The Dynamics of Student Success in Higher Education First Year and Beyond

Fiona Whelan-Ryan

University of Limerick

A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Supervisors: Professor Sarah Moore & Professor Patricia Mannix McNamara

Submitted to the University of Limerick

2019

Abstract

The Dynamics of Student Success in Higher Education First Year and Beyond

Student success is a contested concept; difficult to define and important to explore. This thesis draws from literature which shows that student success is defined from a variety of perspectives, and that definitions are often related to the priorities of specific stakeholders. In any case, there is very little research that focuses on students’ own definitions of what success in higher education (HE) means to them.

Consequently, the aim of this study is to elucidate the dynamics of student success in higher education (HE) from the perspectives of students. The underlying research objectives explore the students’ perceptions of the dynamics of success in HE and examines how transitional experiences and pragmatics of time impact on their experience. Longitudinal in nature, this interpretive study comprises specific data collection phases over the participants’ first four HE semesters in order to explore early student experiences and perceptions of their progress through the HE experience with a central focus on the concept of success.

More specifically this study evaluates personal experiences and the inter-relationships between identity, structure and agency and their individual and collective influences on students. Key themes that emerged from the study include dynamics of success, transitional and personal experiences in HE. Importantly, this study demonstrates the role of well-being in underpinning the success of the individual and the value of time in the holistic development of students.

The study challenges HEIs and policy-makers to consider a number of important issues: the part that students themselves play in fostering their own success; the rich and complex ways in which students define success and the similarities and differences between official, strategic definitions of success and those articulated by students themselves.

Declaration

I hereby declare that the work contained within this thesis is my own work, and was completed without collaboration or assistance from others, apart from the counsel received from my supervisors Professor Sarah Moore and Professor Patricia Mannix McNamara from the University of Limerick. This work has also not been submitted to any other university or higher educational institution, or for any other academic award within the university.

Fiona Whelan-Ryan

______

May 2019

Dedication

I dedicate this thesis to the memory of both of my parents.

With love and gratitude to Maura and Brendan Whelan.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following people for their input, support and understanding:

My supervisors, Professor Sarah Moore and Professor Patricia Mannix McNamara;

The participants of this study for their time and authentic insights;

My colleagues at WIT, School of Business, Department of Management & Organisation, particularly Dr. Thomas O’Toole, Ms. Joan McDonald and Dr. Felicity Kelliher;

My colleagues at NRCI, especially Professor John Nolan;

Ben Meehan, QDA Training and Support;

Most especially to:

Paul and my children Ronan and Cillian.

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ...... I

DECLARATION ...... II

DEDICATION ...... III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... V

LIST OF APPENDICES ...... XI

LIST OF TABLES ...... XII

LIST OF FIGURES ...... XIII

INDEX OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... XIV

GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...... XVII

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1

1.1 Research Overview...... 1

1.2 Background and Rationale ...... 1

1.3 Aim of this Study and Research Objectives ...... 2

1.4 Research Context ...... 3

1.5 Researcher Positioning ...... 4

1.6 Overview of Thesis Chapters ...... 7

1.7 Contributions and Relevance ...... 10

CHAPTER 2 THE HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR IN IRELAND ...... 13

2.1 Introduction ...... 13

2.2 The Higher Education Sector in Ireland...... 13

2.3 The Institute of Technology Sector...... 15

2.4 Neoliberalism and Higher Education ...... 16

2.5 Contemporary Higher Educational Policies ...... 19

2.6 Transition to Higher Education ...... 21

2.7 Engaging Students in the HE Experience ...... 25

2.8 The Concept of Success in Higher Education ...... 32

2.9 Conclusion...... 34

CHAPTER 3 PERCEPTIONS OF SUCCESS & PERSONAL EXPERIENCES IN HIGHER EDUCATION ...... 37

3.1 Introduction ...... 37

3.2 Perceptions of Success ...... 39

3.3 Personal Factors which Influence Success in Higher Education ...... 41 3.3.1 Demographic and Socio-economic Factors ...... 42 3.3.2 Institutional Influences ...... 43 3.3.3 Non-Institutional Influences ...... 43

3.4 Pragmatics of Time in Higher Education ...... 44 3.4.1 Student Time ...... 44 3.4.2 Temporal Emotion ...... 45 3.4.2.1The Self in Time ...... 47

3.5 Personal Experiences in HE ...... 48 3.5.1 Personal and Social Identity ...... 49 3.5.2 Emerging and Evolving Identity ...... 49 3.5.2.1 Emerging and Evolving Identity in HE ...... 50 3.5.3 Structure and Agency ...... 54 3.5.3.1 Student Agency in HE ...... 57

3.6 Well-being and Resilience and its Impact on Student Success ...... 58 3.6.1 Student Well-being in Higher Education ...... 59 3.6.2 Higher Educational Institutions’ Commitment to Well-being ...... 60

3.7 Progressivism and Flourishing in Higher Education ...... 60

3.8 Conclusion...... 62

CHAPTER 4 EARLY TRANSITIONAL EXPERIENCES IN HIGHER EDUCATION ...... 65

4.1 Introduction ...... 65

4.2 Early Transitions to Higher Education ...... 65 4.2.1 Transition to Higher Education of First Generation Students ...... 68 4.2.2 Transition to Higher Education of Second Level (TLCS) Students ...... 69 4.2.3 Transition to Higher Education of Further Education Students ...... 70

4.3 Student Experiences ...... 71 4.3.1 Direction with Pre-college Experiences and Preparedness ...... 73 4.3.2 Managing Students’ Expectations ...... 75 4.3.3 Influences in Decision-making Relating to Higher Education Choices ...... 76

4.4 Recruitment to HE ...... 76

4.5 Student Orientation and Early Adjustment ...... 77

4.6 Student Engagement ...... 78 4.6.1 Engagement Strategies and their impact on Student Success ...... 79 4.6.1.1 Social Integration and its impact on Student Success ...... 81 4.6.1.2 Academic Involvement and its impact on Student Success ...... 83 4.6.1.3 Student Assessment and Feedback and its impact on Student Success . 84 4.6.1.4 Student Departure and its impact on Student Success ...... 84 4.6.1.4.1. Positive Impact of Early HE Departure ...... 87

4.7 Student Success Programmes ...... 87 4.7.1 Student Support Systems ...... 89 4.7.2 Developing Skills Strategies for Student Success in HE ...... 91 4.7.3 Student Success Programmes for Second Year Students ...... 91

4.8 A Holistic Approach to Higher Education ...... 93 4.8.1 Positive HE Experiences ...... 93

4.9 Overview of the Theoretical Framework ...... 97

4.10 Conclusion ...... 98

CHAPTER 5 METHODOLOGY ...... 101

5.1 Introduction ...... 101

5.2 Research Aim and Objectives ...... 101

5.3 Philosophical Perspectives ...... 102 5.3.1 Ontology ...... 103 5.3.1.1 Constructivism ...... 103 5.3.2 Epistemology ...... 104 5.3.2.1 The Interpretivist Perspective ...... 105

5.4 Methodological Considerations...... 107 5.4.1 Quantitative Methodology ...... 107 5.4.2 Qualitative Methodology ...... 108

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5.5 Research Approach ...... 108 5.5.1 Research Design Considerations ...... 109

5.6 Constructivist Grounded Theory ...... 110

5.7 Data Collection ...... 112 5.7.1 Selection of Research Participants ...... 113 5.7.2 Overview of Research Participants ...... 114 5.7.3 Overview of the Research Process ...... 117 5.7.4 In-Depth Interviews ...... 119 5.7.5 Pilot Interviews ...... 119 5.7.6 Unstructured Interviews ...... 120 5.7.7 The Data Collection Process ...... 121 5.7.7.1 The In-depth Interview Process ...... 122 5.7.7.2 The Student Journals ...... 127

5.8 Data Management: Analysis & Synthesis ...... 128 5.8.1 Constructivist Grounded Theory Analyses ...... 129 5.8.2 Initial Coding ...... 131 5.8.3 Focused Coding ...... 131 5.8.4 Theoretical Coding ...... 132

5.9 Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research ...... 136 5.9.1 Confirmability ...... 137 5.9.2 Credibility ...... 138 5.9.3 Transferability ...... 138 5.9.4 Dependability ...... 139 5.9.5 Authenticity ...... 139

5.10 Ethical Considerations ...... 140 5.10.1 Insider Research ...... 144 5.10.1.1 The advantages and benefits of insider research ...... 145 5.10.1.2 The disadvantages and challenges of insider research ...... 145 5.10.1.3 The ethics of insider research ...... 146 5.10.1.4 Personal experiences as an insider researcher ...... 147

5.11 Researcher Reflectivity and Reflexivity ...... 148 5.11.1 Researcher Reflectivity ...... 149 5.11.2 Researcher Reflexivity ...... 150

5.12 Dissemination and Policy Relevance ...... 153

5.13 Limitations of the Study ...... 153

5.14 Conclusion...... 154

CHAPTER 6 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ...... 155

6.1 Introduction ...... 155

6.2 Participant profile ...... 156

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6.2.1 A vignette on each of the participants of the study...... 158

6.3 Overarching Themes ...... 165

6.4 The Contested Concept of Student Success ...... 166

6.5 Students Perceptions of Success ...... 169 6.5.1 Direction ...... 172 6.5.2 Surviving ...... 175 6.5.3 Striving...... 177 6.5.3.1 Striving to ‘Stand out’ ...... 179 6.5.4 Flourishing ...... 180 6.5.5 Realising Potential ...... 181

6.6 Transitional Experiences ...... 183 6.6.1 Early Transitions to HE ...... 185 6.6.1.1 Social Integration ...... 188 6.6.1.2 Motivational Experiences and Influences ...... 193 6.6.1.3 Emotional Influences ...... 196 6.6.2 Pragmatics of Time ...... 199 6.6.2.1 Managing Time ...... 199 6.6.2.2 Developing a Routine ...... 201

6.7 Personal Experiences ...... 202 6.7.1 The Emerging and Evolving Self...... 203 6.7.2 Developing Agency ...... 207 6.7.3 Well-being ...... 210 6.7.3.1 Physical Well-being ...... 211 6.7.3.2 Mental and Emotional Well-being...... 213 6.7.4 Resilience ...... 218

6.8 Conclusion ...... 219

CHAPTER 7 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ...... 223

7.1 Introduction ...... 223

7.2 The Contested Concept of Student Success in Higher Education ...... 223

7.3 Student’s Perceptions of Success ...... 226 7.3.1 Direction ...... 226 7.3.2 Surviving ...... 229 7.3.3 Striving...... 231 7.3.3.1 Striving to ‘Stand out’ ...... 233 7.3.4 Flourishing ...... 234 7.3.5 Realising Potential ...... 234

7.4 Transitional Experiences ...... 236 7.4.1 Early Transitions to HE ...... 238 7.4.1.1 Social Integration ...... 240 7.4.1.2 Motivational Influences ...... 242

7.4.1.3 Emotional Influences ...... 243 7.4.2 Pragmatics of Time ...... 244 7.4.2.1 Managing Time...... 244 7.4.2.2 Developing a Routine ...... 246

7.5 Personal Experiences ...... 247 7.5.1 The Emerging and Evolving Self ...... 249 7.5.2 Developing a Sense of Agency ...... 250 7.5.3 Well-being and Resilience ...... 251

7.6 Refining Students’ Perceptions of Success Framework ...... 253 7.6.1 Reconceptualising the Dynamics of Student Success in HE ...... 256

7.7 Conclusion...... 258

7.8 Reflexive Commentary ...... 258

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION ...... 261

8.1 Introduction ...... 261

8.2 Research Aim and Objectives ...... 262

8.3 Summary of Research Findings ...... 262 8.3.1 Students’ perceptions of success in HE ...... 263 8.3.2 Students’ early transitional experiences in HE ...... 265 8.3.3 Students’ personal experiences in HE ...... 267

8.4 Synopsis ...... 267

8.5 Contributions ...... 272 8.5.1 Significance for Theory ...... 272 8.5.2 Significance for Policy ...... 274

8.6 Significance for Practice ...... 276

8.7 Significance for Social Issues and Action ...... 279 8.7.1 Dissemination and Policy Relevance ...... 280

8.8 Limitations of the Study ...... 280

8.9 Avenues for Future Research...... 282

8.10 Reflexive Analysis of the Researcher ...... 283

8.11 Concluding Comment ...... 284

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 287

List of Appendices

APPENDIX A: THE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SECTOR ...... 345

APPENDIX B: WELL-BEING INITIATIVES ...... 348

APPENDIX C: ETHICAL APPROVAL ...... 349

APPENDIX D: INFORMATION SHEET FOR STUDENT SUCCESS HE STUDY 351

APPENDIX E: CONSENT FORM FOR STUDENT SUCCESS HE STUDY ...... 354

APPENDIX F: INTERVIEW GUIDES FOR STUDENT SUCCESS HE STUDY ..... 356

APPENDIX G: REFLECTIVE JOURNAL PROMPTS FOR STUDENTS ...... 369

APPENDIX H: REFLECTIVE JOURNAL PROMPTS FOR RESEARCHER (POST INTERVIEWS) ...... 370

APPENDIX I: INTER-RATER RELIABILITY REPORT ...... 371

APPENDIX J: PARTICIPANT REFLECTIVITY ...... 372

APPENDIX K: STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SUCCESS CODEBOOK ...... 374

APPENDIX L: EXAMPLE OF LINKING LITERATURE TO PRIMARY SOURCES375

APPENDIX M: GENERATING INITIAL CODES) ...... 376

APPENDIX N: GENERATING FOCUSED CODES ...... 380

APPENDIX O: GENERATING THEORETICAL CODES – ...... 386

APPENDIX P: MEMOS AND EXEMPLAR OF MEMO ON STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF SUCCESS ...... 388

APPENDIX Q: MOST FREQUENTLY CITED WORDS BY STUDENTS (INTERVIEWS AND REFLECTIONS) ...... 389

APPENDIX R: CODING ITERATION FOR TRANSITION & EARLY EXPERIENCES - INITIAL CODING...... 390

List of Tables

Table 1: Overview of Research Participants ...... 115 Table 2: Overview of Participants ...... 116 Table 3: Phenomenological Themes & Consideration of Research Approach ...... 121 Table 4: Phases of Research & Time Dedicated to In-depth Interviews ...... 122 Table 5: Key Themes & Sources of Data ...... 130 Table 6: Thematic Framework ...... 133 Table 7: Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research (Lincoln & Guba 1985) ...... 137 Table 8: Abbreviations of Participant Profiles ...... 156 Table 9: Overview of Participants ...... 157 Table 10: Summary of Research Findings by Themes and Sub-Themes ...... 225 Table 11: Framing of Success in Higher Education ...... 269

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Research Map ...... 6 Figure 2: Literature Review Summary ...... 38 Figure 3: Student Transformation (Chickering 1993) ...... 52 Figure 4: Transition and Adjustment to Higher Education ...... 67 Figure 5: Tinto's revised model of student departure ...... 86 Figure 6: Theoretical Framework ...... 96 Figure 7: Appropriate Conditions for a CGT Study (Charmaz 2003) ...... 111 Figure 8: Phases of the Research Process ...... 118 Figure 9: The Data Collection Process ...... 121 Figure 10: Data Analysis & Thematic Development (CGT) Process ...... 135 Figure 11: Themes and Sub-themes of Perceptions of Success ...... 155 Figure 12: The Contested Concept of Participant Success ...... 167 Figure 13: Transitional Experiences ...... 184 Figure 14: Early Participant Experiences over Time ...... 184 Figure 15: Personal Experiences ...... 202 Figure 16: Participant as Emerging Person over Time ...... 203 Figure 17: Well-being over Time ...... 211 Figure 18: Direction and Transition to Higher Education ...... 227 Figure 19: A Refined Model of the Dynamics of Student Success in HE ...... 256

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Index of Abbreviations

AL Autonomous Learning

BBS Bachelor of Business Studies (Level 8) Hons

CAO Central Applications Office

CGT Constructivist Grounded Theory

CT Critical Thinking

DES Department of Education and Skills

DEIS Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS)

The Action Plan for Educational Inclusion is a policy instrument to address educational disadvantage

DIT Dublin Institute of Technology

EC European Commission

EHEA European Higher Education Area

EI Emotional Intelligence

EUA European Universities Association

FE Further Education

FETAC Further Education and Training Awards

FETCs Further Education and Training Colleges

Freshmen A first year university student (term originates from North America)

FYE First Year Engagement.

GPs General Practitioners

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GPAs Grade Point Average(s)

HE Higher Education

HEA Higher Education Authority

HEI(s) Higher Education Institute(s)

HETAC Higher Education and Training Awards

HR Human Resources

IL Independent Learning [Strategies]

IoTs Institutes of Technology

IoTI Institutes of Technology Ireland

IRCHSS Irish Research Council for Humanities and Social Sciences

IRCSET Irish Research Council for Science, Engineering and Technology

ISSE Irish Survey of Student Engagement

JC Junior Certificate

KPIs Key Performance Indicators

LC Leaving Certificate

LLL Life-long-learning

MKM Metacognitive Knowledge Monitoring

MNCs Multi-National Companies

MOOCs Massive Open Online Learning Courses

MS Mature Students

NFETL National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching & Learning

NSSE National Survey of Student Engagement

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

PERMA Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Achievement (Seligman 2011)

PLC Post Leaving Certificate

PMA Positive Mental Attitude

PP Post Primary

PPIs Post-Primary Institutions

PSs Primary Schools (Grammar or elementary schools)

PRTLI Programme for Research in Third Level Institutions

QQI Quality and Certification Ireland

RC Regional Technical College

R & D Research and Development

SCSs Second Chance Students

Sophomores A second year university student (term originates from North America)

SSCs Student Success Courses

SLL Student Life and Learning

SRL Self-regulated Learning

SSPs Student Success Programmes

SSIs Student Success Initiatives

TLCSs Traditional School Leavers

TSRs Teacher Student Relationships

TU Technological University

VLEs Virtual Learning Environments

WIT Waterford Institute of Technology

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Glossary of Terms

The Bologna Process: a collective effort of public authorities, universities, teachers, and students, together with stakeholder associations, employers, quality assurance agencies, international organisations, and institutions, including the European Commission.

Constructivist Grounded Theory: adopts the inductive, comparative, emergent, and open-ended approach (Charmaz 2014, p.12).

Humanism: emphasis on concepts such as self-confidence, self-regulation, creativity, innovation, personal initiative (Kascak et al. 2011, p.83).

Neoliberalism: is evident in advanced and emerging economies and is characterized by market deregulation, monetarism, financialisation, privatization (Mercille & Murphy 2017, p.371).

Progressivism: implies a transformative learning experience and includes experiential learning (Glisczinski 2007).

Student Agency: refers to the ‘quality of students’ self-reflective and intentional action and interaction with their environment’ (Klemenčič 2015, p.11).

Transformative learning: concerned with ‘altering frames of reference through critical reflection of both habits of mind and points of view’ (Moore 2005, p.82).

Transition Charter: whereby adherence to a charter of good practice laid down for a programme, a discipline, or a HEI, would significantly enhance the transition experience of first-year students (Pargetter et al. 1998).

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Chapter 1 Introduction

I think you will still be finding yourself when you are fifty years old, and you just keep getting older….you are still learning new things about yourself every day.

(P2, TLCS, Semester 4)

1.1 Research Overview

The aim of this study was to seek to understand the concept of student success in higher education (HE) from the perspectives of the students. Central to this study is the acknowledgement that ‘student success’ is a contested concept; difficult to define and important to explore. It draws from literature which highlights that while student success may be defined from a variety of perspectives among specific stakeholders (Mullin 2013) there is little agreement as to ‘what student success is or should be for all institutions’ (Kramer 2007, p.xxxiii). Student success is frequently interrogated from neoliberal, progressivist, humanist and critical theorist viewpoints. However, little has been written from the perspective of the HE student and the conspicuous lack of informed debate around the area of what constitutes student success has been noted by several commentators (Perna 2009; McCoy et al. 2010; Keane 2012; Krumrei-Mancuso et al. 2013). This research is both ground-breaking and challenging in that it represents a new dialogue of what constitutes student success in HE from the perspective of the student.

1.2 Background and Rationale

Success in HE has traditionally been measured in terms of academic achievement and grading metrics, throughput, progression and retention rates, and in a recent development, albeit, to a lesser extent, according to feedback and satisfaction levels of the students (Wirth & Padilla 2008; Zepke 2013; Keeling 2014). Rarely however, has

the policy discourse included the more progressivist or humanistic measures of success as ‘softer outcomes’ are harder to measure (Zepke & Leach 2010a). Moreover, it is highly unusual for student success to be evaluated through the experiences and perspectives of HE students themselves. Therefore this study sought to address the said literature gap and sets as its core objective the establishment of a Student Success Model, which addresses the early transitional and personal experiences that students’ experience. It also aims to inform the debate and commence a dialogue whereby HE policy-makers and higher education institutes (HEIs) consider the perspectives of students in their pursuit and measure of HE success. Garratt (2011, p.223) advocates that students’ ‘equal capability to speak confidently about their learning may be regarded as a positive and socially just move for learning in higher education…and that a deliberate approach to voice and participation, through enhanced capabilities, may provide the very means with which to improve the experience of learning and teaching across the life course’. This effectively means that giving students a voice in terms of acknowledging the importance of their academic, social and emotional well-being may generate a more student-centred holistic approach to their development.

1.3 Aim of this Study and Research Objectives The aim of this study was to seek to understand the dynamics of student success in higher education from the perspectives of the students. This study was concerned with evaluating early student experiences and perceptions of their progress in their higher education experience. The underlying research objectives sought:

i. To explore the students’ perceptions of conditions that enhance their opportunities for success in higher education over time ii. To examine how transitional experiences in higher education and pragmatics of time impact on the student both academically and personally iii. To evaluate how personal experiences in higher education evolve and impact on the student over time.

1.4 Research Context

The context of this study is based on an Irish HE and an Institute of Technology (IoT) perspective (Appendix A). The research question and objectives of this study challenge historical and current HE policies as the contemporary neoliberalisation of HE has been heavily criticised by the international academic community (Giroux 2010a; Giroux 2010b; Shore 2010; Smith 2012; Mercille & Murphy 2017). This study was carried out following several years of severe economic recession, and the HE policy (DES 2011) discourse therein, and some of the students’ experiences, reflect this problematic period. From an Irish HE perspective the impact of austerity measures, as well as neoliberal influences has negatively impacted the remit of HE and some argue that current HE policies are more concerned with a neoliberal agenda rather than a manifesto for radical transformation of Irish higher education (Higgins 2012; 2016; Walsh 2014; Mercille & Murphy 2017).

Furthermore, over the last two decades, with a significant increase in access and participation in HE and conversely in HE student fees, debate within academic communities has evolved from ideologies such as ‘the student as consumer’ (Molesworth et al. 2009; Barnett 2010) to ‘the student as co-creator’ (Chalcraft et al. 2015) to ‘student satisfaction’ (Elsharnouby 2015). While much of the discourse initiated at this time was arguably over-simplistic it nonetheless pinpointed legitimate concerns faced by both HEIs and students; namely, retention and progression (Tinto 2010; Carter & Yeo 2016). In the late 1990s and early millennium much of the rhetoric around student retention in HE was concerned with addressing persistence, completion and drop-out issues. However, from the turn of the millennium this evolved into developing strategies which HEIs could actively pursue in terms of focusing more student-centred activities such as orientation, engagement and social integration (Kuh 2003; Kuh et al. 2008; Kahu 2013; Bryson 2016). The majority of these strategies and policies have been devised by academics and policy-makers as a result of survey research conducted by HEIs and HEAs (HEA 2010; HEA 2015; NFETL 2015a; 2015b; ISSE 2017). The present study is thus unique as it is qualitative in nature, longitudinal, and gives voice to contemporary HE students from all socio-economic and education

backgrounds (TLCSs, SCSs, IntS, MS) pertaining to their transition(s) to HE, early experiences in HE, and perspectives of success.

During this research process, the temporality of emotions had a strong resonance with all participants through reflections, realisations and aspirations. Developing a routine and skills in autonomous learning (AL) was part of a successful transition to HE as ‘engagement helps to develop habits of the mind and heart that enlarge their capacity for continuous learning and personal development’ (Kuh 2009, p.5). While the personal experiences of participants were inherently individuated, similarities based on age profile(s), socio-economic background, stage of life, and shared goals and value system(s) were evident across the overall cohort. As time went by, maturity developed, through which students constructed new possible images of future selves, along with ways to realise these projections (Klemenčič 2015). The central tenet of this thesis is that student success cannot be properly supported by HEIs unless success is reframed in a more holistic way with well-being initiatives made more accessible for all students.

1.5 Researcher Positioning

I have been a lecturer for the last twenty-six years and also held a management role in a department in the HE sector for over two years. While I very much enjoyed the challenges of management, the role of teacher in higher education actually reflects my own identity and occupational preference more closely. As an academic practitioner, a teacher, and a researcher in higher education, I have always experienced a deep sense of responsibility towards students. I take a personal and professional interest in their well- being and am committed to encouraging all students to strive to reach their potential.

For as long as I can recall, I have always wanted to be a teacher. I was given a little tripod blackboard as a child and I vividly recall holding classes in our sitting-room at home, with me employing the ‘chalk and talk’ method with my two little sisters. While I revelled in my role, I am not sure my siblings were as delighted. I really enjoyed my student experience in HE and was fortunate to be offered a post-graduate scholarship

after my programme of study ended. My role as a lecturer has always been based in the IoT and HE sector. I commenced tutorship hours in my early twenties as part of my post-graduate scholarship programme. I remained at the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) for four years and in 1996 was appointed as a full-time lecturer at Waterford Institute of Technology (WIT).

My role as a lecturer has evolved over the years, primarily driven by the development of new programmes and modules, changes and revisions to existing programmes and modules with the introduction of the semesterised system, by developments in technology, and more importantly by changes in the students’ needs. Furthermore, I have grown as a person in terms of life experiences, but my role as a lecturer changed most profoundly and fundamentally when I became a parent, and I became more deeply aware of student well-being.

I believe it is incumbent on academics to remain committed to the practice of life-long learning, personal and professional development to honour ourselves and our community (academic and wider community) and the influential role we hold. In academia and in society, it is vitally important to continue to challenge oneself and one’s beliefs in order to challenge others, since this process of active engagement enables us to truly grow and reach our potential. Our relational role with students affords us the opportunity to constantly consider what constitutes student success and to remain committed to understanding students’ own definitions of success. Figure 1 (overleaf) presents an overview of the research map and approach used for this study.

The Contested Concept of Student Success in Higher Education.

Policy & Literature Review Methodology

Chapter 2 The HE Sector Chapter 5

Chapter 3 Perceptions of Success & Interpretive Approach Personal Experiences in HE CGT Analysis of the data Chapter 4 Early Transitional

Experiences in HE

Data Collection Process & Phases Pilot phase (May 2014 – 2 interviews)

Phase 1 (Nov 2014 – 16 interviews)

Phase 2 (May 2015 – 14 interviews)

Phase 3 (Oct 2015 – 12 interviews) Phase 4 (April 2016 - 12 interviews)

Data Coding & Data Analyses using CGT

Initial Coding (micro coding) Focused Coding Axial Coding and memo-writing Theoretical sorting & diagramming

Returning to the literature & developing a theoretical framework.

Findings Discussion

Chapter 6 Presentation of Findings Chapter 7 Discussion of Findings

ings Returning to the literature & integrating with findings & developing a refined theoretical framework.

Figure 1: Research Map

1.6 Overview of Thesis Chapters

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of each chapter of the thesis and contextualises the aims, objectives and setting of the study (Chapter 2). It presents a synopsis of the theoretical framework (Chapters 3 and 4) of the relevant literature and previous studies that have prompted this study. It also presents an outline of the two year research process (Chapter 5), subsequent data analysis, and the key findings (Chapter 6), and considers these findings in the context of the existing literature (Chapter 7). Finally, these findings and extant discussion led to the identification of conclusions and recommendations to all stakeholders in the higher education sector (Chapter 8).

Chapter 2: The HE Sector in Ireland

This chapter outlines the context and development of the HE sector in Ireland with particular emphasis on the IoT sector and to policies and strategies which directly impact student development and progression. Contemporary research studies have highlighted the fact that far more could be done to assist potential students at pre-entry and post-entry phases of higher education. Student Success Initiatives (SSIs) in the HE sector include the development of programmes before students begin their HE journey in terms of managing expectations and preparing and supporting transitions. Nation- wide and HEI specific programmes have also been developed for students during their HE journey in terms of promoting engagement in the new learning environment to optimise the totality of the HE experiences and individual potential (Crosling et al. 2009; Tinto 2012a; NFETL 2016).

Chapter 3: Perceptions of Success & Personal Experiences in HE

This chapter presents definitions and dynamics of success in a more holistic manner; as there is a dearth of literature pertaining to students’ own perceptions of progress and success towards their own and programme goals. Thus personal and social factors that may influence success in HE are reviewed, as are the pragmatics of time, which are

discussed from experiential, emotional and temporal perspectives. Personal experiences, such as emerging and evolving identities, structure and agency, are also considered in the context of the student in the HE environment. Finally, the importance and combined impact of well-being and resilience in terms of progressivism and flourishing in the context of academic success is highlighted.

Chapter 4: Early Transitional Experiences in HE

This chapter delineates the early transitional and personal experiences of students to HE. Key aspects that are reviewed and evaluated include pre-college experiences and student preparedness. Since managing students’ expectations is a key influencer in terms of HEI and programme choice, HEIs’ student recruitment strategies are also examined. Facilitating a smoother transition to HE is dependent on student orientation and engagement strategies and encompasses social integration, academic involvement, student assessment, feedback, facilitation and support regarding student departure. Finally, a student-centred holistic approach to HE is considered.

Chapter 5: Methodology

This chapter provides insight into the philosophical and methodological perspectives which underpin this study. The aims and objectives of the study are outlined and the ontological and epistemological perspectives of the researcher are discussed. Methodological considerations and the methodological approach deemed to be most suitable in addressing the research aims and objectives are outlined in detail. Research design considerations and the rationale for the selection of a constructivist grounded theory (CGT) approach are presented. The data collection process including the recruitment and selection of participants is described in detail, and an overview of the participants (16 participants in year one and in year two 12 participants) provided, along with a detailed account of the research process. The data collection method of in-depth interviewing is recounted in detail with emphasis on researcher reflectivity and reflexivity throughout. Data management, analysis and synthesis are outlined according to the constructivist grounded theory approach. The integrity of the research process and

ethics involved are discussed as well as the deliberations around insider research. The value of being involved in the research process is discussed in terms of participant reflectivity and the limitations of the study fully acknowledged and documented.

Chapter 6: Findings

Key findings elicited from the study relating to the participants’ perceptions of student success early in their HE journey have been presented in terms of life-stages or perceived journey (personally and academically). The key themes and subthemes that were identified from data analysis were perceptions of success from the participants’ perspectives, early transitional experiences in HE, and early personal experiences in HE. In terms of participants’ perceptions of success the key sub-themes identified from the data included direction, surviving, striving, flourishing, and realising potential. In terms of early transitional experiences the main sub-themes comprised early transitions to HE and pragmatics of time. Participants’ early personal experiences inhered three key sub-themes; namely, the emerging and evolving self; developing a sense of agency and; and the importance of well-being and resilience in facilitating student success. Significant benefits were derived from conducting the study over a two year period and gathering data once per semester over four consecutive semesters as it afforded the participants’ sufficient time and space to reflect on past and present experiences, review plans, and anticipate future possible opportunities and experiences.

Chapter 7: Discussion

Three key themes emerged from data collated from the participants and analysed once per semester over the four semesters: namely, the participants’ perceptions of success in HE; their transitional experiences in the early stages of HE; and the participants’ personal experiences. The overriding themes based around perceptions of success were identified as a clear sense of direction, or gaining a sense of direction over time, the ability to physically, emotionally and academically survive the transition to HE, having the agency and resilience to strive and achieve specific goals, personal flourishing, and realising potential.

While successful student transition early in HE clearly plays a pivotal role in future academic performance and success, Hughes and Smail (2015) note the lack of universal agreement as to how best to support students during this process. One of the most notable aspects of early transition to HE which impacted the participants in this study related to that of post-exam recovery from protracted Leaving Certificate stress. Positive early social experiences are beneficial to new HE students, particularly in terms of their mental well-bring (Hughes & Smail 2015). The importance of social support and integration was crucial to the participants’ well-being throughout all four semesters, with significantly more allusions to this theme than to any other. Motivational components of self-regulated learning are purported to help students persist in the face of difficult tasks (Dabbagh & Kitsantas 2012). As such, engaging with these strategies and supporting students to address negative thoughts, emotions and behaviours and to develop positive strategies and self-belief strategies could assist in a smoother transition to the HE environment and enhance resilience (Hughes & Smail 2015).

Chapter 8: Conclusions and Recommendations

The concluding chapter presents a summary of the research findings in light of the research aim and objectives of the study. The main findings focus on students’ perceptions of conditions that contribute to success in HE, students’ early transitional experiences and their personal experiences in HE. A series of recommendations are offered in terms of potential contributions to the field of theory, practice and policy- making, with particular reference to holistic HE in a psycho-social context. The limitations of the study are stated and addressed and a final reflexive commentary is presented.

1.7 Contributions and Relevance

The research will be of value to policy-makers, managers of HEIs, programme teams and tutors, academia, student support teams, student placement officers, and student union bodies. Moreover, it will be of benefit to students in PPE settings (prospective HE

students), their families, and their teachers. The issues raised in this study may form the basis of new theories and perspectives on student experiences and student success in PPE and HE. This study contributes to a theoretical development and discourse around the dynamics of student success in HE initially and beyond their first year of study. This study draws on the sociological constructs of structure and agency in terms of identifying the conditions that enhance success for students in their first year and beyond.

In the main, success in HE has been measured most significantly from a neoliberalist perspective, frequently depending on the programme of study and/or perspective of the researcher or the nature of the agenda from the policy-maker adopting a progressivist approach, and occasionally from a humanist perspective. This study represents a uniquely contextualised exploration of the conditions that enhance student success from a critical theory perspective in their early stages of their learning within HE. It highlights the opportunity that exists for students to strive to realise their potential and reminds HEIs of their progressivist and holistic role in facilitating this process.

The research will provide policy-makers and practitioners alike with the opportunity to debate and re-consider metrics around success and the validity of soft- as well as hard- outcomes to ensure academic integrity, fitness for practice, contribution to the economy, contribution to society, and significantly, personal fulfilment and holistic development. This study provides both practitioner and theoretical outputs in the context of the early student transition to HE which arguably inhere the most challenges and signification implications for the remainder of students’ HE journey and their future as life-long learners.

Chapter 2 The Higher Education Sector in Ireland

2.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the context and policy relating to the higher education sector (HE) in Ireland over the last number of years, with particular reference to the Institute of Technology (IoT) sector and the views of relevant educationalists on the evolution of the HE sector and proposed planned development into the future. Particular emphasis is placed on interrogating policy discourse and the findings of HE policy-makers in light of recent reports pertaining to evaluating student progress and success in HE. The pervasive neoliberal discourse endemic to all government sponsored agencies is also demonstrated and heavily critiqued, and in line with the basic driving force of this thesis, the chapter concludes with a brief overview of proposed HEA and NFETL policy changes (HEA and NFETL 2018) which aim to reconfigure student success from student perspectives.

2.2 The Higher Education Sector in Ireland

The HE sector in Ireland, and particularly the IoT sector, has undergone sweeping changes in recent times. The neoliberal agenda and massification of education has changed the structures and culture of learning in all higher education institutions (HEIs). Over the past decade, the challenging economic climate has directly impacted the direct state support of HEIs forcing institutional budgetary constraints and staff cutbacks which have served neither staff nor students well. This chapter presents a contemporary contextualisation of the HE sector in Ireland with particular emphasis on the IoT sector to evaluate discourse ring-fencing perceptions of student success in HE by critically reviewing the policies/initiatives which have been developed and implemented in this sector.

The drive towards investment, transformation and massification of HE has been apparent from the 1960’s onwards. Increasing state intervention in HE and its expansion was driven by social and economic demands for the development of a national strategy which manifested the importance of a knowledge-based economy, particularly in the boom of the 1990s (Walsh 2014). Over the years the Irish educational landscape has evolved with the creation of two new independent universities, the RTC Act (1992) and DIT Act (1992) respectively, the Universities Act (1997) and the Institutes of Technology Act (2006). HE in Ireland is provided mainly by seven Universities and 14 IoTs, including the Dublin Institute of Technology1 and seven Colleges of Education. In addition, a number of other third level institutions provide specialist education in fields such as art and design, medicine, business studies, rural development, theology, music and law (Appendix A).

Applications for entry to undergraduate courses/programmes in universities, colleges of education, IoTs, and other institutes of higher education, are processed by the Central Applications Office (CAO)2. While the aim of the system is to process applications centrally and to deal with them in an efficient and rational manner, the participating institutions retain the function of making decisions on admissions. The Higher Education Authority (HEA) is the statutory planning and development body for higher education and research in Ireland with a remit of wide advisory powers across the entire third-level sector. Moreover, it is the funding authority for the universities, IoTs, and other designated HEIs (DES 2018a).

The National Strategy for Higher Education 2030 launched by the DES in 2011, called for the transformation of Ireland’s HE sector over the intervening two decades. Endorsed by Government as the future blueprint for the sector, the Strategy sets out changes for the sector that provide for:

1 The State’s first technological university - based on the merger of Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), IT Tallaght and IT Blanchardstown - is set to be the country’s biggest third level institution. It will formally be known as Technological University Dublin when the change comes into force next January (O’Brien 2018). 2 The Central Applications Office (CAO) is is the body/organisation used to process applications for HE. 14

i. a more flexible system, with a greater choice of provision and modes of learning for an increasingly diverse cohort of students ii. improvements in the quality of the student experience, the quality of teaching and learning and the relevance of learning outcomes iii. ensuring that HE connects more effectively with wider social, economic and enterprise through its staff, the quality of its graduates, the relevance of its programmes, the quality of its research and its ability to translate that into high value jobs and real benefits for society (DES 2011).

2.3 The Institute of Technology Sector

The 14 current Irish IoTs operate a unique system whereby students may progress from two year (associate degree programmes) through primary degree to Masters and PhD. IoT awards are integrated with the highest award levels of the Irish National Qualification Framework, which in turn, is aligned to the Bologna Framework (EC 2018b; QQI 2018). They are to the forefront in ensuring that Ireland’s modern economy continues to have the requisite array of skills demanded by knowledge-based industries. To this end, the Institutes offers programmes which reflect current and emerging knowledge and practices and promote self-management, critical analysis, decision- making and entrepreneurship, and prepare graduates to undertake the various roles, responsibilities and challenges of commerce, industry, the professions, public services and society. Institutions in the technological sector provide programmes of education, development and training in areas such as Business, Science, Engineering, Linguistics and Music to certificate, diploma and degree levels.

The IoT mission includes the provision of practical and academic qualifications at a variety of levels and to engage in sectoral and regional specific R & D. Their micro- policies are thus greatly influenced both by current market forces and the forecasted economic climate. One of the main strategies of HE national policy has been a rationalisation of the IoT sector which includes regionalisation. A number of proposed mergers between Institutes have resulted in a smaller number of Technological Universities (TUs) as instantiated by the Technological University Act (2018). Policy-

makers maintain that TUs will be in a stronger position to attract research funding and international students, as well as delivering a bigger impact locally and nationally (HEA 2017).

The enactment of the Technological University legalisation in March 2018 (Technological Universities Act 2018) sets out a process whereby consortia may submit an application for TU designation. In fact, the Bill provides the legislative underpinning for IoTs who wish to merge with established partnerships with a view to becoming Technological Universities. The State’s first Technological University, based on the merger of Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), IT Tallaght and IT Blanchardstown was formally established in January 2019. Re-designation of additional TUs as a result of proposed IoT mergers are anticipated in the medium-term (DES 2018b; O’Brien 2018).

