all would be meaningless, as the system of secondary education in each of the nineteen states is unique. The study was also limited to only the materials available through the Cross River State of Nigeria Ministry of Education, the United States Library of Congress, Washington D.C., The British

~~207 208~~

Museum, London, the leading United States universities connected with the development of education in Nigeria, the Nigerian universities, and interviews. First, a review was made of the literature which deals with the historical development of secondary education in Cross River State of Nigeria. The North Texas State University library's card catalog guided the researcher to available research materials on the topic. The library's interlibrary loan department was heavily used in getting materials from other universities. As the bulk of the material was abroad, a trip to Nigeria was made. Dissertations both completed and in progress were checked to avoid duplication of work. Indexes revealed journal articles available on the topic. Letters were written to the British Museum, London, the United States Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., the Cross River State of Nigeria Ministry of Education, and to the Nigerian universities requesting bibliographies on the research topic. These bibliographies were used in purchasing/borrowing materials which aided in writing the research paper. Government publications, educational laws and decrees, unpublished theses and dissertations, articles in the professional journals, reports of UNESCO, Nigerian educational research institutes, the Nigerian Daily Times (Nigerian 209

Daily Newspaper), and the Nigerian Chronicle (the Cross River State of Nigeria daily newspaper) were examined. Interviews were scheduled with the following government officials as a supplement to the documents: 1. The Cross River State of Nigeria Commissioner of Education, 2. Chairman, State School Board, Cross River State of Nigeria,

3. Secretary, State School Board, Cross River State of Nigeria, 4. The Chief Inspector of Education, Cross River State of Nigeria, 5. The Cross River State of Nigeria Commissioner of Local Government, and 6. Some traditional rulers and village heads in Cross River State of Nigeria.

~~Findings~~

This section provides a resume of the findings derived from the relevant documents and interviews with some officials of the government in Cross River State of Nigeria. The specific research questions originally posed in Chapter I of this study and the questions that were used during the interview with some officials of the government 210

of Cross River State of Nigeria, are stated here, and the findings pertaining to each question are briefly presented. A. Findings about Traditional Education of Cross River State of Nigeria 1. What was the nature of the curriculum of traditional education before the introduction of Western education? The curriculum of traditional education in Cross River State of Nigeria consisted of the following essentials: moral instruction, civics, on-the-job training, trading, history, geography, hunting, arithmetic, farming, sanitation, and home economics. These and other forms of informal but practical education were what the people of precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria thought were the needs of their society. 2. What were the purposes of traditional education before the introduction of Western education? The purposes of traditional education in Cross River State of Nigeria were firstly to keep the stock pure and homogeneous. Secondly, to provide for the survival of the stock, and thirdly, to make life worth living for the rising generations. The purpose of traditional 211 education in Cross River State of Nigeria was also to produce responsible adults who could fit harmoniously into the framework of the then existing society.

~~Who were the teachers of traditional education?~~

The education of a child in precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria was the concern of all. Parents, elders of the community, peer groups, cults, trades and craft guilds were the teachers of traditional education. Should the curriculum of traditional education be incorporated into the present day programme of secondary schools?

All the traditional rulers and village heads in Cross River State of Nigeria that were interviewed by the writer agreed that the curriculum of traditional education should be incorporated into the present day programme of secondary schools. All of them stated that this had already been done by way of the teaching of arts and crafts, rural science (agriculture), and social studies. According to them, at present the training programme has not been fully devised and conducted to provide adequate stimuli to enable the youngsters to believe in and pattern their livelihood on this basis. 212

~~B. Findings about the Primary Education System~~

~~1. What are the goals of primary education?~~

~~The stated goals of primary education in Cross River State of Nigeria are: a. to develop communicative language~~

~~b. to develop basic practical or manipulative skills through the teaching of arts and crafts~~

~~c. to develop national consciousness through the teaching of cultural subjects, d. to develop pupils' interests in science as well as their spirit of inquiry and investigation~~

~~e. to develop character through religious studies~~

~~2. Who is responsible at present for setting educational goals and who should be involved in the decision-making process in primary schools?~~

~~The State Ministry of Local Government in cooperation with the parents and teachers are responsible at present for setting educational goals in the primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria. 213~~

The state officials that were interviewed by the writer indicated the parents, teachers, community leaders, employers of labor, and religious organizations should be involved in the decision-making process.

3. What is the nature of the curriculum and co- curriculum activities of primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria? The curriculum and co-curriculum activities of primary schools consist of the following: Efik language (the principal language in Cross River State of Nigeria), English language, handwriting, health education, physical education, agricultural science, creative and cultural arts, general science, home economics, modern mathematics, social studies, moral and religious instruction/Bible knowledge, and musical activities.