2.4 Neoliberalism and Higher Education

Higher education policy has come to be dominated by neoliberal discourse both nationally and internationally, and relentlessly and unquestionably promotes the necessity of serving a ‘knowledge-based economy’ coupled with a reductionist perspective on accountability and greater engagement with economic objectives (Lynch 2006; Lynch 2014). The current system has seen the development of intense intergovernmental authority in terms of matching policies and ensuring compliance. The internationalisation and rationalisation of educational domestic policies form part of the educative landscape which is primarily concerned with serving a knowledge economy. This reductionist view of education is encapsulated by the commodification of education and its contribution to the economy (Boni & Walker 2013; Boni & Calabuig 2017). A further component of this landscape highlights the nature of competitiveness and the role of performativity including global and other media-driven ranking systems, which has resulted in several leading universities disengaging from this ‘flawed’ system. As Stevenson and Bell (2009, pp.13-14) put it, ‘universities have developed from isolated seats of esoteric learning to utilitarian contributors to the nations’ economic survival’.

Indeed from a social, economic and political stance, it is widely acknowledged that higher education institutions (HEIs) make an important civic national and international contribution (Boland 2011; MacLaren 2012; Conway & Murphy 2013). The role that HEIs play in this context remains the subject of much debate, commentary and analysis. HEIs engage and serve the community in a variety of ways, such as embracing a policy- based remit of widening participation and encouraging community-based learning (HEA 2016f). Boland (2011, p.112) stated that ‘the map of contemporary education is changing and will continue to do so in response to challenging contexts and society’s changing needs’. These contemporary challenges in HE include increased managerialism, regulation and measurement, as well as a narrowing focus on academic capitalism. It is clear that in this increasingly competitive environment, each university endeavours to develop a niche in the marketplace (Deegan 2014).

Walsh and Loxley (2015) have critically evaluated the National Strategy for Higher Education3 (DES 2011) which sets out the role that the HE sector plays in redressing our current economic issues. The Hunt Report reflects an unequivocal strategic and managerial approach to education, with the discourse of ‘efficiency’, ‘rationalisation’, ‘flexibility’ and ‘accountability’ prevalent throughout the document. In short, the Hunt Report (DES 2011) envisages restructuring the HE system by embracing a neoliberalist agenda. It focuses principally on the HE role of rebuilding ‘an innovative, knowledge- based economy’, thereby providing graduates who will be ‘the productive engine of a vibrant and prosperous economy’ (DES 2011, p.1). This chimes with observations highlighted by Lynch et al. (2012) who suggest that HE in Ireland has become more commercial than academic in terms of its values, with added emphasis on ‘measurable output’. According to Walsh and Loxley (2015), widening participation has little to do with equality and more to do with raising the level of education of the Irish population for the greater good of the knowledge economy. Consequently, the HE environment is considered by humanist and progressivist academics as being overtly framed in economic-based outcomes whereby invaluable potential HE outcomes such as criticality, civic and social engagement are undermined in favour of economic advancement (Lolich 2011).

3 The National Strategy for Higher Education is colloquially referred to as the Hunt Report. 17

The commercialisation and marketisation of HE (Harpur 2010; Jameson et al. 2012; Staddon & Standish 2012) has evolved as a result of mounting political pressure on universities to boost the ‘employability’ of undergraduate students and the tensions that can arise when practitioners are brought into academia to contribute directly to curriculum design and development. However Jameson et al. (2012) argue that academic engagement in this process can be beneficial. They purport that a ‘creative use of practitioner discourses not only empowers students in their career planning but can be used to facilitate student understanding of the links between critical theory and practice’ (Jameson et al. 2012, p.25). Moreover, Staddon and Standish (2012) suggest that the marketisation of education has in turn fostered a new emphasis on the quality of the student experience. Whilst accepting that enhancing the student experience is a positive goal to embrace, they suggest ways this may be achieved by augmenting university lecturers’ relationship with their subject matter and employing more challenging and realistic pedagogical practices. They argue that ‘a higher education, should expose students to disciplines whose standards are rightly contested and to a form of learning that intensifies or unsettles desires rather than simply aspiring to satisfy them’ (Staddon & Standish 2012, p.631).

Lynch (2010) advocates the role of the university as a site of activism and urges HEIs and academics therein to engage in deeper critical analysis of policy, structures and practices in both teaching and research. Reflexivity is strongly encouraged in all practice and policy-making. However, as Looney (2001, p.149) has flagged and argued for almost two decades, ‘the technical seems to be winning out over substance and procedures over principles’. Educational advancement roughly equates to development of ‘human capital’ in the supply of skills and knowledge that an economy can draw upon (Harpur 2010). Holborow (2012, p.93) observes that ‘human capital’ is one of the key discursive phrases in neoliberal ideology and is seen to be the principle function of HE in Ireland at present. She goes on to suggest that it subtly masks ‘social conflict and expresses metaphorically the commodification of human abilities and an alienating notion of human abilities, both of which sit ill with the goals of education’. In addition, she affirms it gives a voice to two specific interests of capital: providing a workforce which is quite narrowly defined and required by the employer; and intensified

competition between individuals in the labour market. Conversely, she asserts that a skills-driven HE system is unable to deliver large numbers of high value occupations or address the root causes of this current economic crisis (Holborow 2012).

Harpur (2010, p.vii) asserts that ‘coupling national economic aspirations with university success has profoundly affected governance, scholarship, teaching and the institutions’ public orientation’. Furthermore, Kandiko (2013) observes that neoliberal policies have directly impacted on faculty roles, responsibilities and relationships with students, for as the value of the HE teaching is gradually eroded, research and sourcing external funding has become a key performance indicator (KPI) for academics, their department, schools and institutions as a whole. Moreover she observes a global convergence in the standardisation of educational structures, processes and outcomes, and thus advocates the need to identify factors which lead to increased quality of the student experience and promote them to governments, institutions, and more importantly, to students. It is noteworthy that the student voice is growing in strength, most especially from the globally mobile student (Kandiko 2013; Healey et al. 2014a).

2.5 Contemporary Higher Educational Policies

HE policies in Ireland are heavily influenced by international policies from the OECD (2013; 2016), the ESRI (Smyth & Banks 2012) and the European Commission; most particularly, The Europe 2020 policy (E.C. 2010). This section therefore considers how contemporary HE neoliberal orientated policies have evolved. In line with developments in the globalisation of HE programmes and E.U. HE mobility programmes4, Conway and Murphy (2013) have observed a trend of ‘Europeanising education’ and underscore the growing importance of quality assurance systems and learning outcomes which assist in the articulation of aims and required achievements in modules and programmes of study. Harpur (2010) examines the internationalisation and commodification of HE from a technological, economic and sustainability perspective and purports that market-orientated policies underline the need to be globally

4 Globalised HE programmes such as MOOCs and E.U. Mobility Programmes comprise Erasmus Programmes. 19

competitive. The commodification of education has implications for the student, teacher, lecturer, the HE sector, and society as a whole as it ‘glorifies the consumer citizen’ and weakens the power of the teaching profession (Lynch et al. 2012, p.14). This shift in political order from the principles of ‘social democracy’ to a ‘neoliberal consumer democracy’ is evident in HE policy and practice (Looney 2001).

The most notable drivers of policy and change are ‘student consumerism, education commoditization, research commercialization, new managerial imperatives…and faith in the transformative capacity in corporate style policies’ (Harpur 2010, p.1). Governments are exerting pressure on universities to strengthen the ‘employability’ of graduates and service the ‘smart economy’. ‘Faced with global challenges, governments are open to being convinced that research commercialisation is a viable industrial development policy’ (Harpur 2010, p. viii). In their four-year study of issues associated with the marketisation of the HE system, Newman et al. (2004) focused on the challenges now confronted by HEIs. A significant number of the concerns they uncovered still apply today: most notably, increased competition among institutions; globalisation of education; private education; virtual institutions; and the impact of technology on teaching and learning practices.

Looney (2001, pp.152-3) refers to ‘efficient’ and ‘effective’ rather than ‘good’ and ‘valuable’ policies, and it is clear that performativity is the dominant discourse in most educational policies, which in turn, is driven by neoliberalism, economics, and the globalised economy. New managerial practices delineated in reports such as the Hunt (DES 2011) and Horizon 2020 Reports (EC 2018a), suggest that ‘surveillance, performativity, the end of tenure and rising levels of workplace stress are all closing off the space for real creative endeavour’ MacLaren (2012, p.159). However, he proposes that current education policy endeavours to prove that it is championing creativity and innovation notwithstanding the contrary structural reforms (MacLaren 2012).

Contemporary educational policy is most heavily weighted towards knowledge-based economic renewal. Lynch et al. (2012) observed how neoliberalism has become the reigning policy discourse in the HE sector in Ireland. Harpur (2010) critically evaluated such policies and questions the political, moral and social implications of an hegemony which that has overturned the very nature of academia and undermined the attainment of knowledge. MacLaren (2012, p.159) is also critical of the overemphasis on universities as ‘sites of production’, as opposed to ‘spaces for critique’. Holborow (2012, p.94) also worries that ‘neoliberal assumptions about the role of education in the economy’ not only foreclose plausible either social or educational solutions to the present crisis, but also inhere ‘a deeply demeaning view of the role of education in society’.

As fierce critics of the neoliberalism and ‘new managerialism’ which they maintain prevails in most aspects of HEIs, both Ball (1998) and Apple (2012a; 2012b) demonstrate that since the late 1990s’ education policies have been more closely aligned to economic than social policy. As such, they observe a notable devolution of greater autonomy to educational institutions from government. Ball (2012, p.18) contends that ‘there is of course, a very, very real economic and political dynamic to the reform of higher education, a business dynamic which seeks profit from the buying and selling of education ‘services’.

2.6 Transition to Higher Education

In an Irish context, in recent years, second level (PP) education has commenced a transitions reform agenda which has endeavoured to reduce the upward pressure on CAO points and simplify options. This aims to help students to make better choices and improve their prospects of success in HE, while also reducing pressure on them at second-level. Policy-makers and practitioners alike have acknowledged that ‘ensuring successful transitions requires a multi-faceted approach and that broadening routes of entry is but one action, which will begin to bear fruit when taken in conjunction with other actions - such as development of flexible pathways and the changes under way in post-primary curriculum’ (HEA 2014, p.59).

In the HE context, it is important to reflect on all discursive forms of debate concerning policy and strategy in order to encourage an examination of power-relations that legitimise and dominate current policy making practices (Fairclough 2013). As contemporary curriculum discourse centres around concern for the promotion of strong, independent academic thought, critical thinkers may be compromised by short-term academic aims which focus on the ‘technical’ as opposed to the ‘theoretical’ (Jameson et al. 2012). The implications of ‘employability’ may be debated, in that it does not solely infer the accumulation of a skills set and standard of knowledge but should possibly ‘refer to a graduate’s achievements and his/her potential to obtain a graduate job and should not be confused with the actual acquisition of a graduate job’ (Yorke 2006, p.2, cited in Jameson et al. 2012). Christie (1993, p.58, cited in Jameson et al. 2012, p.30) suggests that critical discourse and policy analysis ‘identifies that management ideology is not only invading universities from the top in terms of performance indicators and efficiency, but also rising from the bottom as students demand ‘useful knowledge, that is knowledge their coming masters - will demand from them’ which stifles academic creativity and integrity.

Conway and Murphy (2013) adopt a similarly critical discourse analysis methodology in examining the ‘policy cycle’, of policy influence, production, and practice. Standardisation, accountability and improved performance are highlighted by a neoliberalist agenda as a result of international economically underpinned policies (Leithwood & Earl 2000, cited in Conway & Murphy 2013). MacLaren (2012, p.161) suggests that the tension which obtains between ‘ideology and pragmatism is often played out’ in policy-making. In order to foster innovation, it is necessary to encourage flexibility, creativity and risk-taking, yet HEIs are required to be more accountable, managed, and assessed in terms of attracting research funding, publication metrics, quality standards and output.

Gale and Parker (2014) underscore that the dominant discourse around student transition to HE is very much focused on induction and development and as such, is ‘system-driven’ and ‘system-serving’. They contend that ‘future research in the field

needs to be cognisant of students’ lived reality...This includes research, policy and practice aimed at making HE more flexible and responsive to students’ (p.747). Similarly, from the US perspective, Hutchinson (2016) observes that HEIs place increasing focus on student grade point averages (GPAs), retention rates, and a return on investment. She claims ‘higher education is a business. Thus, it is not surprising that administrators, faculty, staff, and providers on campuses around the country are increasingly challenged and stressed, in terms of sufficient resources, to meet students mental health needs…..mental health and mental health issues are increasingly seen as risk and liability issues, not as the foundation for adult flourishing and resiliency’ (Hutchinson 2016, p. 44). She therefore proposes that colleges need to develop a resiliency strategy as when students feel a sense of control, they are better equipped to succeed, and cumulatively, the more success a student experiences, the more resilient they become.

The National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning (NFETL) established in 2014, published a series of reports in 2015 and 2017 addressing transition from second-level and further education (FE) to HE. Drawing on a sample of students in four HEIs, it surveyed students’ experiences of the transition to HE in Ireland and examined the extent to which early HE students have been equipped with the skills, competencies and orientations they need to succeed. Moreover, it elicited students’ perceptions of the differences in the teaching and learning context from their previous experiences at second-level or further education. Key findings from the current survey have identified that time management was the most significant challenge, followed by written assessments, critical thinking, and conducting independent research (NFETL 2017). In response, suggestions for improvements were made across four key areas: second level (PP) and HE education initiatives; academic supports; managing expectations and engagement; and general skills preparation. Significantly, participants in this study acknowledged the effectiveness of existing support initiatives, whilst suggesting they be increased.

The Transitions Initiative (NFETL 2015a) is a commitment to significantly reduce the number of Level 8 honours Bachelor degree programmes in universities so they become broader and less specialised. This would ensure a more mixed portfolio of Level 8 programmes with both denominated and generic entry in the IoTs. A review of CAO handbooks shows that the number of Level 8 courses has dropped from a high of 1,036 in 2014/15 to 964 in the 2017/18 academic year. The transition from second-level to HE and the readiness of students to succeed in this new environment has been widely examined (Hyland 2011; Smyth et al. 2011; NFETL 2015a), while Smyth and Banks (2012a) determined that access to information to assist educational decision-making and decisions about whether to progress to HE are reflected in three processes: individual habitus; institutional habitus of the school; and the young person’s own sense of self- belief and agency.

‘Habitus’ denotes the system of durable and transposable dispositions through which individuals perceive, judge and behave within, and think about the world (Bourdieu, 1989). As such, it is structured by the social forces and conditions of the field that produce it whilst simultaneously structuring individuals’ behaviours, perceptions and expectations (Wacquant 1998). In short, it represents an unconscious pattern of being and perception(s) that are acquired during lengthy periods of exposure to particular social conditions (Watson et al. 2009). Thomas et al. (2017, p.6) eloquently and ethically reminds HE policy-makers and practitioners that:

Every student that drops out of their higher education course is a loss: a loss to their university or college, a loss to the future economy and, above all, a loss to that individual. Equally, students who don’t actually drop out but who fail to achieve their full potential also represent a significant loss to both themselves and society…..It is a key element of institutional competitiveness in a higher education world that is increasingly characterised by business principles, in which teaching quality, student satisfaction and the achievement of graduates are core to institutional success. If helping students to ‘be the best they can be’ has always been a moral imperative for every university/college, being the best it can be is now also a concern that sits at the very heart of the institution as a whole.

2.7 Engaging Students in the HE Experience

The genesis of the student experience and student engagement movement is generally attributed to management practices in universities and colleges in the United States and Canada, and thereafter followed by Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom and China (Chickering & Gamson 1987). According to Murphy (2014, p.161) these student engagement practices emphasise ‘seven key principles at institutional level: good quality teaching and learning with continuous staff-student contact, active learning pedagogies, student co-operative projects, emphasis on time-on-task, continuous assessment with prompt feedback, explicitly high performance expectations; and respect for achievement’. Astin (1984a; 1984b) further appended the provision of recognising the diversity of students’ prior learning experiences through an emphasis on personal as well as academic development. She noted that students are increasingly regarded in the discourse of student engagement as recipients of university services, partners and stakeholders.

Tinto (2012a) maintains that the first-year learning experience is axiomatic to student retention and that the patterns of interaction between staff and students and general integration of students into their environment in the first year of study, is of critical importance. He suggests that first-year programmes of study should be problem-based rather than discipline-specific, that collaborative, group-learning should be encouraged, and that students’ prior knowledge and experience should be built upon in order to ‘bring to the fore their understanding and actively engage them in a communal discourse of what they already know’ (Tinto 2003, p.2). Innovative teaching methodologies which actively engage the student in the learning process, as well as the integration of retention initiatives into the mainstream culture of an institution, are central to this. There is emerging evidence that intentional teaching strategies devised to build students’ capacities to integrate their learning can have a positive impact on student progression from the first year of study onwards (HEA 2010).

Murphy (2014, p.160) explores the ‘student experience’ and ‘student engagement’ movement with particular reference to looking more closely at precisely who the student actually is, in an effort to

tease out if the targeting of full-time, first-year undergraduate students in order to optimise a positive experience for them, to use extraordinary measures to retain them for a full academic year and to maximise their chances of academic success is actually either effective or morally sustainable, given the diversity of the contemporary student body and persistent access inequities with regard to provision of largely free educational opportunities for some and not for others.

In Ireland, government policy with regard to student retention and progression in HE has evolved from what started in the 1990s as what Murphy (2014, p.163) rather disparagingly deemed ‘an embryonic professional development movement to enhance academic research …. moving towards a quality assurance and human resource management model into which the student engagement model can insert itself’. A number of educational researchers, such as Connaughton (2012) (providing evidence from a full programme cohort of first year undergraduate students) have counter-argued that a number of the current retention strategies, such as engagement with social and recreational supports, played little or no part in their persistence. Wynne (2011) critiques the promises of service learning and volunteering, while academics such as Gormley and O’Connor (2011) interrogate the data-gathering tools and measurement rubrics used to inform government strategies and interventions.

The DES (2011) has specified various aspirations around the student experience and appropriate quality assurance arrangements for academic best practice. This report highlights the importance of developing new pedagogies for enhanced student engagement and learning. Involvement of students in programme planning, evaluation and feedback and the development of flexible learning modes are recommended. In terms of transition to HE the development of pre-orientation and orientation programmes for first year students covering skills such as self-directed learning, time management, information literacy, critical analysis and providing students with

additional support in subject areas that are more challenging to them, are purported to be essential. A positive first year experience is pivotal and HEIs were strongly encouraged to overhaul their curricula to enhance the first year experience. One of the recommendations included the implementation of annual national student surveys. However, the survey instrument is overwhelmingly quantitative in nature and does facilitate any meaningful engagement in the qualitative aspects of what constitutes the overall student experience.

Student engagement is acknowledged as a two-way process whereby the student is ultimately responsible for their own learning whilst the HEI is responsible for facilitating engagement in learning. The working group on student engagement in HEIs notes two models of student engagement: the market model which in its neoliberal format identifies students as consumers; and the developmental constructivist model wherein students are viewed as partners in a learning community and co-creators in their own learning (HEA 2016b; 2016c). The working group noted the lack of consistency between, and within, HEIs in Ireland, in relation to student engagement and identified a number of principles which embrace effective student engagement including: democracy; student as partner; inclusivity and diversity; transparency; students as co-creators; collegiality and parity of self-esteem; professionalism and support; feedback; self-criticism and enhancement; and consistency of values. The working group involved in student engagement in HEIs suggest that participation may occur at a variety of levels; namely, individual, programme, department, faculty/college/school, institutional, national and international levels. It is therefore directly acknowledged that integrating the student ‘voice’ and involving students at all levels of decision-making is critical to effective engagement and can foster the development of an effective HEI learning community (NFETL 2015d).

Watson et al. (2009) published findings from a longitudinal case study which applied a Bourdieuian lens to exploring the early educational experiences of a group of occupational therapy pre-registration students during their first year of study. This case study ring-fenced a number of key issues including the high-value status of linguistic

capital and its relationship to understanding the rules governing practices within the learning environment, the processes to which students managed to adapt or resist, the dominant culture of the field, and a number of the barriers to fining a legitimate foothold in the field. Their examination of the congruence between habitus and the dominant culture of the new field which students enter has also illuminated different participant experiences of transitioning to HE in terms of ‘fitting in’, ‘adapting’, ‘resisting’ and feeling/being ‘excluded’.

Student experiences in second-level (PP) education are predominantly exam-based and performance-driven. As this does little to promote independent learning and critical thinking (Smyth et al. 2011) many students make the transition to HE without the pre- requisite generic skills to cope successfully (Hyland 2011). Smyth and Banks (2012a) compare student experiences in two very different types of schools to determine the impact on decision-making. In subsequent findings from a longitudinal study on academic stress and high stakes testing in Ireland, they observed that the student perspective and the impact of high stakes testing on the student experience has been a much neglected research area:

Sixth year involves not only preparation for the Leaving Certificate exam but being faced with making decisions about post-school pathways. The decision-making process itself appears to influence stress levels, with students who consider it too early to decide what to do with the rest of their lives reporting greater strain. (Smyth et al. 2011, p.226)

The effect of high-stakes testing is marked when students transition to HE, as many are still exhausted when they start college and are unsure of the independent learning strategies to use in higher education. Banks and Smyth (2015) also weigh up the impact that high stakes testing has on the student’s perceived self-identity.

There is variation by social class of student approaches to learning. As Bourdieu (1973; 1986) has indicated, familiarity with the dominant culture operates as a form of ‘cultural capital’ and shapes a young person’s habitus, which is the system of socially conditioned dispositions, values and motivations that determine their entire orientation to the world (Lareau & Weininger 2003; Ball et al. 2005). A schools’ success is predicated on cultural capital so that middle-class students who are more au fait with the dominant culture will fare much better than those from lower socio-economic back grounds. The findings from a study by Smyth and Banks (2012a; 2012b) have similarly acknowledged the role of education in socio-reproduction. Bourdieu’s (1973) perspective allows for the role of individual agency (Reay, 2004). Eminent educational philosophers such as Bourdieu (1973; 1977; 1986; 1990a) counter that habitus is fluid or dynamic, changing many times over a life-time in response to different situations including that of school.

Significantly, Thomas (2012) has explored and determined methods that work in favour of student retention. These are reinforced by a comprehensive review of outputs from a student retention and success programme, and emphasise key influencers such as ‘belonging’, ‘engagement’ and ‘institutional management and co-ordination’ as enablers of student success. Furthermore, she analyses and presents practical implications on institutional/student engagement in the form of lessons learned, case studies, and recommendations. Thomas (2012) has appraised student engagement practice at pre- entry, induction, student capacity for participation, and belonging, and like Tinto, (2012a) draws up an institutional reflective checklist regarding strategic implications and recommendations on student engagement and retention. Consequently, HEIs are challenged to manage the quality of the student experience and reflect on how resources are optimally used to enrich the student experience.

Two of the most contemporary policy-related issues in addressing student retention identified in recent years concern online student retention and the need for further research in ensuring student persistence and degree attainment beyond first year (Nora & Crisp 2012; Salter 2012). These observations are upheld by Tinto (2012a) and by

Wilcoxson et al. (2011) in their paper on student attrition in subsequent years of a degree programme. Tinto (2012a, p.123) notes that ‘institutions should ensure that all first year students have the experience of learning in community with others’. It is evident that more work could be done to assist potential students at pre-entry and post- entry phases of HE (Crosling et al. 2008; 2009; NFETL, 2016a) while further research might be devoted to ascertaining the importance of going beyond the first year and considering subsequent phases of the student experience (Wilcoxson et al. 2011; Tinto 2012a). Another notable area currently being addressed is the utilisation of various forms of technology to foster academic and social engagement and support online learning, assessment and feedback strategies (Wilcoxson et al. 2011; Salter 2012). Additional research into the use of technology, including VLEs such as Moodle and social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter (Wilcoxson et al. 2011), and the role they can play in building communities of support, both internally and externally, is therefore essential.

Berger et al. (2012) pinpoint a number of current and future trends relating to student retention. In these challenging economic times when institutional reputation is scrutinised in terms of national and international rankings and programmes are quality assured, retention rates are significant. Other HEI trends such as embracing social inclusion, promoting access to education in terms of distance learning programmes, and developing innovative and alternative modes of instructional delivery, are commented on by Wilcoxson et al. (2011) and Tinto (2012a). Crosling et al. (2009, p.17) strongly urge that HEIs, ‘proactively make anticipatory changes which promote the success of all students’.

One initiative advocated by educationalists who support integration and involvement is that of reaching out and involving other key stakeholders beyond the institution and classroom. Examples of externally-orientated or outwardly embracing programmes which incorporate others in the local community and industry include structured volunteerism in community projects, work placement programmes (for a semester), cultivating a variety of links with industry (visiting lecturers and mentors), and graduate

employment programmes (Glover et al. 2002; Purcell et al. 2002; Crosling et al. 2009; Wilcoxon et al. 2011; Thomas 2012). These initiatives correspond with proposals by Dean and Gibbs (2015, p.16) who contend that ‘identifying profound happiness as a goal for student development, rather than seeking only to satisfying their consumerised needs’ and the authors challenge universities to offer society ‘not just employees but well-rounded citizens, willing to act on their own accord’.

From an intrinsic perspective, Sadlo (2011) further suggests that when students come to university they need not only to develop their cognitive intelligence but also their ‘emotional intelligence’. Goleman (1996; 2008) likewise holds that emotional awareness and control often has more effect on human ‘success’ than cognitive intelligence. From a wider extrinsic perspective, O’Flaherty and Gleeson (2014, p.69) advocate that ‘universities must pay greater attention to the development of social capital, community engagement and the promotion of teaching and learning strategies that require active participation, real-world experience and opportunities to collaboratively address social problems’. Such an initiative requires further attention from university policymakers and researchers to ensure policies and practices are instantiated which deliver a values-led HE learning experience to students through a range of engaging pedagogical activities.

The introduction of respective staff and student well-being programmes which develop behaviours and attitudes around personal and academic skills is also worthy of consideration by policy-makers and HEIs since it is widely acknowledged that psychological distress among HE students is a matter of global concern (Deasy et al. 2014). Academic preparation and support initiatives which include technology and information literacy, general literacy programmes, writing support that incorporates critical thinking, maths literacy programmes, time management, and academic advisement/student support as opposed to student monitoring, are essential (Tinto 2004; Reid & Moore 2008). Life-skills programmes including club and society involvement, volunteering, and peer-mentoring networks are also effective, both personally and interpersonally (Kolb & Kolb 2005; Collings et al. 2014).

2.8 The Concept of Success in Higher Education

There is a paucity of documented evidence from Irish HEIs which acknowledge and attribute well-being as a central tenet of student engagement and success (in a holistic sense). As discussed in the previous chapter, most literature on student well-being focuses on developing strategies which are more often reactive than pre-emptive. Moreover, the majority of discourse or policies that advert to well-being mainly obtain to primary school and PPE from an anti-bullying perspective. Humphreys (2015) noted that an Irish PPE junior cycle reform should include the introduction of well-being as a first year subject in 2017 and incorporate physical education, relationships and sexuality, anti-bullying programmes, and civic and political education. Fowler and Boylan (2010) explore ‘success’ in terms of academic and non-academic factors such as student motivation and commitment with disappointing recommendations, such as enforceable attendance. Kuh et al. (2006) acknowledge that student success indicators (SSIs) must be broadened if they are to be properly inclusive of different types of students, such as adult learners, second chance students, and transfer students who have progressed through higher education from different programmes at different levels. Expanded definitions of student success are connected with transformative and humanistic perspectives of the personal and societal values of higher education (Zepke & Leach 2010a; Quinlan, 2011; Kahu 2013).

Although extensive research has been carried out on transitions from second-level (PP) to HE (Smyth 2009; HEA & NCCA 2011a; IOTI 2012; HEA 2013b; McCoy et al. 2014; HEA 2016a) there has been hitherto relatively little research conducted on student success and experiences and perceptions of their progress in the early stages of HE. The current research findings on the other hand, strive to provide their perspective and represent their experiences in a manner that is authentic and accurate. It will present a new approach in the development of an innovative theory on student experiences and perceptions of success at this present time so as to inform student engagement, progression and programme design policies nationally and internationally.

The debate and policy discourse in terms of what constitutes success in HE comprises factors such as student throughput, student GPAs, ensuring all stakeholders are satisfied, tax-payers are getting value for money, and in this era of heightened consumerisation, that students and their families are also benefitting. It is clear that student success is measured and defined in different ways by the key players. At institute level success may imply retention and progression rates, research funding and levels of demand for programmes of study; at government level student success may be represented by viability of programmes, student throughput, capability of institutes to attract external/commercial funding, and the employability and utility of the respective graduates; and on a familial and personal level by grade attainment, graduate progression, and enhanced employability.

Zepke et al. (2011) condensed success factors as follows: individual motivation and agency; staff-student engagement; peer-to-peer engagement; institutional supports; and opportunities to engage in active citizenship. Murphy (2014, p.163) however observed that this generalised list subsumes a micro-list or form of capital ‘at the individual level which includes the nature of the personal project relative to the overall student identity project, the degree of integration into college life and the level of intellectual engagement with the subject matter’. What these measures lack, however, is a broader and more holistic perspective on what constitutes student success. Both policy-makers and educators concur that the aforementioned aims are pertinent to the enhancement of student success.

However, in critically analysing the discourse used in the national HE strategy report (DES 2011), it is evident that policy-makers are yoked to specific, and arguably obsolete, preconceptions about what student success means, thus speaking to the earlier critique on the importance of asking students what success means to them. Recently the HEA and NFETL (HEA 2018a) held a workshop to identify approaches that would best enable development of a deliverable student success strategy in HEIs and focused on how students could successfully overcome the challenges that face them, rather than

concentrating on the circumstances that can sometimes overwhelm them. Key findings from the forum insist:

Student Success is not an absolute term. Not only does it mean different things to different students, it applies in a variety of ways to each student over the course of their studies. Given the breadth of backgrounds and circumstances of our students, there is more to success than graduating with First Class Honours. Student success is everybody’s business. An effective institutional student success strategy requires the input and guidance of stakeholders from throughout, and even beyond, the institution. Not only does this include students, teaching and learning staff, senior managers, retention and engagement officers, access officers, student supports and library staff, it also extends to constituencies that are often overlooked in terms of their role in student success such as IT, admissions, administration and finance. (O’Shea 2018)5

2.9 Conclusion

Over the past few decades it is evident that the neoliberal agenda informs education policy at every level. One of the main questions we seek to understand is the overall aim of education in terms of whom and how it serves. Sirvanci (1996, p.99) asked: ‘are students the true customers of higher education?’ In exploring the terminology and concepts pertaining to the identification of the ‘true customer’ he acknowledged that even the term ‘stakeholder’ is vague and indeterminate. He therefore suggested that students assume four distinct different roles within HEIs: students are the product-in- progress; students are the internal customers for many campus facilities and should be treated as such; students are the labourers of the learning process; and students are internal customers for delivery of programme material (Carey 2013).

This chapter has focused on delineating the Irish HE sector, particularly the IoT sector, and how it is currently evolving. It outlined the impact of the economic recession

5 The HEA hosted a workshop on Student Success, led by the National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education [HEA website 1st May 2018]

therein and examined how neoliberal discourse has come to dominate HE policy. This chapter has also observed contemporary changes in second-level education with aspirational positive knock-on effects around student learning and decision-making in the subsequent HE journey. Finally this chapter elucidated how transitions-based policies and discourse has shifted from the institutionally-embedded iterations of ‘retention’ to acknowledging issues of ‘engagement’ and ‘success’ from the student perspective.

Chapters 3 and 4 explore the extant literature, previous studies and their findings, and recommendations pertaining to student success with specific reference to the evolving narrative around student success in HE. Personal and social factors which influence student success are described and the pragmatics of time and emotional temporality are discussed in light of the HE and life-long learning journey. Students’ personal experiences and narratives of how they personally evolve in HE are considered with particular reference to emerging and evolving identities, structure and agency, and the importance of well-being and resilience.

Chapter 4 provides an in-depth overview of early transitional experiences in HE from the pre-entry phase right through to the student’s first year and beyond in HE. The latter part of the chapter provides an overview of student success initiatives or programmes in respect of student support programmes. In consequence, a holistic approach to HE is advocated as the way forward for all HE stakeholders, for policy-makers, HEIs, and educative practitioners alike.

Chapter 3 Perceptions of Success & Personal Experiences in Higher Education

3.1 Introduction

Further to reviewing HE policy in terms of student transition, engagement and success (Chapter 2), this chapter presents a critical evaluation of how perceptions of student success in higher education (HE) have evolved. Conditions that facilitate student success are presented and stakeholders’, in particular students’, perceptions of success are critically reviewed. Personal factors which influence success are appraised in light of the aims of this study. Pragmatics of time particularly during the HE experience and emotional temporality are discussed. The latter part of this chapter focuses on students’ personal experiences in HE, highlighting significant milestones for them in terms of emerging and evolving identities. In addition, the impact of structure and agency on the individual during their HE journey is explored. The chapter concludes with a robust defence of the impact of well-being and resilience in facilitating individuals to pursue their goals.

Figure 2: Literature Review Summary

The overall aim of this study is to explore conditions that enhance ‘student success’ from the perspective of the student. Earlier discourse around student success in HE has been largely influenced by neoliberal perspectives in respect of economic realities and workforce development requirements (Crosling et al. 2009; DES 2011), and early HE student success (retention) programmes (SSPs) historically deployed the vocabulary of ‘persistence’, ‘attrition’, ‘drop-out’, ‘retention’ throughout their documentation and reportage (Tinto 1997; Hussey & Smith 2010; Nelson et al. 2012). Early in the millennium, Tinto (2007, p.5) observed that ‘student retention has [now] become big business’. As Chapter 2 demonstrated, the global hegemonic landscape of HE has become tailored to economic discourse to include such measures as ‘performativity’, ‘employability’, ‘output’, and ‘completion rates’ (Ball 2012; Giroux 2014). From an Irish HE perspective, even prior to the impact of economic austerity, HEIs were similarly charged with meeting the demands of the ‘knowledge economy’ and the ‘global economy’ (Lolich 2011; Holborow 2012; Walsh & Loxley 2015; Mercille & Murphy 2017).

Keeling (2014, p.144) observes that in contemporary HE discourse, student success is ‘too readily equated with completion or graduation; success cannot be defined so mechanistically’. Governments value quantifiable ‘hard outcomes’ for accountability and political agendas. However, the hard outcome model does not provide a holistic picture of student learning experiences since students’ own experiences of success are largely discounted. In fact, students’ perceptions of successful learning resist standardised accountability and lack political punch. From an economic, social and holistic perspective all are fundamental to HE experiences and outcomes. Chapter (2) provided an overview and perspectives how higher education policy has evolved and has become much more democratic and humanistic. This chapter critically reviews the extant literature and studies pertaining to student success in HE.

3.2 Perceptions of Success At the outset of this section it is important to note that there is no single, specific or agreed definition of success from a neoliberal, progressivist or humanist perspective

from a personal or an organisational perspective. Definitions of success are fluid and evolve over time. Hussey and Smith (2010, p.155) observe that ‘education involves changes of many kinds and magnitudes: from learning to spell a new word to transforming a person’. It follows then that student success may be measured and defined from a variety of perspectives amongst specific stakeholders (Mullin 2013) with little consensus as to ‘what student success is or should be for all institutions’ (Kramer 2007, p.xxxiii). Perna (2009, p.239) suggests that ‘the lack of an overarching definition of what constitutes success in HE represents a lost opportunity to inform the national dialogue about student success’. He contends that the role that students play in fostering their own success potentially offers HEIs many more potential strategies they could employ in engendering success in their students. This view aligns with the underlying rationale for this study: to explore the dynamics of success from the perspective of the student beyond their first year in HE and to use these perspectives to inform best practice and policy-making. This concept requires further attention from HE policymakers and researchers to ensure policies and practices are devised which can deliver a valued learning experience to students in HE through engaging pedagogical activities’ (Dean and Gibbs 2015, p.18). McCoy et al. (2010) and Keane (2012), have both underscored the paucity of research into what constitutes student success in higher education and urged that further research be carried out on the post-entry student experience, effectively opening the door for this study to enter the ongoing debate.

Substantial research has also been conducted on the role that students play in their own success and it has been widely accepted that intelligence and motivation are key indicators for academic success (Walsh et al. 2009; Kappe & Van der Flier 2012; Van Herpen et al. 2017). Farsides and Woodfield (2003, cited in Walsh et al. 2009) present a five factor model of drivers which predict performance. The so-named ‘Big Five’ personality test consists of openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Openness to experience and agreeableness were positively correlated with achievement, whilst the other factors were not seen to play a significant role.

Tinto (1993) argues that academic self-esteem is developed and underpinned through personal contact with academic tutors and social support from friends and peers. Thomas (2012, p.10) likewise maintains that ‘success’ implies ‘helping all students to become more engaged and more effective learners in higher education, thus improving their academic outcomes and their progression opportunities after graduation.’ Fundamentally, Chopra (1996) proposes that ‘success in life could be defined as the continued expansion of happiness and the progressive realization of worthy goals:

Success is the ability to fulfil your desires with effortless ease…success is a journey, not a destination. Success includes good health, energy and enthusiasm for life, fulfilling relationships, creative freedom, emotional and psychological stability, a sense of well-being and peace of mind. (Chopra 1996, pp.2-3)

3.3 Personal Factors which Influence Success in Higher Education Personal factors which may contribute to student achievement and progression in HE include gender, socioeconomic class, previous educational background, achievement on entry, ethnicity (Walsh et al. 2009), or ‘any element in a student’s life that may ultimately impact his or her performance in an academic setting such as medical issues, transportation, financial and work issues, as well as family obligations such as caring for children’ (Fowler & Boylan 2010, p.2). Social and psycho-social factors influence the potential to succeed in HE (Krumrei-Mancuso et al. 2013). To this end, factors that affect transition to HE namely an individual’s identity, agency and structure and inter- relational aspects therein will be discussed within this chapter.

Findings from a longitudinal study of second level students conducted by Banks and Smyth (2015) highlighted the level(s) of stress experienced by students as a result of the Leaving Certificate examination system and what they perceive as ‘high-stakes testing’. The conclusions also uncovered the potential role of schools in ameliorating elevated anxiety levels. The authors suggested that student stress was not only influenced by individuated considerations but also by certain aspects of the schooling process. In

particular, the quality of student-teacher interaction and peer relations within the school was found to have a significant impact on student stress levels. The impact of psycho- social factors on student success in HE will be further outlined and considered in conjunction with early transitional experiences in Chapter 4.

3.3.1 Demographic and Socio-economic Factors Academic and demographic factors have historically been deemed the key predictors of student retention (Pritchard & Wilson 2003), while demographic and socio-economic theories pertaining to (institutional) habitus and cultural capital (Bourdieu & Passeron 1979; Reay et al. 2001; Thomas 2002; Thomas 2012) are also acknowledged to impact student retention and persistence in HE. Forsyth and Furlong (2000) found that individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds who progress to HE in the UK tended to limit their choice of HEI and degree programme selection due to the additional financial, geographical and social barriers they faced. Reay et al. (2004; 2010) concluded that demographic factors such as socio-economic background, ethnicity, gender, geographic location, especially proximity, determines choice of HEI and HE programme for the majority of working class students. Furthermore, Reay et al. (2010) found that learner identities were more fragile (in terms of anxiety and self-doubt) amongst female students. Chow and Healy (2008) examined the transitional experiences and attendant emotions undergraduates contend with when confronted with living in, and being integrated within, two distinct places. They posit that additional research is needed to explore ‘the concept of home …within particular theoretical, social and cultural contexts’ (p.33). However Brock (2010) found that neither race, ethnicity nor gender is a good predictor of who will graduate due to the multiplicity of variables within these demographic groups.

Further research has been conducted on particular aspects of this concept pertaining to student engagement in the context of the commuter student. Thomas and Jones (2017) observed that in the UK HE students traditionally re-located to their place of study and lived in student accommodation which incorporated the additional social experiences of communal living and learning, whereas an increasing number of current students choose

to remain at home and commute. In the Irish context, students also increasingly opt to live at home and commute to their place of study, particularly in the greater Dublin area (O’Neill 2017).