~~4. Who attends primary school? The education policy adopted by the government guarantees every child of primary school age in the state an elementary education in a public school. 214~~

~~5. What are the qualifications of primary school teachers?~~

~~The academic qualifications of primary school teachers consists mainly of grades I, II, and II teachers.~~

~~6. What are the criteria for the selection of a primary school headmaster?~~

~~The criteria for the selection of a primary school headmaster in Cross River State of Nigeria are as follows: a. educational qualifications b. years of teaching experience~~

~~c. years of experience in a post of responsibility d. age~~

~~e. personal integrity~~

~~f. administrative competence~~

~~7. How is primary education financed?~~

Primary education in Cross River State in 1970 was fee-free for primary I, n, and III, while school fees were charged in primary IV, V, and VI. A child in primary IV paid $12.00 a year, and in primary V and VI, the school fees charged for one year was $16.00. 215

In 1976, when the Universal Primary- Education was introduced by the 1966-79 Federal Military Government of Nigeria, primary education in Cross River State of Nigeria became free. The federal government of Nigeria was therefore financially responsible for the funding of primary education in Cross River State of Nigeria. In 1980, the federal government of the republic of Nigeria relinquished the responsibility of funding primary education to the states and local governments. Today, the government of Cross River State of Nigeria and the local governments within it are financially responsible for the funding of primary education in Cross River State of Nigeria.

~~How often are in-service education programmes organized for primary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria and who is responsible for these programmes?~~

In-service education programmes are organized for primary school teachers in the state three times a year. From the responses of the officials of the government of Cross River State of Nigeria that the writer 216

~~interviewed, the State Ministry of Local Government is responsible for organizing these programs.~~

~~9. What are the external and internal constraints in primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria?~~

There are four major problems facing the primary school system in Cross River State of Nigeria. The first is the high degree of congestion in the primary schools. Classrooms are grossly inadequate. The second problem is the poor quality of work in the primary schools because of shortage of professional educationists. The third constraint is the shortage of primary school inspectors who are grossly inadequate. The fourth constraint is shortage of funds.

~~10. What are the perceived roles of institutions of higher education in primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria?~~

The perceived roles of institutions of higher education in primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria include the following: a. influencing the curriculum as regards what to teach and the level of performance 217

b. running in-service courses for the primary school teachers c. training teachers (pre-service training for the primary school teachers) 11. What future plans are under way in Cross River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth, and improvement in the primary education programme?

Future plans that are under way for expansion, growth, and improvement in the primary education programme in the state include the following: a. provision of adequate and efficient teaching facilities b. organizing series of in-service courses during the long vacation for elementary school teachers in order to improve the quality of teaching c. in order to solve the problem of school inspection, the Ministry of Local Govern- ment that is responsible for the administration of primary schools has been reorganized. There is now a school inspection division whose main responsibility is quality control and maintenance 218

d. from Stptember 1982, Cross River State of Nigeria will adopt the new system of 6:3:3:4 plan as well as introducing some technical subjects, local crafts, and more commercial subjects like typing and shorthand at the primary levels.

~~Findings about Secondary Education System in Cross River State of Nigeria~~

~~1. What are the goals in secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria?~~

The goals in secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria include the following: a. providing an increasing number of primary school pupils with the opportunity for education of a higher quality, irrespective of sex, social, religious, and ethnic background

b. diversifying its curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities and roles possessed by or open to students after their secondary school education c. equipping students to live effectively in our modern age of science and technology d. developing and projecting Nigerian culture, art, and languages as well as the world's cultural heritage 219

e. raising a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, and appreciate those values specified under our broad national aims, and live as good citizens

~~f. fostering Nigerian unity with an emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our diversity g. inspiring students with a desire for achievement and self-improvement both at school and later in life~~

~~Who is responsible at present for setting educational goals and who should be involved in the decision-making process in secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria?~~

The Cross River State of Nigeria Ministry of Education in cooperation with parents and teachers are responsible for setting educational goals in the state secondary schools. With regard to who should participate in the decision-making process, interview respondents in this study were of the opinion that parents, teachers, community 220

~~leaders, employers of labour, religious organizations, and students should be involved.~~

~~3. Which individuals or groups influence the initiation of educational policies of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria?~~

The National Council on Education, the Joint Consultative Council on Education, religious organizations, employers of labour, parents, teachers, students, Nigerian Union of Teachers, Students, Nigerian Union of Teachers, institutes of education, and the West African Examination Council are the groups that influence the initiation of educaitonal policies of secondary schools.

~~4. What is the influence of selected individuals or groups on the development of educational policies of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria after the policies have been proposed?~~

The influence of selected individuals or groups on the development of educational policies of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria after the policies have been 221 proposed is that of approving or disapproving the proposed policies. What is the influence of selected individuals or groups on the final approval of educational policies of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria?

The influence of selected individuals or groups on the final approval of educational policies of secondary schools in the state is that of implementing the approved policies. The respondents interviewed in this study stated that the implementation process involves all the educational agencies in Cross River State of Nigeria such as the State School Board, the Cross River State of Nigeria College of Technology (now a polytechnic), all the teachers' training colleges in the state, and the Cross River State of Nigeria College of Education.

What is the nature of the curriculum and co- curriculum activities of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria? In Cross River State of Nigeria, secondary education is provided in secondary grammar, 222 commercial, technical/trade schools, and in teacher's training colleges. The curriculum of secondary schools consists of the following: a. Secondary grammar schools: English language, English literature, French, biology, agricultural science, chemistry, physics, algebra, geometry, trignometry, modern mathematics, geography, fine arts, economics, Bible knowledge, government, and history b. Secondary commercial schools: Typing, shorthand, commerce, economics, arithmetic, bookkeeping, geography, accounting, history, English literature, English language, algebra, geometry, trignometry, biology, and health science c. Secondary technical/trade schools: electrical wiring, motor mechanics, technical drawings, electronics, carpentry , local crafts, and welding are offered in the secondary technical/trade schools in the state for boys, while typing, accounting, stenography, and home economics are provided for girls. Some general 223

education courses which include English language, English literature, Bible knowledge, history, and government are also offered in the secondary technical/ trade schools in Cross River State of of Nigeria. d. Teachers' training colleges: English language, English literature, rural science (theory), rural science (practical) , physical and health education, principles and practice of education, arithmetic, handicraft, history, approved African language (Efik), and Christian religious education.

The respondents interviewed in this study stated that music, fine arts, physical education, gardening, and cultural activities are regarded as co-curricular activities in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria.

~~Who attends secondary school in Cross River State of Nigeria? All children between the ages of eleven and sixteen who have at least completed primary education attend secondary schools in 224~~

Cross River State of Nigeria. "All" includes normal and handicapped children. But admission of students into a secondary school in the state is by entrance examination usually taken by primary school graduates.

What are the qualifications of secondary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria? Ideally, only graduate teachers and holders of Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) should teach in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria. Graduate teachers include holders of bachelors and post- graduate (graduate) degrees. According to the respondents interviewed in this study, the education law of Cross River State of Nigeria requires that every secondary school in the state should have at least one graduate teacher for every ninety pupils enrolled, but because of shortage of qualified teachers the secondary school system in the state has about 30 percent of graduate teachers, 40 percent of NCE teachers (holders of Nigerian Certificate in Education), and 30 percent of nonqualified teachers (grades I, II, and III teachers, holders of the West African School Certificate, and holders of the 225

Higher School Certificate of the Advanced Level General Certificate in Education) 9. How is secondary education financed in Cross River State of Nigeria? The government of Cross River State of Nigeria is the main financer of secondary education in the state. Interview respondents stated that communities, parents-teachers' associations (PTAs), and parents/guardians cooperate in financing secondary education. 10a. How often are in-service education programmes organized for secondary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria? In-service education programmes are organized three times a year for secondary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria.

10b. Who is responsible for these programmes? The Cross River State Ministry of Education and the Cross River State School Board are jointly responsible for organizing in-service education programmes for secondary school teachers. 11a. How often are the secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria inspected? 226

Secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria are inspected three times a year, lib. What are the things that are normally looked for when secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria are inspected?

During inspection, subject specialists carry out very detailed inspection of every aspect of the curriculum of secondary schools for four days so that the broad patterns of teaching and learning in different locations in the state are identified. This is most useful to the State Ministry of Education in the formulation of policies on major aspects of school management, organization, and administration. The report of the inspections also provides useful feedback on the physical facilities, resources, textbooks, training needs of teachers, secondary school principals, and on school discipline.

11c. How often are staff development programmes organized for secondary school inspectors in Cross River State of Nigeria? Staff development programmes (in-service education programmes) are organized three times 227

~~a year for secondary school inspectors in Cross River State of Nigeria. lid. Who is responsible for these programmes?~~

The Cross River State Ministry of Education and the Cross River State School Board are jointly responsible for organizing staff development programmes for secondary school inspectors. 12. What are the perceived external and internal constraints in secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria?

The chief external constraint in secondary schools in the state is inadequate funding. The internal constraints are inadequate teaching facilities and shortage of trained teachers. 13. What are the criteria for the selection of a secondary school principal in Cross River State of Nigeria? The criteria for selection of a secondary school principal in Cross River State of Nigeria are: a. educational qualification b. years of teaching experience 228

~~c. years of experience in a post of responsibility d. age e. personal integrity f. administrative competence~~

~~14. What are the perceived roles of institutions of higher education in secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria?~~

~~The following participatory roles were cited by the interview respondents in the investigation: a. influencing the curriculum as regards what to teach and the level of performance~~

~~b. running in-service courses for the secondary school teachers~~

c. training teachers (preservice training for the secondary school teachers) 15. What future plans are under way in Cross River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth, and improvement in the secondary education programme?

~~The following were cited as future plans for expansion, growth, and improvement in the secondary education programme in Cross River State in the investigation. 229~~

~~a. attainment of a transition ratio of 100 percent~~

~~b. distribution of educational facilities to permit increased accessibility to secondary education~~

~~c. involvement of religious bodies and private individuals in the opening and running of schools~~

d. diversification of the secondary education curriculum e. from September 1982, the government of Cross River State of Nigeria will adopt the new educational system of 6:3:3:4 plan (6 years of primary, 3 years in junior high school, 3 years in senior high school, and 4 years in the university)

~~f. technical subjects, local crafts, more commercial subjects like typing and shorthand will be introduced at the primary level~~

~~Conclusions Within the limitations of this study and the findings presented above, the following conclusions were drawn: A. Conclusions on Traditional Education in Cross River State of Nigeria 230~~

1. There was education in Cross River State of Nigeria before its contact with Europe. 2. The curriculum of traditional education in Cross River State of Nigeria consisted of essential subjects. These were what the people of precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria thought were the needs of their society.