3.3.2 Institutional Influences The influence that PP schools continue to exert in determining whether or not school leavers participate in higher education has been foregrounded by both Smyth et al. (2011) and Taylor et al. (2017). Such school effects are identified, even after allowing for individual-level factors, such as their prior attainment, socioeconomic circumstances, ethnicity, and special educational needs. Schools appear to have different levels of effectiveness depending on the gender of the young people and the nature of their higher education participation (Banks & Smyth 2015; DfE 2017; Taylor et al. 2017). Findings from an Irish longitudinal study conducted by Smyth et al. (2011 p.xix) corresponded to UK findings and confirmed that:

…the social mix of the school further shaped student pathways, with higher education seen as the ‘natural’ pathway for young people in middle-class schools and in some of the socially mixed schools. In contrast, guidance in working-class schools often focused on PLC courses and apprenticeships, with some students feeling that staff held lower expectations for them and encouraged them to take these more ‘suitable’ courses. (Smyth et al. 2011, p.xix)

Reay et al. (2001) and Smith (2007) in Walsh et al. (2017) concluded that working class students are strongly motivated by a desire for a sense of fit, wherein their priority is to go to a HEI that is familiar. Similarly, Nora (2004) identified personal and social fit as an important determinant of institution choice.

3.3.3 Non-Institutional Influences It is evident that students must contend with academic challenges as well as the non- academic (affective) and personal issues which can create additional barriers to success. Fowler and Boylan (2010) suggest that fostering student success and retention may be realised if developmental educators better addressed non-academic and personal factors

related to student success. Zepke et al. (2011) identified a gap in the literature by ring- fencing the ways in which non-institutional influences, such as family, culture, employment, and personal influences, affect student success. Findings from their study highlighted the fact that non-institutional factors play a moderate role in student success, suggesting that institutions need to consider such factors in their student engagement and retention programmes. Most significantly, interpersonal and intrapersonal factors in terms of familial and peer support, career guidance, and both affect and effect student success.

3.4 Pragmatics of Time in Higher Education Time is an important construct within this study for a number of reasons: firstly, it is a longitudinal study which explores students’ early transitional experiences to HE and their (evolving) perceptions of success; secondly, the evolving self-concept and identity of young adults must be acknowledged; and thirdly, this study explores students’ transitions and developments (personal, academic and professional) and the inherent value of time. Duncheon and Tierney (2013) examine three temporal concepts of time which underlie this study: clock time; socially constructed time; and virtual time. They argue that the concept of time assumes new connotations and implications for individuals and HEIs alike. Furthermore, Sharron (1982) underscores the experiential aspect of temporality and describes three dimensions of time: inner time, concert time, and spaced time. Inner time is related to how and where a person’s emotions are processed while concert time occurs when ‘my inner time’ is congruent with the inner times of others to generate social togetherness. This as a result of interactions we combine our inner times into one concert time. Spaced time assists individuals to develop a sense of order and predictability and acknowledges the existence of a social past and future and organises the linear passage of time in society (Mattley 2002).

3.4.1 Student Time Astin (1984b) expounds a student development theory based on student involvement, suggesting that the most precious institutional resource may be student time. Moreover, Ackerman and Gross (2003) examine the effects of perceived free time availability on perceptions of time pressure and time deprivation on student performance, and on

perceptions of university work. Findings from their study suggest that students who reported less free time performed better academically in terms of grade point average (GPA) than do those who reported more free time. Furthermore, those with less reported free time indicated higher expectations for success in their future careers. Limited free time revealed no negative effect on student enjoyment of programmes of study or on liking of professors. However, perceived time pressure and time deprivation were associated with negative emotions (Ackerman & Gross 2003).

Kahu’s (2013) framework of student engagement in HE identified four interrelated perspectives that support engagement, learning, and achievement: namely, behavioural; psychological; socio-cultural; and a broader holistic perspective. Student engagement is deemed to be an evolving construct that captures a range of institutional practices and student behaviours corresponding with student satisfaction and achievement, including time on task, social and academic integration, and from the institutional perspective, teaching practices. Clegg and Bufton (2008) argue that personal development (pedagogical) programmes in HE often attempt to reproduce neoliberalist characteristics which may inadvertently be overly prescriptive and ignore the inherent development of a sense of self and the temporalities of student life. Furthermore, Kahu (2013) noted that students’ psycho-social processes evolve over time and vary in intensity. Klemenčič (2015) similarly observed that the consequences of engagement are dual in both temporality (proximal and distal) and domain (academic and societal). In essence then, personal issues, academic endeavours, temporality, and degree of sociality, impact the overall student experience.

3.4.2 Temporal Emotion Temporal measurements and constructs of time relate to the ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’. These constructs vary due to age profile, the prevailing social environment and/or our life circumstances at any given time. The concept of ‘change’ is connected to the concept of ‘time’ (Bardon 2013). Time is an important aspect in this study, for both researcher and participants, as the longitudinal research therein takes account of participants’ evolving self-concepts, personal reflections, personal observations and experiences, aspirations, and evolving plans in their personal (including academic and

career) lives. Notably, Nespor (1994) studied time and space in relation to the effects of lived experience of students. Ascribing time and opportunities for extra-curricular activities and a networking mentality were found to be fundamentally important in terms of enhancing the overall HE experience and improving student success (Thomas

2012).

‘Emotions are temporally embodied self-feelings which arise from emotional social acts persons direct to self or have directed toward them by others’ (Denzin 1983, p.404). As such, in her study on temporal emotion work, Lois (2010) examined the theoretical convergence of emotions and temporality, positing that ‘temporal emotions’ are unique tools in managing the emotional difficulties inherent in the trajectories of some identities. While emotions form important links to identity because people do not just manage emotions per se, but also manage ‘self-in-emotion’ (Hochschild 1983). Couch (1992) further argues that emotions are significant for creating the social order. The concept of emotional temporality can be applied to students embarking on journeys in higher education. ‘If one believes that emotions are temporally and relationally rooted in the social situation and are social emergents, then we must explore the temporal aspect of emotion’ (Mattley 2002, p.375).

‘The temporality of emotion is circular. The future, the past, and the present are vividly interconnected in the emotional acts of a person. The temporality of emotion as lived experience blurs the distinctions between the past, the present, and the future. Intense emotionality appears to stop time’ (Denzin 1983, p.406). Additionally, Lois (2010) proposes two distinct types of temporal emotion work: sequencing; and savouring. Sequencing is a method or strategy of compartmentalising phases of life. Savouring is the opposite of sequencing, in that it helps ground individuals in ‘the here and now’, thereby narrowing their focus to be present in the moment. Both types of temporal emotions can be applied to students’ lives in terms of academic calendars. Flaherty (1999) has noted that people experience the past as ‘temporally compressed’. Retrospectively, time seems to elapse more quickly than when it was originally experienced. However, we achieve ‘protracted duration’ or time going slowly, when the density of an experience is increased. This is attained by focusing on the intensity of an

aspect of self or situation as it happens, which consequently decelerates our experience of time. Lois’ (2010) research focused principally on the connection between emotion work and temporality, not only by introducing the concept of temporal emotion work, but also by demonstrating its use as a tool of self-construction.

3.4.2.1The Self in Time

Charmaz (1995a) has also shown that thinking about the ‘self in time’ is an important aspect of identity. Her work elucidates how people can anchor the self in different time frames or sequences of the past, present and future. She weaves emotions into this analysis to show how the temporal conception of self has emotional consequences, implying that time work can be used to manage emotions as well as construct a sense of self in time. Lois (2010) likewise contends that temporal emotions are powerful tools which forge links between emotions as individuals endeavour to construct a continuous emotional self. In their study on emotion and self-regulated learning Ahmed et al. (2013, p.150) found that ‘changes in positive emotions were systematically associated with changes in self-regulated learning and achievement. Overall, the results suggest that in addition to the “will” and the “skill,” students need the “thrill” to succeed in school’.

In focalising the spatial and temporal dimensions of learning and the formation of new social identities, Garratt (2011) observes the social complexity and influence of historical antecedents on the development and formation of identity. The level of reflection and understanding of what is occurring conveys a strong sense of change along with an evolving disposition or ’habitus’. Furthermore he (2011, p.221) advocates the importance ‘of encouraging student reflection on learning and personal knowledge and…developing an inclusive pedagogy that integrates formal and informal learning…providing a means with which to empower students to reflect on episodes of learning, taking account of social histories and personal experiences, diversity and individuality’. Moreover, Beard et al. (2007) explored students' emotional journeys over their first year at university. The data elicited from their study underlined the importance of relationships, students' changing emotions over the year, their perceptions of their academic studies, and understandings of life at university.

Archer (2000, cited in Beard et al. 2007) suggests that the strong temporal shift in emotions throughout the academic year is in itself indicative that a modelling of emotional states might be possible in relation to the learning that takes place. Emotions may trigger, sustain, or reduce the academic motivation which is yoked to effort. Results from a study by Parker et al. (2004a; 2004b; 2006) found that various EI dimensions were significant predictors of academic success. They noted that previous studies found that anxiety and stress levels were higher in year one than levels typically reported in subsequent years. In terms of temporality, Hussey and Smith (2010) also observed that a person’s self-concept changes over time and varies from one situation to another. As Stryker (1997, cited in Hussey & Smith 2010) contends, a person’s behaviour is influenced by the way they believe themselves to be seen by others. Thus, their behaviour is influenced by demands being made upon them by the context.

3.5 Personal Experiences in HE

Personal experiences encapsulate the student’s personal and interpersonal experiences in HE and how their own sense of self evolves, as emerging adults. In this section, I concentrate on personal experiences relating to the self. A subsequent discussion of interpersonal experiences is presented in Chapter 4. Becoming a student inheres the exploration and construction of a new identity and sense of belonging, as well as the acquisition of enhanced academic skills (Beder 1997). As such, the transition to HE affords individuals numerous opportunities for self-discovery, and personal and self- development (Chow & Healy 2008). According to Erikson’s (1968) lifespan theory of psychosocial development, late adolescents also face the challenge of establishing a secure sense of self-identity. A clear sense of identity provides individuals with a sense of purpose and direction and serves as the basis for effectively coping with and adapting to the challenges of daily adult life (Erikson 1968a). Eccelstone (2007, p.101) contends that ‘people’s sense of self (identity), their capacity for autonomous, empowered action (agency) and the effects of structural factors (class, gender, race and economic and material conditions) have long been a concern of researchers hoping to understand questions of inequality, access to educational and life opportunities and learners’ responses to particular forms of teaching and assessment’. Each of the aforementioned

factors, their interrelationships and impact on the transition to HE and subsequent HE experience will be discussed in subsequent sections.

3.5.1 Personal and Social Identity

While there are numerous perspectives on both self and identity (Erikson 1950, 1968a, 1968b, 1994; Marcia 1966; 1980) the one most pertinent in this case incorporates a sociological framework encapsulating personal and social identity (Eccelstone 2007a & 2007b; James and Biesta 2007; Eccelstone et al. 2010; Case 2015). Torres et al. (2009, p.579) suggest that sociological approaches in the study of identity illuminate from a broader perspective [than does psychology] ‘the forces that act on individuals as they make their way into adulthood…’. has been selected as the most appropriate lens for this study whereby social conditions and academic experiences are explored to determine the optimum conditions to enhance success in HE. Furthermore being part of a learning community and HE experience allows individuals the time and space to explore and develop one’s personal and social identity. Individual and institutional habitus (the notion of the individual and collective aspects and experiences of HE) facilitate the acquisition of economic, social and cultural capital. Archer (2000) maintains that as humans engage within communities of practice and reflexivity they continue to develop personal identity that supersedes group identity. She suggests that through ‘self-talk’, projects develop into practices, ultimately defining our identity. Moreover King (2010, p.257) asserts that ‘humans are fundamentally un-determined because whatever the social conditions in which they exist, they always possess the sanctuary of their personal identity’ reinforcing this theory.

3.5.2 Emerging and Evolving Identity

A key feature of emerging adulthood is that it offers the most opportunity in the area of identity exploration in terms of educational experiences and choices, work, love and world-views (Arnett 2000, p.469). The more developed this sense of identity is, the more aware individuals seem to be of their own uniqueness and similarity to others and their strengths and weaknesses in making their own way in the world. The less developed this structure is, the more confused individuals seem to be. In fact, dynamic

identity formation requires a commitment to sexual orientation, ideological stance, and vocational direction (Luyckx et al. 2008). Thus, developing a strong sense of personal identity fundamentally influences how well a student transitions and progresses to HE.As Berzonsky and Kuk (2000, p.81) maintain, a ‘coherent, well-integrated identity structure provides a sense of purpose and direction’.

Developing a clear sense of identity is one of the primary developmental tasks of the transition to adulthood (Erikson 1950; 1968a; 1968b). From our interactions with the world our personal identity emerges (Archer 2002). Identity helps to influence decisions in adulthood. The interplay between structure and agency is based on a sense of performative achievement which is derived from reflexivity and in turn informs our sense of agency and personal identity. Archer (2000, p.9) maintains that personal identity, that we acquire at maturity, is the outcome of a ‘continuous sense of self’ and from this sense of identity, our social identity emerges. Case (2015) argues that Archer’s approach focuses on ‘students ‘being’ and ‘becoming’ rather than just on knowledge and skills’. Clegg (2011, p.103 contends that ‘possible selves are always embodied and social, not simply individual….’.

3.5.2.1 Emerging and Evolving Identity in HE

The HE setting can have positive and/or negative impact in terms of preparing young people for adulthood. The constant exchange of new ideas, development of social relationships, and potential career paths offered within the university context, is likely to provoke identity exploration in certain individuals (Montgomery & Côté 2003) and confusion in others (Luyckx et al. 2008). Individuals who possess the necessary agency to find their own way in an unstructured environment are likely to thrive in the university environment and in emerging life stage in general (Schwartz et al. 2005). However, those who are less independent or resilient and feel overwhelmed at having to grapple with an array of available alternatives may experience lower levels of well- being. Individuals who are not interested in exploring or committing to self-identity, and who may have entered university to avoid having to face the challenges of adulthood, may be most at risk for externalising problems and health-compromising behaviours. To promote well-being and self-discovery and to encourage social activities

and avoid health-compromising behaviours, it is important to stimulate identity exploration and/or commitment to ascertaining one’s identity (Vignoles et al. 2011).

The HE environment allows students, particularly young adults, the time and space to mature and develop a stronger sense of identity. The majority of the research on identity formation has been undertaken on college students (Guerra & Braungart-Rieker 1999; Luyckx et al. 2008). Guernsey Riordan (2016, p.75) asserts that students’ self-concept, how they feel about themselves, shape every relationship they enter’. As outlined in Erikson’s (1950; 1994) nine stages of psychosocial development, personality evolves over an entire lifespan (Evans et al. 2010, cited in Guernsey Riordan 2016). The college years are a significant period in a person’s development. As emerging adolescents, Erikson (1994) has described this period as ‘identity confusion’. The next phase, experienced in early adulthood, consists of intimacy versus isolation. Thus, the transition from the identity phase through to the connection phase is central in a person’s development. For college students this transition often takes place during this critical phase of their lives. Crehan (2012) has suggested that a ‘self’ actually emerges in the latter part of first year demarcations in pre- and post-college. Similar work on evolving self-identity and transformation has been undertaken by Chickering (1993) who theorised that student transition and development occurs along seven vectors as shown in Figure 3:

Developing competence

Developing Managing Integrity Emotions

Student Transformation Moving through Developing autonomy towards purpose interdependence

Establishing Developing identity mature interpersonal relationships

Figure 3: Student Transformation (Chickering 1993)

“Developing competence” comprises student growth in intellectual and interpersonal competence which is influenced by faculty, the curriculum, and the campus environment. The second vector of “managing emotions, relates to students’ developing the ability to appropriately express feelings. The third vector relates to the student’s dependency on others in which Chickering (1993) contends that students move away from autonomy to interdependence. The fourth vector addresses student development of mature interpersonal relationships, including appreciation of differences and the ability to be intimate. The fifth vector is defined as “establishing identity” and is associated with students’ sense of self within social and cultural contexts. The sixth vector of “developing purpose” is instrumental to student ability to fulfil interpersonal and family commitments, while the final vector of “developing integrity” is associated with student achievement of the ability to behave in a socially responsible manner. Chickering (1993) ultimately argues that students’ prior experiences influence their expectations, experiences and perceptions.

Rosenberg et al. (1995, p.7) defines self-concept as ‘…the totality of the individual’s thoughts and feelings having reference to himself as an object’. Since ‘a person’s self- concept changes over time and may also differ from situation to situation’ (Hussey & Smith 2010, p.160) it follows that it also evolves over the duration of student’s journey in HE. They also note that students who have commenced their HE journey after attaining a certain degree of academic success in second-level education may have already developed a more resilient and better self-concept than those who did not. Furthermore, authors such as Tinto (1975) and Wilcox et al. (2005) posit that successful social integration maintains the students’ self-concept, while Marsh and Craven (1997, p.132) suggest that enhancement of self-concept is ‘based on the premise that high self- concept will lead to feelings of self-worth and self-acceptance’. They assert that enhancing self-concept is an educational goal in and of itself and findings from their research have demonstrated that attainment of positive self-concept affects academic behaviors, academic choices, educational aspirations, and subsequent academic attainment. Furthermore, they contend that self-concept is multi-dimensional and domain-specific.

While issues of social integration form a key element in the early experiences of most first year university students, for some, the formation of identity and language presents a more pressing challenge (Garratt 2011). James and Biesta (2007) found that there may be a perceived need on the part of the student to re-establish or re-work one’s identity as a learner in the context of this new environment. Carroll et al. (2010, p.8) define self- uncertainty as ‘doubt or uncertainty regarding the self, the world, and the interrelation between the two’. Crehan (2012) notes that incoming HE students are essentially moving from an extrinsically motivated learning environment to one which is more intrinsically motivated, with however, many taking a hiatus in first year. The effects of the Leaving Certificate6 are also commented upon by Smyth (1999; 2016) and Smyth et al. (2011) who have emphasised the high-stakes of the examination process and the impact that this programme has on schools, teachers, families, and individual students.

6 Most students take the Leaving Certificate examination at the end of their senior cycle in second level or PP education. Students normally choose 6 to 8 subjects from the list of approved subjects. 53

Jones and Abes (2013) attach significance to situating ourselves in the study of identity. They present a holistic explication of college student identity development by integrating and focusing on socially constructed identities. Understanding (social) identity is arguably imperative if one is to properly engage with college students and their experiences in HE (Tinto 1993; Baxter Magolda 2001). Banks and Smyth (2015, p.612) observe that ‘perceptions and expectations around high-stake examination results can also impact on how students establish and maintain self-identity’. They have determined that many school-related influences on stress are related to academic self- image. Consequently, they advocate that schools play a more significant part in ameliorating stress levels amongst their pupils by promoting positive interaction between staff and students, thereby reducing instances of bullying, peer pressure, and encouraging and facilitating student choices.

Isaacson and Fujita (2006) observe that one of the greatest challenges in HE is the student transition to higher-level thinking skills. Poor transition occurs when students fail to recognise the changes that they need to make in their behaviours and thinking. They note that successful college students recognise that professors expect more than rote learning and perform well in metacognitive knowledge monitoring (MKM) and are skilful in their learning and comprehension of the requirements to successfully accomplish a specific task. Successful students can match learning strategies to the demands of the performance task and their understanding to the demands of a task during evaluation to demonstrate their level of learning (Isaacson & Fujita 2006).

3.5.3 Structure and Agency

Bourdieus’ (1977) theories on habitus and economic, social and cultural capital encompass the conditions of structure and agency within the HE framework. Students from all socio-economic backgrounds who make the decision to gain access to HE inherently possess agency and are consciously or unconsciously seeking to redefine their social structures (mobility) in terms of experiencing HE and in terms of enhancing their ability to gain social capital. Sewell’s (1992 p.1) theory of structure critically reformulates both Giddens’ (1976) and Bourdieus’ (1977) theories on habitus and

duality of structure. He attempts to develop a theory of structure that ‘restores human agency to social actors and builds the possibility of change into the concept of structure’. Consideration of structure highlights the daily interactions between habitus, adaptation and progression through specific transitions which shape identity and agency in ways that are transformational (Eccelstone 2007).

Giddens (1981 p.27) suggests that structures are ‘dual’ and implies that ‘both the medium and the outcome of the practices constitute social systems’. Therefore structures shape people’s practices and people’s practices influence structure and ‘are constituted by mutually sustaining cultural schemas and sets of resources that empower and constrain social action and tend to be reproduced by that action’ (p.27). Sewell (1992, p.21) contends that human agency and structure presuppose each other and opines that agency is collective as well as individual. Furthermore he suggests that ‘agents are empowered by structures, both by the knowledge of cultural schemas that enables them to mobilize resources and by the access to resources that enables them to enact schemas’ (p.27). Firmino Da Costa and Teixeira Lopes (2011, p.54) acknowledge the dynamics in the HE environment whereby ‘relations to structural conditions whereby students as social agents actively shape their trajectories’ noting that ‘metamorphoses in habitus are dictated by the permanent structuring of lives’ (p.55).

Structures act as enablers and provide human agents with the opportunity to work in creative and innovative ways which in turn, may transform the very structures that enabled them to act. Furthermore they are empowered by access to resources of one kind or another (Giddens 1976). However structures have only a ‘virtual existence’ in social life as structure is ‘dynamic….is a continually evolving outcome and matrix of a process of social interaction…. is a profoundly temporal process that requires resourceful and innovative human conduct’ (Sewell 1992, p.27). These sentiments resonate with Archer’s (1982) ‘morphogenetic’ approach based on the interplay of change of structure and agency over time.

Archer (2003, p.135) argues that the influence of structure on agency is mediated through a process that involves three stages:

i. ‘Structural and cultural factors objectively shape the situations which agents confront involuntarily, and possess generative powers of constraint and enablement in relation to

ii. Agents’ own configurations of concerns, as subjectively defined in relation to the three orders of natural reality – nature, practice and society;

iii. Courses of action are produced though the reflexive deliberations of agents who subjectively determine their practical projects in relation to their objective circumstances’.

The depiction of this inter-relationship between identity, agency and structure in terms of learning about oneself raises pertinent questions about how HE might encourage reflexivity in developing a ‘positive learning identity’, leading to a different set of moral imperatives about participation and achievement (Eccelstone 2007). Structure and agency comprise the cognitive, personal and interpersonal dimensions of social space in higher education (Case 2015).

Archer’s (2000) morphogenesis of human agency focuses on the interaction of personal and social identity and through corporate agency, effectively moving from ‘me’ to ‘’we’ to develop professionals that are needed for wider society. From a broader perspective McArthur (2011, p.747) suggests that HE should ‘serve all society, sustaining, enriching, cultivating and critiquing the culture that underpins that society’. Similarly, Case (2015, p.850) argues for a re-imagining of the goals of HE for the building of ‘broad social well-being’ and challenges neoliberalist leanings in HEIs, suggesting there might be space for ‘a more concerted development of personal and social identity in the graduate’ (p.849).

3.5.3.1 Student Agency in HE

Agency has different meanings, such as being rooted in aspirations developed early in life as a long-lasting motivation, and as responding to biographical changes. Primary agency refers to the circumstances into which one was born (Archer 2000). Agency comprises ‘a sense of responsibility for one’s life course, the belief that one is in control of one’s decisions and is responsible for their outcomes, and the confidence that one will be able to overcome obstacles that impede one’s progress along one’s chosen life course’ (Schwartz et al. 2005, p.207). Students exercise corporate agency through their engagement with peers, in order to facilitate their achievement of academic success and is a component of social identity. Moreover, Case (2015, p.848) contends that ‘full agential morphogenesis for the student involves a synthesis of personal identity in concerns with social identity relating to being a student’.

From a temporal perspective Emirbayer and Mische (1998, p.970) propose that agency comprises:

The [temporally] constructed engagement by actors of different structural environments – the temporal-relational contexts of action – which, through the interplay of habit, imagination and judgement both reproduces and transforms those structures in interactive responses to the problems caused by changing historical situations.

This perspective has positive connotations from a holistic, life-long learning perspective in which HE is perceived as something that is accessible, agentically possible, and achievable. Furthermore it reinforces the value of time in that student agency encompasses reflectivity, intentionality, and interactivity with their environment and as such, is temporally embedded (Klemenčič 2015). As such, agency reflects and effects behaviours and self-belief, which in turn, reflects on the person. There are three principle dimensions of agency: namely, selective use of past experiences (decision frames and guidelines); reasonable decisions between alternative actions (situational awareness); and envisioning possible futures (future planning) (Emirbayer & Mische 1998). According to Heinz (2009, p.401):

These characteristics of agency point to the competence of a biographical shaping of actions that rests on a self-reflexive and evidence-based construction of transitions which takes into account different, potentially conflicting temporal horizons, a route map and real world constraints. Today’s work life course contingency challenges young adults to adapt their aspirations, to postpone or reduce high hopes in the transition to work, and to be flexible by renewing their employability.

However, the development and identification of emerging and evolving identity, agency and agentic possibility will be constrained not matter how the individual is structurally facilitated, without possessing a strong sense of well-being and resilience.

3.6 Well-being and Resilience and its Impact on Student Success

Seligman (2011, p.xx) defines well-being as what ‘non-suffering, non-oppressed people choose to do’. It pertains not only to individuals, but to organisations, and even nation states. Well-being has been conceptualised in numerous ways, including emotional, subjective, psychosocial, and social dimensions (Ryff & Keyes 1995; Keyes 2007; Rath & Harter 2010). There is emerging evidence of the components of well-being, such as positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment (PERMA) (Seligman 2011). While the first three elements constitute subjective happiness, the latter provide more objective measures of the kinds of lives people are living. Similarly, Oades et al. (2011, p.434) have developed a framework of well-being activities across five key contexts within universities: namely, in the classroom; social; local community; faculty/administration’ and residential (Appendix B). Wyn et al. (2012) suggests that social relationships, connectedness to family and friends, and the ability to balance work, study and social aspects of life, contribute to the health and well-being of young people. Wrench et al. (2014) focused on a relational approach to well-being and acknowledged that an array of physical, emotional, social, cognitive, spiritual, and environmental factors influence young people’s experiences in health and well-being.

3.6.1 Student Well-being in Higher Education

Keeling (2014) purports an individuals’ overall well-being to comprise health, wholeness, wellness and flourishing, thereby affirming that well-being is necessary for higher learning. He contends that commitments to student learning and success require not just ‘curricular and organisational change but also [for] diligent attention to students’ well-being’ (Keeling 2014, p.146). As such he maintains that ‘student success, properly understood, requires cultural change, using cultural and social tools and political acumen, and serious engagement with students as whole, integrated human beings’ (Keeling 2014, p.148).

On a practical level, both Wrench et al. (2013) and Finley (2016) observed that the transition to university was complex with several factors impacting on student well- being: namely, engagement with independent learning; belonging to an academic community; managing time; and competing demands. Findings from their study noted that participants did not feel adequately prepared for their new learning environment or the increase in independence and personal responsibility. Keeling (2014) argues that consideration of students’ well-being requires attention to students as ‘whole people’. He observes that in today’s higher education discourse, student success is ‘too readily equated with completion or graduation; success cannot be defined so mechanistically. Students are successful when they achieve what they came to college for – learning…’ He further elucidated that ‘learning’ and ‘completion’ are not the same thing (Keeling 2014, p.144):

Profound happiness…realised through one’s temporal being and requiring a willed life plan that becomes attuned to one’s being within the consequences of one’s agentic capability….to achieve this profound attunement within one’s world requires education, vision, courage and tenacity to establish how one’s being best fits into the world alongside others, while avoiding compromising one’s being for the sake of simply “fitting in” for the temporary benefit of others.

(Dean & Gibbs 2015, p.8)

Zepke (2013) has noted that with the exception of Bryson and Hardy (2012), the importance of well-being for student engagement is inadequately addressed in engagement literature. According to Field (2009) successful learning requires learners to be and feel well physically, socially and emotionally. Zepke (2013) contends that while lecturers and institutions are not solely responsible for student well-being, they can help students to maintain a personal sense of well-being by fostering a culture that in turn nurtures well-being. Early successful transition to HE is a psychological process during which students must adopt new thought processes and behaviours in order to successfully adapt to their new environment (Cook & Rushton 2008; Yorke & Longden 2008; Richardson et al. 2012; Blichfeldt & Gram 2013; Hughes & Smail 2015). Therefore, HEIs should adopt practices and initiatives which focus on accelerating students’ psychological adaptation to their new environment.

3.6.2 Higher Educational Institutions’ Commitment to Well-being

HEIs with a holistic, institution-wide approach that engaged senior managers, academic staff, professional service staff and students as stakeholders and agents in addressing access and achievement in HE were most promising in decreasing progression gaps (Mountford-Zimdars et al. 2017). According to Forgeard et al. (2011) fostering this culture ensures that students have clear goals, the belief that these goals are achievable, offers suitable activities to further goals, provides constructive feedback to progress goals, and enables learners to retain a sense of personal control in their learning. Field (2009) considers that successful learning, impacts positively on feelings of well-being, and therefore there seems to be a mutually beneficial reward and outcome in nurturing both elements.

3.7 Progressivism and Flourishing in Higher Education

Personal success, progressivism and flourishing in HE are connected to intrinsic motivational and personal [emotional] well-being. Nussbaum (1997, pp.119-120) defines flourishing as ‘a striving to achieve a life that included all the activities to which, on reflection, they [a person] decided to attach intrinsic value’. Seligman (2011) has developed the theory of well-being to include the concept of flourishing, wherein 60

human beings are conditioned to make the best of themselves and their circumstances. Both Wilson-Strydom and Walker (2015, p.311) purport that the notion of flourishing, has been ‘a central philosophy and pursuit for centuries and in the past decade or so there has been a growing focus on the constructs of well-being, happiness and/or flourishing in the social sciences’. Deneulin (2014, p.39) refers to this as the ‘well-being turn’ in social research and is evident in health and wellness programmes that have been introduced in many universities. Diener et al. (2010) created measures of well-being to assess psychological flourishing which measures the respondent’s self-perceived success in important areas such as relationships, self-esteem, purpose and optimism. They (2010) describe flourishing as a psychosocial construct which involves having rewarding relationships, feeling confident and having a sense of purpose in one’s life. Gaffney (2011, p.290) likewise asserts ‘the capacity to be vitally engaged is an important part of a flourishing life’. Similar to the concept of success, the concept of well-being can be holistically described both personally [emotionally] and academically, and intrinsically and extrinsically.

This holistic concept of thriving and student well-being as the core principle of student success is advocated by Schreiner et al. (2012) who argues that ‘most of us who have worked extensively with students know that there is more to a successful college experience than grades and graduation ….and proffers the question that ‘this qualitative difference in the “success” of college students raises a question of how we envision success’ (Schreiner 2010a, p.3). In the first of a trilogy of papers on student success, Schreiner (2010a, p.4) proposes adopting the humanist term thriving ‘to describe the experiences of college students who are fully engaged intellectually, socially and emotionally’. Schreiner’s team identified five factors that ensured academic thriving: namely, (1) engaged learning; (2) academic determination; (3) positive perspective (intrapersonal thriving); (4) diverse citizenship (interpersonal thriving); and (5) social connectedness.

Their findings correspond with Dean and Gibbs’ (2015) findings which categorically identify that when students are really engaged in their learning they thrive academically.

She has noted that students who are ‘academically thriving’ are actively engaged in their own learning process (Schreiner 2010b). Deep student engagement includes meaningfully processing information that the student has acquired, utilising focused attention, and mindful-learning strategies. She suggests that academic institutions can foster academic determination in a number of ways including, positive academic advisory meetings as opposed to interventionist sessions, first year experience courses in learning how to learn and in SLL (Student Life and Learning), and normalising the help-seeking process. Finally, in the concluding paper of the trilogy, Schreiner highlights the vital role of community, healthy relationships and social connectedness, in positive life outcomes Schreiner (2010c).

3.8 Conclusion

This chapter critically examined the concept of success from a variety of perspectives. Institutions must continuously reflect on how to enhance optimal conditions for ‘student and institutional success’ and foster institutional conditions that predict retention in areas such as defining and re-defining expectations, involvement (including engagement), integration and validation, assessment and feedback mechanisms, as well as student support systems (Drake 2011; Hagedorn 2012; Thomas 2012; Tinto 2012a). Lizzio and Wilson (2013) found that first year students ascribe considerable personal and academic meaning to their relative assessment successes. Students can use their early assessment marks to proactively gauge their ability for higher education, worth and belonging, or capacity and resources.

Personal factors which influence student choice of HEI, transition to, and engagement with HE, were also extensively examined. Pragmatics of time in terms of how it is measured and the value of time were fully considered. Finally, personal experiences in terms of emerging and evolving self-identity, and student agency were discussed. Students who possess a high level of self-awareness in terms of self-identity and high levels of self-esteem, and resilience will most likely be more prepared for the HE experience than counterparts who are not. All of the aforementioned increase the students’ levels of well-being and enhance their HE experience. Conversely, lack of

preparedness for HE, immaturity, low self-esteem, and low levels of resilience and well- being, must be addressed by policy-makers, HEI managers, academics and student support personnel when planning and providing specific types of programmes and initiatives for students, particularly in first and second year in HE.

The following chapter critically evaluates the literature and extant research related to early transitions to and in HE with specific reference to early student experiences, particularly from a psychosocial perspective. Institutional and personal student engagement and student success strategies are also explored. Based on literature reviewed in Chapters 3 and 4, a theoretical framework is presented pertaining to extant literature on students’ perceptions of success and personal experiences of early transitions to and in HE and concludes by delineating a holistic approach to student success in HE.

Chapter 4 Early Transitional Experiences in Higher Education

4.1 Introduction

The previous chapter critically reviewed the discourse around the concept of success and explored perceptions of success as well as personal factors that influence success in HE. Pragmatics of time in HE was also discussed, particularly in terms of emotional temporality. Personal (transitional) experiences such as emerging and evolving identity, and agency were reviewed, and the concepts and impact of well-being and resilience on student success considered. This chapter focuses on early transitional experiences to and within the HE environment with particular reference to psycho-social experiences and student and institutional strategies obtaining to engagement and success in HE. A theoretical framework relating to this study is also outlined which harmonises the entire literature reviewed with a holistic approach to student success in HE.

4.2 Early Transitions to Higher Education

Various transitions occur throughout a HE student’s educational experience including the move from second to higher level education, leaving home, and maturing to independent adulthood. Hussey and Smith (2010, p.156) define the term transition as ‘a significant change in a student’s life, self-concept and learning: a shift from one state of understanding, development and maturity to another’. Much has been written regarding first year transition by leading international researchers in the field such as Pascarella and Terenzini (2005); Tinto (1993; 1997; 2012b) and Thomas (2012). ‘Transitions are embedded in opportunity structures, social networks and institutions, but take their course through individual agency of constructing a meaningful connection between past

experiences and future plans, a construction that is strongly influenced by the present living conditions’ (Heinz 2009, p.401).

While student transition to HE clearly plays a fundamental role in their future academic performance and success, there is little consensus as to how best to support students during this process (Hussey & Smith 2010; Hughes & Smail 2015). Gale and Parker (2014) define transition as ‘the capability to navigate change’ (p.737) and offer three broad conceptions of student transition into higher education comprising induction, development and becoming. Their formulation of ‘induction’ refers to a defined period of adjustment and inculcation from one institutional or disciplinary context to another; ‘development’ refers to distinct stages of maturation, particularly relating to identity; and transition as ‘becoming’ addresses the entire lifespan in which transition is construed as a perpetual series of life stages and individuated subjective experiences.

Transition to HE has also been referred to as adjustment. Baker and Siryk (1984) theorised four categories of college adjustment: academic adjustment; social adjustment; personal-emotional adjustment; and institutional attachment. Alternative configurations which highlight the importance of adjustment to college for academic progression and retention include models by Bean and Metzner (1985) and Cabrera et al. (1993). Permzadian and Credé (2016, pp.335-6) also contend that first-year seminars are most effective at increasing the retention rate when they are: ‘(a) an extended orientation seminar rather than an academic or a hybrid seminar, (b) taught by faculty or administrative staff rather than taught in part or in whole by undergraduate or graduate students, (c) targeted at all incoming first-year students rather than just academically underprepared students, and (d) a stand-alone course rather than linked to a learning community’ as illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Transition and Adjustment to Higher Education (Adapted from Permzadian and Credé (2016))

Richardson et al. (2012) point out that the first year of HE is one of the greatest transition periods in a student’s life. It is a time when they have to learn new academic skills as well as develop new social and independent living skills. Greater levels of psychological distress are more prevalent in university students compared to their non- university peers (Bewick et al. 2010; Stallman 2010). Students who thrive in this new environment typically form close social relationships with their peers, and develop good time management and organisational skills and effective coping strategies which equip them to transition more successfully into university life (Price & Tovar 2014; Bailey & Philips 2016; Masika & Jones 2016). Dean and Gibbs (2015) found that particular social factors such as developing close friendships and feeling secure at university are highly important. Their overall findings suggested that happier students were active learners who fully engaged with their experiences, while those who were ‘more satisfied’ appeared passive and more concerned with external loci; that is, how the things done to and for them were delivered, rather than their engagement with the process. These findings closely correspond with Bandura’s (1989) social cognitive

theory with regard to how internal cognitions and environmental factors work in conjunction to alter self-beliefs.

Palmer et al. (2009, p.38) argued that ‘the actual experiences of students entering university have somehow failed to attract the level of academic scrutiny that is necessary to appreciate this transition’. They investigated the ways in which students navigated their way in the earlier stages of university life from a ‘betwixt space’ to one of ‘belonging’. They (2009) further posited two distinct perspectives on student transition; the first being the institutional or managerial side which focuses on problem- solving around attrition; the other focusing on a more student-orientated understanding of transition.

Moreover many students comment on the ‘sense of shock’ (Christie et al. 2008) and level of psychological distress they experience when they commence higher education studies. Poor levels of preparedness, misconceptions and misperceptions about academic study, and unrealistic expectations can all adversely affect transition. Pargetter et al. (1998) and Staddon and Standish (2012) suggest that a mutual ‘transition charter’ be developed to meet expectations and behaviours of academics and students alike. Similarly, the Thomas (2012) ‘Student Retention and Success’ model advocates early engagement and developing student and staff capacity to engage which focus on transition (pre-entry initiatives, induction, learning and teaching strategies in the first semester/year).

4.2.1 Transition to Higher Education of First Generation Students

The ‘first-in-family’ status of HE students addresses the case of ‘no one in the immediate family of origin including siblings or parents having previously attended a university or having completed a university degree’ (O’Shea et al. 2016, p.61). Pascarella et al. (2004) undertook comparative analyses between first-in-family students and their peers, and concluded that this group is disadvantaged in terms of preparedness and knowledge about higher education, financial support, and expectations around the

degree. A second theme in the literature acknowledged that the transition between schools and tertiary institutions tends to be more problematic for first in-family students, whilst a third referred to higher attrition rates and differences in post- graduation outcomes for this cohort. Similar work has been undertaken relating to choice of programme, access, widening participation rates by academics (Watson et al. 2009; Luzeckyj et al. 2011; O’Shea et al. 2016) and policy-makers (HEA 2010) alike. While Petty (2014) maintains that first-generation students can overcome inadequate preparation for college, Engle and Tinto (2008) reported that first-generation students were almost four times more likely to leave higher education institutions without a degree compared to their counterparts. Hicks (2003) and Atherton (2014) similarly observed that first-generation college students may be less psychologically prepared for college for a variety of reasons, including the lack of social capital transmitted from family and friends, and having to juggle additional external responsibilities.