~~3. In precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria, there existed education for children from nursery education (early childhood education) through secondary education.~~

4. Most of the subjects that are being taught today in the modern schools in Cross River State of Nigeria have their origin from precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria. The differences are in content and organization.

5. The main purpose of traditional education in Cross River State of Nigeria was to produce responsible adults who could fit harmoniously into the framework of the then existing society. 6. Education of a child in precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria was the concern of all 231

parents, elders of the community, and peer groups were in essence teachers. 7. Teachers in precolonial Cross River State of Nigeria received no formal training as educationists, they were not paid and in turn the students paid no school fees.

B. Conclusions on Primary Educational System in Cross River State of Nigeria 1. The goals of primary education in Cross River State of Nigeria are adequate. 2. The writer examined in great detail the present arrangement whereby the Ministry of Local Government in Cross River State of Nigeria is in control of primary school education while the Cross River State Ministry of Education controls secondary schools. The writer noted that there is a Nigerian constitutional provision whereby the local government is to "participate" in the provision and maintenance of primary education. The writer noted also that the handover of primary schools to local government to run was one possible interpretation of their "participation" in education as envisaged in the Nigerian Constitution but observed that, the 232

practice of this interpretation in Cross River State of Nigeria has led to confusion, inefficiency, and waste of resources. The writer's interpretation of participation in primary education by local governments is therefore that local governments should hlep to interpret the state government's educational aims, objectives, and plans to their populace.

~~3. The curriculum of primary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria lays emphasis on the three Rs—reading, writing, and arithmetic.~~

~~4. The government of Cross River State of Nigeria encourages Universal Primary Education.~~

5. The qualifications of primary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria are not adequate. This has resulted in poor quality of work in the primary schools because of shortage of professional educationists. The writer believes that Great Britain who colonized Nigeria until 1960 is responsible for the poor qualifications of primary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria. Under the British rule, teachers' training colleges in Cross River State of Nigeria were poorly designed. Instead of offering 233

degree programmes in the teachers' training colleges, the British designed programmes that produced grades I, II, and III teachers who are in essence primary school graduates. The writer believes that with the adoption of the American system of education in September, 1982, the qualifications of primary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria will improve.

~~6. The criteria for the selection of a primary school headmaster in Cross River State of Nigeria is adequate.~~

7. The Cross River State of Nigeria Ministry of Local Government which presently controls primary schools in the state gives high priority to staff development programmes. Conclusions on Secondary Educational System in Cross River State of Nigeria 1. The current goals in secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria are adequate. 2. The growing need for and presence of women in the work force of Cross River State of Nigeria has not reflected adequately in either the educational or the career options typically pictured for girls enrolled in the secondary 234

~~educational system of Cross River State of Nigeria.~~

~~3. The curriculum decisions of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria are based on external pressures.~~

~~4. The implementation process of educational policies of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria is adequate.~~

~~5. The academic qualifications of secondary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria seem adequate but with some modifications .~~

~~6. Inspection and inspection methods of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria seem adequate.~~

7. The chief external constraint in secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria is inadequate funding. The internal constraints are inadequate teaching facilities and shortage of professionally trained teachers.

~~8. The criteria for the selection of a secondary school principal in Cross River State of Nigeria are adequate with the exception of the educational qualification. 235~~

~~9. Future plans in Cross River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth, and improvement in the secondary education programme seem adequate.~~

Recommendations to the Government of Cross River State of Nigeria On the basis of the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations are given for the improvement of secondary education programmes in Cross River State of Nigeria. 1. The central control and management of education should be vested in the state now and in the future. The handover of primary school to local governments to run in Cross River State of Nigeria has led to confusion, inefficiency and a waste of resources. Therefore, participation in primary education by local governments should be in the form of interpreting the state government's educational aims, objectives, and plans to their populace. A reorganized State Ministry of Education should be responsible for education at both levels (primary and secondary levels). 2. Administration of education is solely and completely the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. It is recommended that men and women chosen to plan, manage, or execute educational policies should be people of proven ability, probity, and integrity. Up to the 236

present, the poor quality of some members of the State School Board and the Ministry of Education officials has resulted in corruption and nepotism in the system as unqualified and redundant staff are smuggled into the system as to meet the selfish interest of those in authority. Therefore, it is recommended that in the future the Commissioner for Education, the Permanent Secretary in the Cross River State Ministry of Education, and the various professional positions within the Ministry should be held by professional educationists for effective and efficient management of the Ministry and the State School Board.

3. The governor of Cross River State of Nigeria should appoint a state superintendent of schools with executive powers to manage the Cross River State of Nigeria schools. The state superintendent of schools should be given power to appoint capable assistants to assist him or her in the management of primary and secondary schools. The state superintendent of schools should be a professional educationist with specialization in educational administration and supervision. 4. To improve the academic qualifications of primary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria, it is recommended taht the College of Education should diversify its programme to include specialization in 237

~~guidance and counseling, early childhood education,~~

special education, health education, industrial arts education, elementary education, reading education, occupational and vocational education, physical education, recreation and leisure studies, secondary education, educational administration and supervision, and music education at NCE level. Holders of the Nigerian Certificate in Education should be required by law to teach in the primary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria and only in their areas of specialization.