4.2.2 Transition to Higher Education of Second Level (TLCS) Students

‘The transitions that a successful undergraduate needs to negotiate include the changes in his or her approach to learning, the way they relate to their chosen field of study and the way they perceive themselves’ (Hussey & Smith 2010, p.159). It is widely acknowledged that the transition to higher education is indeed a stressful process and it is not unusual for some students to experience psychological distress, anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance, and/or a reduction in self-esteem and isolation (Fisher & Hood 1987; Palmer et al. 2009). A student may undergo a transition from being a passive learner to becoming an autonomous learner. Hussey and Smith (2010, p.157) argue that ‘we might achieve better educated students, and suffer fewer problems of retention, if the educational experience provided is designed around the student’s individual development’. They offer some examples of transitional experiences, such as the development in knowledge, understanding and skills, becoming an autonomous learner, which come with increasing knowledge, skills, self-confidence and motivation. The development of deeper learning as opposed to superficial learning also marks the progression of knowledge of the student. Social and cultural integration is extremely important, as Hussey and Smith (2010, p.159) observed:

…becoming and remaining a successful student involves far more than merely turning up at induction and making a few friends: it involves identifying, understanding and assimilating a complex range of assumptions, behaviours and practices often tacitly represented by the range of disciplines, or fields, they are studying; and the demands persist throughout their studies. Thus the process of transition needs careful and sensitive management…

A series of initiatives (Sections 4.3 - 4.7) have been developed by HEIs to address transitions that students make to HE, including open days, orientation processes, study skills sessions, first year seminars, and other student success initiatives that will be further elaborated upon in the course of this chapter. Some HEIs introduce transition- based content into the curriculum to help manage student expectations. Transitional programmes require:

…commitment to and investment in student learning at the institutional, faculty and departmental levels. It requires policy makers to give more weight to effective teaching in universities. Academic staff ought to be given the time, expertise, as well as incentives to help students become competent learners. In the present research-driven climate, important opportunities for supporting all students adequately during the critical transition period are missed (Wingate 2007, p.404).

4.2.3 Transition to Higher Education of Further Education Students

Further education (FE) students enter HE for the purposes of personal and career development and an interest in pursuing a particular subject. Encouragement from family and FE staff often impacts their decision and the broader challenges faced by FE students in transitioning to and socially integrating in HE include age and socio- economic variables (Rubin & Wright 2015). More specific challenges experienced by FE students in transitioning to HE may include grappling with mathematics requirements, time management, external responsibilities (personal and/or professional), and engaging in college life outside the classroom (Mountford-Zimdars et al. 2015; NFETL, 2015c; 2016a). FE and HE lecturers are therefore encouraged to consciously engage in confidence-building of the FE students in terms of their continued personal

and professional development and the building of the appropriate learning and assessment skills (NFETL 2015c; 2016a).

4.3 Student Experiences

According to Staddon and Standish (2012, p.642), ‘student experience(s)’ is ‘a wide- ranging term, meaning different things for different kinds of students, and affected by many factors, from access to bars and cafés to library space and the quality of teaching. All can be ultimately measured in terms of levels of satisfaction’. Trotter and Roberts (2006) identified a number of strategies to enhance early student experiences in order to improve student retention and achievement, noting that early student experiences significantly affect their decisions to persist. General issues which impact student retention include pre-entry information, induction, personal tutor support, attendance, teaching and learning activities, and assessment methods. Thus practical recommendations incorporate programmes to assist students and staff development programmes around teaching and learning strategies (Wingate 2007). Most significantly, they suggest ‘it is worthwhile spending time and resources to develop a holistic approach designed to enhance the early student experience’ (Trotter & Roberts 2006, p.383).

In describing early student experiences in HE Garratt (2011) refers to the onerous challenges that students face in establishing new friends and social networks. He outlines the importance of students building social capital and how greater interaction and communication lead to greater self-confidence and improve their social and personal situation. Harvey and Drew (2006) and Harvey et al. (2006) argued that that the very concept of ‘the’ first year experience is misleading, since there are, in fact, ‘a multiplicity of first year experiences’. Gibney et al. (2011) concur that the student experience is highly variable, and evidence from a growing body of research relating to post-entry and early student experiences in HE (Keane 2011a) reveal that students from lower socio-economic backgrounds experience particular socio-cultural disjunction and an oppositional habitus to the institute and student body (Bourdieu & Passeron 1977). This is manifested in a sense of unease and not belonging, which inhibits the same

degree of social integration and connectedness that their middle class peers enjoy. Corresponding research suggests that HE students form sub-groups or cliques based on perceptions of similarity or ‘social homophily’ in the same way that children and adolescents tend to form friendships with those from a similar social class (Mac an Ghaill 1994; Mouw 2006; Keane 2011a).

In terms of HEI and programme of study preferences and habitus, Brennan (2008) found that the degree attainable must be from the right kind of institution accompanied by the corresponding social and cultural capital. Similarly, Keane’s (2011a) concept of ‘distancing to self-protect’ focused on the role of the relational (specifically peer relationships) and more specifically, on class-differentiated engagement within the socio-relational realm. Keane (2009) has argued that a focus on the relational is required by institutions given the central role played by the social experience in the retention of students in higher education. Van der Meer et al. (2010, p.777) claim ‘it’s almost the mind-set that teachers need to change’ in that first year students’ expectations need to be managed so that they can become more aware of the need for self-study and are inducted in and acquire time management skills. They argue that there is a dual responsibility on the part of university staff and students to acquire these same skills. This closely correlates with findings by Smyth and Banks (2012a) regarding student transition from second level to HE.

What matters most to students in HE is having positive experiences (socially and academically), a sense of achievement, moving forward through goal-setting (long, medium and short-term), resilience, and having a sense of agency (Thomas 2012; Klemenčič 2015). Wilcox et al. (2005, p.712) further maintain ‘it is also about students negotiating between the old life they have left behind (family, home and friends) and the new life they have ahead of them. Social aspects include not only interactions between students in both social and academic settings but also material and spatial aspects of their social lives, such as accommodation contexts, meeting spaces, location of campuses and so forth’. Furthermore, Wilcox et al. (2005) suggest that any analyses which fails to look at how social relationships are accomplished (or not) cannot give a full account of student experiences and inform retention strategies. Many such

initiatives are purely retention-based and focus on measuring subsequent retention and progression rates.

Morosanu et al. (2010) addresses student transition and the challenges therein which may negatively impact on the students’ academic performance and more significantly on their psychological well-being. They advocate a social networking support approach (both formal and informal), purporting that student support ‘from above’ and ‘from below’ may enhance students’ early experiences and greatly assist their transition to and within higher education (Morosanu et al. 2010).

4.3.1 Direction with Pre-college Experiences and Preparedness

Many factors impact on students’ pre-college experiences such as enrolment choices, academic preparation, general aptitude and college readiness, educational aspirations, and familial and peer support (Carroll et al. 2011; Richardson et al. 2012; Tinto 2014). As previously discussed (Section 4.2) factors such as socioeconomic status, access to financial aid, motivation to learn, and demographics such as race, gender and age, determine subsequent levels of persistence and attainment (Kahu 2013). However, academic preparation and applying to college appear to be more significant than socioeconomic status in choosing college (Kuh et al. 2006). Pre-college engagement programmes are also critical, especially for non-traditional students. Student behaviours in post-secondary education which predict success in college grades include the combination of an individual student’s academic preparation, second-level education grades, aspirations and motivation (Smyth et al. 2011).

Sources of motivation may be intrinsic and/or extrinsic, depending on the individual, and such factors also affect programme choice. Students’ perceptions and expectations of HE and their relevance to actual reality are significant as the closer the fit the more prepared they may be to deal with challenges they encounter. Kuh et al. (2006) observe that many traditional students embarking on college life have already disengaged from the learning experience as a result of study habits and behaviours formed during their

second-level education experiences with specific reference to the relentless demands of the Leaving Certificate cycle. Banks and Smyth (2015, p.612) found that ‘perceptions and expectations around high-stake exam results can also impact on how students establish and maintain a self-identity’. It is worth noting that while smaller institutions more easily adopt a student-centred approach and engage students more effectively, levels of engagement vary within any given school or type of institution. From this perspective, Hyland (2011) and Smyth et al. (2011) respectively have been critical of the impact that the Leaving Certificate has as a high-stakes examination on students at pre- and post-entry phases to HE. The National Forum for Teaching and Learning to Higher Education (NFETL 2015c) reported that students suggested the introduction of a second-level ‘college experience’ programme to offer pre-taster courses, and the possibility of inviting former students back to their alma maters to talk about their experiences in the transition to HE.

Carroll et al. (2010, p.266) contend that ‘a motive for preparedness drives anticipatory responding to uncertain future outcomes’ and that the common goal of preparedness includes a readiness to deal with setbacks and a readiness to take advantage of opportunities (Sweeny et al. 2006, p.302). In novel or unstable environments, much emphasis is placed on motivational priorities and on realistic outlooks that may advance accuracy goals, to prepare for potential sources of change in the local environment (Carroll et al. 2006, p.xxx). Furthermore Carroll (2010) makes the case for preparedness as a basic motivator in itself and considers cognitive, emotional and behavioural processes, motivation patterns, and the degree of potential effects on psychological and physiological health. Motivation ‘to prepare’ can account for patterns of automatic social behaviour that cannot be reduced to purely cognitive underpinnings (Cesario et al. 2006). The extent of student preparedness and the ways by which changes in their expectations occur is of interest when studying early student experiences. As expectations are never static and individuals constantly revise them in light of new information, adopting an upward and downward shift in expectations hinges on information and mood (Carroll et al. 2006).

4.3.2 Managing Students’ Expectations

Student expectations germinate from personal and familial desires as well as inherent culture (habitus and capital) at post primary levels of education. McCoy et al. (2014) interviewed students in terms of realising goals and regrets and found that middle-class young people are more likely to realise their goals and have fewer regrets about the pathway pursued; a pattern that was largely set and facilitated by their Leaving Certificate grades. Higher-performing students who went on to HE as well as those who took apprenticeships are less likely to have regrets about the pathway pursued. In some cases, the mismatch between expectations and reality culminated in non-completion of the programme of study, while others gradually came to realise that their chosen field of study was ‘not for them’ even though they had completed their degrees.

In HE, Nadelson et al. (2013) observed that students’ expectations and experiences throughout university life are influenced by a number of variables. However, they note that there may be a misalignment between the expectations of first year students, the mission of the university, and what is communicated regarding various programmes of study in the recruitment and retention of these students. This chimes with a study carried out by Crisp et al. (2009) who found evidence of significant gaps between student and teacher expectations of academic commitment and use of resources. Setting high standards clearly matters a great deal, as does the advising or mapping the road to success for students to achieve these goals by academics and support staff alike (Tinto 2012a; Young-Jones et al. 2013). Managing student expectations is therefore incumbent on parents, teachers, and higher educational institutions alike (Tinto 2009). As such expectations are heavily influenced by institutional actions, Davies and Cook (2009) have appraised the role of quality information available to students prior to entry. Crosling et al. (2009); Zepke and Leach (2010) and Tinto (2012a) have also examined the relationship between individual and institutional expectations in terms of student success. Wilcoxson et al. (2011, p.348) suggest HEIs have a role in setting expectations:

…to build appropriate expectations, universities should perhaps also invest more energy in visiting schools to help students gain clearer ideas of university life…Blogs, podcast

lectures, online videos and virtual learning environments that enable students to explore the nature of university life before they attend may help students to gain a greater familiarity with the university environment.

4.3.3 Influences in Decision-making Relating to Higher Education Choices

Typically, the majority of full-time students making choices about their academic goals and their careers are teenagers; a particularly complex life-stage during which young people develop, grow, and search for their own identity (Smyth & Banks, 2012b). The process of selecting an academic path involves many issues such as thinking about one’s own personal abilities, interests, social expectations, and professional future (Lopez-Bonilla et al. 2012). Ivy (2010) observes that there are three facets on which student choice is based: (1) economic models based on cost/benefit analysis; (2) sociological models bases on family background, academic capacity and personal goals and motivations; and (3) information processing models which combine many elements relating to how decisions relating to institution and programme selection are made. The strength of familial influence and highly proactive maternal involvement (Ball 2003) and school-based advice has been identified as central to student choice in making decisions around and pursing higher education. Similarly, Bourdieu (1977) posits that habitus in the context of familial and early educational structures exerts varying levels of impact on consideration and decision-making.

4.4 Recruitment to HE

HEIs recognise the synergistic relationship between recruitment and retention strategies as institutional reputation is affected by retention rates (Crosling et al. 2009). Tinto (2012a, p.6) therefore advises HEIs to assume a more measured and proactive stance to ‘recruit students who are themselves more likely to stay and graduate’ (Crosling et al. 2008). McKillop et al. (2009) have also evaluated a range of support strategies which promote student retention prior to entry. Currant and Currant (2009) refer to proactive online pre-induction support while Rushton (2009) highlights a number of key strategies which embrace the ideal of ‘recruitment for retention’. Numerous factors drive student choice of HEI and programme of study including intrinsic and extrinsic motivations such as vocation, seeking a profession, reaching a particular social status or prestige,

career opportunities, and the influence of relatives and friends, particularly their parents’ level of educational attainment and socio-economic status. Lopez 1995 (cited in Saenz et al. 1999) suggests that such distinctions influence student choice of academic programme and claims that male students prioritise extrinsic reasons such as prestige, job opportunities and high wages whilst more intrinsic ‘vocational’ reasons such as helping others are important to females. It is also worth noting that individuals only have a specific range of choices to the extent that current structures of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment of learning are ‘sensitive to the impact and effect of social arrangements and social relations on individual lives’ (Walker & Unterhalter 2007, p.10). As Sen (1999, p.xi) makes clear, ‘the freedom of agency that we individually have is inescapably qualified and constrained by the social, political and economic opportunities that are available to us’.

4.5 Student Orientation and Early Adjustment

Until quite recently student ‘orientation programmes’ were more commonly referred to as ‘induction programmes’ which predominantly served to introduce students into a new HE environment, orientation/familiarisation with campus (facilities, etc.) and significant staff-student support programmes and unfamiliar pedagogies (Gale & Parker 2014; Mountford-Zimdars et al. 2015). Orientation programmes are used to help new students settle in quickly to HE and vary in duration from one week to multiple weeks. Findings from a study conducted by Hughes and Smail (2015) found students commented on the value of their orientation programme. More specifically, Häfner et al. (2015) found that time management training might be beneficial for undergraduate students’ well-being. Orientation programmes can start at pre-college phase and also include re-orientation of continuing students (Temple et al. 2014).

Barry et al. (2015) have observed that for some individuals the reality of university life does not match their expectations. The ‘impact bias’ proposes that while humans are skilled at predicting what we are likely to enjoy or not enjoy, we are not so good at predicting a) the intensity and/or b) the duration of certain feelings and events. Managing young people’s expectations and moderating their mind-set in terms of the ‘points race’ and the realities of university life are worth considering. Thomas (2002)

maintains that student adjustment to a new HE environment requires integration of five factors: namely, economic; social; academic; pastoral support; and democratic representation. Kuh et al. (2006) reinforces the concept of the impact of early experiences and found that student success depends on a triad of factors: namely, pre- college experiences (socio-economic and familial backgrounds); student behaviours; and institutional conditions. The first series of factors have been discussed in Section 4.2. Students’ behaviour includes time and effort expended by students with their studies, interaction with faculty and peer involvement, while institutional conditions refer to resources, policies, programmes, practices and structural features. Institutional conditions and agentic student behaviours must be present from this early phase of the student journey.

4.6 Student Engagement

Student engagement refers to ‘the contribution that students make towards their learning, as with their time, commitment and resources’ (Krause & Coates 2008, cited in Kahn 2014, p.1005). Student engagement comprises three distinct types: behavioural; emotional; and cognitive (Axelson & Flick 2011). It is widely acknowledged that student engagement is a conduit for student success in HE (Thomas 2012; Tinto 2012b; Zepke 2013). Among the many definitions of student engagement, Chapman (2003) posits it to include student investment in, active participation in, and emotional commitment to their learning. A number of researchers emphasise the importance of student motivation and effort as a key factor in engagement (Schuetz 2008) while still others underscore the various ways in which educators practice and relate to their students (Umbach & Wawrzynski 2005). Zepke and Leach (2010b) developed a conceptual organiser of student engagement which includes: motivation and agency (intrinsic motivation); transactional engagement (students engaging with teachers and with each other); institutional support (institutions providing an environment conducive to learning); active citizenship (students and institutions working together to challenge social beliefs and practices); and non-institutional support (students supported by family and friends to engage with learning). The findings from this study established that teachers exerted a major influence on student engagement and therefore recommended that institutions draw up a plan to develop teachers and teaching and that both intrinsic

and extrinsic factors relating to student motivation be addressed as part of the development plan. Trowler (2010, p.3) asserts that student engagement equates to the ‘interaction between the time, effort and other relevant resources invested by both students and their institutions intended to optimise the student experience and enhance the learning outcomes and development of students and the performance, and reputation of the institution.’

4.6.1 Engagement Strategies and their impact on Student Success

‘Engagement’ as a strategy is prominent in HE research and held to be an important influencer of student success (Crosling et al. 2009; Thomas 2012; Tinto 2012b). Findings from the American National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) (Kuh 2009) and comparable surveys such as the Australasian Survey of Student Engagement (Radloff 2012) offer a useful framework for thinking about engagement which specify what students need to do in order to succeed and how institutions and lecturers can contribute to this success. Zepke (2013) found clear differences between the UK and US conceptual frameworks of student engagement, with the UK taking a more co- constructivist approach to engagement. Kuh et al. (2006) focus on student engagement because it represents aspects of student behaviour and institutional performance which colleges and universities can do something about. Macfarlane and Tomlinson (2017) and Zepke (2017; 2018) critique some of the existing underlying policies and strategies of student engagement on the grounds of student rights and freedoms as learners, student engagement based on an analysis of the literature, and arguments stemming from analyses of the effects of neoliberalism.

Some students are typically more engaged than others, notably full-time students and students who live on campus (Jones-White et al. 2010). Engagement and effective educational practices involve frequent faculty-student contact and peer interactions, involvement in co-curricular activities, and student satisfaction (Astin 1984b; Umbach & Wawrzynski 2005). As students engage in continuing education, they accrue cultural capital (Bourdieu 1977) which enables them to more fully participate in the learning culture (James & Biesta 2007). According to Kuh et al. (2006, p.58), ‘coherent first year

experience programmes, which include precollege and ongoing orientation programmes, first year seminars, and other new student advising and study group experiences, appear to be linked to a variety of positive outcomes for first year students’. Studies have found that colleges which have developed extensive orientation programmes boast higher graduation rates (Thomas et al. 2010). The value of institutional management in detailing actions plans for developing and implementing strategies for student engagement at pre- and post-entry levels (Thomas 2012) and the importance of student and staff interactions, are also advocated by Barnett (2011).The development of initiatives such as first year seminars, student advising, utilising early warning systems, engaging in learning communities, availability of campus residences, and other student success initiatives such as information on optimal campus support services, time management, advising and career development, skill development including goal- setting and test and note- taking are all significant contributors to student engagement. Moreover, the adoption of innovative educational pedagogies such as active and collaborative learning, utilisation of technology, and constructive feedback, are positively associated with student learning and success (Heaton-Shrestha et al. 2009).

Engagement entails more than simple involvement. It also requires the development of feelings and sense-making as well as activity (Harper & Quaye 2009). From a HEI perspective and environment, Trowler and Trowler (2010) identify three broad categories of engagement: learning and teaching; student identity; and governance. According to Coates (2007) engagement in teaching and learning comprise academic challenge, active learning, student and staff interactions, enriched educational experiences, a supportive learning environment, and work-integrated learning. Identity development involves the instantiation of initiatives which generate a sense of belonging for the students; namely, HEIs which engage specific groups of students (non-traditional students) and include a student dimension to the representation of the higher education programme and institution that they are attending, such as module, programme, discipline, and institution. Governance comprises the local context, higher education institutions, influence of national policy, and frameworks for action.

Crosling et al. (2011) highlight the importance of appropriate pedagogies to underpin student engagement at all phases of the college experience and stress their inherent role in student retention. This is further corroborated by both Rushton (2009) and Thomas (2012) who delineate how various innovative teaching and learning approaches can facilitate engagement and a sense of belonging that enhances student success. Their observations (Crosling et al. 2009) are extensively supported by research findings from the U.K. Ireland and Australia (Purcell et al. 2002; Thomas 2002; Tight 2002; Gale & Parker 2011; Temple et al. 2014; NFETL 2015a), and by numerous experts in the field, such as Tinto (2005; 2012a). Initiatives which foster partnerships between industry and educational institutions, such as work placements (Purcell et al. 2002), are also recognised as key contributors to academic and social engagement. Fitzgibbon and Prior (2010) outline the changing nature of students’ social experience within university confirming that face-to-face and online social interaction reinforces the need for HEIs to blend social experiences.

4.6.1.1 Social Integration and its impact on Student Success

First year students face many challenges, most specifically they need to form new relationships and modify existing ones, and adjust to new environment(s) whilst endeavouring to become independent effective time managers and independent learners. Tinto’s (1993) interactional model of student retention suggests that the central tenet of student success is integration with and within their chosen institution. He has proposed that students’ academic and social engagement with their peers and the wider learning community is essential to positive student outcomes. Social integration increases student persistence and academic and institutional commitment (Kuh et al. 2006). Thomas (2012) also emphasises the importance of early engagement and social integration as advocated by Ryan and Deci (2000) and by Zepke and Leach (2010b) who insist on the importance of HEIs nurturing a sense of belongingness.

Tinto’s (1975) and Thomas’ (2002; 2012) frameworks establish the value of social integration and emphasise the importance of establishing university friendships. Peer mentoring has become increasingly popular in HEIs and peer-mentored individuals

have demonstrated higher levels of integration to university. In one particular study conducted by Collings et al. (2014) four times as many non-peer-mentored students had seriously considered leaving university compared to peer-mentored students. It is evident that successful positive student retention, particularly for first year students, lies in ensuring the development of relationships with academic staff and in building a strong social support network (Cook & Rushton 2008). Developing social networks (including face-to-face and virtual encounters) are integral to student success in HE wherein they learn to operate effectively in a new environment and interact effectively with strangers (Kuh et al. 2006). Furthermore, Bradley and Conway (2016) developed a dual-step transfer model in which they evaluated the influence that extracurricular (sport and non-sport) activities can have on academic achievement and concluded that extra- curricular activities can impact on both cognitive and non-cognitive skills.

Noyens et al. (2018) investigated potential links between students’ academic motivation and social integration during the first year of HE and found that social integration plays a pivotal role in positively changing students’ identified regulation during the first year of HE. Students who reported a greater degree of social integration at the start of the first year attained a higher score on identified regulation at the end of the first year. These results highlighted the efficacy of creating a learning environment which fosters students’ social integration, as well as supporting less-motivated students at the start of the first year.

Self-regulatory skills include generic skills for measuring task demands, constructing and evaluating alternative courses of action, setting goals to guide one’s efforts, creating self-incentives to sustain engagement in difficult activities, and managing negative thoughts and stress. Such generalizable self-regulatory skills enable individuals to improve their performance in a variety of activities. Furthermore, powerful mastery experiences which attest to a person’s capacity to effect personal changes can produce a transformational restructuring of efficacy beliefs which act as transformative experiences (Bandura 2006).

4.6.1.2 Academic Involvement and its impact on Student Success

Academic involvement is an important facet of student engagement and includes student-faculty contact as is advocated by Astin (1984b; 1993), Pascarella and Terenzini (2005), Oseguera and Rhee (2009), Barnett (2011), and Tinto (2012a). Levels of involvement and engagement from academic staff and students which incorporate and promote student-centred and active student learning, types and levels of integration and interaction are evaluated in the majority of the papers reviewed as part of this study (Crosling et al. 2009; Oseguera & Rhee 2009; Rushton, 2009; Thomas 2012; Zepke & Leach 2010b). Barnett (2011, p.194) draws attentions to the importance of faculty member interaction with students, especially those attending community college, and considers how ‘validating interactions may influence students’ persistence decisions’.

The value of reciprocity and interpersonal TSR (teacher-student-relationship), otherwise referred to as ‘relational behaviour in education; is likewise extolled by Frenzel et al. (2009) and Hagenauer et al. (2015), while McGrath and Noble (2010) suggest that positive lecturer-student relationships can significantly contribute to students’ well- being, pro-social behaviours and learning outcomes. For instance, they suggest that increasing intrinsic motivation can be effected by simply having fun with students (such as, through the use of humour or games), by providing students with a degree of autonomy and choice in assignments, and engaging in discussions concerning the way they would like their learning environment to be treated. Barnett (2011, p.194) suggests that students who receive the validation of being ‘recognised, respected and valued’, are more likely to remain in college. The study also underscores the importance of early intervention, engagement, and the value of validation as an alternative to integration. Therefore in parallel with contemporary student engagement and success literature, student success may be defined as ‘academic achievement, engagement in educationally purposeful activities, satisfaction, acquisition of desired knowledge, skills and competencies, persistence, attainment of educational objectives, and post-college performance’ (Kuh et al. 2006, p.7).

4.6.1.3 Student Assessment and Feedback and its impact on Student Success

Positive, authentic staff/student interactions as identified in the previous section are effective in increasing student success. The role of the lecturer as a facilitator and co- constructor of knowledge is a core tenet, as is that of the student assuming responsibility for his/her learning. Regular feedback, encouragement and empowering students to take control of their own learning are essential to the engagement process. One essential aspect of academic involvement includes assessment and feedback by academics to their students and vice-versa. Protocols may include assessment of student skills at entry, classroom assessment, early warning systems (Seidman 2012b), curriculum assessment and programme redesign, and where necessary, institutional assessment. Assessment, particularly formative assessment and feedback as part of a pro-active approach to learning, are advocated by Crosling et al. (2009). Furthermore, Tinto (2012a) strongly encourages investment in assessment at both institutional and programme levels, with particular attention given to first year success.

4.6.1.4 Student Departure and its impact on Student Success

In prior literature terms such as such as ‘dropout’ and ‘stopout’ were employed with regard to student departure, the former being absolute, whilst the latter may be more temporary. Factors that may be attributable to both types of student secession are similar (Karabel & Astin 1975). Brunsden et al. (2000, p.304) define ‘dropout’ as ‘a student who fails to return and enrol for their second year of study’ and suggest there may be involuntary and voluntary reasons for this situation. Students who ‘withdraw’ and have to leave a programme of study due to lack of academic progression are involuntary dropouts, whereas students who withdraw for other reasons are voluntary dropouts. The term ‘dropout’ was often applied to individuals whom it was considered did not achieve his/her personal goals (Bean 1990). At present, this term has pejorative connotations and is rarely used in HE discourse. Furthermore Jobe et al. (2016) suggest there is much to learn about the complexities of students’ reasons for suspending their educational pursuits once they have committed to an institution. For instance, Layne et al. (2013) shed interesting light on the current trends of “shopping,” “stopping,” and “swirling” amongst college students. Moreover, the Collective Affiliation Model developed by Davidson and Wilson (2017) does not construe student dropout as the

student’s inability to integrate into the life of the institution; but on the contrary, views it as the institution’s inability to collectively affiliate with the student.

Crehan (2012) observed that the theoretical and empirical lens on the first year HE experience has been a deficit model focused on attrition/departure from both the student and institutional perspective, and notes there has been little qualitative research undertaken into why certain students remain, what motivates them to persevere with their studies, and what differentiates them from those that depart. She has examined the ways students navigate the transition and adapt to their new environments and new roles, and observed that the adaptation pace varies for individual students. She has suggested that it may therefore be useful to gather in-depth qualitative data on the various dimensions of the first year student experience as further elucidation of the impact on persistence/withdrawal requires may be accomplished by collating their stories of struggle for success, retention, progression, and sometimes, non-completion (Crehan 2012).

It is evident that the phenomenon of student departure is a complex issue and involves many factors which encompass social, academic, personal student characteristics and institutional issues (Walsh et al. 2009). Tinto’s (1993) revised model illustrated in Figure 5 helps to clarify the individualistic and institutional dimensions of student withdrawal:

Figure 5: Tinto's revised model of student departure

Students labelled as ‘non-traditional’ often lack the cultural capital needed to integrate and succeed (Zepke et al. 2011). Levels of attrition are arguably higher for non- traditional than their traditional counterparts for a variety of variables: namely, personal background variables (age, gender, familial background, ethnicity); academic variables (study habits, absenteeism, major certainty); environmental variables (finances, hours of employment, family responsibilities); and social integration variables and psychological outcomes of these variables which include utility, satisfaction, goal commitment, and stress (Bean & Metzner 1985). Traditional students leaving university cite a range of reasons including poor choice-making, the quality of the teaching, commitment to the programme (wrong subject/module, wrong programme/course, wrong institution), expectations of teaching and learning support, academic confidence, time management and social engagement, along with financial and academic issues (failure to meet the academic grade), and personal issues (Mohr et al. 1998; Johnson et al. 2002; Yorke & Longden 2008; Crosling et al. 2009; Wilcoxson et al. 2011).

Mohr et al. (1998) identified four key dimensions leading to dissatisfaction amongst early departure HE students: institutional alienation (feeling uncared for); dissatisfaction with guidance and access to information; dissatisfaction with quality of education; and dissatisfaction with policies and facilities. There is often a mismatch between students’ chosen programme of study and their expectations on entry (Cook & Rushton 2008). Peel et al. (2004) found that later year students were more likely to report programme dissatisfaction as a key factor in withdrawal, contrasting with the issues of transition, commitment and motivation, and integration reported by first year students. Later year withdrawals may be more influenced by institutional factors relating to quality of interactions with academic and administrative staff, feedback processes, teaching quality, programme advice, and university policies and facilities.

4.6.1.4.1. Positive Impact of Early HE Departure Brunsden et al. (2000) and Wilcoxson et al. (2011) both criticised previous studies on departure for failing to recognise dropout as a positive outcome for certain students. The impact of attrition beyond first year in higher education has gained more attention in recent times (Wilcoxson et al. 2011; Nora & Crisp 2012; Tinto 2012a). Withdrawal is perceived negatively by HEIs, policymakers, and occasionally students and their guardians, as it inheres an economic cost to both parties and reflects poorly on the efficiency of an institution, while the student who leaves may be regarded as a failure (Merrill 2014). Merrill (2014) challenges this “traditional” view and argues that non- completion is not always a negative act as many non-traditional adult students reported positive experiences and cited benefits they had gained in terms of learning, identity, and the development of the self.

4.7 Student Success Programmes Student success programmes (SSPs), courses (SSCs) or initiatives (SSIs) are usually semester-long initiatives designed to boost college student success. These courses rest on the principles of improving self-regulated learning (SRL) (Hoops et al. 2015). However, Hoops et al. (2015) warn that SSCs are not an exhaustive solution to improving student outcomes. They posit the ability to self-regulate one’s motivation might also be important for students who are struggling and who need assistance or

students who are balancing multiple roles and who must actively manage their time. SSCs that are designed to improve students’ self-regulation of motivation, and thus acquiring time management behaviours are key. The authors maintain that SSCs are only one strategy in ensuring student success. Similarly, Fowler & Boylan (2010, p.10) suggest that ‘a structured developmental education programme that identifies, focuses on, and addresses students’ academic, non-academic, and personal factors can positively affect student success and retention’. They recommend that HE officials should take time to study their own students and decide which elements of such a programme may be appropriate for them, measure its success, and report the outcomes to the wider educative community. Duggan and Williams (2011) explore student success courses (SSCs) from the student’s perspective by examining the topics, teaching methods, and courses students find most helpful. These authors offer suggestions for creating specialised orientation programmes and courses to fit the needs of the diverse community college population. They suggest that offering a hybrid version of orientation classes, including course activities that encourage students to learn about and develop effective academic habits, would be of most benefit of students,

Wirth and Padilla (2008); Schreiner (2010b) and Dean and Gibbs (2015) all attest that academic advisors play a pivotal role in not only identifying barriers that exist and how to help students’ overcome them, but also in identifying the attributes that successful students possess and actions they have taken to succeed. Mariskind (2014) notes that there is a paucity of research on care in HE and yet for many of those who work in HEIs, care is an important facet of their work and widely acknowledged as valued by the student. She suggests that ‘rather than seeing care only in terms of caregiving in response to needs, staff, and students would benefit from an understanding of care as a life-sustaining web of relations (Tronto 1994) throughout higher education institutions that support individual and collective well-being and enhance teaching and learning’ (Mariskind 2014, p.318).

Muller (2014) also observes that personal tutoring, sometimes referred to as ‘pastoral support’ is the key to student support and well-being in their HE journey. She proposes that such support may be ongoing or temporary depending on the issues or difficulties

the student may be experiencing. As this role adds to academics’ already overloaded remit it is important to recognise the role that is played in providing additional support to students and factoring this in to their timetables. Of course there are formal university services and structures in place to support students, but inevitably lecturers and students have greater degrees of interaction and access to each other than the other support personnel. She also suggests that academics need to lead by example and attend to their own well-being before trying to care for others (Muller 2014).

4.7.1 Student Support Systems Student support enhances the possibility of student success. To this end, student support systems require academic support from academic and institutional advisers and bridging programmes; social support which incorporates formal counselling; mentoring and buddy systems; and financial support programmes (Tinto 2012b). Both Thomas (2012) and Ruehl (2018) weigh up the importance of friendship and peer support in HE. While much research has evaluated or explained college student retention from an individual, student perspective (Hagedorn 2012; Tinto 2012a; Zepke & Leach et al. 2012). Walsh et al. (2009) also refer to the important role of academic tutors as the frontline of student support in ensuring student success in HE. They advocate the value of the sign- posting role played by academics in directing students to appropriate support services that may be available at their respective institutions and also call for greater integration of these services. Front-loading of student support in the early weeks of their first year of college seems to be critical in student retention (Light 2001). Moreover, Walsh et al. (2009) suggest the possibility of a tiered student support services offering that includes first-line support for academic issues with pre-assigned tutors, with family and friends offering pastoral care.

The concept of a personal tutor is not new, particularly in health sciences programmes such as in nursing. Phillips (1994) attributes three main functions to the role: teaching; counselling; and supporting. According to Thomas (2006), the role may also entail information about HE processes, procedures and expectations, academic feedback and development, personal welfare support, referral to further information and support, a relationship with the institution, and a sense of belonging. In this way, personal tutoring

can be ascribed to the two main roles of academic and pastoral care. Braine and Parnell (2011) suggest that in order to improve academic and pastoral support, a more integrated approach to personal tutoring is required. A second tier of more specialist advice relating to finance and careers may be accessible from pastoral and academic support. A final tier of support relates to specialist counselling and health related support. They note all while three tiers are pivotal in improving student persistence rates, in order for them to be optimally used, it is critical to identify vulnerable students and the precise nature of the risks, so as to anticipate the timing and volume of demand and respond efficiently, proactively and appropriately.

Young-Jones et al. (2013) evaluated academic advising in terms of student needs, expectations and success, rather than through the traditional lens of student satisfaction with the process. Findings from their study suggested that HEIs could develop more specialised intervention programmes that would contribute to student development and success, highlighting that knowledge of all aspects of the academic experience is important. They suggest that further research might be worthwhile to deepen understanding of academic advising and its impact on personal and institutional aspects of student success.

According to Breso et al. (2011) researchers have been focused on identifying the best conditions for academic success. Engagement is considered intrinsic to increased motivation and promotes perseverance. They found that intervention programmes, particularly one-on-one cognitive behavioural programmes which promoted healthy psychological states and engagement amongst students, were most effective in improving performance. Conversely, it is important to examine the concept of ‘failure’ and Thomas (2002) advocates an approach that does not condemn the students for failure but addresses the issue of how institutions fail students. As failure may imply loss of tuition fees, lack of progression, delay in graduation, and possible feelings of inadequacy associated with not progressing, Barry et al. (2015) urge a more in-depth exploration of what failure is really like and its impact on the person as a whole (with particular emphasis on their sense of well-being).

4.7.2 Developing Skills Strategies for Student Success in HE Smyth and Banks (2012a) have highlighted the apparent disconnect between the skills students acquired at second-level and their relative unpreparedness for HE in terms of the higher order skills of critical thinking and independent learning. Wilcoxson et al. (2011) suggest HEIs should implement strategies to assist students framing a more realistic idea of the skills they need to develop in order to succeed in HE. Other skills include time management skills, guided group work, appropriate group study areas in the library, and study-buddies. With regard to building appropriate expectations they suggest universities should invest more resources in school visits to give students a clearer understanding of university life. This may also be enhanced through podcasts, blogs, online videos, and virtual learning environments on a university’s website. There is an evident lack of investment in ensuring academic faculty are given the opportunity to avail of teaching courses and seminars to equip them with a better understanding of students’ needs, particularly during their transition period. Involvement strategies that may be used to assist staff-student engagement include particular teaching strategies in class to increase personal learning environments (PLEs), on-campus social activities, and off-campus initiatives such as social media (DeAndrea et al. 2011; Penn-Edwards & Donnison 2011; Dabbagh & Kitsantas 2012).

4.7.3 Student Success Programmes for Second Year Students Examining the impact of attrition post-first year is also critical during curriculum design and delivery (Wilcoxson et al. 2011). In the United States, Schreiner et al. (2012) conducted research into the second year or sophomore experience of university students. They commented on the fact that these students are still transitioning and moving on to another phase of a programme and of their lives with, more often than not, reduced support from college, and even family. At this critical juncture, when they are usually required to select their major stream/specialist area, they report little interaction with faculty and peers in the classroom, and lower levels of motivation and satisfaction than students at other levels (Schreiner 2010c). Decreased support creates a more challenging transition and overall experience in the second year of a HE programme. These challenges are not only academic, but psychosocial in nature (Kenrick et al. 2010). The pressure to declare a major and essentially opt for a career is exacerbated by additional

academic, social and financial pressures. Previous studies by Schreiner (2010c) have shown that 25% of second year students (sophomores) experience slumping, either academically, motivationally or relationally. Schreiner’s research has indicated that the more students interact with faculty, the greater their level of engagement with learning and, more significantly, the higher their levels of their overall satisfaction and optimism with life in general. This underscores the powerful role academics have in engendering and supporting a thriving student cohort. Schreiner et al. (2012) reported that the main contributor to sophomore thriving was a students’ sense of community.

Wilcoxson et al. (2011) contend that second year students are more aware of the realities of university life and modify their expectations in line with them. However, in spite of making it through to second year, the main issue with some of these students seems to be negative perceptions they hold around their own academic abilities to succeed. Other issues include writing and comprehension skills, and a possible (in some cases) lack of support from teaching staff. The authors suggest that second year students require additional time and resources to build particular skills sustain their confidence. Students who lack confidence and question their own ability in third year are those most likely to withdraw. Commitment may be increased by affording students the opportunity to explore diverse career paths through internships/work placements programmes, linking students to alumni members, and by promoting graduate employment opportunities with prestigious organisations. From a holistic perspective, student success may also be connected to desired and achieved student personal development outcomes that confer benefits on individuals and society.

Schreiner (2010a) has suggested that in changing students’ perspectives on their circumstances and their outlook for the future, even using brief interventions can have long-term positive effects. She proposes three specific initiatives supported by current research that can have a lasting effect on students: (1) equipping students with an optimistic explanatory style; (2) helping students envision future success; and (3) teaching students to develop and apply their strengths. Both faculty and student life and learning (SLL) professionals can engage in such practices with students inside and outside the classroom. A focus on thriving encourages a more holistic view of student

development, moving from a focus on remediated initiatives to development programmes, from failure prevention to success promotion. Schreiner (2010a, p.10) observes that ‘a focus on thriving rather than merely surviving in college has the potential to change the way higher education views student success…Most importantly, we begin to measure what matters - the development of a perspective on themselves, the world, and their future that equips students for success not only in college, but, more important, in life’ (Schreiner 2010a, p.10). Bewick et al. (2010, p.643) also suggest that students across all years and programmes at undergraduate and postgraduate level can benefit from continuing support which can ‘better equip them negotiate their academic journey in preparation for their lives post-graduation’. Most importantly, support must be available and provided in a timely manner.

4.8 A Holistic Approach to Higher Education Zepke and Leach (2010a) advocate looking beyond ‘hard’ outcomes such as retention, completion and employment, to examine possible indicators for ‘soft’ outcomes and student engagement literature to gain a broader understanding of student success. ‘Soft’ outcomes measure success from students’ perceptions of their progress. Four lenses are offered as part of generating ‘soft’ outcomes: student motivation; engagement in the classroom by teachers and peers; the socio-political context where engagement is ‘participatory, dialogic, active and critical’ (Zepke & Leach 2010a, p.664); and the fourth lens which considers the impact of factors such as family background and economic status. Zepke and Leach (2010a) argue that institutional research assists institutional quality by investigating student perceptions of engagement at a micro- institutional level, noting that students in different programmes perceive the efforts of teachers supporting student engagement in different ways. They thereby challenge existing policy which equates student success with hard outcomes only and embrace student-centred ‘soft’ outcomes. Figure 2 represents the theoretical framework pertaining to the key sources of literature and extant research relevant to this study.

4.8.1 Positive HE Experiences Oades et al. (2011, p.432) define positive education as ‘the development of educational environments that enable the learner to engage in established curricula in addition to

knowledge and skills to develop their own and others’ well-being’. They argue that there is an opportunity for ‘positive psychology to enhance the experience of campus life by influencing the development of a HE culture that understands the psychosocial determinants of well-being and seeks to create conditions that cultivate well-being in students and staff’ (Oades et al. 2011, p.433). Similarly, Schreiner et al. (2009) contend that a positive university needs to be a positive institution and that this approach in HE needs to be informed by relevant fields of scholarship namely education, psychology, sociology, organisational theory and behaviour. Formal teaching environments within the higher education sector have changed significantly in the last twenty years (Oades et al. 2011) with key drivers such as globalization, increased use of information and communications technology, competitiveness for funding, as well as the teaching quality demanded by the ‘student.

Wrench et al. (2013) explored student experiences that impacted on health and well- being during the first year of university studies. Their findings identified a range of factors that affect student well-being during their transition to university studies such as geographical relocation, engagement with university learning, sense of community as well as managing time and competing demands. Making sense of university, belonging and managing competing demands were the key themes elicited from the study. In relation to the theme ‘making sense of university’, key findings particularly focused on concerns around organisation and lack of structure. Some participants felt their expectations were not met and, in general, early experiences of university life contributed to their overall anxiety levels. Furthermore, results from a study carried out by Bewick et al. (2010) indicated that greater strain is placed on well-being once students start university compared to pre-university levels. Levels of strain are greatest in Semester 1 with significant reduction in levels of distress from the initial and second semesters in years one and three (anxiety levels had risen by 50% compared to the previous year, in the initial semester in year two). At no time did levels of distress fall to pre-registration levels. Given the levels of stress experienced by students, it is important to have the necessary support for students’ throughout their studies in terms of transition, throughout their academic career and in terms of them being ready to transition successfully to the workplace. Experiencing a sense of belonging and social connectedness was also important to the students and finally successfully balancing and

managing competing demands was indicative of the students’ overall well-being. Trowler and Trowler (2011a) acknowledge that student engagement has behavioural, cognitive and affective dimensions, incorporating congruent and oppositional manifestations of each of these. They suggest that literature on student engagement is concerned with three foci including individual student learning, structure, and process and identity.

Dean and Gibbs (2015, p.5) explore what is integral in the student experience as a ‘transformative experience as personal flourishing, where students come to terms with a way of being, matching their potentiality with their agency and leading to profound happiness’. The authors suggest that the idea of quality in HE should extend beyond satisfaction and develop an ideal of student happiness as one of the attributes by which education provision could be measured. According to Seligman (2011) the theory in authentic happiness is that happiness could be analysed into three different elements: positive emotion, engagement and meaning. Similarly, Fredrickson’s and Branigan’s (2005) theory of positive emotions contend that happiness can facilitate improved performance across many aspects of life. Anderson (2016, p.1) asserts that ‘college students’ health and wellness are, to a large extent, vital for the overall success of students’. The concept of wellness encompasses emotional wellness, intellectual wellness, occupational wellness, social wellness, and spiritual wellness. Wellness is about being positive and proactive, is a journey, and he maintains ‘it’s about actualized potential, knowing that one can always get better and be better throughout the range of aspects of life’ (Anderson 2016, p.5). Dean and Gibbs (2015, p.17) acknowledge that ‘we recognise the real world in which the universities operate, but advocate they take a stance themselves on what they want to offer the society that cherishes them and demands of them, not just employees but well-rounded citizens, willing to act on their own accord’. Significantly the authors argue for more appreciation of what contributes to the student experience and how this might be understood and fostered. They also suggest that ‘student engagement is a significant contributing factor to profound happiness, especially among female students’.

Roffey (2012) suggests that an eco-systematic analysis of emotional literacy in the school context comprises at micro-level which is personal, valuing each individual as part of the school; at meso-level which is interpersonal, it focuses on relational values and intra and interpersonal competencies i.e. social capital; at exo-level it equips policies and practices to acknowledge and develop positive relationships and well- being; at macro-level it addresses school culture and expectations; and at the local and national it pertains to the socio-political context. Roffey (2012, p.147) contends that ‘positive social capital helps everyone in an organisation flourish’. Social capital augments feelings of safety and well-being and enables groups of people to work together towards the fulfilment of mutually established goals. As such, ‘it enhances the resources of an organisation in multiple ways by increasing the flow of information, ideas, advice, help, opportunities, contacts, emotional support and goodwill’ (Adler & Kwon 2002 cited in Roffey 2012, p.146). Oades et al. (2011) suggest that increases in well-being are likely to produce concomitant increases in learning as positive mood produces broader attention (Fredrickson & Branigan 2005; Rowe et al. 2007), more creative thinking, and more holistic thinking. The theoretical framework for this study is presented in Figure 6 below.

Figure 6: Theoretical Framework

4.9 Overview of the Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework (Figure 6) above provides a visual representation of the concepts and underlying relationships therein that underpin this study. There are four interrelated concepts pertaining to the dynamics that influence student success in HE namely: Structure and agency, early transition to HE, the value of time as a resource and its inherent value for young adults and the fundamental importance of well-being and resilience to facilitate full and meaningful engagement in the HE experience. It is important to note that this study looks beyond the first year HE experience, noting that oftentimes students in subsequent years require additional support in terms of their personal and academic journey.

Personal influences such as habitus and capital (Bourdieu & Passeron 1979; Reay et al. 2001; Thomas 2002; Thomas 2012) and social influences (institutional (Smyth et al. 2011; Taylor et al. 2017) and non-institutional (Fowler and Boylan 2010; Zepke and Leach 2011)) which influence potentiality and dynamics of success in HE were critically reviewed. These influences are further interrogated through the underpinning theories relating to structure and agency (Giddens 1976, 1981; Archer 2000, 2003). The value of time as a resource (Sharron 1982) and pragmatics of time (Archer 1982; Sewell 1992; Duncheon and Tierney 2013; Case 2015) particularly relating to evolving identity (Erikson 1968a, 1968b; Arnett 2000; Berzonsky and Kuk 2000; Archer 2002; Luyckx et al. 2008 was acknowledged as an important facet of this study. Finally from a personal perspective the fundamental importance of well-being and resilience was identified as essential (Ryff & Keyes 1995; Keyes 2007; Rath & Harter 2010; Oades 2011; Seligman 2011).

From an institutional and inter-relational perspective early transitional experiences and strategies and programmes that support positive transition to HE (Tinto 1993, 1997, Pascarella and Terenzini 2005; 2012b; Hussey and Smith 2010; Thomas 2012 and student progression in HE were examined. Furthermore student engagement (Crosling et al. 2009; Thomas 2012; Tinto 2012b) and success strategies (Duggan and Williams (2011; Wilcoxson et al. 2011; Hoops 2015) were evaluated beyond the first year of HE.

Finally, a greater emphasis on a holistic approach in HE is advocated and supported by Zepke and Leach (2010a; Oades et al. 2011; Roffey 2012; Wrench et al. 2013; Dean and Gibbs 2015).

4.10 Conclusion

Student recruitment, orientation, engagement and retention are the collective responsibility of the individual student, lecturer, institution, and HE sector in terms of policy development and implementation as a whole. The main findings of the literature reviewed emphasise that institutional student recruitment strategies must correspond with student retention policy. At a preliminary level Brown (2011) observes that making changes in a HEI and enhancing the student experience in a meaningful way is a challenging process, which will evolve for staff and students over time, and with initiatives being monitored and evaluated on an on-going basis. A more holistic view of success in terms of recruitment, pre-entry, post-entry policies, intervention strategies, engagement and retention strategies, institutional integration across faculties (including curriculum design, delivery, assessment and feedback), and staff-student integration is advocated by leading researchers in the field (Zepke & Leach 2010b; Wilcoxson et al. 2011; Thomas 2012; Tinto 2012a). As Wrench et al. (2013, p.743) have observed ‘when the logic of neo-liberalism informs the structures, teaching/learning arrangements of universities and common-sense understandings of students as entrepreneurial beings, it is assumed, through discourses of self-government the responsibility for academic success, health and well-being can be individualised’. But this is, of course, contested throughout this study as I acknowledge the (inter and intra) relational psychosocial factors that play a much greater part in promoting student well-being and success in a more holistic way. Examining and developing strategies that address student engagement and progression beyond first year in higher education institutions is also paramount.

Institutional action as opposed to mere policy-making is fundamental to the proper development of appropriate recruitment and retention strategies to ensure collective student and institution-wide success (Wilcoxson et al. 2011; Thomas 2012; Tinto

2012a). To this end, Rushton (2009) suggests that a partnership between students, academic staff, learning support staff and university management is intrinsic to optimum retention. Thus it is incumbent on institutions to be strategically and tactically proactive and to make anticipatory changes which promote success for all students (Crosling et al. 2009), especially under-represented groups for which personal and academic challenges abound. Being proactive also means taking advantage of the new technologies that are at the disposal of educators and individuals alike in terms of delivery and academic and social engagement (Wilcoxson et al. 2011). In terms of ICT, the use of social media for improving students’ adjustment to college (DeAndrea et al. 2011) and for engagement in social networking has been found to improve student participation in the classroom (Novak & Cowling 2008). The on-going use of social media is important especially for first year engagement as it is increasingly accepted that orientation is a process and not an event. Furthermore, the use of podcasts as well as lectures in real-time to afford students the opportunity of accessing and re-visiting lectures can assist the student integration process. ‘Institutions can play a positive role in the well-being of students by providing appropriate and timely support and resources, thereby minimising possibilities of student burn-out and ill health, while increasing their engagement and satisfaction with life’ (Woosley & Shepler 2011 cited in Mokgele & Rothman 2014, p.515).

Having a sense of connectedness clearly matters, be it relational or cognitive. Schreiner et al. (2012) have concluded that in order to enhance the overall experiences for freshmen (first year) or sophomore (second years) students and to ensure they are thriving in a holistic sense, creating and maintaining positive relationships with faculty and peers are essential. In relation to the enhancement of the freshman experience they recommend the development of new student orientation programmes, first-year seminars and courses, and devising a series of initiatives which engender a sense of community and stimulate campus involvement. Furthermore, Schreiner et al. (2012) have recommended a series of institutional practices for the U.S. higher education context that may enhance the sophomore experience: namely, connecting sophomores to faculty in meaningful ways; building community in and out of the classroom; focusing sophomore advising on connecting present and future identities; recognising spirituality

as a pathway to thriving sophomores; and examining institutional policies and practices from a sophomore perspective.

Wrench et al. (2013, p.743) have noted that ‘a direct consequence and challenge facing university communities is to plan, and deliver practices and structured programmes that promote social networks and supportive peer relationships’. Organised peer-to-peer activities across all year levels, including social, academic or any combination of these, may support the development of new connections and sense of community which redresses the impact of emotional and physical relocation. Mokgele and Rothman (2014) suggest HEIs should provide work-shops on stress-reducing skills and effective coping-strategies, especially during orientation. They could promote well-being of students and contribute to positive institutions by empowering lecturers to create challenging and engaging tasks and by promoting positive relationships between lecturers and students as well as among students (Reeve et al. 2013). Lecturers can likewise illuminate first-year students’ understanding of study demands and provide support and guidance to enhance their well-being. Lecturers might also consider opportunities for autonomy and choice in assignments (Oades et al. 2011). Roffey (2012, p.159) suggests that a ‘positive school relationships can make a significant difference on many levels. It therefore makes sense for all schools to focus on the ecological development of relational quality school-wide, for both educational excellence and authentic well-being’. From a holistic perspective academic success is ‘a journey’. As such, it is not just the ‘destination’ that matters (Zepke & Leach 2010a).

The following chapter will introduce and discuss the philosophical and methodological considerations, chosen research approach and design, and the data collection process which was deemed most appropriate to this study. The data management and data analysis process that was adopted will also be described in full, while the trustworthiness of the researcher and the ethical ramifications of the study are also considered at length. Finally, researcher reflectivity and reflexivity will be examined and documented, along with the limitations of the study.

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Chapter 5 Methodology

5.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to provide insight into the philosophical and methodological perspectives which underpin this study. The chapter begins with an overview of the aim and objectives of the study. The underlying ontology, epistemology, research methodology and approach deemed most appropriate for this study are outlined. The trustworthiness of the study is discussed and the role of the researcher and insider-research is considered. The data collection process, data management strategy employed, and subsequent data analysis according to the constructivist grounded theory approach (Charmaz 2014) are also presented. The final section addresses issues pertaining to reflectivity and reflexivity, the process of maintaining an ethical ethos throughout the study, the limitations of the study, and possible dissemination paths for the findings.

5.2 Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study was to seek to understand the dynamics of student success in higher education from the perspectives of the students. This study was concerned with evaluating early student experiences and perceptions of their progress in their higher education experience. The underlying research objectives sought:

Carr and Kemmis (1986, p.85) contend that within the field of education research, enquiry should focus on understanding the social processes through which a given

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educational reality is produced and becomes ‘taken for granted’. This study focuses on students participating in a programme of study in a higher education institution (HEI), their perceptions of success, and transitional and personal experiences. Literature on transition to HE and its impact on health and well-being of students call for more studies to be initiated amongst specific student cohorts. Prior research suggests that transition support may gain better student engagement if it is initially focused on social integration and student well-being and lifestyle (Hussey & Smith 2010; Wrench et al. 2014; Hughes & Smail 2015). Gale and Parker (2014, p.734) argue that ‘future research in the field needs to foreground students’ lived realities and to broaden its theoretical and empirical base if students’ capabilities to navigate change are to be fully understood and resourced’. Nelson (2014) suggests extending support beyond first year experience to focus on the tertiary experiences of all students to ‘think about success rather than problems’ (p.14). Therefore, this study is justifiable in terms of contribution due to the fact that it is solely focused on students’ perceptions and experiences and aims to inform HEIs and educators about the reality of transition to HE and the perceptions of a student in their first years in HE.

5.3 Philosophical Perspectives

A paradigm or worldview is ‘a basic set of beliefs that guide action’ (Guba 1990, p.17 cited in Creswell 2007, p.19). According to Scotland (2012, p.9), a paradigm consists of ‘ontology, epistemology, methodology and methods’. In short, the philosophical stance of the researcher indicates the fundamental beliefs which shape their world-view (Bryman & Bell 2003) and is underpinned by their perception of reality, ontology, epistemology, methodology, and methods used as part of a study (Denzin & Lincoln 2008; Scotland 2012). The present study is situated in an interpretivist, constructivist and relativist paradigm. Awareness of my own philosophical assumptions helps promote a greater self-awareness and reflexivity in my actions as a researcher and facilitates the consideration of multiple perspectives (Gummesson 2003) as further elucidated below.

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5.3.1 Ontology

Ontology is concerned with the nature of or the essence of things and is therefore the basis of reality (Blaikie 2000; Schraw 2013). Ontological assumptions focus on whether a person views social reality as external, objective and independent or as socially constructed and subjectively experienced (Mills et al. 2014). In contemplating the current study, I revert to Schraw (2013, p.2) who uses the term ontological world view to refer to ‘an individual’s collective beliefs about the nature of reality and being’. Socially constructed researchers collect subjective accounts and perceptions about how the world is experienced and constructed by the people who live in it (Schwandt 1994; Sikes 2004); a view consistent with the gathering of individual student perceptions. When researchers conduct qualitative studies they necessarily ascribe to the view that reality is subjective and there are multiple views of it (Creswell 2007). This approach aligns with that of the current study. My ontological position of social constructivism harmonises with my view of the nature of reality and being and very much corresponds with the way this study was conducted; on the basis subjective accounts of student experiences and perceptions of success in HE. Ontology is the ‘starting point of all research, after which ones’ epistemological and methodological positions logically follow’ (Grix 2002, p.177), each of which are discussed below.

5.3.1.1 Constructivism

Constructivism is a research paradigm that ‘denies the existence of an objective reality, in ‘asserting that realities are social constructions of the mind, and that there exists as many such constructions as there are individuals (although clearly many constructions will be shared)’ (Guba & Lincoln 1989, p.43 cited in Mills et al. 2006, p.26). I have adopted social constructivism as a core paradigm of this study based on the aim and objectives of my research which explores student success from the students’ perspectives and based on the premise that both their and my perceptions of success may evolve over time. Social constructivism assumes the relativism of multiple social realities, recognises the mutual creation of knowledge by the viewer and the viewed, and focuses on interpretive understanding of subjects’ meanings (Guba & Lincoln 1994; Schwandt 1994; Charmaz 2006). Furthermore, the social constructivist standpoint assumes that truth is socially constructed and that socialisation, different expectations,

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experiences, and ways of being treated, may be observable, but also require explication by those involved in the situation.

Denzin (1970) embraces both social constructionism and emotionalism (which uses interviews and observations), as a form of ‘focused interaction’ which facilitates the type of knowledge constructionists wish to access allowing them to acquire multiple perspectives (Silverman 2006). Social constructivism implies that people construct their own meanings and learning by building on their previous knowledge, experience, and social interactions. This approach implies that a relationship develops between the researcher and the participants of the study in which respondents can tell their stories on their terms. As such, research participants are viewed as helping to construct their ‘reality’ with the researchers’ (Robson 2002, p.27). I therefore engaged directly with the participants throughout this study.

The core source of data is the participants’ own definitions, perceptions, ideas and experiences as expressed in their own words. Theory emerges from this data through careful, inductive analysis. This type of research is referred to by Robson (2002) as flexible design research. Creswell (2009, p.175) argues that qualitative researchers usually ‘gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents rather than rely on a single data source’. Among the criticisms of qualitative research it has been suggested that it is over- subjective, the findings usually ungeneralisable (due to small samples being selected), and that it is difficult to understand precisely how data is analysed and to conduct a true replication of a particular study (Bryman 2008). However, these potential shortcomings can be tempered with a reflective research approach that incorporates conscious deliberation over ethical criteria and consideration regarding the potential for researcher bias in pursuit of trustworthy data.

5.3.2 Epistemology

Epistemology may be defined as ‘theory of knowledge, or ways of knowing’ (Edwards 2012 p.372). Knowledge is gained by self-awareness and this theory of knowledge

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(knowledge production). In other words, what constitutes knowledge and what it is possible to know, understand and represent, determines our research journey (Schraw 2013). Schraw uses the term epistemological world view to refer to ‘an individual’s collective beliefs or more precisely the nature and acquisition of knowledge’ (p.2), consistent with my ontological stance as detailed in Section 5.3.1. Central to this is the notion of the nature of ‘truth’, most notably in terms of how data obtained corresponds to and reflects the knowledge it claims to have gathered (Sikes 2004). According to Pring (2000, p.251), ‘truth is a consensus formed by co-constructors’. Identification of ones’ epistemological stance in relation to one’s research underpins methodologies pertaining to data collection, analysis and interpretation, and signals the reader why certain decisions relating to the process were taken (Edwards 2012).

The aims and objectives of this study are most suited to an epistemological approach positioned in interpretivism which relies on the socially constructed nature of the study (e.g. student perceptions of their HE experience) through the data collection process. An epistemological approach based on interpretivism enables the researcher to gain greater depth in terms of understanding and appreciating the reality of students in HE today. Dewey (2004) describes students as active pursuers of knowledge and the pursuit of education as a form of direction and growth. He further explores and develops themes around the nature of experience, reflection in experience, and the importance of work and play in the curriculum. The overriding motivation of this study and chosen methodological approach was concerned with gathering data on the subjective experiences as perceived by the participants, whilst exploring their perceptions of progress and success.

5.3.2.1 The Interpretivist Perspective

The interpretivist perspective ‘opposes the notion of absolute truth or reality, and in epistemological terms consider truth and reality as socially, culturally and experientially constructed, local and specific to the observer and the context’ (Guba & Lincoln 1983 cited in Luo 2011, p.4). One of the most succinct explanations of interpretivism is Weber’s (1964b, p.88) ‘Verstehen; approach which suggests that sociology is ‘a science

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which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action… In ‘action’ is included all human behaviour when and in so far as the acting individual attaches a subjective meaning to it.’ Interpretivism as a philosophical paradigm highlights the importance of social context (Gill & Johnson 2002). This study focuses on the psycho-social aspects of students’ experiences early in their HE journey. I have maintained an interpretivist perspective throughout in order to elicit a deeper understanding of the students’ perceptions of success in HE using a phenomenological, interpretivist perspective.

The interpretive approach seeks to understand individuals’ lived experiences from the perspective of the people themselves, which is often referred to as the ‘emic’ or insider perspective. This involves studying the subjective meanings individuals attach to their experiences. Since there are multiple perspectives of reality the interpretive aspect seeks to understand peoples’ lived experiences from the perspective of the people themselves, their beliefs and meaning systems (Hennick et al. 2011). The emic perspective concerns the insider’s perspectives and thus the perspectives of the local population: in this case, the staff and students alike of the Institute. Moreover, the concept of the emic perspective is connected with the concept of Verstehen, whereas, the etic perspective refers to the outsider’s point of view, opinions and beliefs, such as policymaker perspectives at micro- and macro-level:

Interpretive research sees education as a lived experience for those involved in educational processes and institutions. Its form of reasoning is practical; it aims to transform the consciousness of practitioners and, by so doing, aims to give them grounds upon which to decide how to change themselves. Its interest is in transforming education by educating practitioners; it assumes a relationship between researchers and practitioners in which rational persuasion is the only active force and in which practitioners are free to make up their own minds about how to changes their practices in the light of their informed practical deliberation

(Carr and Kemmis 1986, p.219.

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Consequently, I have taken both an inductive and abductive approach during my research whereby observations, findings and previously related research generate theory (Bryman 2004). As part of the process of constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz 2000; 2006; 2009) abduction is positioned as secondary to induction in this study. As such, I adopt inductive logic when engaging in imaginative thinking about intriguing findings before returning to the field to check my conjectures. Consequently, my abductive iteration is integral to the grounded theory approach of moving back and forth between theory and data iteratively.

5.4 Methodological Considerations

Schwandt et al. (2007) describe methodology as a particular social scientific discourse that occupies a middle ground between issues in the philosophy of social science and deliberation of method. Research methodology is concerned with how the researcher deems the research question will best be answered in terms of methods to use and how to approach the study. There are two broad approaches to research methodology. Qualitative and quantitative approaches differ in terms of their epistemological assumptions, theoretical frameworks, methodological procedures and research methods (Yilmaz 2013) as elucidated below.

5.4.1 Quantitative Methodology

Quantitative research seeks to explain ‘phenomena according to numerical data which are analysed by means of mathematically based methods, especially statistics’ (Yilmaz 2013 p.311). To this end, it is informed by an objectivist epistemology which seeks to generalise and develop findings based on statistical measurements. A quantitative approach requires the researcher to use a pre-constructed standardised instrument and effective quantitative research usually requires a large sample size (Choy 2014). Quantitative methods and procedures require the extraction of data in a larger volume, using standardized methods that allow the researcher to obtain a broad and generalizable set of findings (McCusker & Gunaydin 2015). It tends to utilise questionnaires and surveys and is generally held to be an extremely efficient method of data gathering.

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Quantitative researchers subsequently show preference for mathematical models and statistics to analyse the data and report their findings in an impersonal, objective manner. The hallmarks of sound quantitative research are reliability, validity, replicability, and generalizability (Brown 2015). As this research is largely subjective in nature, pursuing the students’ lived experiences through their own perspective, a quantitative research (or mixed methods) approach was considered unlikely to derive the depth and breadth of data to optimise the pursuit and fulfilment of the research aim and objectives.

5.4.2 Qualitative Methodology

Qualitative research enables researchers to understand behaviours and the meanings individuals attribute to them, whilst educing a deeper appreciation of social interactions. Denzin and Lincoln (2008, p.4) propose that qualitative research ‘involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.’ As both an educator and researcher, this method affords me the opportunity to explore a social reality and context in a HE setting and college community in giving precedence to words and meaning, as well as data generation. Moreover, it emphasises constructionism (Bryman 2008), an ethos that is discussed next in relation to the current study.

5.5 Research Approach

Denzin and Lincoln (2003) describe a series of useful steps to follow as part of the qualitative approach. Qualitative researchers begin with self-assessment and reflections about themselves as situated in a socio-historical context. As such they consider the theoretical-philosophical paradigm in an interrogative open-ended way and consequently adopt an interpretive perspective. Subsequently, they design the study, collect data, analyse and interpret data, and inform others. However, one must bear in mind that ‘research is an interactive process in which steps blend into each other’ (Neuman 2006, p.15) and in which a later step may prompt or necessitate

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reconsideration of an earlier one. As such, the process is fluid and iterative, rather than definitive and linear.

‘Qualitative researchers are intrigued with the complexity of social interactions as expressed in daily life and with the meanings the participants themselves attribute to these interactions…thus, qualitative research is pragmatic, interpretive and grounded in the lived experiences of people’ (Marshall & Rossman 1999, p.2). Creswell’s (2007, p.40) contention that ‘we conduct qualitative research when we want to empower individuals to share their stories, hear their voices, and minimise the power relationships that often exist between a researcher and the participants in the study’ is very much the core tenet of this research. This is an exploratory study of a concept where significant gaps in the understanding of students’ perceptions of success have been identified. In this instance, the application of a qualitative approach enabled me to begin inductively and continuously refining the research question, aims and objectives.

5.5.1 Research Design Considerations

In the earlier stages of my study, I considered using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) as opposed to constructivist grounded theory (CGT). Creswell (2013) purports that a phenomenological study describes individuals’ meanings of their lived experiences of a concept or phenomenon. A grounded theory study moves beyond description to generate or discover a theory and focuses on how individuals experience a process, sometimes using multiple sources to collect data. I maintain that IPA is more appropriate to a study that has a pronounced psychological underpinning, whereas my particular study has a psycho-social foundation. The psycho-social framework I have adopted comprises theory based on evolving self-identity and self-concept, student agency and personal development, along with theories relating to transition to HE, particularly relational theory in terms of social integration and academic integration. I opted for a constructivist grounded theory approach since it provided structure, yet flexibility, in terms of data collection and analysis, especially for this longitudinal study.

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5.6 Constructivist Grounded Theory

A social constructivist paradigm calls for the creation of meaning and understanding through examining the complexities of various voices and perspectives (Guba & Lincoln 2005). Goulding (1998, p.53) suggests that in keeping with the interpretivist philosophy, ‘it is important to recognise that enquiry is always context bound and facts should be viewed as both theory laden and value laden’. According to Charmaz (2006) constructivist grounded theory is ontologically relativist and epistemologically subjectivist. Charmaz’ (2006) version of grounded theory delves into the past, explores the present, and looks to the future. With constructivist grounded theory the researcher attempts to make both the participants views and their own explicit. Charmaz (2006, p.184) explains that to ‘pragmatist foundations encourage[s] us to construct an interpretive rendering of the world’s we study rather than an external reporting of events and statements’. She (2006, p.184) suggests that ‘several advantages of Chicago School traditions with their pragmatist underpinning stand out. These traditions foster openness to the world and curiosity about it; encourage an empathetic understanding of research participants’ meanings, actions, and worlds; take temporality into account; focus on meaning and process at the subjective and social levels’. Mattley (2002, p.375) suggests that ‘at the interactional, collective, and cultural levels it is clear that emotional pasts are important tools used to interpret and construct present emotions, to situate selves and others, and to construct the social order’.

Thornberg (2012, p.249) takes co-constructivism one step further in highlighting problems relating to pure induction in grounded theory and instead advocating informed grounded theory which refers to ‘a product of a research process as well as to the research process itself, in which both the process and the product have been thoroughly grounded in data by grounded theory methods while being informed by existing research literature and theoretical frameworks’. Dey (1999) recognises the value of social constructivism which incorporates both the researcher’s perspectives and prior knowledge. Therefore, informed grounded theory is not a new version of grounded theory but includes literature review strategies as part of the approach. Both an informed and constructivist grounded theory approach were used in conducting the present research. Charmaz (2000, p.521) suggests that by ‘adopting a constructivist grounded

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theory approach, the researcher can move grounded theory methods further into the realm of interpretive social science consistent with a Blumarian (1969) emphasis on meaning, without assuming the existence of a unidimensional external reality’.

Bruce (2007, p.65) lists seven optimal conditions under which a constructivist grounded theory study is possible and appropriate as illustrated in Figure 7:

1. The purpose of the study is to examine and explain an educational process qualitatively, usually where the research literature is limited; 2. The timelines of the study are organised to ensure that periods of data collection can be followed directly by analysis prior to the following data collection period; 3. Extensive pilot work can be extremely important to an effective study; 4. To increase credibility a portion of the data is reserved and used to confirm interpretations of detailed findings; 5. To increase dependability and transferability an audit trail of data collection and analysis methods is explicitly made available for reader inspection. Tables and figures with rich descriptions can support this process; 6. The researcher ensures that the study is thoroughly grounded in the data while being informed by existing theoretical frameworks and literature and therefore does not make claims of using an entirely inductive process (Charmaz 2003); 7. The researcher is prepared to engage in a predominately emergent process where the themes emerge from the data leading to a working model whilst undergoing extensive pre-planning required for successful data collection and analysis.

Figure 7: Appropriate Conditions for a CGT Study (Charmaz 2003)

All of the abovementioned conditions were evident throughout my study as I adopted Charmaz’ approach to the study as a whole. There was a paucity of research literature available on student perceptions of success and their experiences of HE, particularly in the case of second year students (Chapter 3). This was a longitudinal study wherein four timelines for data collections were adhered to over two years (Chapter 5). Pilot work for the study was comprehensive and involved detailed feedback from both my supervisor and students involved. This process was invaluable for me as it afforded me the opportunity to refine my interviewing skills and my interview guides. Inter-rater reliability was a useful way to enhance credibility of the data analysis process.

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Furthermore, dependability and transferability were enhanced though a detailed audit trail (Appendices A-R) and tables and figures with rich descriptions (Chapter 6). The findings from this study are thoroughly grounded in the data, and the participants’ voices honoured throughout. However, I adopted an abductive process to generate theory as opposed to inductive or deductive, whereby I engaged in the literature throughout the study. Finally, I acknowledge the emergent nature of the key themes and sub-themes and conceptual model from the data whilst contemplating the extensive planning and organisation that was required for collecting, storing, managing and analysing the data throughout all phases of data collection and data analysis.

5.7 Data Collection

This study involved the recruitment of student volunteers to participate in a series of in- depth interviews over their first four semesters in HE. The study comprised a single site case study accessing these first year students in the Bachelor of Business Studies degree at Waterford Institute of Technology. According to Marshall and Rossman (1999, p.69) a realistic site is where: ‘(a) entry is possible; (b) there is a high probability that a rich mix of the processes, people, programs, interactions, and structures of interest are present; (c) the researcher is likely to be able to build trusting relations with the participants of the study; and (d) data quality and credibility of the study are reasonably assured’. A site may be perfect for its representativeness, interest and the range of examples of the phenomena under study. Furthermore Stake (1995) has noted that in education and in social service contexts the ‘cases’ of interest are people and programmes. Stake (1995) and Yin (2009) base their approach to case study on a constructivist paradigm (Baxter & Jack 2008). The overriding reasons a case study approach and a particular programme and its participants are chosen, lies in their uniqueness and yet similarities to other programmes. Flyvbjerg (2006, p.6) suggests that ‘the closeness of the case study to real-life situations and its multiple wealth of details are important….. Concrete experiences can be achieved via continued proximity to the studied reality and via feedback from those under study’.

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The Bachelor of Business Studies (Level 8) programme is of interest to me because the first two years of the programme comprise a generic business studies programme and in year three the students choose a stream or major such as accountancy, economic and finance, marketing and human resources management to specialise in. The programme also has a very successful flexible semester in Semester 6 wherein the students can participate in college and community, study abroad, or undertake a work placement. Stake (1995) posits that a constructivist approach may result in numerous narrative descriptions in the findings from a case study approach.

5.7.1 Selection of Research Participants

The population of interest was driven by the research objectives of the study and as discussed previously (Section 5.7) the Bachelor of Business Studies programme (Level 8) and incoming students in this programme were accessible to me. However for ethical reasons and ease of access, I decided to focus on students that were 18 years of age and over to qualify as participants for this study. Ethical approval was obtained from both Waterford Institute of Technology and University of Limerick (Appendix C) and permission to access the students on this programme was sought from the Heads of Faculty/School and Department respectively and the programme tutor. As agreed with the programme tutor, I did not seek to meet the (first year) students until week four of their first semester in order to give them time to settle in. It was deemed important to allow the students space and time to absorb their new surroundings and become familiar with their new environment before meeting with them.

I met with the students in their two groups respectively during week four with their programme tutor, Dermot, in attendance. Dermot introduced me to each group and graciously allowed me the opportunity and the time to make a short presentation outlining the purpose of the study and their potential involvement in it in terms of activity and time commitment. Subsequently, I gave the students information sheets and consent forms (after explaining their purposes) and asked them to consider being involved and to submit the consent forms to Dermot by the end of the week if they were interested in taking part. I briefly explained that the study was designed to provide them

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with a voice in terms of their perceptions of their experiences in HE in their earlier years that would inform our practice and policy going forward. I also mentioned there were small incentives available (as part of a draw) as a result of being involved in the study and to acknowledge their time and input.

5.7.2 Overview of Research Participants

Seventeen students of Bachelor of Business Studies Year One (Level 8) (Tables 1 and 2) initially volunteered to participate in the main part of the study which comprised a series of in-depth interviews (one per semester, over four semesters)7. Data collection intially comprised undertaking a series of personal interviews with sixteen participants in Semester 1, fourteen participants in Semester 2 and twelve participants in Semester 3 and 4 respectively. At the end of Semester 1, one student withdrew from both the (BBS) programme and the study and one other student withdrew from the study. At the end of Semester 2, another student withdrew from the programme and the sudy and one student withdrew from the study. At the end of Semester 2, another student who continued to participate in the sudy transferred back to year one of a new programme of study, yet remined commited to the study (Tables 1 & 2). A more detailed description of the students is provided in Table 2 overleaf. Two of the sixteen students are over 23 years of age and are therefore classified as mature students. Eleven students were traditional school leavers (TLCSs), one student was an international student (IntS), one student progressed from a further education Level Five programme (FES) and three students were second-chance HE students (SCS). In an entirely accidental fortuitous way, the profile of the participants could not have comprised a better cross-section for the study. Students were also strongly encouraged (but not required) to maintain a mini journal via Moodle on an on-going and frequent (weekly) basis throughout the four Semesters.

7 One volunteer withdrew from the programme of study after one month, therefore is not documented as a participant. 114

Research Participants Students who deferred/transferred/withdrew Semester 1 17 3 Semester 2 14 2 Semester 3 12 - Semester 4 12 - Table 1: Overview of Research Participants

Each participant was interviewed once per semester over four semesters, between weeks 8 to 12. In summary, four interviews were carried out with each participant in order to capture their early experiences in HE, their perceptions of their progress, and to evaluate what constituted success from their personal and respective perspectives. Each of the particpants were given labels such as P1, P2, and so on, in order to protect their anonymity and respect their privacy.

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Name Age Background Participation in Study Academic (beginning of study) Progress P1 32 Parent and previous business operator Throughout four Semesters After year 2, repeat attending (MS) 3 modules from year 1 & 3 modules from year 2 P2 18 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3 P3 18 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3 P4 19 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3 P5 18 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Semester 1 only Do not know Withdrew from study P6 19 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Semester 1 and two Withdrew from programme Intended to reapply to CAO P7 25 Return to HE Participant (MS) and (SCS) Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3 P8 18 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3 P9 18 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Throughout four Semesters Withdrew after year 1 and re- applied to CAO for new programme in WIT P10 18 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3 P11 20 International Participant (IntS) Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3 P12 20 Return to HE Participant within WIT Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3 (SCS) P13 19 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Semester 1 and two Do not know Withdrew from study P14 21 Return to HE Participant within WIT Throughout four Semesters Repeat attending 3 modules (SCS) Year 2 P15 18 Post LC Participant (TLCS) Semester 1 and two Withdrew from programme after year one P16 21 Level 5 participant (FES) Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3 P17 18 Post LC Participant (TLCS) One month (Withdrew before Deferred study commenced proper) programme/withdrew; intended to reapply to CAO last yr. but did not reapply Table 2: Overview of Participants

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5.7.3 Overview of the Research Process

The research process was designed and undertaken with an interpretive perspective held by the researcher at all times. An overview of the research process as a whole is summarised and captured in Figure 8. Ethical consent was applied for from both the University of Limerick and Waterford Institute of Technology (the site of the study) and was granted in 2013 (Appendix C). The data collection phase of the study commenced in October 2014 and in-depth face-to-face interviews were conducted with each of the participants once per semester over each of their respective first four semesters. Throughout this period participants were also encouraged to write up a very informal weekly journal and upload it to a specific space in Moodle or by email to encapsulate their reflections on their week. The brief to the participants regarding their weekly journals was deliberately non-specific as they were encouraged to consider the ‘highs and lows’ of their week and their general observations and feelings. A characteristic of case study research is the use of multiple data sources, an approach which also enhances data credibility (Baxter & Jack 2008).

Furthermore, it was incumbent on me (as researcher/practitioner) to document the research process as it progressed as it required thoughtful consideration in terms of design and ethical adherence, planning (scheduling the interviews), process (holding the interviews, recording a researcher journal post-interviews, and down-loading the participants journals and storing them in word files and the NVivo file as well), data analysis (initial coding post each phase of data collection, holistic coding of the four phases, focused and theoretical coding) and theoretical development. All phases of the research process illustrated in Figure 8 will be described and discussed in the forthcoming sections of this chapter.

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Research Aim

To understand the dynamics of student success in higher education from the students’ perspectives.

Research objectives

student both academically and personally iii. To evaluate how personal experiences in higher education evolve and impact on the student over time.

Ethical Considerations and Access to Participants

In-depth Interviews Researcher Reflectivity Student Journals & Reflexivity Once per Semester Weekly All Phases Phase 1 Phase 2 Post-interview Journals Phase 2 Phase 3 Research journals Phase 3 (reflections) Phase 4

Phase 4 Annotations & Memos

Data Analysis & Emerging Themes

Phase 1 (open coding)

Phase 2 open coding)

Phase 3 (open coding)

Phase 4 (open coding) Post Phase 4

Open Coding (Holistic of all 4 phases)

Focused Coding & Theoretical Coding

Conceptual Framework of Student Success in Higher Education.

Figure 8: Phases of the Research Process

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5.7.4 In-Depth Interviews

The interviews focused on student experiences and their perceptions of success at different stages of their student journey from Semester 1 to 4, and involved ‘listening to their stories with openness to feeling and experience’. This allowed me to gain insight into their experiences and elicit perceptions of their progress and their views (Charmaz 2000, p.525). Kahn and Cannell (1957, p.149) describe interviewing as ‘a conversation with a purpose’. There are many different types of interviews, from structured to semi- structured and unstructured (in-depth interviews). Patton (1990, pp.280-290) categorises interviews into three general types: the informal conversational interview; the general interview guide approach; and the standardized open-ended interview. Holstein and Gubrium (1995, cited in Silverman 1997, p.120) describe the interview as an ‘interpersonal drama with a developing plot’ and as a form of interpretive practice.