5. The term headmaster of a primary school should be changed to read principal. The principal of a primary school should at least be a holder of the Nigerian Certificate in Education with specialization in educational administration and supervision.

6. An effective application of continuous assessment of the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria should be introduced. This action would shift emphasis from annual and terminal examinations and attendant mal- practices to effective teaching and gradual eradication of cheating and dishonesty in final examinations which would be replaced by the award of a terminal diploma/ certificate after the successful completion of the appropriate programme. 238

7. There should be an infusion of high quality material to train teachers in the teachers' training colleges of Cross River State of Nigeria. Well qualified staff should be evenly distributed, the restoration of the balance between a surfeit of qualified staff in the urban areas and a dearth of specialist teachers in the rural areas, the rationalization of the tutorial and non- tutorial staff, clerical and non-clerical and relating these to the actual number of students in the individual schools.

8. The principal is the chief executive of the institution (secondary school), accountable to the public and state government for the successful administration of his/her secondary school based on initiative, industry, and honesty. His/her authority over the staff and students has become tenuous as a result of over central- ization at the headquarters. Principals of secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria, in order to manage secondary schools effectively, should have at least a degree in education with specialization in educational administration. Those who are principals now with no knowledge in educational administration should be encouraged to go back to the university to read for at least a post-graduate diploma in education administration. 239

9. Principals should be given adequate powers to discipline not only erring students but also staff in consultation with the Board of Governors and other administrative organs at local government and state levels.

10. Students should assess the input and performances of their teachers and teachers the input or performances of the principal who would make final assessments of staff under him for the purposes of promotion.

11. A university degree should not be the main criterion for the appointment of principals and vice- principals. Qualified holders of the Nigerian Certificate of Education and other well-qualified non-graduate teachers with proven ability, integrity, probity, and competence should also be considered for appointment as principals and vice-principals in secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria.

12. The government of Cross River State of Nigeria should invest more money in primary and secondary education. Outlays for such activities should be regarded not as expenses but as investments yielding high dividends. Factors that should be used in determining the size of school budgets are enrollment, teacher demand, teachers' salaries, classrooms, and building costs. 240

13. Junior high schools that will emerge in Cross River State of Nigeria as of September 1982 should be separated from senior high schools and the junior high schools should be managed by a principal whose academic qualification should at least be the Nigerian Certificate in Education at the initial stages if there is a shortage of graduate educationists with specialization in educational administration and supervision.

14. Courses in junior high schools should be designed taking into consideration the physical growth characteristics, mental and intellectual growth characteristics, and, the preadolescents to avoid a shift from the junior high schools to the middle schools as was the case in the history of secondary education in the United States of America.

~~15. In the future all the teachers in the secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria should be required to have a basic training in education.~~

~~16. Efforts should be made to turn teaching into a profession in Cross River State of Nigeria through the following methods:~~

~~a. by making conditions of service attractive to prospective teachers, b. by controling entry into the profession through a competency based programme, and 241~~

~~c. by providing adequate preservice training~~

~~for student teachers.~~

~~17. All the secondary schools in the state should be made comprehensive secondary schools.~~

18. Graduation ceremonies should be held in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria at the end of the school year and graduates awarded their diplomas for encouragement. 19. The secondary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria should use more varied teaching methods in their schools. 20. A separate master plan for secondary education should be developed in Cross River State of Nigeria.

21. A formal process of needs assessment, as a component of a step-by-step problem solving method must be a starting point for the planning exercise. 22. To increase interest and support for the plan and to obtain a total picture of needs of the clientele

to be served, the Joint Consultative Council on Education, religious organizations, employers of labour, parents, teachers, students, Nigerian Union of Teachers, institutes of education, and the West African Examination Council should be encouraged to participate in educational planning, 23. To improve the academic qualifications of secondary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria, the 242

College of Education, Uyo, should diversify its programme at the bachelor1s degree level as has been stated above. Graduates of the College of Education should be required by law to teach in the secondary schools of Cross River State of Nigeria only in their areas of specialization.

24. To improve the academic qualifications of primary and secondary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria, the School of Education at the University of Calabar should be divided into the following departments and degree programmes at the bachelors, masters, and doctoral levels: a. early childhood, elementary, and reading

~~education, b. counseling and guidance,~~

~~c. special education,~~

~~d. health education,~~

~~e. human services, foundations and multicultural~~

~~education, f. industrial arts education, g. occupational and vocational education,~~

~~h. physical education, i. educational administration and supervision, j. recreation and leisure studies, k. secondary education, and 1. library studies. 243~~

~~25. In addition to the above recommendations for the School of Education at the University of Calabar, the following institutes should be established at the Univer-~~