5.7.5 Pilot Interviews

Preparation of an interview schedule and piloting an interview schedule is essential in ensuring an interview goes well (Opie 2004; Bryman 2008), since instrumentation rigour and bias management are major issues for qualitative researchers, especially if the researcher has a strong affinity for the participants being studied (Chenail 2011). The established procedure for testing the quality of an interview protocol is the use of a pilot study to pinpoint any issues around where the study might fail, research protocols which might not be followed, or whether the proposed methods or instruments are too complicated (Van Teijilingen & Hundley 2001). To this end, prior to commencing the data collection phase, I conducted two pilot interviews, one with my supervisor present and one with a student at the end of his first academic year. I received invaluable feedback from both participants and my supervisor which greatly influenced my interviewing style and subsequent development and refining of interview guides. The pilot phase helped improve my data collection method in terms of understanding the procedure for in-depth interviewing and also engendered a greater appreciation for the participants in sharing their experiences with me and assisting me in honing both my listening skills and interpretive approach.

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The pilot interviews and feedback from my supervisor and the two participants afforded me the opportunity to recalibrate my style of interviewing as it was felt it needed to be more fluid and my line of questioning more open. The main focus of the pilot study was to give the researcher the opportunity to reflect on the key questions that might be included in the interviews, especially the first phase of interviews, as subsequent interviews and questions therein were iterative and largely depended on emerging themes and data from each of the participants. This concurs with Seidman’s (2013, p.23) approach whereby ‘each interview provides a foundation of detail that helps illuminate the next’.

5.7.6 Unstructured Interviews

Qualitative interviews are largely categorised as unstructured, semi-structured and structured (Bryman 2006; DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree 2006). However, it could be legitimately argued that no interview can ever be truly considered to be unstructured and are ‘more or less equivalent to guided conversations’ (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree 2006, p.315). Consequently unstructured, individual face-to-face in-depth interviews were deemed to be the most suitable data collection approach in order to elicit the students’ perceptions of success in their first four semesters and how this evolved during that period. Interview guides coupled with a small number of key questions (usually two in bold) (Appendix F) were used throughout the various phases of the in- depth interview process.

Seidman (2013, p.9) suggests that ‘at the root of in-depth interviewing is an interest in understanding the lived experience of other people and the meaning they make of that experience’. He identified four phenomenological themes that provide a rationale for the structure adopted and interviewing techniques used as illustrated in Table 3. The phenomenological theme is the most applicable to the phenomena that I am seeking to explore and understand. One of the most distinguishing features of this study is that it involved a series of in-depth four interviews with each of the participants that very much contextualised their experiences and perceptions, reflections and plans, as they evolved over time.

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Phenomenological Themes Phenomene Phenomenological theme One The temporal and transitory nature of the human experience. Phenomenological theme Two Whose understanding is it? Subjective understanding. Phenomenological theme Three Lived experience as the foundation of “phenomena”. Phenomenological theme Four The emphasis on meaning and meaning in context. Table 3: Phenomenological Themes & Consideration of Research Approach (Seidman, 2013)

5.7.7 The Data Collection Process

The data collection process shown in Figure 9 commenced at the beginning of November 2014 which enabled the students to settle in and become familiar with their new environment, their classmates, their lecturers, their timetables, and the programme and modules therein.

Figure 9: The Data Collection Process

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The first phase of interviews took place over a period of two and a half weeks at a time that suited each respective participant. A small meeting room with a round table was selected and this room was used for subsequent interviews. The interviews were recorded on a digital recording device and were subsequently uploaded onto a password protected laptop, transcribed, with each audio recording deleted thereafter. Each interview took approximately 60 minutes, with one interview lasting 110 minutes. This overlong session was due to the fact that the process was not well managed by me and the participant tended to digress and speak about many other issues in her personal life. However, I learnt from this experience and across all subsequent interviews phases the average length of time for an interview was 50 minutes. Contact details were also provided to participants on an information sheet at the end of each interview (Appendix E). The total length of recorded interview time was 2,582 minutes (43 hours) (Table 4). Participants were incentivised to participate in one interview over four semesters by the opportunity to enter into a draw (at the end of each Semester) for a €50 voucher to spend in a local electronics/IT store.

Phases of In-depth Date Number of minutes Interviews Phase 1 09/11/2014 16 interviews = 749 minutes Phase 2 18/05/2015 14 interviews =753 minutes Phase 3 12/10/2015 12 interviews = 540 minutes Phase 4 21/04/2016 12 interviews = 540 minutes Total number of 2,582 minutes = 43 hours minutes Table 4: Phases of Research & Time Dedicated to In-depth Interviews

5.7.7.1 The In-depth Interview Process

I iteratively developed a series of interview guides (Appendix F) for my interviews. These comprised a series of general questions, including an introduction with some background information, opening questions, and key questions specific to each phase. Going into more detail, I included specific follow-up questions which pertained to each participant on the basis of comments made in their earlier interviews or journal entries,

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and some closing questions. These questions were over-arching, open-ended questions which encouraged the participants’ voice to be heard more strongly than merely submitting to my research agenda or pre-conceived ideas. However, the life story of the researcher and his/her own experiences form an essential part of a co-constructivist study and it is important to acknowledge that. Consequently, it is important to be aware of the fact that ‘the interviewer researcher is his or her own research tool’ (Kvale 2007, p.60).

Kvale (2007) outlines the importance of setting the ‘interview stage’, in order that interviewees are encouraged to describe their experiences. He also emphasises the art of active listening. For novice interviewers, it is important to ask interviewees whether they have anything more to add and about the experience of the interview itself. An in- depth interview is a one-to-one method of data collection that involves an interviewer and interviewee discussing specific topics in depth (Hennick et al. 2011, p. 109). Interviews are often described as a conversation with a purpose and in-depth interviewing is described as ‘a meaning-making partnership between interviewers and their respondents’ and highlights the fact that they are ‘a special kind of knowledge- producing conversation’ (Hesse-Biber & Leavy 2006, p.128). The interviewer and interviewee co-create knowledge and meaning in the interview setting and thereby co- construct reality’ (Hennick et al. 2011, p.109). Qualitative interviews entail the interviewer gaining an understanding of the interviewee’s lives, and endeavouring to elicit meaning from statements made by the interviewees in a sensitive manner.

With in-depth interviewing it is important to acknowledge the role of the instrument; namely, the human interviewer (Seidman 2013). Rather than underrating this process, it is very important to highlight that the interviewer is a flexible, adaptive instrument who can respond to participants and situations with skills, tact and empathy (Lincoln & Guba 1985). Furthermore, much of the meaning being made in the interview is a function of the interaction of the participants with the interviewer. Rogers’ (1983) concept of the interpersonal and relational practice [in teaching] focuses on awareness of how we interact and includes the consideration of the impact others have on us and vice-versa.

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The series of in-depth interviews gave me the opportunity to develop a relationship and rapport with each of the participants, and consequently, a closer understanding of the students’ experiences in their transition and earlier journeys in HE. The inductive nature of the interviews, the passage of time over which each interview took place, adhering to best practice in terms of face-to-face in-depth interviewing, assiduous data transcription and initial line by line coding, provides ample assurance of the authenticity of the data and overall validity of the process.

Participants were provided with an information sheet (Appendix D) detailing the nature of the study prior to attending the interviews as well as consent forms which were signed and returned by their programme tutor to me, prior to participating in the study. These consent forms are held in my office in a locked set of drawers with their interview transcripts. In-depth interviewing involved using an interview guide (specifically developed for each phase of interviews), establishing a rapport and building trust by asking questions in an open empathetic way, and motivating the interviewee to tell his/her story by probing. In-depth interviews are used when seeking information on individual, personal experiences from people on a particular issue or topic. ‘The qualitative interview is a key venue for the ways in which subjects experience and understand their world. It provides a unique access to the lived world of the subjects, who in their own words describe their activities, experiences and opinions’ (Kvale 2007, p.9). Kvale (2007) identifies seven stages of an interview inquiry: thematising: designing; interviewing; transcribing; analysing; verifying; and reporting. Kvale (2007) further asserts that a well conducted interview should be a positive experience for the interviewee. Moreover, Marshall and Rossman (1999, p.108) observe ‘the participant’s perspective on the phenomenon of interest should unfold as the participant views it, not as the researcher views it’.

The main objective of in-depth interviews is to elicit individual perceptions, beliefs, feelings and experiences. The research instrument is an interview guide, which is refined after each phase with a series of general questions that apply to all of the participants at the end of each semester, and a more specific set of personalized

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questions that are developed as a result of the previous interview as well as a result of comments made in their respective journals. The main advantage of in-depth interviewing is that researchers obtain in-depth information and have the opportunity to explore participants’ personal experiences. As Stake (1995, p.135) suggests a qualitative case study is ‘highly personal research…where each researcher’s style is unique’. He explains (p.136) that ‘the study is an opportunity to see what others have not yet seen, to reflect the uniqueness of our own lives, to engage the best of our interpretive powers, and to make, even by its integrity alone, an advocacy for those things we cherish’.

Inductive reasoning begins at the data collection stage. When conducting in-depth interviews, one begins to learn more about the key issues of the study after the initial interview and use this knowledge to make inductive inferences which lead one to go deeper into those issues in the proceeding interview. Following each interview, one explores and exploits the data until one reaches what is known as ‘saturation’, the point at which no further useful information can be extracted. This phase is called the inductive conceptual cycle (Hennick et al. 2011). Phase two and three of data coding enabled thematic analysis to be developed and refined, while phase four comprised the development of more analytical and conceptual themes and coding.

As part of the considerations around insider research and with regard to professional and ethical concerns, boundaries and interpersonal interactions were continuously reflected upon and respected. Reciprocity should fit within the constraints and boundaries of the research and the constraints of maintaining one’s role as a researcher, lecturer and colleague (Marshall & Rossman 1999). Reflecting on one’s role in the setting and consideration of how this may affect a participant’s willingness to engage in thoughtful reflection is essential and resonated with the ‘Hawthorne Effect’ which considered the effect of participant involvement in the study and whether that had an impact on them personally or academically. Lincoln and Guba (1985) argue that engaging in member checks is integral for assessing trustworthiness. Member-checking has also been employed whereby the participants of the study were invited to examine their interview transcripts and review the material for accuracy and palatability. The

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participant was invited to provide alternative language or interpretation and some of the feedback was regularly used to amend the participants’ transcripts (Stake 1985).

This longitudinal study sought to explore the contested concept of student success in HE with a particular emphasis on the early student transition to HE, student experiences and perceptions of their progress in their first two years of HE. Wilcoxson et al. (2011) noted that one of the limitations of their study was that longitudinal qualitative tracking of cohorts would be required to build a better picture of progressive change in students’ experience of university and the factors underpinning attrition. They also suggested that the depth in understanding the first year experience in later years was also critical. In my study, I likewise sought to explore what constitutes success in broad terms, not just academically, but also from a more holistic perspective. The overriding question of ‘what constitutes student success?’ explored the notion that some students who voluntarily exit a programme of study prematurely may be as successful and true to themselves as students who, though unhappy, persist. The study comprised two synchronous components: in-depth interviews once a semester and weekly participant journaling.

In summary, in-depth face-to-face interviews were conducted in the same meeting room from weeks’ nine through to week twelve during each semester at a time which was convenient to the participants. Therefore, interviews of the sixteen participants took place between November 2014 (in Semester 1), fourteen volunteers in April 2015 (Semester 2) and then between November 2015 (Semester 3) and April 2016 (Semester 4) there were twelve volunteers. All interviews were subsequently transcribed and all participants anonymised and assigned labels such as P1, P2 and so on, to ensure confidentiality. Transcripts were also labelled and dated as files in Microsoft Word and saved to a password protected source. Participant validation was also sought and each of the participants was provided with the opportunity to review (member check) their transcripts at the end of each academic year. In this way that they were afforded the opportunity to verify that the data recorded was accurate. None of the participants expressed any wish to change their transcripts.

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5.7.7.2 The Student Journals

Qualitative data in an oral form are a product of the interaction between participant and researcher, and qualitative researchers such as Van Manen, (1990) and McLeod (2001) have suggested the use of alternative or additional sources such as accounts or journals so that participants can personally record and reflect on their experiences. Journals were deemed to be a useful source of data as they can provide substantial contributions to ‘filling out the structure and character of the experience under investigation’ (Polkinghorne 2005, p.139). Narrative research may be biographical, following the life of individuals, and is thus focused on the detailed stories or life experiences of a single event or a series of events for a small number of individuals (Creswell 2007) which help to provide a detailed contextualized story (Petty et al. 2012).

Participants were encouraged to partake in this exercise on a weekly basis and it was stressed that it was only to record ‘highs and lows’ and/or key experiences during a given week. I emailed the participants directly every Thursday to remind and encourage them to journal. Furthermore, I offered the participants in the journals small incentives to journal weekly with opportunities such as being entered into a draw to win a driving lesson, a modest voucher for a supermarket, a small gift set from a makeup/personal care provider, or a session in a gym. One inherent limitation of these ‘self-reports’ observed by Polkinghorne (2005, p.138) is arguably lack of evidence since ‘experience is not directly observable, data about it depend on the participants' ability to reflectively discern aspects of their own experience and to effectively communicate what they discern’. Determining the quality of the research in these cases may be problematic (Petty et al. 2012) as in some cases some participants not be authentic at all times and may use the journal as a means to make a positive or noticeable impression on the researcher.

However, the advantages of the end of week(ly) journaling included the immediacy it held, in that participants could document their thoughts, experiences and feelings whenever they wished and it offered rich data and has been used to capture the experiences of the participants in their lived experiences, their reflections and critical

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incidents that may have occurred for them as the journal served as a means of recording and processing what had occurred or what might occur in terms of worries/anxieties.

5.8 Data Management: Analysis & Synthesis

The NVivo QSR software package was used to store, code, retrieve all codes and allowed for conceptual mapping. The data were organised into four distinct folders initially according to the distinct four phases of data collection. In this study, interpretive research takes an inductive approach to developing theory from interviews that are transcribed verbatim and coded to see relevant trends and explore unanticipated themes. Therefore each interview was systematically coded using NVivo QSR whereby initial codes, focused codes, theoretical codes and subsequent themes were established and refined, becoming more analytical as coding and analyses progressed. Moreover, journalling and memoing throughout the data collection and data analysis phases proved to be most useful in subsequent stages of the research process and in the writing-up phase.

Constructivist grounded theory takes an interpretive approach to qualitative research which is both flexible and reflexive, and in which the theory developed depends on the researcher’s view and the depth of learning about situations and relationships (Charmaz 2014). Constructivist grounded theory places more emphasis on views, values and beliefs of individuals rather than on the methods of research, although practices of gathering rich data, coding data, memoing still remain an important part of the process (Creswell 2007). The analysis of qualitative data included coding and conception formation. Analytical procedures and phases included: (a) organizing the data; (b) generating categories; (c) coding the data; (d) testing the emergent understandings; (e) searching for alternative explanations; (f) and writing the report (Marshall & Rossman 1999, p.152).

Qualitative data analysis is sometimes described as ‘a science and an art’ (Patton 1990; Corbin & Strauss 2008), and ‘structured but flexible’ (Charmaz 2006). The beginning of

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the analytical cycle includes data preparation and developing codes. Initially, descriptive codes (deductive codes generated by researcher and inductive coded from participants) are identified and analytic reading is necessary to uncover the underlying context of what is being said. Strategies adopted for developing conceptual codes therefore included the identification of a theme from a number of connected codes or where one might find a concept from the literature and identify whether the data locates any phrases around a particular concept. Strauss (1987, p.27) observes that ‘the excellence of the research rests in a large part on the excellence of the coding’.

5.8.1 Constructivist Grounded Theory Analyses

All of the data was extensively read and re-read in hard and soft copy format when developing and refining codes. Codes (emergent themes) were developed from topics of interview guides, from connected concepts which emanated from research literature, and most significantly, from the interview transcripts. The cyclical process of data analysis includes description, comparison, categorisation, conceptualisation, and theory development. Thick description involved examining phenomena such as time, thriving, success, and examining codes and categories related to each respective category. Code development usually ceases at the point of saturation (Glaser & Strauss 1967). Deductive codes originate from the researcher and interview guide or theory in the research literature. Ideally a study will generate a mix of inductive and deductive codes. Inductive codes come directly from the data and are developed from reading the data and noting the issues raised by the participants themselves, especially those not previously considered by the researcher. Searching for inductive codes permits the data to ‘speak for itself’.

Charmaz (1995b; 2000) identifies a number of features common to all grounded theory studies including: simultaneous data collection and analysis; the creation of analytic codes and categories developed from data and from any pre-existing conceptualisations (theoretical sensitivity); discovery of basic social process in the data; using inductive methods to conduct abstract categories; theoretical sampling; writing analytical memos (Appendix P) as a stage between coding and writing; and integration of categories into a

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theoretical framework. The construction of a core category evolves as part of the process. The end of the research process is called theoretical saturation.

As illustrated in Table 5 the interviews in the present study were all systematically coded using NVivo QSR whereby initial codes, focused codes, theoretical codes and subsequent themes were established and refined, becoming more analytical as coding and analyses progressed

Key Themes Interviews Student Reflections

1: T 1 The Contested Concept of Student 1490 138 Success Over Time

2: T 1.1 Direction 104 12

3: T 1.2 Surviving 59 11

4: T 1.3 Striving 305 67

5: T 1.4 Thriving & Flourishing 87 11

6: T 1.5 Realising Potential 472 31

7: T 2 Transitional Experiences 2078 311

8: T 2.1 Transitions & Early Experiences 852 147

9: T 2.2 Pragmatics of Time 814 160

(Managing Time)

10: T3 Personal Experiences 416 22

11: T 3.1 The Emerging and Evolving Self 1656 98

12: T 3.2 Well-being & Resilience 606 59

Table 5: Key Themes & Sources of Data

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5.8.2 Initial Coding

Initial coding affords the researcher the opportunity to become familiar with both the participants and with the data and challenges the researcher to be simulateneously pragmatic, creative, and open-minded. In my case, it reinforced my personality in terms of interrogating and micro-coding the data and being analytical (reflective and reflexive) as a researcher and with the data. NVivo is useful in being able to create nodes or initial codes and to summarise your interpretation of those nodes. Coding for gerunds as well as topics and themes was a useful strategy to stay true to the voices of the participants (Charmaz 2014). I also used the embedded annotations function in NVivo (Appendix K) to note observations and field-notes about emerging themes and connections of data generated fom the interviews as well as connections to the literature (Appendix L). I engaged in line-by-line coding and it was most effective in remaining faithful to the data and provided me with leads to pursue with particiants in subsequent interviews and in literature and policy. Also during this initial coding process a constant comparitive method was being employed within and throughout each interview and all subsequent interviews. In total 73 initial codes were developed from data collected from just the first set of interviews (Appendix M/ Semester 1).

5.8.3 Focused Coding

Engaging in focused coding is the second major phase in coding and involves using the most frequent and/or significant initial codes to re-sort and analyse the data. It involves synthesising, analysing and conceptualising larger segments of the data (Charmaz 2014). Focused coding allows the researcher to identify patterns and key themes in the data and provide a framework for subsequent analysis. This process is inductive, deeply analytical, and yet creative. Reflexivity was an essential part during the focused coding process, based on decisions I was making around nodes (codes) and early themes. At this stage, one may also engage in axial coding whereby categories are related to sub- categories and links between them highlighted. However, I engaged in a constructivist process, adhering to Charmaz’ approach, which is less concerned with procedure and more focused on reflections on links between emergent themes. Appendix N exemplifies how I generated focused codes (from data collected in Semester 2) wherein 226 nodes were generated, reviewed and collapsed into nine categories of codes.

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5.8.4 Theoretical Coding

I subsequently engaged in theoretical coding which entails the conceptualisation of focused coding and moving the data towards theoretical generation. Memo-writing was an integral part of the CGT process as such memos (Appendix P) serve as a methodological journal, help to compare codes and categories, record the analytical phase of the process, and prompt writing from an early stage. Theoretical sampling as based on refining theoretical categories entails abductive reasoning. Theoretical sorting and diagramming was facilitated by using NVivo which in turn led to the development of key themes and sub-themes of the findings of my study. Table 6 and Appendix O demonstrate the development of the theoretical codes which led to the development of the theoretical framework based on all three phases of the coding (Appendix R).

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Interviews & Phase 3 Data Collection Units of Meaning Reflections T 1 The Contested Concept of Student Success Over Time 58 1628 T 1.1 Direction 41 116 T 1.2 Surviving 29 70 T 1.3 Striving 54 372 T 1.3.1 Standing Out 19 36 T 1.4 Thriving & Flourishing 38 98 T 1.5 Realising Potential 57 503 T 1.5.1 Academic Success 34 74 T 1.5.2 Finding Your Passion & Aspirations 21 37 T 1.5.3 Contribution to Society 10 22 T 1.5.4.1 Holistic Higher Education 52 238 T 2 Transitional Experiences 59 2389 T 2.1 Transitions & Early Experiences 59 999 T 2.1.1.2 Community 47 174 T 2.1.2 Emotional Experiences Over Time 51 287 T 2.2 Pragmatics of Time (Managing Time) 58 974 T 2.2.1 Developing Routines 35 85 T 2.2.2.1 Maximising Opportunities & Immersion 56 285 T3 Personal Experiences 59 438 T 3.1 The Emerging and Evolving Self 59 1754 T 3.1.1 Independence 46 145 T 3.1.2.2 Reflections, Realisation & Aspirations 50 278 T 3.1.3 Self-Esteem 35 74 T 3.1.4 Self-Efficacy 23 49 T 3.1.6 Second Chance Students 15 120 T 3.1.7 Mature Students 12 160 T 3.2 Well-being & Resilience 53 665 T 3.2.1 Physical, Mental & Emotional Well-being 51 311 T 3.2.2 Resilience 28 65 Table 6: Thematic Framework

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The final part of the process involved re-visiting all phases and nodes gernerated and making decisions around emerging theoretical constructs by integrated all phases and nodes/codes into a holistic (final) phase of data analysis and interpretation. The manner in which the database was set up in NVivo enabled me to either view the data discretly each Semester (phase) or in a sequential, yet integrated manner exploring the overriding themes and subthemes as shown in Figure 10. Appendix Q provides a visual example of the most frequently cited words by students over the duration of the study derived in totality from their interviews and journals.

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Collapsed to Categories Collapsed to Categories Transcripts

CODING

The ContestedThe Concept of

Success Education in Higher

CODING

CODING Student

CODING

Figure 10: Data Analysis & Thematic Development (CGT) Process 135

5.9 Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

Challenges in conducting qualitative research include demonstrating sensitivity to context, commitment and rigour, transparency and coherence (Braun & Clarke 2014). Transparency can be demonstrated through a detailed account of how data were collected, analysed, and cogently presented as findings. The nature of the research question, the researcher’s ontological and epistemological stance, the researcher’s capabilities, knowledge, skills, training and the resources available for the research project are the criteria upon which adopting methodology and procedures depend (Khankeh et al. 2015).

Reliability and validity are terms associated with quantitative data collection and analysis, as opposed to qualitative research which uses terminology such as integrity and trustworthiness. Reliability pertains to ‘the consistency and trustworthiness of research findings; it is often treated in relation to the issue of whether a finding is reproducible at other times and by other researchers’ (Kvale 2007, p.122), implies that replication of the study will yield similar results, and assumes due diligence in the measurement and assessment process. The integrity of the research and researcher and trustworthiness therein, can be broken down into four key principles of qualitative research: namely, credibility; transferability; dependability; and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba 1985). According to Marshall (1990) value and trustworthiness of a study require that the design and methods are explicitly detailed, research questions and the data’s relevance made explicit and rigorously argued, and that the study is situated in a scholarly context.

Lincoln and Guba (1985, p.290) suggest that validity comprises internal validity and external validity and define internal validity as ‘the extent to which variations in an outcome (dependent) variable can be attributed to controlled variation in an independent variable’. On the other hand, external validity is concerned with how generalizable the findings are across different types of persons, settings and times. Verification may be built into the entire research process with continual checks on credibility and trustworthiness of findings. Miles and Huberman (1994) approach validity by checking

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for potential biases such as ensuring representativeness and examining researcher effects, the outcome of triangulating methods and data analysis. The technique of triangulation improved the probability that findings and interpretations are also credible. Kvale (2007) recommends that novice researchers enhance their interviewing skills by listening to recordings, transcribing interviews, by practice in acquiring self-confidence, formulating content and sequencing. I followed this advice and found it was essential to allocate time and space to include personal reflections after conducting each of the interviews. Lincoln and Guba (1985) argue for the following criteria (Table 7) to be adopted by researchers in the qualitative research field:

Traditional Criteria New Criteria Anomalies Objectivity Confirmability Audit trail/rigorous methodological approach/ utilisation of software. Internal validity Credibility Member-checking and participant feedback. External validity Transferability Emphasis from statistical significance to theoretical generalisation and importance of ‘rich thick description’ and authenticity. Reliability Dependability From statistical methods to audit trail and dependable quality from researcher. Table 7: Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research (Lincoln & Guba 1985)

5.9.1 Confirmability

Confirmability is the degree to which findings of the study are consistent and the study itself could be easily replicated (Lincoln & Guba 1985). The consistency of the data and whether the findings would be consistent if the study were replicated with the same subjects or in a similar context is an effective way of demonstrating rigour in terms of honouring the research question with appropriate philosophical and methodological

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approaches. In quantitative research, reliability is the criterion concerned with stability and consistency in terms of the research design and approach. I believe I have demonstrated consistency in my approach throughout the study.

5.9.2 Credibility

Through prolonged engagement in the field, persistent observation and reflexivity and rigour, credibility is built up. The credibility or trustworthiness of a study is also maintained through peer review. In turn, validity relates to the credibility of our interpretations (Silverman 2017). Member validation techniques were also used. Encoding a text’s meaning into categories makes it possible to quantify how many times specific themes were addressed in the text (Kvale 2007, p.105) and the frequency of themes can then be compared and correlated with other measures. Coding is an integral process of the grounded theory approach and in contrast to content analysis the codes in the grounded theory approach do not need to be quantified. Asking a professional colleague to code one or two interview transcripts is also worthwhile for the purpose of assessing the coding between researchers and contributes to reliability of the study. Independent coding and consistency checks otherwise referred to as inter-rater reliability is a useful verification tool and vital to the credibility of a study as the researcher is perceived as the main research instrument and therefore bias may be evident (Thomas 2003). The extent of agreement amongst coders is referred to as inter- rater reliability. In my first set of coding, there was inter-rater reliability of 72%. This was deemed to be optimal and boosted my confidence in how I was interpreting the data (Appendix I).

5.9.3 Transferability

Transferability or applicability is the extent to which findings from the study are applicable to contexts or other settings and parallels external validity. Qualitative findings tend to be orientated to the contextual uniqueness of the social world being studied (Bryman & Bell 2015). Researchers support the study’s transferability with a rich, detailed description of the context, location, and people studied, and by being

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transparent about analysis and trustworthiness (Connelly 2016, p.436). Maintaining journals (reflections), journals and memoing as well as adhering to Charmaz’ approach and NVivo software as an appropriate tool has assisted in documenting and demonstrating the transferability of the study.

5.9.4 Dependability

Dependability is similar to reliability in a quantitative research study. The integrity of the data refers to the adequacy (Morrow 2005) or the dependability (Patton 2002) of the data. Patton (2002 p.546) referred to this necessary articulation of procedures as ‘a systematic process systematically followed’. Bryman and Bell (2015) suggest that researchers adopt an auditing approach utilising fieldwork notes, interview transcripts, and memoing data analysis decisions in a comprehensive manner. This aspect of trustworthiness is easily adhered to as I followed Charmaz’ (2014) constructivist grounded theory approach diligently.

5.9.5 Authenticity

Authenticity is the extent to which researchers portray a range of different realities and realistically convey participants’ lives (Polit & Beck 2014). Selection of appropriate participants for a qualitative study and rich, thick detailed description are the means by which the researchers address this criterion (Schou et al. 2011). There is no equivalence to the endeavour of ‘authenticity’ in quantitative research; ‘this characteristic represents the advantage of qualitative research to portray fully the meaning of a phenomenon’ (Connelly 2016, p.435). Lincoln and Guba (1986) identify the criteria of authenticity which have been adhered to in this process: fairness (does the research represent different viewpoints among members of the social setting?); educative authenticity (does the research help the members to appreciate better the perspectives of other members of their social setting?); and tactical authenticity (has the research empowered members to take the steps necessary for engaging in action?) The research process I engaged in prioritised authenticity as a fundamental and overriding ethos of the study at all times.

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5.10 Ethical Considerations

Ethics refers to a code of practice or a set of principles one should follow, professionally or personally. Ethics refers to ‘general principles of what one ought to do’ (Robson 2002, p.66). Bell (2014) emphasises the importance of integrity and careful consideration when undertaking a study and selecting participants. Many ethical issues involve finding the right balance over the pursuit of knowledge and the rights of the persons being studied (Neuman 2006; Bryman 2008). Cohen and Manion (1994) caution that ethical issues may arise due to the nature of the study, the context of the research, procedures to be adopted, methods of data collection, the nature of the data to be collected, the participants, and the outcome of the study. One must take into account the social actor’s reasons and the social context of the action and consider ethical issues, research design, access, procedures of data collection; as well as research relationships and balance of power, interpretation and analysis, writing up, data dissemination, reflections and conclusions. Specific ethical issues that I considered included informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, non-traceability, non-maleficence, the right to refuse/withdraw, respondent validation, rights and profile of research subjects, social responsibility, and honesty and deception.

Neuman (2006, p.129) states that ‘the researcher has a moral and professional obligation to be ethical, even where research subjects are unaware of, or unconcerned about ethics’. Hesse-Bieber and Leavy (2006) and Creswell (2009) concur that researchers need to pre-empt ethical issues which may arise during many stages of the research process. As Neuman (2006) indicates, this implies that researchers need to be prepared and explore ethical matters that may need to be considered and pre-empted as they design the study. Ethical considerations and decisions apply throughout the research process (Sikes 2004 cited in Opie 2004; Neuman 2006), and ethics, morals and professionalism are dependent on each individual (Neuman 2006).

Major ethical issues that may arise in the research process include: ethical issues in defining the research problem and subsequent research questions. Ethical issues in the design cycle comprise benefice: namely who will benefit from the research and what

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will it give back to the study community (Hennick et al. 2011). It is important to identify a problem that will benefit the individuals being studied and that participants understand the purpose of the study and that such a purpose is genuine (Creswell 2009). Tracy and Carmichael (2010, p.253) point out that ‘ethical issues need to remain open questions, revisited, as research practices, technologies and relationships develop, and thoughtfully reassessed in the light of new understandings’. Ethical issues in the ethnographic cycle consist of consideration of participation recruitment, minimisation of harm, absence of coercion, informed consent, and voluntary participation. In the data collection stage, the researcher must provide some background information about the study, assuring anonymity and confidentiality and minimisation of harm and benefice. In terms of the analytical cycle, the anonymity of participants must be maintained and confidentiality respected at all times (Hennick et al. 2011).

The vast majority of HEIs have research ethics committees (Bryman 2008) who assess the potential for risk including physical, psychological, social, economic or legal harm to participants in a study (Sieber 1998; Neuman 2006; Bryman 2008). Tracy and Carmichael (2010) point out that ethical reviews need to be viewed not just for gaining ‘approval’ as part of the process but also as influential, progressive and constructive best practice for the study itself and most importantly the participants involved and engaged in it. A key ethical question when planning a study is to consider the benefits of the consequences of the study, with respect to the participants involved and the potential benefits of the study (Kvale 2007). Permission to conduct this study was sought and granted from both the University of Limerick and Waterford Institute of Technology (Appendix C).

In additional to the research proposal it is best practice for researchers to set out an informed consent set of procedures for participants to sign before they engage in the research process (Cohen & Manion 1994). Tracy and Carmichael (2010) note that the use of technology that facilitates the large-scale collection and storage of data may hinder the opportunity to achieve ‘fully informed consent’. The issue of informed consent is a key ethical principle where potential research participants are given as

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much information so that they can make an informed decision as to whether they wish to be involved in the study or not (Bryman 2008). While signed informed consent statements are optional for most surveys, field and secondary data research, they are mandatory for experimental research (Neuman 2006).

Researcher integrity, in other words, honesty and fairness, is essential (Kvale 2007). Interviewers need to anticipate the elicitation of sensitive and potentially harmful information as part of the interviewing process and therefore plan for the impact of disclosure of this information during and after an interview (Creswell 2009). In data interpretation, strategies must be in place to check the accuracy of the data with participants (Creswell 2009). Acknowledging authorship of studies is imperative (Israel & Hay 2006) and it is important to not only publish findings from a study, but detail the design of the study so that the credibility of the study can be judged (Neuman 2006). Kvale (2007, p.8) points out that the knowledge produced as a result of interviews, depends on ‘the social relationship between the interviewer and interviewee, which again rests on the interviewers ability to create a stage where the subject is free and safe to talk of private events for later public use. This again requires a delicate balance between the interviewer’s concern of pursuing interesting knowledge and ethical respect for the integrity of the interview subject’. Furthermore, as part of my study, concerns about confidentiality were also considered (Creswell 2009). Privacy, anonymity of participants, data security (storage and duration) and how this can be assured was respected (Cohen & Manion 1994; Neuman, 2006; Bryman 2008). Data protection legislation was also fully adhered to, including Data Protection legislation (1988 & 2003; 2018).

One must take into account the social actor’s reasons and the social context of the action and consider ethical issues, research design, access, procedures of data collection, as well as research relationships and balance of power, interpretation and analysis, writing up, data dissemination, reflections and conclusions. Specific ethical issues noted by Cohen and Manion (1994), Kvale (2007) and Marshall and Rossman (2014) which I respected throughout the study include informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality,

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non-traceability, non-maleficence, the right to refuse/withdraw, respondent validation, rights and profile of research subjects, social responsibility, honesty and deception. The politics of the research was also considered and included the following elements: who is the researcher?; issues associated with researching students in one's own institution; power relations and interests; insider advantage and the challenges of insider research.

Participant recruitment entailed seeking permission to access the group of students I was interested in as participants in my study, providing information about the study to them and providing informed consent forms (Hennick et al. 2011). Prioritisation of the well-being of the participants, maintaining a duty of care that included minimisation of harm, such as mental harm (shame or embarrassment) or social harm (how an individual is treated by others in their community) and ensuring no coercion occurred were paramount considerations in my research planning and process. I continuously considered the ethics process and procedures in both HEIs and at times sought advice from ethics committees and gatekeepers who were kept informed on how the study was progressing and evolving. The recruitment of participants comprised two phases: firstly defining the appropriate study population; and secondly identifying strategies for recruiting participants from the study population. Qualitative researchers can use purposive recruitment that is deliberate and flexible in order to define the types of participants selected during data collection. The number of participants to recruit for a qualitative study is guided by a theoretical principle called data saturation (Glaser & Strauss 1967). This is simply the point at which the information one collects begins to repeat itself.

‘Relational ethics requires researchers to act from our hearts and minds, acknowledge our interpersonal bonds to others, and take responsibility for actions and their consequences’ (Ellis 2007, p.3). Thus they involve an ethical self-awareness in which researchers are mindful of their character, actions, and consequences on others. Relational ethics are related to an ethic of care that ‘recognizes and values mutual respect, dignity, and connectedness between researcher and researched, and between researchers and the communities in which they live and work’ (Ellis 2007, p.4) and

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relationally ethical investigators engage in a spirit of reciprocity with participants (Tracy 2010). Relational ethics requires researchers to acknowledge our interpersonal bonds with participants, and initiate and maintain conversations (Slattery & Rapp 2003; Bergum & Dossetor, 2005). As part of relational ethics, ‘we seek to deal with the reality and practice of changing relationships with our research participants over time’ (Ellis 2007, p.4) as is demonstrated in the data that the participants chose to share with me (Chapter 6). As researchers we strive to undertake ethical research that makes a difference, provides the participants with a voice, legitimises their experiences and concerns, and contributes to positive change. I believe I have demonstrated critical self- reflection and reflexivity as well as trustworthiness at all times during the study and have to the best of my ability portrayed the warm relationship and ethic of care I shared with the participants at all times.

5.10.1 Insider Research

In this section, I describe my role in Waterford Institute of Technology (WIT) and my motivation for conducting this study. The following commentary outlines my views on insider research and considers how it is an advantage and a constraint in educational research. I am a lecturer in the organisation where the participants are based and therefore issues of power, positionality, and ethics relating to insider research must be strongly respected. My chosen research question relies on students to participate in the study and I had to consider many issues around this in terms of power dynamics and ethical awareness. Insiders are members of specific groups, organisations or occupants of specific social groups (Mercer 2007). Insider research may be defined as ‘that which is conducted within a social group, organization or culture of which the researcher is also a member (Greene 2014, p.1). It may also be referred to as ‘practitioner enquiry’ in which insider researchers are native to the setting and so have insights from the lived experience (Brannick & Coghlan 2007). Role duality and organisational politics also had to be considered as part of insider research, in terms of the fact that I am a lecturer and colleague in the Faculty of Business at WIT and considered it equally important to afford my colleagues the same ethic of care as well as my participants (Coghlan 2007).

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Denzin and Lincoln (1994) posit that all research involves issues of power. Similarly, Marshall and Rossman (1999, p.5) argue that as researchers ‘we must be vigilant about the dynamics of ethics and politics in our work’. The politics of the research must also be considered and include the following elements: ‘who is the researcher?’; issues associated with researching students in one's own institution; power and interests; insider advantage and challenges of insider research (Cohen & Manion 1994). The issue of power relations was a dynamic that I candidly considered as Rossman (1984) has suggested that ‘all research may be coercive, especially when done ‘at home’ (p.225). In their discussion of insider-research Clegg and Stevenson (2013) underscored the importance of reflectivity and reflexivity in the research process, particularly when interviewing. Den Outer et al. (2013) strongly recommend a reflexive research approach by being self-critical of one’s research procedures, interpretations and the political- ideological character of the research. They stress the necessity of being self-critical of the rationale that shapes decisions that are made as part of the research process, suggesting that situational and social world mapping is an important tool in researcher reflexivity.

5.10.1.1 The advantages and benefits of insider research

Insider researchers do not have to spend time orientating themselves with the research environment, setting, participants or culture as they already have knowledge, are involved and experienced in the cultural setting they are researching. Furthermore, insiders are in a positon to ‘understand the cognitive, emotional, and/or psychological precepts of participants as well as possess a more profound knowledge of the historical and practical happenings of the field’ (Chavez 2008, p.481). The level of interaction and degree of rapport that needs to be established with participants may evolve more naturally and access to the participants may also be more convenient.

5.10.1.2 The disadvantages and challenges of insider research

Critics of insider research argue that it involves research activity that may be too subjective, whereby it may be difficult to shed any pre-conceptions one may have about

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the participants and their lives leading to researcher bias. This bias in turn, may affect the researcher’s objectivity and may affect their ability to critically engage with the data (Greene 2014). Furthermore gaining access to participants may also be a challenge due to the fact that they may be deemed to be ‘too close’ to the topic and that in some way may compromise their work.

In my case, I am usually assigned to deliver a marketing module in BBS year 2. However in order to respect and not risk compromising my unique relationship with the participants in any way, I did not present this module that academic year and I was allocated a different module on another programme. Disclosure by the participants about something potentially negative about a colleague is also an issue to be aware of, in terms of confidentiality and professionalism, as is the nature of managing the interview with the participant in a proactive way. Complications such as becoming over-familiar with the community under study are the result of a lack of reflection or monitoring of the effects of the subject-object positionality (Chavez 2008). The power dynamic needs careful consideration and insider researchers may choose to present themselves as or advocates in an attempt to minimise the power differential between themselves and the research participants (Breen 2007). Malone (2003, p.801) describes the ethical challenges involved in qualitative research in terms of not being able to anticipate possible dilemmas around emergent research, which are magnified when one is conducting research “at home”.

5.10.1.3 The ethics of insider research

The inherent trustworthiness of my research approach and actions has already been described and documented (Section 5.9). However, it is worthwhile addressing the ethical dilemmas that insider researchers face (Mercer 2007). First, there is the issue of what to report from the participants of their experiences of their first two years at WIT without compromising them, and also my colleagues. Confidentiality, researcher discretion, and an ethic of care, were extended to both parties at all times. A second ethical dilemma for the insider researcher concerns the use of 'incidental' data especially concerned with participants’ perceived difficulties with particular modules or lecturers

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or peers. Care was taken to continually balance what participants wanted to discuss and most importantly giving them a voice while managing the interview and journaling process without unduly constraining them. Conscious decisions were made around only using data that pertained to the research question.

The following list summarises ethical principles I respected relevant to all persons involved in insider research:

i. Ethic of care: extended to both the participants and colleagues at all times. Providing information sheets to participants for appropriate support services at the end of each interview ii. Responsibility: seeing research in the context of professional commitments to students, to faculty, to parents, to the wider academic community and society iii. Accountability: referring data and tentative interpretations back to the participants and including their perspectives in the report; iv. Reputational: portraying colleagues and students with respect (Zeni 2001).

5.10.1.4 Personal experiences as an insider researcher

My research is concerned with the early experiences and perceptions of success of under-graduate students in the HE domain, in an IoT in a Bachelor of Business studies programme. This research has been conducted at the HEI where I have been employed for the last 22 years. It was important to maintain a level of distance from the study participants by being ethically and professionally aware and not lecturing them. Insider researchers can be put in an awkward position with regards to the disclosure of information that may be damaging to individuals or the institution. Furthermore, the researcher’s position in relation to the participant will likely influence what is disclosed and how that information is divulged and framed.

Self-critique and reflexivity prompts the insider researcher to gain some distance from the familiar as I am studying a space that I inhabit not only as a place to work and

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continually be involved in life-long learning and self-development, but is a place of personal belonging. Johnson and Duberley (2000) suggest that epistemic and methodological reflexivity allow insider researchers to optimise adherence to research protocol and practice. Engaging continuously in reflectivity, reflexivity and evaluating the trustworthiness of methodological considerations and actions effectively guides the qualitative insider researcher through the research process and assist them in addressing any methodological or ethical challenges, or potential biases they may face.

5.11 Researcher Reflectivity and Reflexivity

Keeping and using reflective journals enabled me to make my experiences, opinions, thoughts, and feelings visible and an acknowledged part of the research design, data generation, analysis, and interpretation process. Methodologically, this is an accepted practice from a constructivist perspective (Denzin 1994; Ortlipp 2008). In the introductory chapter of this thesis I contextualised my experiences, values, and assumptions prior to beginning the research. I diligently maintained an online journal immediate subsequent to each interview while impressions, observations and additional comments were fresh in my mind. This allowed me to reflect on each conversation and to be self-critical in terms of how I conducted the interview, the sequencing of questions, and in terms of how I posed them. In some instances critical self-reflection prompted me to change my approach during the research process and this was a strategy of considering the ethics of the power-knowledge relationship with participants. I noted the rapport and evolving relationship I was developing with each of the participants, especially the twelve participants who remained committed to the study. In these interviews I aimed for a positive progressive reciprocal relationship, which was achieved by maintaining a certain degree of personal presence and empathy in the interviews. This approach involved revealing personal experiences, if and when it seemed appropriate, responding to questions from participants, and provoking responses with the aim of offering participants’ ‘pertinent ways of conceptualizing issues and making connections’ (Holstein & Gubrium 1997, p.125).

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Reflexivity is commonly viewed as ‘the process of a continual internal dialogue and critical self-evaluation of researcher’s positionality as well as active acknowledgement and explicit recognition that this position may affect the research process and outcome’ (Berger 2015, p.220). Furthermore, reflexivity on the part of the researcher was essential in this process, as ‘the researcher gives thought to his or her own social role and that of the interviewee acknowledging power differentials between them and integrating reciprocity into the creation of knowledge’ (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree 2006, p.317). Therefore engaging in reflexivity was essential in endeavouring to overcome bias and/or naivety on my part for such reasons my position as a lecturer in the School of Business and am therefore moving between an outsider and insider role in my own faculty, my own educational background, and my personality traits which are overwhelmingly humanist in perspective.

Schram (2006, p.182) advocates that researchers to ‘be prepared to look more deeply at yourself’ and invokes Patton’s (2002, p.35) thoughtful considerations for prospective qualitative researchers:

The fact that you have chosen to invest your time and energy in qualitative research - and, particularly, the deep exploration of other people’s lives and experiences – calls for a complementary openness to looking more deeply at yourself. Pay attention to what you can learn about who you are and how you change as a researcher and as a person through your engagement in this process.

5.11.1 Researcher Reflectivity

Throughout the research process I used a combination of hard-copy and online journals (Appendix H) (reflections) to record thoughts, plans or actions I needed to carry out. I also used an online diary directly after each interview to record my feelings and observations about the interview I had just carried out. This allowed me the time and space to reflect on how the interview went in the earlier phases, the strengths and weaknesses of my interview approach, and key findings and possible follow-up questions to note for subsequent interviews. This diary was most effective in prompting me to be reflective and reflexive throughout the study.

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Schon (1983) is a strong proponent of the idea of the ‘reflective practitioner’, and Wellington similarly (2000, p.42) advocates ‘reflecting on the researcher effect: reflexivity and reflectivity’. Nixon et al. (2003) emphasise the importance of the researcher as a thinking agent, the synergism in thinking together, the significance of identifying one’s positionality, and the impact of analytical reflexivity. Being reflective involves thinking critically about the research process, how it was done and why, and following on from that, a subset of reflectivity is reflexivity that involves reflecting on the self, the researcher. Mason (2002, p.7) endorses the importance of active reflexivity, finding a focus and knowing where one stands. She suggests that qualitative research should be:

systematically and rigorously conducted, should be accountable for its quality and claims, should be strategically conducted, yet flexible and contextual, should involve critical self-scrutiny practice reflexivity, should produce explanations or arguments rather than claiming to offer mere descriptions.

The researcher’s background, position, or emotions are an integral part of producing data. ‘Interpretivism highlights the inherent subjectivity of humans, both as study participants and researchers, and acknowledges that the background and values of a researcher influence the creation of research data’ (Hennick et al. 2011, p.15). As part of the research process, it was very useful to be able to acknowledge and reflect on my positionality as I endeavoured to remain faithful to the participants’ experiences, especially during the period when I was coding and analysing the data and generating findings.

5.11.2 Researcher Reflexivity

Reflexivity is a process that involves conscious self-reflection on the part of the researchers in order to make explicit their potential influences on the research process. This means that ‘researchers take constant stock of their actions and their role in the research process, and subject these to the same critical scrutiny as to the rest of their ‘data’ (Mason 1996 cited in Liamputtong & Ezzy 2005, p.43). Reflexivity, which assumes that researchers are ‘explicitly aware of their own values, self-identity or

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ideologies’ (Hennick et al. 2011, p.20), is thus needed in order to legitimise, to validate, and to question the research processes. Reflexivity is commonly viewed as ‘the process of a continual internal dialogue and critical self-reflection of researcher’s positionality …that this [position] may affect the research process and outcome’ (Berger 2015 p.220).

When adopting and working within an interpretivist, social constructivist paradigm, researchers need to be continually reflexive during the research process: from research design, participant selection, the setting and the conduct of data collection, and on data interpretation and presentation. I recognise how my own background shapes what I discover, how I interact with the participants and interpret what I uncover (Creswell 2007). It is also important to be self-reflexive and model self-awareness throughout the research process, from the initial stages of understanding and becoming aware of my philosophical perspectives, through pinpointing the philosophical stance and methodologies that most appropriately represent the participants of the study (Creswell 2007) to the latter stages of data collection, analysis and interpretation. Balancing dual perspectives of understanding (from the researcher’s frame of reference) versus Verstehen (perspectives of the research population) is also a challenge. Constructivist grounded theory involves three processes according to Keane (2014): (1) conducting self-reflection throughout the research; (2) actively involving participants in various aspects of the research including during theoretical sampling; and (3) employing both conceptual abstraction and ‘thick analysis’ in the constitution of the grounded theory.

There are two important aspects of reflexivity which influence the data generated in qualitative research: personal reflexivity; and interpersonal reflexivity. Personal reflexivity entails researchers reflecting on how their own backgrounds and assumptions may influence the research process and the data created (Hesse-Biber & Leavy 2006, p.146). They describe it as ‘the process, through which a researcher recognizes, examines and understands how his/her own social background or assumptions can intervene in the research process’. Interpersonal reflexivity recognises that the interview setting and the interpersonal dynamic between the researcher and participant can

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influence knowledge creation (Hennick et al. 2011) and it is widely acknowledged that a good rapport affects the data that is generated. In terms of developing interpersonal reflexivity it is important to recognise and respect ‘sensitivity to the important situational dynamics between the researcher and the researched that can impact the creation of knowledge (Hesse-Biber & Leavy 2006, p.146).

Reflexivity involves the researcher having the ability to be reflective of their actions and interactions in producing data and writing up findings. It involves the ability to maintain a self-critical awareness and account by the research about the research process, while sustaining an empathetic relationship with participants. Reflexivity is conducted throughout all stages of research in the qualitative research cycle. Green and Thorogood (2004, p.195) identify several aspects of the research process where reflexivity can be beneficial. Firstly, it encourages methodological openness whereby researchers can reflect on how data was made, including decisions and actions that may influence data collected. Secondly, theoretical openness means that researchers reflect on which theories have been applied in the research and how they have guided the research. Thirdly, it is incumbent on the researcher to maintain awareness of the social setting of the research to highlight any influences on the data collected. Finally, reflexivity can include an awareness of the wider social context to consider how the social and political context might have shaped or constrained the research. In my study, reflexivity is recorded in research notes, in a research diary and in memos (Appendix P) during data analysis. I resolved to work on and continue to hone my interviewing techniques as ‘a good interview rests upon the craftsmanship of the researcher, which goes beyond a mastery of questioning techniques to encompass knowledge of the research topic, sensitivity to the social relation of interviewer and subject, and an awareness of epistemological and ethical aspects of research interviewing’ (Kvale 2007, p.90).

Reflexivity was imperative as it shows an understanding of the interpretivist paradigm and demonstrates how to curb subjectivity throughout the process. Reflecting on my own subjectivity and positionality was a fundamental part of this process in assessing my characteristics as an interviewer, including how identity and background influenced

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both the interviewer and the interviewee. Positionality refers to the power relations between the interviewer and interviewee. This reflection was necessary before, during, and after conducting in-depth interviews. Establishing, increasing and maintaining rapport was essential since questions need to be asked in a non-directive way. I also recorded my impressions of how each interview went directly after the process.

5.12 Dissemination and Policy Relevance

This study has clear practical implications for all stakeholders in second-level and HE in terms of policy setting, revision and practical application at micro- and macro- levels of the sector and in HE organisations such as WIT. This study will contribute to knowledge about the contested concept of student success in HE, focusing on student experiences and perceptions of their progress in the early studentship in HE. The aim is to provide direction for the development of transitioning programs for students including preparing students for higher education when they are still considering their choices at second-level. It will inform and enhance policy and practice in relation to extended induction programmes for staff and students, staff and student engagement programmes, staff and student development, staff and student support programmes. Moreover, the findings will inform programme design, assist in the development of more informed support services for staff and students, ensuring that in spite of funding issues in higher education, appropriate (holistic) support structures are maintained and available throughout the college community and across the student HE experience. I have critiqued the neoliberal rigidity of the definition of student success in higher education. This study has critically and contemporarily explored the contested concept of student success over time from the students’ perspective and given them a voice.

5.13 Limitations of the Study

This study was a single site case study and therefore, while some of the data and subsequent findings may be generalised, it is important to contextualise them in relation to this study at a particular time. Since this study followed a group of students in one school and one programme, notably the business studies programme, it may not fully reflect experiences of students in others schools, programmes, or institutions. This study

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was nominally two years in duration, sufficient to gather adequate data for the purposes of the research question. It may be worthwhile progressing this particular study with follow-up research on the students evolving perceptions and definitions of success and in further exploring how the students have progressed in their lives.

5.14 Conclusion

This chapter provides a detailed description of the research framework used to guide this study and begins with an outline of the aim and objectives of the research. Following this introduction, the philosophical perspectives are presented and discussed in terms of their appropriateness for the study. The researcher then discusses the motivations for assuming an interpretive stance. The data collection process comprised a longitudinal study that was punctuated by a series of in-depth interviews over four semesters. The research approach to data analysis comprised a CGT approach advocated by Charmaz (2006). Data analysis and synthesis of the data was discussed in detail. This study progressed beyond the descriptive phase, generating new theory and developing a framework for further research. Ethical issues and trustworthiness of the research were addressed. Finally, limitations of the study were highlighted. The next chapter progresses the analyses of the data to present the overall findings of the study based on a series of themes and sub-themes which emerged as data analysis progressed.

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Chapter 6 Presentation of Findings

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the findings of this study to determine what constitutes student success from the perspective of the student and are therefore grouped into themes and sub-themes based on the participants’ experience and perception of how they inherently and academically developed and the various ways their own subjective constructs of success evolved over time. I adopted a constructivist grounded theory approach to data collection and analysis acknowledging which privileges the participant voice while remaining ever-mindful that own personal background and affiliations may influence my views and interpretations of the data during various phases of the analyses. Time points according to each semester were reviewed to establish context of the emergent themes. The main overall conceptual themes derived and developed from the data are illustrated in Figure 11 below:

Figure 11: Themes and Sub-themes of Perceptions of Success

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All abbreviations and explanations used in the student profile descriptors are provided in Table 8 below, while Table 9 overleaf furnishes information on participant backgrounds and the extent of their participation in the study. An introductory biographical vignette of each participant is also presented to fully contextualise the data and emergent themes. Both the table of participants (Table 9) and the vignettes share the same anonymised labels (P1, P2 etc.) to enable the reader to become familiar with the participants background.

6.2 Participant profile The participants in this study were all volunteers from the Bachelor of Business Studies programme year 1 and came from a variety of demographic and educational backgrounds. As part of the study, it was important to document the profile(s) of the participants as it provides context in terms of their own personal backgrounds, experiences and perceptions.

Abbreviations used in Student Profile Explanation of Student Background

TLCS Traditional Leaving Certificate Student/Post Leaving Certificate Student

FEG Further Education Graduate

MS Mature Student

SCS Second Chance Student

IntS International Student

WD Withdrew from programme

Table 8: Abbreviations of Participant Profiles

Therefore to add context to the study, Table 9 overleaf provides a list of the individuals I tracked in the study. To better frame the study, this also includes some brief biographical information, level of engagement in the study, and where they were in their studies.

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Name Age Background Participation in Study Academic

(beginning of study) Progress

P1 32 Parent and previous business operator Throughout four Semesters After year 2, repeat attending 3 modules from year 1 & 3 modules from year 2 P2 18 Post LC Participant Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3

P3 18 Post LC Participant Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3

P4 19 Post LC Participant Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3

P5 18 Post LC Participant Semester 1 only Do not know Withdrew from study P6 19 Post LC Participant Semester 1 and two Withdrew from programme Intended to reapply to CAO P7 25 Return to HE Participant Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3

P8 18 Post LC Participant Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3

P9 18 Post LC Participant Throughout four Semesters Withdrew after year 1 and re-applied to CAO for new programme in WIT P10 18 Post LC Participant Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3

P11 20 International Participant Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3

P12 20 Return to HE Participant within WIT Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3

P13 19 Post LC Participant Semester 1 and two Do not know Withdrew from study P14 21 Return to HE Participant within WIT Throughout four Semesters Repeat attending 3 modules Year 2

P15 18 Post LC Participant Semester 1 and two Withdrew from programme after year one

P16 21 Level 5 participant Throughout four Semesters Progressed to Year 3

P17 18 Post LC Participant One month (Withdrew before study Deferred programme/withdrew; intended commenced proper) to reapply to CAO last yr. but did not reapply Table 9: Overview of Participants

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6.2.1 A vignette on each of the participants of the study

In order to provide a context for the findings a synopsis of the individual participants in the study is provided. This includes information on their age(s), their level of educational attainment, and their progress to date. All of the findings have been presented to the participants, with their individual feedback noted and revisions requested and duly made where appropriate. This process was invaluable not only for member-checking and participant validation, but to determine the validity which is intrinsic to the qualitative research process. This is integral to the constructivist research process and it includes the process of disconfirming evidence, maintaining an audit trail, prolonged engagement in the field, use of thick, rich description which contextualises the research experience and researcher reflexivity. It also assisted my decision-making in terms of identifying which findings were most relevant to the participants and which findings they deemed to be a broadly accurate representation of their perceptions of what constitutes success from a participant’s perspective in HE. Following Creswell and Miller (2000, p. x) my research philosophy is to represent the voice of the participants since the ‘primary lens…. is always that of the participants in a study’.

P1: The resilient role model participant

P1 is a mature student and this programme of study has been her first experience in higher education. She is a lone parent with more than one child. P1 has already operated a business in Waterford and expressed an interest in establishing another business following completion of her studies. She has a specific interest in marketing consultancy. P1 has criticised accessibility to some of the institutional support systems and delayed financial assistance in terms of her grant aid which added to the stress of returning to education. P1 also had health issues to contend with and is therefore carrying six subjects from year one and year two (primarily in numerical areas: accounting and economics), which she is repeating this year. My experiences with P1 reinforce the importance of resilience and access to HE institutional support systems.

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P2: The creatively expressive participant

P2 is a post-Leaving Certificate participant, who chose the programme because she developed an interest in studying business at school and hopes to set up her own business. P2 is a part-time [role anonymised] blogger. She made new friends quickly in HE and has ‘enjoyed the modules’. P2 has worked consistently and feels she has blossomed as she has progressed through the course. P2 has contrasted the degree of freedom she feels she has at WIT as opposed to her time in second-level (post-primary) education. My interactions with this student have led me to appreciate that she is very open, hard-working, and self-expressive.

P3: The participant who embraces all higher education offers, and who has high agency

P3 is a post-Leaving Certificate participant. P3 is focused on developing a career as ‘a management consultant’. P3 has been very involved in extra-curricular activities in college and outside college. He reports having ‘come into his own’ and sees him/herself as having embraced the wider college experience. He strives hard to achieve set goals and embraces a lot of management theory and personal development material. He uses time exceptionally well and is very physically active which yields many physical, mental, emotional and social benefits. On a personal level, P3 has had a lot to contend with outside college, but seems to be coping.

P4: The participant who is growing in maturity and independence

P4 is a post-Leaving Certificate participant. This course was her second choice of study, but nonetheless it was chosen for practical (including financial) reasons as it was close to home. P4 plans to open her own business. She has reported a need to assert independence and is making plans to use the flexible Semester to undertake an Erasmus programme. P4 has displayed a significant level of emotional resilience as she reported having to contend with early college relationships fracturing and the subsequent fall- out. P4 sought and availed of on-campus counselling support and has gone on to forge new relationships.

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P5: The participant who withdrew (early on) from the study

P5 is a post-Leaving Certificate participant who participated in the first interview but subsequently withdrew from the study, but not the programme. P5’s older brother had undertaken the same programme of study, which was one of the reasons for her choice. He was keen to ‘get a job’ after completing the degree but was not specific in terms of profession or sector. He suggested during our initial interview that the college ‘hold more events first years so they can mix better’. He declined to have contact thereafter but was happy to have the data from his interview included. From an ethical perspective, I respected the student’s wish to withdraw from the study and have had no further contact with P5.

P6: The participant who progressed academically but withdrew from the programme after year one and took some time out

P6 is a post-Leaving Certificate participant. She is the first in her family to attend HE and who made the decision to do a business course because she ‘enjoyed it in school’. My initial impression of him/her was her independence in terms of programme choice and decision-making when she stated ‘I influenced myself, I’m my own person’. P6 successfully completed year one of BBS but indicated in the second interview that she intended to withdraw from the programme, which she subsequently did. P6 may have taken some time out from HE after the second interview and she did not maintain contact for the purposes of this study. I endeavoured to follow-up with P6 by email, but to no avail. I therefore made the decision to respect the student’s wishes.

P7: The mature participant with issues around his well-being

P7 is a mature student. He previously studied in a HE institution in Dublin but withdrew from this initial programme of study and travelled the world for a period of time. He was very specific in his goals, ‘three and a half years in recruitment, perhaps a small business venture and an ambition to publish an academic paper on ‘The Faults in Irish Society’’.

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P7 talked about social interaction(s) with ‘class-mates, friendly lecturers and great opportunities to progress professionally and socially’. P7 has worked throughout her programme of study in order to support himself. However, the long hours of work coupled with engagement in this course have had some adverse I implications for his well-being and engagement with this programme.

P8: The participant who will potentially run a successful non-profit organization

P8 is a post-Leaving Certificate participant who started the programme aged 18 and is the childhood friend of another participant in the study (P9). She is the first person in her family to attend HE which is something both she and her family are very proud of. P8 commutes and works at home at the weekends. She endeavours to be financially self-sufficient and also wishes to assist her parents financially. She reports being very focused on her potential career and wants to work within a charitable organisation. P8 comes across as warm, open, curious, and determined.

P9: The participant who transferred to another programme after year one (but continued to participate in the study)

P9 is a post-Leaving Certificate participant. The BBS programme was her first choice, yet she left after the first year in spite of passing the exams. She registered for a new programme of study in Recreation and Leisure and commenced year one again. P9 had support from her mother in terms of changing to a new programme of study in WIT. As a first year student in her new programme, P9 maintains she has no regrets either way. P9 comes across as being pragmatic and motivated, showing personal integrity in the way she talks about her experiences.

P10: The participant who acknowledges her parents’ support and works hard

P10 is a post-Leaving Certificate participant and is the first in her family to attend HE; something she says she does not take for granted. She is keen to acknowledge the

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support received from her family, especially from her mother. Her business teacher in secondary school was ‘an amazing teacher and inspiration’ and inspired him/her to develop a keen interest in business and in HE. P10 acknowledged the role this teacher played in her life. P10 has established strong friendships with some of her classmates which seems to have greatly enhanced her experiences in HE.

P11: The international participant who has flourished

P11 is an international business student and is 20 years of age. He attended an international school and undertook a programme which he found very challenging and which left him feeling ‘practically burnt-out’ by the time he left and moved on to study BBS at WIT. He is very clear on his career path and wants to be an external auditor. His parents influenced this choice. He was quite critical in the questionnaire regarding poor orientation for international participants. Over the two years has P11 had made some friends and really thrived in a more relaxed environment.

P12: The participant who has matured and developed a sense of self and agentic possibility

P12 is a second chance student in HE and this is therefore the second programme he has undertaken at WIT. Two years previously he had started an IT programme but realised by the end of the first Semester it was not for him, withdrew from the course, and took some time out. He has expressed an interest in human resources and would also like to be a lecturer. P12 comes across as a great all-rounder with a keen interest in health and fitness/sports as well as reading a variety of genres of books. He appears to have flourished in terms of confidence, maturity and agency.

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P13: The participant who was emotionally reserved (withdrew from the study after one year)

P13 is a post-Leaving Certificate student who has an interest in business, management and economics and aspires to be a manager or business studies secondary school teacher. P13 participated in this study for one year and then stated he needed to withdraw due to time constraints. I respected his wishes and have not had any contact with P13 since that time.

P14: The participant who has no time for himself and his well-being

P14 is a second chance student in HE and this is the second programme he has studied at WIT. He clearly stated that his choice to return to HE was influenced by his experience of working in a business for a year. He aspires to gain a role in management subsequent to his studies and works a sizeable number of part-time hours in a local service orientated outlet. P14 has worked in this part-time job for the last two years, and while initially this did not affect his progress academically, it did have an impact on his overall sense of well-being. He has three subjects to repeat from second year. P14 reports having been ‘too busy’ to deal with his physical and mental well-being which has had an impact on his progress.

P15: The participant who withdrew from the programme after year one (for personal reasons)

P15 is a post-Leaving Certificate participant and the first in her family to attend HE. P15 chose the course as she liked the business subjects in school and reported that she might open her own business afterwards. She was ‘very happy’ with the programme and with her newly established friendships within it; ‘the people in my class are lovely; the lecturers are easy-going but still teach thoroughly’. P15 suggested initiatives such as additional tutoring with their tutor and the participant assistance fund’. P15 withdrew from the programme and from this study after a year. She reported that one of the facts leading to this was a disagreement with one of her friends in the class. I endeavoured to

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follow-up with P15 by email, but to no avail. I therefore made the decision to respect the student’s wishes.

P16: The participant who is flourishing as a result of benefitting from a Level 5 programme

P16 is a 21 year old student who studied a level 5 PLC course prior to making a decision to attend HE. She is the first in her family to attend HE and gets a lot of support from her family and partner. P16 noted that one of her longer-term career aspirations was to gain a master’s qualification in human resources. The business programme was her first choice and she confirmed being ‘very happy’ with her decision to attend the programme. P16 has flourished in HE and feels she has developed a learning style (thanks to the level 5 programme) that suits her. She comes across as very personable, honest and forthright.

P17: The participant who decided the he programme was ‘not for him’ (early exit from HE)

P17 is a post-Leaving Certificate student who withdrew from his studies very early in Semester 1. He agreed to a telephone conversation and confirmed he had left after a month and initially deferred the programme but now had no intention of resuming. He indicated he really wanted to be involved in a sports area and had already applied to the CAO. He reflected that ‘college wasn’t what I expected it to be, it was a bit daunting … and in terms of living by myself, I wasn’t ready’. He had started working in a restaurant and when contacted the following year he also said that he ‘had picked business, but hadn’t a clue’. He had missed a CAO deadline and stated he would perhaps apply for something in design/architecture the following year. He was caring for his grandparents which could also be a significant factor in the decision to withdraw from the programme and postpone his HE journey. At this stage, he has deferred his place and choices regarding HE for the last two years.

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6.3 Overarching Themes

The themes and sub-themes are presented in the sequence in which they emerged from the data analyses. I adopted a holistic approach that acknowledged both the particular timeframes (semesters) in which the interviews were being conducted and the personal journey of each participant as commensurate with a longitudinal study spanning four semesters. Over time the overriding theme emerging from the data comprised the participants ‘perceptions of success’ and a number of sub-themes which while sequential in nature, nonetheless pervade their entire HE experience. The sub-themes relating to the participants’ perceptions of success include ‘direction’ which addresses having goals and an overall sense of direction in terms of academic and career aspirations, while the sub-theme of ‘surviving’ entails having had a broadly positive transition to HE in which they were able to evolve and develop personally and academically. The concept of ‘surviving’ can occur at any point in the overall HE experience and is based on personal and/or academic issues (such as having to repeat examinations). The sub-theme of ‘striving’ resonates strongly with having a sense of resilience, positivity (PMA) and agency. The sub-theme ‘flourishing’ relates to both personal and academic advancements with the participant being engaged in a deeper, more meaningful and extrinsic manner. Finally, the sub-theme ‘realising potential’ pertains to how the participants maximise their time, the resources available to them in chosen their HEI and their own personal and academic ability to ‘succeed’ in HE.

‘Transitional experiences’ was an early theme which emerged from the study and included subthemes such as ‘transitions’ which relate to the social, motivational and emotional experiences of their early days in HE. Early student experiences comprised the participants’ perceived levels of successful personal, social and academic integration and how these factors impacted on the way each participant developed agency. A second subtheme relates to the ‘pragmatics of time’ included how participants developed time and project management techniques and established a routine that included self-directed learning.

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The final theme to emerge from the study, and one which prevailed throughout the four Semesters was ‘personal experiences’. These included identifying subthemes such as ‘the emerging and evolving self’ which recognised the personal psycho-social developments participants’ had experienced throughout the four Semesters. The second subtheme is related to the student’s experiences of their own ‘student agency’ which relates to ‘pragmatics of time’ related issues. The third subtheme comprising ‘well- being and resilience’ is the overriding theme of the study and encompasses and encapsulates all four Semesters. The central tenet of these findings is that without a sense of well-being and resilience, the participant is not in a position to embrace other experiences, evolve as a person and/or experiencing success(es) in their own unique way.

6.4 The Contested Concept of Student Success

The contested concept of student success is based on the participants’ own perceptions of success in terms of personal attitudes, beliefs and aspirations spanning their first four Semesters in HE. The participants’ perceptions of success evolved as they became more familiar with their new environment(s) and the various academic, personal and social demands that were placed on them as each Semester elapsed. The participants’ overall perceptions of success are broken down into five main sub-themes, which follow a particular flow, yet remain sufficiently fluid to allow each participant’s perceptions to change according to how they feel at a given time or have felt in terms of their overall perceptions of the success of their personal and academic journeys in HE (Figure 12).

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Figure 12: The Contested Concept of Participant Success

The sub-themes of perceptions of success illustrated in Figure 12 comprise: direction; surviving; striving; flourishing; and realising potential. P13 (TLCS, Semester 1) suggests that success may be intrinsically defined as when you’re actually content and happy in your own life. Perceptions of success are also influenced by extrinsic factors such as personal academic grades achieved in summative and formative assessments comparatively coupled with grades achieved by peers: I think passing first year is a good success, a big success (P8, TLCS, Semester 2), whilst P14 (SCS, Semester 2) maintained: The idea the first year is just to pass them, that's the main goal, because companies won't read up your first year, they look at second and third year and fourth year.

Student expectations were intrinsically and extrinsically modified as exemplified by P16 (FEG, Semester 2) who reflected: I just realised that I needed to study more if I wanted to get the grades that I wanted myself. Furthermore, the participants’ perceptions and expectations of academic success became clearer over time, especially following feedback from lecturers: I understand what they're asking of me now (P16, FEG, Semester 2). Achieving a high profile company placements/internships was

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deemed to be extremely important to the more ambitious student as shown by P8, (TLCS, Semester 2) and latterly P12 (SCS, Semester 3): I'm going to knuckle down and I want to get good placement and this year I'm trying to do well in the exams because I really want to get a good placement. Furthermore, social interactions were deemed to be a significant factor in terms of perceptions of success: I suppose graduating is obviously part of success but college life is also very important. Like, it's not just going to be having a degree at the end of it…it's going to have pictures to show that you had a good time as well as having a college degree (P8, TLCS, Semester 3).

First generation HE students had higher expectations and felt it was incumbent on them to do well in HE as they realised how fortunate they were to have the opportunity to attend third level. These participants were acutely aware of the sacrifices their families were making to enable them to attend a HEI. For instance P16 (FEG, Semester 2) reported her parents and siblings: are interested in what I'm doing and they want to know what it's like. Similarly second chance student such as P14 (Semester 1) felt that his parents had higher expectations of their performance in HE on this occasion: I’m trying to keep my head above water and just at least to pass at like the least, because I don’t want to repeat anything, because that just looks bad straight off.

In overall terms, student success and personal perceptions of success are ever-changing. This longitudinal study afforded the participants and researcher the luxury of exploring past, present and current experiences and past, present and future expectations of each participant, and of the different facets of student perceptions of success over time. For instance, the following is an excerpt of P4’s (TLCS) experiences of HE from Semester 1 and Semester 4: I was convinced I was going to go and do the engineering, which sounds really bad now that I’m doing the business….(early in Semester 1) and I think I’ve gotten through all my subjects so far…and I get on with most of my group (latter part of Semester 1) and I love the course….I’m happy that she [mother] did that…she pushed me to finish the first year (Semester 4). Whereas, P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) expressed concerns about the programme of study that she had chosen and was accepted on, as follows: I love college life, but the course isn’t as interesting as I expected it to be… it’s more of an effort then.…. I don’t know, I thought I’d really enjoy it, but I don’t

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enjoy it as much as I expected….In fact, although P6 successfully passed all her modules for all of year one, she left the programme at the end of year one and took some time out to re-consider her future.

Effective and primarily positive feedback was deemed to be really significant to participants: I think he is so encouraging…he really allowed the time and he interacted (P1, MS, Semester 3) and this year, in X module our lecturer is amazing, his notes are amazing, he hands out questions and literally if you do the answers to the questions, they are like prep for your revision (P1, MS, Semester 4). P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) reflected on his progress: I’m actually doing grand in everything…I know I can do this, these subjects….I’m going to further them again, to see if I can get back on the Dean’s list….I just want to pass…..I don't mind if I get honours…because it's first Semester (P2, TLCS, Semester 1) and P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) I’m passing all my lectures and that’s enough….

6.5 Students Perceptions of Success

A student’s perception of success can change over time according to how they are feeling and their level(s) of agency and levels of resilience. For instance, when students commences the HE journey they may gain a better sense of self and their cognitive dissonance and anxiety levels will dissipate if and when they settle into college life, socially integrate, and feel they are headed in the right ‘direction’ personally, academically and professionally. For some participants, their initial weeks in HE were primarily concerned with ‘surviving’ in adjusting to this new stage in their lives, becoming more independent from their families and more independent learners. In terms of independent living P8 (TLCS, Semester 1) reported that:….getting up out of bed is hard sometimes when you’re Mam is not there to make you get up (laughs)…you know you have to do it yourself now, it’s your own choice if you go in… In terms of growing independence, by Semester 3, P7 (MS & SCS) observed that he had benefitted from:…. living down here that it gave him: independence and that’s more beneficial to me.

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From an academic perspective P9 (TLCS & SCS, Semester 1) suggested that the one of the most significant transitions was that:….you actually have to think for yourself when it comes to the assignments. That’s probably the biggest thing change…Whereas, by Semester 3, the participants broadly seemed to be more focused and confident in terms of their ability and future plans, as P2 (TLCS, Semester 3) noted: I came here not knowing anyone, I made my friends, I study myself, I do my work myself. It's just the fact that I can say I went to college and I did it myself. Furthermore, these stages are discrete yet recursive, depending on the personal and academic circumstances of the participants at a given time.

The participants’ perceptions of ‘success’ changed over time according to each individual and their life circumstances. P8 (TLCS, Semester 1) was the first of her family to attend HE and this alone was perceived as a significant indicator of success to her throughout the duration of the study. P8 defined success from short, medium and long term perspectives:

My two older brothers, they didn’t go to college and they’re in dead end jobs and I just hated the thought….I’m going to college. I have to go somewhere and do something…..Success to me would be getting a really good job and just even having the money to go out and buy myself a new top at the end of the week …..My Mam and Dad do struggle so I think I want to go and make money so I don’t have to be like that…Doing well in my subjects, just passing my course and getting on with it, that would be successful to me…..

P4’s (TLCS, Semester 1) perception of success in Semester 1 focused primarily on the extent of her academic progression and social integration having gotten through all my subjects so far…I think I’m doing ok in them all. I get on with most of my group, it’s been really good. P6 (TLCS, WD, Semester 1) withdrew from the programme after Semester 2, but in her initial conversation with me actively questioned whether she had made the right decision as she:...enjoyed college life more than I expected….this whole social aspect to it, whereas the actual lectures and everything…I don’t know like it kind of makes me wonder like is it for me do you know that kind of way…. Just kind of I’m a

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little bit iffy like about the course in general. Conversely, P16 (FEG, Semester 1) had undertaken a FETAC Level 5 programme before coming to HE so she felt well- prepared for her academic journey as:...that year out and the course I did really helped me for college. To be ready to accept the amount of work I had to do.

Attaining good grades particularly in summative assessments, did much to boost the participants’ self-esteem and agency. Maintaining a sense of agency was inherently connected to potential academic and career aspirations, direction and success. Student agency played an important role for participants in terms of their perceptions of success. However, their perceptions of success were quite varied. At this early stage in HE, P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) considered that on completion of: the four years here and we are looking for the jobs in management consultancy…if I feel everyone is looking for a post- grad degree or a Masters’ degree, then I’ll go on and do it. P14 (SCS, Semester 1) supported this belief, maintaining: it’s all about the end….you have to figure out how you are getting there….in the like the long run I’ll get more money out of it, if I went back and got a degree and move on elsewhere with a better paying job, better aspirations.…why couldn’t I go back to college and like triple, quadruple how many times that and get a much better lifestyle and much better pay. So that’s the end goal for everyone. Whereas P10 (TLCS, Semester 1) had a broader sense of success: Success for me in the future is just to be in a job that I love....That’s how I see success - is when you’re actually content and happy in your own life like, then you’ve succeeded really.

P12 (SCS, Semester 4) defined success as a journey, in driving on always in pursuit of self-actualisation:

Overall success, I think if you look at what you’ve done and you say ‘that’s it, I’m happy with that now I’m done’. Oh man, not good, you have to constantly say - what’s next?.. it’s the thought of stopping, I don’t think you can put a destination at the end of the journey.

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Similarly, P2’s (TLCS, Semester 4) definition of success is as positive, forward- thinking, agentic and resilient as she is:

Improving yourself, improving your work and just be a better person…..Don’t be comparing yourself, just focus on yourself I think. I just focus on me….because you would get down about things in life when you look at other people.

You can just change your life around if you want, at any moment, so it’s just getting up and doing it I think. Do everything at your own pace, just because someone is excelling, you will eventually you will get there like you know.

Breaking the mould and not being a stereotype, whilst also being a role-model was the ultimate definition of success for P1 (MS, Semester 3) who stated:

I’m not a stereotype now; I’m not just a single [parent] doing nothing, sitting at home. I think that is one success that I have already been able to achieve…be a role model for your kids and create a culture within your home that they can follow.

6.5.1 Direction

Participants who held aspirations to undertake a business degree and who had highly ranked the BBS programme in their HEI application had a clearer sense of achievement and direction than those who had ranked the programme as a lesser preference. Furthermore, second chance students (SCS) had a clearer sense of direction and focus. P7 (SCC and MS, Semester 1) reflected: ….when I was in school, there was nothing really there to say what do you want to put on your CAO, like what do you think you want to do.…I find that very, very poor in some schools. Some of the participants, such as P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) highlighted that he was: anxious going into first year to see if I got it right and I suppose I got lucky and I did pick the right thing in the end. In some cases, students ‘changed their mind’ on the CAO application system at a later date: I ended up I changed my mind and actually I wasn’t doing business until I got offered it

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(P4, TLCS, Semester 1). Similarly, P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) recalled that: I didn’t really know what I wanted to do I was just kind of sitting there like oh I just have no idea what I want to do with my life, what kind of job like I’d see myself in or anything…. P8 (TLCS, Semester 1) as a first generation HE student reflects on the support she got from her mother: ….my brothers hadn’t been to college and my Mam and Dad weren’t in college so I couldn’t really get actual college advice off them but my Mam was very helpful ….

There is no doubt that having a clear sense of direction ensured that P10 (TLCS, Semester 1) knew from early on that I wanted to do business gave participants additional self-confidence and agency. But only the minority of participants have such clarity at the age of 18 years. In fact, some participants were more location-orientated in terms of their HE institution and programmes choices such as P13 (TLCS, Semester 1) and P16 (FEG, Semester 1) who respectively reported:

I knew I wanted to do business and I know I didn't want to go to Dublin or Cork, because it was too far away, too busy, too big. I only went to certain open days….I went to the WIT open day with my school and I just really loved the place and I really love the lecturers….

It was either business or computing for me and the course in WIT was the one that I wanted, it was literally the only thing that I put down on my CAO. I didn’t fill out for anywhere else because I wanted Waterford and I have some family and friends down here as well, which pushed towards here.

In Semester 1 several the participants were already discussing what they wanted to specialise in for semesters five to eight, such as P2 (TLCS, Semester 1): yesterday we were talking about what we wanted to specialise in, in third year. As the weeks progressed P8 (TLCS, Semester 1) observed that she had: learnt an awful lot more about the subjects and I think I’ve kind of picked my stream for my third and fourth year. Second chance participants (SCS) had a clearer sense of direction. P12 (SCS, Semester 1) suggested he felt more empowered in deciding on a further programme of study:

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I find I have my head a bit on straighter coming in (laughs), I know what’s in front of me or what’s happening…my parents kind of stood back and said ‘What do want to do? What would you like to do? Then even when I said ‘…a course …’they said ‘Alright. How do you do this? How are you going to do that?’ or whatever. It wasn’t so much ‘You should be doing this, you should be doing that’ like. So even then when I left, it was open to whatever I wanted to do, it was kind of more so my choice.