~~sity of Calabar.~~

~~a. Institute of education: This institute~~

~~should become more of a public service unit~~

~~conducting research, organizing workshops~~

~~and seminars, moderating the examinations of~~

~~colleges of education and other colleges.~~

~~b. Curriculum development and instructional~~

~~materials centre: This institute should~~

~~develope its public service to include~~

~~curriculum development, evaluation, educa-~~

~~tional technology, and child development~~

~~research. This institute should have~~

~~an active publication section, providing~~

~~textbook and other learning materials for~~

~~primary and secondary schools in Cross~~

~~River State of Nigeria.~~

~~c. Institute for Nigerian cultural studies:~~

~~This institute should encourage research~~

~~in Nigerian culture which should be used in~~

~~the teaching of multicultural and traditional~~

~~education. 244~~

26. To improve in-service education for secondary school teachers in Cross River State of Nigeria, proper guidelines for developing in-service education programmes should be worked out. Secondary school teachers should be involved emotionally or intellectually in the educational activity.

~~27. To improve in-service education for secondary school inspectors in Cross River State of Nigeria, proper guidelines for developing in—service education programmes~~

~~should be worked out. Secondary school inspectors should~~

~~be involved emotionally or intellectually in the educa-~~

tional activity. 28. To revive agriculture in Cross River State of Nigeria, both the primary and secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria should place emphasis in agriculture 29. To improve the administrative structure of primary and secondary schools in Cross River State of Nigeria, independent school districts should be created out of the present local government areas. Since local government areas are creatures of the state government, it is therefore the responsibility of the Cross River State House of Assembly to create independent school districts out of the present local government areas (see Figure 3). 245

30. For effective utilization of human resources and even development of educational programmes at the primary and secondary levels, there should be only one school board in each independent school district in Cross River State of Nigeria to serve all the primary and secondary schools in each independent school district. The present practice of having a school board for every secondary school in Cross River State of Nigeria is a waste of human resources and does not encouarge equal development of educational programmes. 31. In each independent school district, for the primary schools, the staff should consist of the following:

~~a. teachers for separate grades or combined~~

~~grades,~~

b. teachers of special subjects such as art, music, or physical education, c. teachers of a subject such as arithmetic or geography in a departmentalized school, or in a team-teaching situation, d. teachers of exceptional children, talented, mentally retarded, or emotionally disturbed, or disadvantaged, e. teachers of physically handicapped, partially seeing, or hard-of-hearing children, 246

~~f. supervising teachers in a laboratory or~~

~~experimental school,~~

~~g. general or special subject supervisors,~~

~~h. assistant principals,~~

~~i. principals, j. visiting teachers, k. child psychologists or counselors,~~

~~1. school nurses, m. curriculum consultants, and n. guidance counselors (1, p. 87).~~

~~32. In each independent school district, the secondary schools should consist of the following staff:~~

a. teachers of subjects such as English, foreign language, social studies, or music, b. Teachers of special subjects such as art, home economics, industrial arts and trades, music, physical education, driver education, speech and hearing therapy, and Nigerian studies, c. teachers of disadvantaged children, d. supervising teachers in a laboratory or experimental school, e. department heads of a subject area, f. assistant principals, g. principals, h. supervisors of a subject area, 247

~~i. curriculum consultant, j. athletic coaches, k. guidance counselors, 1. librarians, and m. visiting teachers (1, pp. 87-88).~~

~~33. In each independent school district, the administrative and special services unit should consist of the following:~~

~~a. a superintendent who should have at least a~~

~~masters degree in educational administration~~

~~and supervision, b. assistant superintendents for finance, personnel, instruction, and public relations, c. school secretary, d. research director, e. director of audio-visual materials,~~

~~f. school psychologist, g. school psychometrist, h. vocational counselors and placement officers,~~

~~i. school statistitian, j. clerical assistants, k. cafeteria managers, 1. dietitians, m. school physicians and dentists, n. school nurses, 248~~

~~o. health educationists, and p. adult education director (1, p. 88).~~

~~Recommendations for Further Studies Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations for further studies are proposed:~~

~~1. Similar studies should be carried out in other~~

~~states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria for secondary~~

~~education to improve their quality and effectiveness.~~

~~2. A similar study should be carried out in Cross~~

~~River State of Nigeria for primary education. CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Richey, Robert W., Preparing for a Career in Education: Challenges, Changes and Issues, New York, McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1974.~~

~~249 APPENDIX A INTERVIEW EVALUATION 251~~

1. Did the interviewer demonstrate that his background ~~ research for the interview was thorough? 2. Has the interviewer demonstrated a thorough know- ~~ ledge of his equipment? 3. Did the interviewer establish good rapport with ~~ the memoirist? 4. Did the interviewer keep in mind that the interview was the memoirist's show? 5. Did the interviewer ask open-ended questions? 6. Did the interviewer often ask more than one question at a time? 7. Did the interviewer often interrupt the memoirist — in the middle of his answer to a previous question by interjecting a new question? 8. Did the interviewer allow inferences and inti- — mations to pass without elaboration? 9. Does the interviewer ask for specific examples to corroborate generalizations made by the inter- viewee? 10. Does it appear that the interviewer is listening intently to what the memoirist is saying? 11. Have the interviewer's questions covered the subject thoroughly? 12. Has the interviewer adequately determined the accuracy of the memoirist's memory? 13. Has the interviewer determined how close the memorist was to the events he is describing? 14. Has the interviewer allowed the memoirist to use gestures in describing dimensions without asking him to translate the gestures into numbers? 15. Are the interviewer's questions phrased clearly and in a well-thought-out manner? 252

16. Did the interviewer lace his questions with professional jargon? 17. Did the interviewer argue with the memoirist? 18. Did the interviewer appear to be a sympathetic, yet neutral, observer? 19. Did the interviewer ask leading questions in order to elicit a pre-determined view? 20. Did the interviewer allow his personal biases to come out in his questions to the memoirist? APPENDIX B INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR SELECTED GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS, TRADITIONAL RULERS, AND VILLAGE HEADS IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA 254

~~INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION~~

1 What are the perceived and preferred goals in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 2. Who is responsible at present for setting educational goals and who should be involved in the decision- making process in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 3. Which individuals or groups influence the initiation of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 4 What is the influence of selected individuals or qroups on the development of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria after the policies have been proposed? 5 What is the influence of selected individuals or ^ groups on the final approval of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 6. What is the nature of curriculum and co-curriculum activities of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 7. Who attends secondary school in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 8. What are the qualifications of secondary school teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 9. How is secondary education financed in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 10. What are the perceived external and internal constraints in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 11. What are the perceived roles of institutions of higher education in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 255

~~12. What future plans are under way in the Cross River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth, and improvement in the secondary education programme? 256~~

~~INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA COMMISSIONER OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT~~

1. What are the perceived and preferred goals in primary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 2. Who is responsible at present for setting educational goals and who should be involved in the decision- making process in primary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 3. What is the nature of curriculum and co-curriculum activities of primary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 4. Who attends primary school in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 5. What are the qualifications of primary school teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 6. What are the criteria for the selection of a primary school headmaster in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 7. How is primary education financed in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 8. (a) How often are staff development programmes organized for primary school teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria? (b) Who is responsible for these programmes? 9. What are the perceived external and internal constraints in primary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 10. What are the perceived roles of institutions of higher education in primary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 11. What future plans are under way in the Cross River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth, and improvement in the primary education programme? 257

~~INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE CHAIRMAN, STATE SCHOOL BOARD, CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA~~

1. What are the perceived and preferred goals in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 2. Who is responsible at present for setting educational goals and who should be involved in the decision- making process in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 3. Which individuals or groups influence the initiation of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 4. What is the influence of selected individuals or groups on the development of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria after the policies have been proposed? 5. What is the influence of selected individuals or groups on the final approval of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 6. What is the nature of curriculum_and co-curriculum activities of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 7. Who attends secondary school in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 8. What are the qualifications of secondary school teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 9. How is secondary education financed in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 10. (a) How often are staff development programmes organized for secondary school teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria? (b) Who is responsible for these programmes? 258

11. What are the perceived external and internal constraints in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 12. What are the perceived roles of institutions of higher education in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 13. What are the criteria for the selection of a secondary school principal in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 14. What future plans are under way in the Cross River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth, and improvement in the secondary education programme? 259

~~INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE SECRETARY, STATE SCHOOL BOARD, CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA~~

5. What is the influence of selected individuals or groups on the final approval of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 6. What is the nature of curriculum and co-curriculum activities of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 7. Who attends secondary school in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 8. What are the qualifications of secondary school teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 9. How is secondary education financed in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 10. (a) How often are staff development programmes organized for secondary school teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria? (b) Who is responsible for these programmes? 260

11. What are the perceived external and internal constraints in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 12. What are the perceived roles of institutions of higher education in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 13. What are the criteria for the selection of a secondary school principal in the Cross River State of Nigeria?

~~14. What future plans are under way in the Cross River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth, and improvement in the secondary education programme? 261~~

~~INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE CHIEF INSPECTOR OF~~

EDUCATION, CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA 1. What are the perceived and preferred goals in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 2. Who is responsible at present for setting educational goals and who should be involved in the decision- making process in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 3. Which individuals or groups influence the initiation of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 4. What is the influence of selected individuals or groups on the development of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria after the policies have been proposed? 5. What is the influence of selected individuals or groups on the final approval of educational policies of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 6. What is the nature of curriculum and co-curriculum activities of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 7. Who attends secondary school in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 8. What are the qualifications of secondary school teachers in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 9. How is secondary education financed in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 10. (a) How often are the secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria inspected? (b) What are the things that are normally looked for when secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria are inspected? 262

(c) How often are staff development programmes^ organized for secondary school inspectors in the Cross River State of Nigeria? (d) Who is responsible for these programmes? 11. What are the perceived external and internal constraints in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 12. What are the perceived roles of institutions of higher education in secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 13. What future plans are under way in the Cross River State of Nigeria for expansion, growth, and improvement in the secondary education programme? 263

~~INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR SOME TRADITIONAL RULERS AND VILLAGE HEADS IN THE CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA~~

1. What was the nature of the curriculum of traditional education in the Cross River State of Nigeria before the introduction of Western education? 2. What were the purposes of traditional education in the Cross River State of Nigeria before the introduction of Western education? 3. Who were the teachers of traditional education in the Cross River State of Nigeria? 4. Do you think the curriculum of traditional education should be incorporated into the present day programme of secondary schools in the Cross River State of Nigeria? APPENDIX C ENROLMENT IN TEACHERS' TRAINING COLLEGES IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA BY DIVISION 1970-1976/77 SCHOOL YEAR 265

~~TABLE IV ENROLMENT IN TEACHERS' TRAINING COLLEGES IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA: 1970-1981~~

~~Enrolment by Class~~

~~Higher Higher Elementary Elementary Year 1 Year 2 Total~~

~~Division Male Female Male Female HE 1 HE 2 Both~~

~~80 54 134 Abak 77 3 54 • • Calabar 21 11 27 21 32 48 80~~

~~Eket 34 16 37 6 50 43 248 Enyong 29 9 25 9 38 34 72~~

~~• • • • Ikom • • • • • • • • . . Ikot Ekpene 25 19 37 7 44 44 88~~

~~• • # « • • Obubra • • • • • • • •~~

~~• • « * • • Obudu • • • • • • • • Ogoja 54 6 166 18 60 184 244 Opobo 54 37 46 15 91 61 152~~

Uyo 90 11 104 27 101 131 232 Total 384 112 496 103 496 599 1,250 Source: South Eastern State of Nigeria Education Statistics: 1970-1976, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, 1976, p. 69. 266

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~~TABLE VIII ENROLMENT IN TEACHERS1 TRAINING COLLEGES IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA BY DIVISION, SEX, AND YEAR OF COURSE: 1975/76 SCHOOL YEAR~~

~~Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Total Male & Male & Male & Male & Male & Male & Division Female Female Female Female Female Female~~

~~Abak 33 138 108 162 159 600~~

~~• • • • Akamkpa • • • • • • •~~

~~Calabar 65 97 113 127 200 602~~

~~Eket 37 65 72 192 203 569~~

~~• • • • 164 Eitnan 164 • • •~~

~~• • • • 180 Ikom 164 • • • Ikot Ekpene 289 131 154 273 307 1,154~~

~~Itu 69 280 272 255 287 1,163~~

~~• • • • 180 Obubra 180 • •~~

~~• • • • • • • Obudu • • Ogoja 139 353 213 126 209 1,040 Opobo 32 199 126 117 107 581 109 411 890 Oron • * 188 186~~

• • • • Uyo • • • • • • Total 1,188 1,451 1,240 1.361 1,883 7,123 Source: Statistics: 1970-1976, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, 1976, p. 73. 270

~~TABLE IX ENROLMENT IN TEACHERS1 TRAINING COLLEGES IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA BY DIVISION, SEX, AND YEAR OF COURSE: 1976/77 SCHOOL YEAR~~

~~Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Total Male & Male & Male & Male & Male & Male & Division Female Female Female Female Female Female~~

~~Abak 46 74 157 98 210 585~~

~~# « • • Akamkpa • • • • • * • • Calabar 85 63 160 132 205 645~~

~~Eket 58 46 108 141 233 586 315 Etinan 60 189 • • 66 • • 46 333 Ikom 75 175 • • 37 Ikot Ekpene 46 72 156 377 489 1,140~~

~~Itu 171 128 353 113 277 1,041~~

~~• » 390 Obubra 124 213 53 • •~~

~~• * • • Obudu • • • • • • • • Ogoja 172 171 407 165 231 1,146 Opobo 70 53 245 68 171 607~~

~~Oron 96 27 295 185 231 834~~

~~• • • • • Uyo • • * • • • Total 1,003 1,211 1,933 1,382 2,093 7,622~~

Source: - Statistics: 1970-1976, Ministryof Finance and Economic Development, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, 1976, p. 74. APPENDIX D NUMBER OF TEACHERS IN SECONDARY GRAMMAR SCHOOL IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGERIA BY CATEGORY AND DIVISION: 1970-1978/79 SCHOOL YEARS 272

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~~TABLE XI NUMBER OF TEACHERS IN SECONDARY GRAMMAR SCHOOLS IN CROSS RIVER STATE OF NIGIERA BY QUALIFICATION, SEX, AND NATIONALITY: 1971~~

~~Nationality Nigerian Non-Nigerian Total~~

~~Qualification Male Female Male Female Male Female~~

~~Graduate teachers 104 14 8 9 112 23 with teaching qualification Graduate teachers 69 7 18 7 87 14 without teaching qualification~~

~~N.C.E. 47 13 • • • • 47 13~~

~~Professional with 21 5 • • 1 21 6 associate certificate~~

~~Grade I teachers 22 3 • • • • 22 3~~

~~Grade II teachers 76 41 • • • * 76 41~~

~~H.S.C. 134 15 . . • m 134 15~~

~~W.A.S.C. 75 11 • • 9 » 75 11~~

Others 26 5 • • 2 26 7 Total 574 114 26 19 600 133 Source: South Eastern State of Nigeria Education Statistics: 1970-1976, Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, Statistics Division, Calabar, Nigeria, 1976, p. 32. 274

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