For second chance participants, taking time out to work part-time, mature, and re- consider their life’s choices had proven to be an excellent strategy:

It was a good decision. I wasn't ready to go to college. I say that now. I read in some countries they don’t let you make decisions until you're 21, but being 21 now I can see that …. what was I doing when I was 18? It's only finally this year when I was coming in here I'm thinking I have to get a job. Whereas, a couple of years ago I was just like whatever. I think I've had to just grow up more, I'd say (P12, SCS, Semester 3).

So when I took the year out I figured out what I wanted to do and just worked. I was working every week, I didn’t take any real time off….But when I look at myself now, the way I did it, I may have lost a year, but it was much more beneficial to me in the long run I think…..if you need to take a year out you need to like that’s that. There’s no two ways about it, so but it’s benefitted me I must say a lot. (P14, SCS, Semester 1).

Furthermore, with appropriate familial, student counselling and academic support, P4 (TLCS, Semester 2) settled into her new environment and was enjoying the programme of study in spite of having reservations in Semester 1: I know where I’m going. I think I was lost and like….this is like not going to plan. That’s what it was like, whereas now I’m like back on plan. P16 valued the encouragement given by her family to pursue HE: As soon as I mentioned I want to go to college and the place I want is Waterford. None of them questioned me or you know…. I was lucky I had the support at home and I had the friends to tell me to get up off my ass and go for it, if that’s what I really wanted

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to just do it (P16, FEG, Semester 1). Moreover, continuous on-going (emotional, and at times financial) support from family and friends is crucial: My family, they help out in their own little way by keeping me motivated, and just even by asking me about it, how I'm doing and that, helps me to kind of be like, ‘oh, I'm doing this and I'm doing that’. Like they're interested in what I'm doing and they want to know what it's like, and that kind of keeps me wanting to go to tell them (P16, FEG, Semester 2).

Student expectations, often driven by anxiety, are demanding, excessive and unrealistic as is evidenced by P4 (TLCS, Semester 1): I just expected intense loads of work….It is difficult to know the standard that’s expected of you. P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) reported that: the course is not really what I expected it to be….it’s nothing like school. Conversely, P9 (TLCS, Semester 1) maintained that she: expected it to be a lot different than school, but it’s kind of like school. It may be of interest to note that both P6 and P9 left the BBS programme of study after year one. In essence, having clear expectations of oneself and a clear sense of direction from the decision-making stage of the process (pre-college) or a recalibrated sense of direction after leaving one programme of study and entering the business studies programme, greatly enhanced the participants’ experiences in the programme and of HE.

6.5.2 Surviving

In the early stages of their transition to HE the notion of surviving implied being physically and emotionally independent. P8 (TLCS, Semester 2) reflected that: I've got more mature from living on my own without my mother to do everything for me…..I've begun to have a lot more respect for my mam because of it.… Therefore surviving was initially a physical, emotional and social concept, with academic survival as an actual outcome of these. For some participants, the first semester and impending examinations generated a lot of additional anxiety and they were trying to ‘survive’ the semester. Participants such as P2 (TLCS, Semester 1) explained: just [wanted] to pass. I don't mind if I get an honours….just because it's first semester… if I can pass it then that's fine. Then next Semester I'll be more organised about it, really, and understand what I have to do. P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) advises incoming first year students to: work from

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the beginning is definitely one like not to be dossing like or you can go out like every week if you want, but like come in the next day.

Similarly, there was a ‘dawning reality’ for many of the participants such as P5 (TLCS, Semester 1) whereby: ‘.... gradually as you get closer to the Christmas everything was building up more and more ...then the stress started to come…. P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) suggested that pre-conceptions exist about life as a HE student and maintained: you have to work in college, like people think ‘oh college life is brilliant, all you do is go out and all this type of stuff’, that’s what everyone tells you when you are in school, oh like just look forward to college, but it’s not as easy as it’s made out to be ….. Whereas, for P9 (TLCS, Semester 2) there was the harsher reality that she was unhappy in the business studies programme: there’s no point in doing something for four years that you’re going to not be happy doing, hopefully now when I finish I will have a better idea of what I want to do and progress and do that then.

‘Surviving’ also implied the financial means to attend HE. P10 (TLCS, Semester 1) supported herself financially, had a part-time job and maintained: Mam and Dad always told me that the money was there if I wanted to go but I didn’t want to put them under that pressure and had to: time organise myself because between here and then sometimes I work during the week and trying to do assignments, you really need to manage your time really well. Similarly P14 (SCS, Semester 1) reported having a similar experience: I said to my parents I’ll pay my own way, because I’m working 20, 25 plus hours a week. So I can pay my own way, so I’m not really taking any money off them, because I just don’t think it’s fair on them.

Participants who had previously taken time out, withdrawn from a HE programme, or undertaken a further education (FE) programme prior to commencing the BBS programme at WIT found they were more prepared academically and emotionally for HE: my lecturer last year. He was brilliant, he gave me a load of tips on learning and he figured out what type of learning style I had. That’s why I said that that year out and the course I did really helped me for college. To be ready to accept the amount of work

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I had to do (P16, FEG, Semester 1). From a personal (maturity) and academic perspective, taking time out HE proved to be beneficial as P12 (SCS, Semester 1) recalled: I had some experience with having no job and no college and no anything and college is definitely better than having nothing (laughs). So yeah, I think it really changed me a lot I suppose, the year out…… In summary, surviving was an intrinsic sub-theme particularly in a more nascent way in Semester 1 and comprised the ability to survive the transition to HE physically, emotionally and financially.

6.5.3 Striving

Striving encompasses continuous agency for each participant. P10 (TLCS, Semester 1) resolved to work harder in Semester 2 as she reflected that: some things don’t come naturally to me but if I work I’ll be able to do them…. Academically, I know I could have worked a lot harder this semester…. but I wouldn’t have changed it but I do know for next Semester that I have to. According to P12 (SCS, Semester 1) striving involves:

…pushing yourself to do it …. once you get yourself to do it I think the course content is easy enough …… and that lecturers might ….try and motivate people to get the work done. I suppose in college, in a course like this, people can be de- motivated very easily, it can be hard to get your work done because it is work rather than some people might find .... computing is someone’s hobby or they might enjoy games or creating this or doing that with computers…..in Business [programmes] I don’t think anybody just wants to be reading statistics ….(laughs).

In terms of time management and ethos around self-directed learning, P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) maintained: you have to work in college, like people think ‘oh, college life is brilliant, all you do is go out and all this type of stuff ….’ but it’s not like as easy as it’s made out to be like. There is a good bit of work in it too. Knowing when to seek additional assistance and support was essential. As P16 (FEG, Semester 1) revealed, she was reluctant to ask for help and expressed her frustration with a particular module while in class, with a classmate offering to help her, he just explained in a different way….I’m not gonna lie, all of it didn’t click.….. P5 (TLCS, Semester 1) highlighted the importance of time management and organisation: planning things out for

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yourself….you’re not just going in and scribbling stuff on a day, you’re trying to get the best out of the lectures you can…..

Striving to attain her degree and being a role-model for her children were essential to P1’s (MS & SCC, Semester 4) ability to continue to strive to achieve her personal and academic aspirations as she reflected on the importance not just being a [single parent] and of striving for [herself] and [her] family:

….. sometimes to drop what you are doing yourself is not the right thing, because then what do you become then? You’ve lost a bit of yourself, and like [her daughter] is X age now and I’m thinking in three years she’s going to be in here you know. Like hopefully I’ll be sitting doing my Masters and she will be in here in first year …..

P1 (MS & SCC, Semester 1) experienced quite a lot of challenges both on a personal and academic level throughout Semesters 1 to 4 and yet displayed a huge amount of inner resolve and was continuously striving and by: not giving up, I’ll see something to the end even if it’s not for me. Success for me is that if I start something I like to finish it and I think that its, a lot of it can sometimes be made easier but if it’s not made easier, you just have to take the punches as they are given. The realisation that a myriad opportunities exist and to not limit oneself, was something that P8 (TLCS, Semester 4) considered as a result of our conversations as she revealed in her final interview: I was thinking I’m just going to finish out my Degree, but now I’m thinking I can go on and do a Masters, and I can get my Ph. D. if I want to, after seeing your study, and knowing that it’s something you are interested in, you can go on and do whatever you want to. By Semester 4, the students were more focused, self-efficacious and competitive with their class-mates and their perspectives and strategies on striving for self-improvement included becoming:

More focused....first year in college is like woo-hoo, you’re just so excited to be out of school and doing something different and doing something that you actually like doing and something that you chose to do rather than being stuck with something that you don’t like. I’d be going, oh God, I want to be her next year now, or I’ll do as good as her like do, you know. It would be, like, I could have got that grade as well like

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do you know if had put a bit more work into it (P10, TLCS, Semester 4).

6.5.3.1 Striving to ‘Stand out’

Over time one sub-theme that emerged quite strongly in Semesters 3 and 4 from ‘striving’ from some participants who seemed to be more self-efficacious and agentic than others was in order ‘to stand out’ from their peers in order to distinguish themselves from their classmates and other undergraduate students from other HEIs. In the early days at HE, most participants would have considered: doing the best I can do and if that happened just you pass, but over time as P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) reflected: now after settling in and finding out lots, things are coming easy to me now….. You know you would want that as your bit of reputation going into second year, oh he was on the Dean’s list….. Furthermore, he reflected that it's inevitable that you want to get good grades, like if you come in to college and you don't want to get good grades, then I don't know why you'd be here. P7 (MS and SCS, Semester 2) wanted to achieve very specific hard outcomes: I want to get a 2:1 and then third year a 1:1, fourth year a 1:1, …. obviously if I could get a 1:1 in this year….

The following are similar views from several of the participants, such as P8 (TLCS, Semester 3) concerning the importance of gaining good grades: if I don't do well this year then like when I'm going to get my placement everyone's going to be like…. ‘Oh, she didn't do well. Why would we take her on?’ P2 (TLCS, Semester 1) was already considering post-graduate study: I'd love to be getting honours. Is that 70 and above or 80 and above? …. I'd stay in college forever if I could. So I wouldn't mind doing Master's. I know it would be hard, but it'd be worth it, while P12 (SCC, Semester 3) hoped to: do well in the exams because I really want to get a good placement…. they [exam results] are not going to stand out, they are average at best….. I know I can do it; I’ve no fear of me being able to go in and do anything that anyone else now is able to do. But I need them to see that.

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P10 (TLCS, Semester 3) concurred with P12 (SCS) maintaining: loads of people do it [business programmes]. I find you need to get a high degree in it for it to be reckonable ... it’s the extra stuff that make you stand out. P7 (MS & SCS, Semester 3) also emphasised that he was making the most of his second chance at HE: this time I know that I want to do well and I want to get a good placement next year. P12 (SCS, Semester 4) cogently defines striving as he maintains the joy is in the journey. Essentially, striving implied that participants were beginning to settle in to their new environment and progress in their respective HE journeys particularly in their developing sense of agency. This manifested itself in small but significant ways, such as in their ability to reach out and ask for additional support, and/or the capability to develop and maintain focus. Moreover, a number of participants who potentially possessed a greater sense of motivation to strive to stand out from their peers.

6.5.4 Flourishing

The concept of ‘flourishing’ in HE can be considered from both a personal and academic viewpoint. For instance, P10 (TLCS, Semester 2) was delighted with her early HE experience and suggested everyone should consider going to college as she mused: …. why doesn’t everyone go [to college] it’s great. She acknowledged that she had transitioned well and was flourishing as she observed that she was definitely more sociable …when I did my Leaving Cert I was the biggest worry-head.… I’m so much more laid back now…. still when it comes to exam time, I’m still very focused.…. P10’s (TLCS, Semester 2) advice to prospective students was: Go out and enjoy yourself all the nights you can, but just don’t forget to come into your lectures. Balance it all, college life is all about balance, like that’s all it is and when you find the balance you are sorted’.

In order to enhance one’s opportunities to flourish, P12 (SCS, Semester 4) suggested that: it’s important to be around interesting people …..you actually become your surrounding…. Some participants envisaged flourishing in a more holistic and extrinsic manner such as P8 (TLCS, Semester 2) who planned to join St Vincent de Paul (a not- for-profit family agency providing financial support to families combatting poverty) and

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was also hoping to undertake a sign language course and regretted that she ‘didn't get involved in that this semester’. P8 (TLCS, Semester 4) continually acknowledged the personal and professional/career development potential of choosing a stream like HR and working within a non-profit organisation: I just love the idea, do you know, so even when they said that there was HR jobs in charities I was so happy …..while P16 (FEG, Semester 3) envisaged working for a regular business company but had always been involved in volunteer work…. since I was 15/14…. She cited companies like….Google have a scheme where employees that do overtime work their money gets donated to a charity of their choice and whilst keeping her options open in terms of future employment she highlighted the inherent values of voluntarism: it’s just something that I have always kind of done so I feel like I need to do it to kind of feel good about me instead of instead of feeling it in the other sense. I actually do genuinely enjoy doing it.

Similarly P3 (TLCS, Semester 4) reinforced the concept of volunteerism in that going to colleges saying: it's not a luxury but I'm lucky to get to do it. There're so many who don't get to go to college….I can give something back. From her HE experiences P2 (TLCS, Semester 2) observed: I’m definitely more open-minded and definitely found confidence into meeting new people and talking to new people…. P12’s attitude highlights why changing programmes of study and taking time away from formal education can be a really positive formative time in one's life: I know that I'm actually working harder this year, like, I'm pretty confident that I can do well …. I don't think there's any problem with me doing anything I want, like, because nothing is impossible. None of these things are hard….you just have to put in the work….(P12, SCS, Semester 1). The concept of flourishing implied that participants were intrinsically satisfied and found meaning in their activities. Flourishing participants not only had a greater sense of self, but also a more fully developed sense of ‘otherness’.

6.5.5 Realising Potential

Ultimately, success is about realising one’s potential. As P12 (SCS, Semester 3) maintained: I don't think there's any problem with me doing anything I want, because nothing is impossible …. you just have to put in the work.... If you can take on board

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criticism, it doesn't matter if it's about rugby, something you're doing at the gym, something you're doing here. If someone says something to you and you know that they're smarter than you, you can just steal their information. Then you're as smart as them. Similarly P10 (TLCS, Semester 3) possessed a similar idea to P12: What I find about college is though you can be whoever you want to be in college … it’s like you’re starting again.

P16 (FEG, Semester 4) realised that reaching her potential may be a longer journey than she had originally envisaged, but this had not dissuaded her:

My original intention was a Master's and I found out then that they [grant (financial) assistance from a local authority] don't cover you up until that, they cover you up until as far as the Bachelor's level eight, so I knew when I leave college I won't be able to go straight into it, that I'd be working for a few years, but the plan was to go back and get it after the few years of working. So if I got offered a scholarship, I would probably stay on.

From a broader holistic perspective P2 (TLCS, Semester 4) maintains that realising potential is: always trying to be better, I suppose improving yourself, improving your work and just be a better person. Similarly, P7 (MS and SCS, Semester 1) perceived success as striving to reach his overall potential:

My definition of success is to always live up to your own potential and be honest with yourself about what your potential is. I would probably put my success so far, maybe at just 50%, being hard on myself. I suppose I was successful in my own mind in the sense that I got through it, I adapted. There were times there when I was just like, oh, my God, is this really want I want to do? I was looking forward and saying like, you know, this is four years. I just said to myself what else is there for you. ….if you just leave this now you're just going to go backwards. You're in a position now where you can go forwards. So mind- frame wise, I think I bought myself to a good way of thinking for the future.

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….if you're willing to work and you're willing to do these things, like there're structures and there're ways and means of going about it…. if you show interest there're always people that will help….I am an adjustable type of person so I am confident that I will strive on and finish it up.

I am in the frame of mind now that the next say seven to ten years of my life are going to be dedicated to education …. There are options there to do Master's and PhDs and everything is there for you if you are willing to put in the effort.

Realising ones’ potential was a key theme educed from the participants, particularly in the latter stages of the study (Semesters 3 and 4). Realising potential encapsulates all of the previous sub-themes from having a clear sense of direction through to flourishing and continually striving and progressing. Positive planning, forward thinking as well as exploiting ones potential were dominant thought processes that were evidenced in the findings. The following presents the findings relating to the transitional experiences of the participants.

6.6 Transitional Experiences

The initial section of this chapter presented and exemplified findings relating to the key theme of this study which pertains to the participants’ perceptions of success as they progressed through their HE journey. A significant part of this HE journey, comprise the early transitional experiences the participants reported that were significant to them at various stages. Two main sub-themes were evident from the data, transitional experiences in terms of how participants navigated their respective journeys and pragmatics of time which was in it-self inherently part of the transition as well as part of the process in terms of managing time and developing independent learning strategies (Figure 13). These findings are presented as follows:

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Figure 13: Transitional Experiences

An integral part of this study entailed eliciting early student transitional experiences in order to determine how well the students felt they had transitioned from second level to HE in terms of perceived levels of social integration, student agency/motivation and emotional development. The participant’s everyday experiences and routines also comprised subthemes referred to as ‘pragmatics of time’. The initial and subsequent interviews investigated how participants spent and managed their time and developed a routine (Figure 14), and were based on CGT analyses of the data using NVivo as a data management tool.

The Participant and Early Student Experiences - Practical Issues Over Time - A Macro Perspective by Semester

A : Semester 1 B : Semester 2 C : Semester 3 D : Semester 4 Managing Time Routines Transitions & Early Experiences

Figure 14: Early Participant Experiences over Time

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Every participant’s early experiences and transition to HE is unique and based on their own expectations, perceptions and experiences (Figure 13). Everyday experiences were therefore scrutinised, particularly the strategies and tactics which participants used to manage their time and attempt to establish a routine that yielded a sense agentic possibility. From the figure above it is evident that participants did not put as much effort into ‘settling in’ during transitions and early Semester 2) as I had envisaged. However, by Semesters 3 and 4 it was clear that managing time and developing a greater sense of agency had assumed greater significance for the participants.

6.6.1 Early Transitions to HE

Participants account for their early experiences by referencing the impact of the post- primary system, such as the Leaving Certificate examination. This process left many participants feeling absolutely exhausted to such an extent that the initial HE process hit me like a bang (P10, TLCS, Semester 1). These feelings seemed compounded by the induction process which was found to be a little bit overwhelming at first as everything is new to you (P5, TLCS, Semester 1) and in some cases it was very, very nerve- wracking (P13, TLCS, Semester 1), particularly if a participant did not know anyone in my group (P4, TLCS, Semester 1). Orientation and induction days were very helpful to all participants mainly from a social perspective:

We did different games and I got talking to people and it was great then coming in on Monday because I had people that had to talk to or had lunch with, and I knew people then …it was such an advantage to have that induction day….I think it takes a while for some people to come out of their shells and they would be nervous and they might be away from home. (P6, TLCS, Semester 1).

Once participants ‘survive’ that initial experience, their expectations change: You’ve to put yourself out there and get to know everybody (P10, TLCS, Semester 1) and once I did it I was like…okay I’m fine now (P4, TLCS, Semester 1). However, the transition to HE and into the participants’ chosen HE programme challenged several of the participant’s personal expectations, such that some claimed that: the course is not really

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what I expected it to be….it’s nothing like school (P6, TLCS, WD, Semester 1). A greater realisation was prompted by issues of independent learning and project and time management: it’s tougher than I thought it was going to be (P10, TLCS, Semester 1), and it’s a step up like and they don’t realise it until they get into it (P6, TLCS, WD, Semester 1). These experiences led to feelings of stress amongst certain participants: When all the assignments were piling up on me now, the last couple of weeks…that was a bit stressful (P13, TLCS, Semester 1).

The means by which the participants framed stressful experiences and how they managed their feelings were important, with P10 (TLCS, Semester 1) discussing her anxieties with her mother: I remember just going home and being, like, ‘Mam, like I can’t do any of this, this is all new to me’. Moreover, their respective overall levels of resilience and psychosocial abilities enabled them to deal with challenges and difficult periods in their personal and academic lives. Psycho-social elements played a significant role in building a participant’s self-identity through interaction with others. Developing and building new relationships was an integral part of the college experience and assisted greatly with social integration, participant well-being, and engagement in the HE experience. P2’s (TLCS, Semester 1) observation encapsulates the overall challenge faced by all participants in Semester 1 as: settling in, getting to know everyone, getting to understand the standard that’s required.

Some participants underwent a significant transition in terms of their new environment, transitioning academically, personally and socially in terms of pre-existing friendships which were in flux: … it’s my friendships from secondary school best friends, that can be tough to maintain …. but that’s kind of a big change the relationships and friendships change…. (P2, TLCS, Semester 2). P6 (TLCS, WD, Semester 2) considered the evolution of existing and new friendships as she maintained: …. Oh, the friends I meet in school now they will be my friends forever and this college isn’t really going to be where I’m going to make really good friend.….However, P6 later asserted she had made friends that sustained her throughout that year where she had significant doubts about the programme of study she was attending and even though she passed all

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modules she subsequently withdrew from the programme. Similarly, P2 (TLCS, Semester 2) commented on ….changing friends, which was difficult to come to terms with, but ….acknowledged that change happens and we are still obviously friendly like, nothing ended badly…. Some participants were dealing with all the transitions in college whilst grieving past friendships.

Second chance students (SCSs) such as P12 (Semester 1) reported being much more prepared for a HE experience this time around; firstly, because time enabled him to mature. Furthermore, P12 reflected that: just coming out of school and having everyone waiting over you to do everything and basically just being spoon-fed answers. And the thing that’s different is having to come up with your own stuff for college, not just re- generating things; you actually have to think for yourself when it comes to the assignments. Furthermore, P14 (SCS, Semester 1) reflected on the benefit of taking time out and returning to HE: when I look at it myself now, the way I did it, I may have lost a year, but it was much more beneficial to me in the long run I think….while P14 did not take being back in HE for grated and urged his peers: not to waste time at all.…. and if you get a grant, don't waste that.

P9 (TLCS, SCS, Semester 3) commenced a completely different programme of study after successfully completing year one of BBS and reflected on her previous choice and the consequences of the decision(s) she had made: I had to go back to first year so it was all over again ...... me and my mum were talking …. I had [alternative programme of study] down the whole way through sixth year, all my CAOs first, so we just decided last year that ‘business would have more opportunities. But then, like, I didn't even like it, so I should have just done what I wanted to do to start. In terms of her own reflections on withdrawing from a programme of study and registering on a new programme, P9 stated: It's so much harder to study when you just have no interest in it. I only got my place like a few days before I had to actually even start college…. everyone's saying this year to me, that are in my year, that you're so like studious now … you didn't want to see me last year. I have a reason to be this year (TLCS, SCS, Semester 3). It was a tough decision for her to make but she had familial support and

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that was pivotal in her decision to withdraw from BBS after year one and recommence a new programme of study in WIT at year one.

P7 (MS & SCS, Semester 2) experienced similar feelings to P9 (TLCS, SCS) towards the programme of study he originally undertook: … a lower cert in business in Dublin, I didn’t like the course - that was the thing.… I didn’t really like the college too much either, and typical me, once I if I don’t like something, I won’t do it … Consequently his advice to second-level students would be:

….if you find that if this is something that you really don’t like or you don’t want to do, you are still only eighteen years of age, you could drop out, you could go and work full time for a year or two ….You can always come back to education and make sure and leave quicker than later, because it will cost you less money. I think that people should be told that from an early stage, because a lot of people are pressured into these degrees through Leaving Cert.

The findings from the participants relating to their early transitional experiences to HE confirmed that their transition began even before they had chosen their program of study and was influenced by many factors. Significantly, their pre-college experiences typify the elevated stress levels students experience throughout the Leaving Certificate cycle, the CAO points race, applications for and/or financial support, as well as accommodation and other practicalities necessary for their HE journey. The ensuing mix of emotions experienced by participants can overwhelm their capacity to cope at a time when they must also navigate the transition itself.

6.6.1.1 Social Integration

One of the fundamental influences of a successful transition to HE was the extent the participants socially integrated (formally and informally) into their new programme of study and HEI. This section delineates their unique experiences of social integration. Developing new friendships with peers proved to be an integral source of support for all of the participants. Informal social supports are the key to students settling into their

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new environments and the extent of social integration demonstrated a positive influence for all of the participants, from both a personal and interpersonal perspective. It was notable that most of the friendships formed with classmates in the earlier days thrived for long after, and some of the female participants stated that ‘they had formed life-long friendships’. In fact, some of the participants maintained contact with each other outside the HE environment and spent time together at weekends, holidays, and also planned to travel and participate in the flexible semester together. Establishing and maintaining friendships also benefitted the students from a learning perspective. Furthermore, the participants’ evolving friendships contributed to their sense of well-being, resilience and self-esteem.

Social supports were also developed through different social media platforms, Each class cohort had set up a closed Facebook page and regularly communicated with each other there about changes to lecture times, study groups, and of course, social gatherings. P16 (FEG, Semester 1) highlighted the power of social media we use Facebook as: It’s basically our way of communicating with each other throughout the year and it’s worked really well on a social side as well as an academic side. Formal social supports emanated from many sources especially from programme tutors, specific lecturers, the students union, counselling services, GPs, and the various clubs and societies that students belonged to. It became evident that participants need to feel they can contact these professionals and groups easily, in a timely and accessible manner, not just in year one, but throughout their programme of study. Reaching out (by both parties) is essential, and like all healthy relationships, is a two-way process.

Transitioning to HE, and a new setting meant that some of the participants moved on from previous relationships as well. For some participants such as P12 (SCS, Semester 3) this was a positive step in his life as he started: realising that you actually didn't really have anything in common. Whereas, other participants such as P8 (TLCS, Semester 4) noted she had lost contact with many of her childhood friends because of being away in college and working at weekends, noting that she had no time to see anyone or do anything with anyone. However, not all new relationships proved to be a

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positive experience with two participants developing a dysfunctional relationship that had negative consequences for both of them. One participant withdrew from the programme after Semester 2 and the other participant remained on the programme and was on the brink of withdrawing but stayed as a result of consistent counselling, emotional parental support, and the development of a new group of friends in her programme group in Semester 3.

The role orientation and induction programmes play in establishing new social bonds are invaluable as evidenced by the following reflections: I think I've made lifelong friends already ….we all help each other (P2, TLCS, Semester 1). Likewise, P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) maintained: I’m after making kind of friends for life. The people I become friendly with then [induction] are the people now that are my friends… I would actually be lost now without them. It’s mad. You just get so attached to people …. because: You’re going through the same experience as them… they understand and the friends you meet in college are the ones you have for life (P10, TLCS, Semester 1), adding we’re blessed because the classes are so small, which is more the norm for IOTs. Similarly P16 reported: (FEG, Semester 1) the friends I made on induction day I still have. They were the good friends I was telling you about that are like-minded like me, they’re the ones I actually stayed with so I actually thought the induction day was great.

Starting a new phase of their lives and in a new environment afforded many participants the opportunity to reflect on older friendships and why they had moved on from them and develop new friendships as explained by P12 (SCS, Semester 4):

I did always fit in with them [school friends], but I think it was just because of the circumstances. I think they were friends because of school and nothing else…. and we had to talk about whatever in school. But I think the further you get away from it, the further you are going down two different roads, and then the further the gap is between you and then there’s just nothing ….

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Social integration played a crucial role from the commencement of college life for numerous reasons such as building a support network (physical and well as virtual) of friends and class-mates could: all help each other out….for social things as well (Jodi Ann, TLCS, Semester 1) and P8 (TLCS, Semester 1) considered we have two study groups I think it’s brought us together…..if people need help……it’s better than anything else, at least everyone knows what’s going on and so everyone helps each other out (P16, FEG, Semester 1). P7 (MS and SCS, Semester 1) recognised the intrinsic and extrinsic value of social networking and had the desire to be socially active as part of his HE experience:

I figured that I'm 25 now so that whole student socialising atmosphere is only going to be a small factor of my degree…. I'm hoping to meet new people and hopefully it will be for the rest of my life….network and get to know people, and you never know when you need them or when they need you, so it's always good to help people.

During Semester 2, most participants placed significant emphasis on growing friendships. As P2 (TLCS, Semester 2) observed: I’ve a very good group of friends now, a solid group of friends. These newly established friendships were nurtured and not taken for granted as P10 (TLCS, Semester 2) similarly reflected: I was blessed, I just clicked with the girls straight away and definitely I think if you didn’t have that kind of friendship, I reckon it would be a lonely place and this was reinforced by P2 (TLCS, Semester 2) who journaled ….still madly in love with my little college family. I love our class. Our class are all friends, but the group of people that I’ve hung out with have changed….it’s still changing, recently our little group of friends has started to merge with another group of friends within our class, so it’s still it’s evolving and changing the whole time I think. Developing and maintaining positive social experiences and relationships with others is arguably essential for social integration as participants confronted the day-to-day challenges of academia whilst negotiating their everyday life.

Developing and maintaining a positive sense of self during this period is summarised by P3 (TLCS, Semester 2):

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Those that mind doesn’t matter and those who matter don’t mind…. It kind of helps you understand the way everyone will work… you get a realisation that not everyone is going to get on together or needs to get on together.

P6’s (TLCS, WD, Semester 2) friendships sustained her during a difficult period during her HE experience: ‘It's my friends; they keep me going’. As time progressed and as the participants evolved personally and interpersonally, P11 (IntS, Semester 2) observed: I have a good friendship with everyone, becoming closer because of time. As year two progressed, friendships did not change significantly, but on the contrary, continued to blossom. P8 (TLCS, Semester 3) enthused that: coming back to college has been great ….you’d miss them…. I enjoyed seeing all my classmates again, we're like a small family. While maintaining positive and supportive relationships was fundamentally important to participants’ well-being and student agency, identifying mentors was also revealed as an important facet of HE as P12 (SCS, Semester 3) elucidated:…you have to ask people. I mean, people that have done things [professionally]. They're always willing to help you.

The participants had individually and collectively developed a deeper sense of self in terms of what they deemed to be positive social interactions, as opposed to those which were not beneficial to them. Participants like P11 (IntS, Semester 3) observed a positive change in the behaviour in some of his class-mates and friends, noting: actually, two of my friends compared to first year, they have like really improved themselves and started to study hard, so especially P12, he is improving as well. This was corroborated by P12 (SCS, Semester 3) who remarked that: a couple of lads in the class think the same way as well. Even when you're surrounded by a couple of other people that would be really trying to do well as well, it kind of motivates you to do it….. I think if someone else can do it, there's no reason I can't do it.

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As is evident from the findings above, the role which both formal and informal orientation and early engagement initiatives play in developing social integration in a HEI has positive ramifications in terms of personal and interpersonal development, well-being, engagement, and student success. Relinquishing previous friendships and forging new and evolving bonds, walking away from dysfunctional attachments and recognising and celebrating the efficacy of newly-developed relationships, has a profound impact on every individual and is one of the most intrinsically satisfying rewards of the HE experience. Successful social integration has a demonstrably positive impact on the student and also influences their levels of engagement and motivation which are described in the following section.

6.6.1.2 Motivational Experiences and Influences

The participants rehearsed varying degrees of motivation throughout their interviews and journals. This section charts and exemplifies the participants’ evolving degrees of motivation as well as the intrinsic and extrinsic influences obtaining to agency and motivation. From the findings of the study it was apparent that motivation is a fluid feeling and that some participants are clearly more self-efficacious than others at being self-directed. For instance, P6 noted (TLCS, Semester 1) some student groups had: organised study classes (P8, TLCS, Semester 1). Inevitably, like P8, most participants resolved that: next Semester I’m going to just knuckle down from the start and just get going. P12 (SCS, Semester 1) attested: once you get yourself to do it I think the course content is easy enough; while P3 (TLCS, Semester 2) described his sense of agency and motivation as follows: one side is motivating you because you just want to do well, the other side you want to something better than someone else. He was also he was trying to push for the Dean’s list. Factors that boosted participant motivation included the specific subject area or topic: you want to be in or the fact that it’s your own responsibility, so when you go home with bad results, it’s all on you.

Second chance students (SCSs) were observably more motivated than their traditional school leaver counterparts (TLCSs) as is typified by P12 (SCS, Semester 1): I feel like it’s better now than when I started, after coming straight out of school, I just wasn’t

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ready for college….the most thing that’s different is having to come up with your own stuff for college like, not just re-generating things, you actually have to think for yourself. Moreover, P12 did not qualify for student support (the HE grant) as he was re- attending a new programme of study and thus had: to pay tuition fees coming back. He identified with the notion that he was: definitely more motivated and I just want to get, at this point, it over with and just have college done and just get on with it rather than sitting around. Therefore, having the opportunity to take time out and determine and progress to a new programme of study was inherently motivating. P12 (SCS, Semester 2) reflected: I think the course just suited me a bit better. I don’t think I changed to suit college…. Similarly, when P9 (TLCS, SCS, Semester 3/1) returned to WIT the following year and re-commenced a new programme of study she reflected she was definitely more motivated as she maintained that actually having an interest so you're just learning more was a fundamentally different experience for her. In essence what motivates one person at a given time varies due to of their level of maturity, their life circumstances, whether they are in a preferred programme of study, their level of social integration, and their mind-set.

Familial support provided all students (both school-leavers and mature students alike) with a sound emotional foundation. In P12’s (SCS, Semester 1) case this involved his parents giving him space, time and support: my parents stood back and said ‘What do want to do? What would you like to do?’ and then even when I said ‘a course’ they said ‘Alright. How do you do this? How are you going to do that?’ or whatever. It wasn’t so much ‘You should be doing this, you should be doing that’ like. So even then when I left, [they were] open to whatever I wanted to do, it was more so my choice. P10 also lived at home with her parents and siblings and reflected on the warm support she received (TLCS, Semester 4): I know people who wouldn’t have a good relationship with their parents, and they’re going home, and when the support is not there at home it’s hard to even motivate yourself.

P12 (SCS, Semester 3) reported: I know that if I'm actually working harder this year…. I'm pretty confident that I can do well….and had an added motivation … this year I'm

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trying to do well in the exams because I really want to get a good placement. He also identified you just have to put in the work. P8 (TLCS, Semester 3) who was also aiming for a good placement, reflected on her growing maturity: I'm definitely more mature anyway ….last year I was in first year and this time I know that I want to do well and I want to get a good placement next year. Last year I was a little bit of a party girl…. I was always tired or I was going out, or I was doing something and I didn't really give myself the opportunity to do as good as I wanted to do. But this year I'm not going out and I'm going to library instead of going home.

Sources of motivation for the participants were intrinsic and extrinsic and included availing of informal and formal support networks such as family, friends, class-mates as well as tutors, counsellors, and psychotherapists. P16 (FEG, Semester 2) undertook a Level 5 programme prior to the current academic programme in HE and considered how important her family were as a source of motivation:

My family, they're proud so I don’t want to let them down by me doing badly. So it motivates me to get up and do it if I'm feeling bad one day and I don't want to go in, then I'm just like, come on, get your ass up now, and go in. …. They're interested in what I'm doing and they want to know what it's like, and that kind of keeps me wanting to go to tell them.

Sources of intrinsic motivation were as also cited by participants as P3 (TLCS, Semester 2) who possesses high levels of extrinsic-achievement-orientated motivation:

…..when I was over the 70% I thought I might be in with a chance.....just trying to figure out new ways of ‘upping yourself’ ...... so I’m going to focus on grades and then I started doing volunteering in the college and in the businesses side of things. So I’m trying a few different ways of kind of building us all up to do better than everyone else.

During Semesters 3 and 4, the participants demonstrated higher levels of covert competitiveness amongst their peers. Participants were more focused in terms of progressing academically most specifically in terms of consideration of their flexible

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Semester, and needing to ‘stand out’ to be considered for placement by a well-regarded company. P12 (SCS, Semester 3) reinforced this as he considered:

I have better work ethic this year (second year) maybe. I'm really starting to enjoy it a little bit. It's crazy. When I get an assignment …. there'll be a couple of lads in the class and like it's only this year now, last year I was kind of like, oh, if I pass these exams, like yay. But this year I'm really starting to think like I need to do well in this, I need to do really well in this and when I'm looking for a work placement next year I'll need to have these exams.

Motivational experiences were often punctuated by time (of the semester and/or year) and by personal and interpersonal experiences as well as intrinsic and extrinsic influences. The findings from the study confirm that motivation is closely linked to student agency. Furthermore, motivation is connected to each individual’s sense of resilience and self-belief as discussed in the following section.

6.6.1.3 Emotional Influences

Effectively managing one’s emotions, seeking and giving emotional support are critical to progressing in HE. Emotional support emanated from many sources especially from the participants’ families, friends (both new and pre-existing), their peers, and occasionally their programme tutor, year tutor, or a specific lecturer. Emotional support was also available from support services such as counsellors, GPs and members of the students’ union. This form of support is nuanced and more evident from the participants’ descriptions of their social supports rather than their emotions. However the ability to manage their emotions and willingness to reach out for support greatly enhanced student agency and their overall well-being and resilience.

The degree of social integration and their experience of group dynamics impacts on a participant’s overall sense of well-being and their ability to assimilate day-to-day experiences. The sudden change in the social environment and gradual losses of earlier

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friendships heightened the emotional intensity of this aspect of participants’ early experiences. Many of the participants had formed close friendships having ‘made life- long friends already (P2, TLCS, Semester 2). P10 (TLCS, Semester 1) observed: … you just get so attached to people. You’re going through the same experience as them, they say the friends you meet in college are the ones you have for life and generally I would believe that.

The early period in HE can also be an opportunity for a participant like P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) to re-invent themselves: I was kind of trying to make the most kind of best impression with everybody like, best first impression… I was talking to everyone. I was trying my best like because I knew that if I didn’t actively do it, I wouldn’t do it naturally like’ and develop a greater sense of self …. so I kind of end up falling back into the crowd and let everyone take over and all. So I was determined not to let that happen. Starting HE can be like ‘a new beginning’ for some students: You can be whoever you want to be in college, it’s like you’re starting again, even if you’ve had a bad experience in secondary school or whatever you can literally be whoever you want to be when you go into college (P10, TLCS, Semester 3).

During that early period in HE P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) identified the importance of seeking out and establishing friendships with students who have the same work ethic and that he’s not all about going out and I’d be the same….so we have the same kind of mind-set on college life. Familial and emotional support was critical to most participants such as P16 (FEG, Semester 1) who commended the support from the people most significant in her life: … my family and my boyfriend …. I was lucky I had the support at home and I had the friends to tell me to get up off my ass and go for it, if that’s what I really wanted, to just do it. A re-established family network often occurs with growing maturity, and in several cases, this seemed to have a very positive effect on the overall well-being of the participant. As P7 (MS, SCS, Semester 4) noted: there’s that aspect of my life now that I’m really trying to put my best foot forward and to take responsibility because even I notice my relationship with my parents has completely changed.

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Student friendships, including both platonic and romantic relationships, evolved during the participants’ transition to HE. While this made the process more difficult for a number of the participants, for others, it afforded an opportunity to start afresh and disassociate themselves from unwanted acquaintances. On observation it is noteworthy that commencing HE programme affords an individual the opportunity to evolve and disassociate from dysfunctional relationships and endows a person with the chance to be themselves and develop and forge more healthful bonds. As P12 (SCS, Semester 4) reflected: I’ve been thinking a lot lately about when I was in school, and none of my friends were thinking ahead to anything….the more I look back, and I’m like; wow, what was that about?

In Semester 1, P16 (FEG, Semester 2) considered the inherent relationship between friendship and motivation …. I ended up making friends on my first day and staying with the same ones. I was lucky. I think it motivates you to get up and go in, to be honest. Similarly, P4 (TLCS, WD, Semester 4) observed: I never knew that other people in your course will make such a big difference to what you want to do …. You are definitely influenced by other people very easily. P4 (TLCS, Semester 1 & 2) had experienced a stressful time in year one with newly established relationships that became quite dysfunctional and ended with negative emotional consequences. When in- class friendships are well-established and when a student experiences a high degree of social integration and has a support network, it can be hugely motivational. P16 (FEG, Semester 4) stated if I didn't have them every day, it would make it a bit harder for me to come in and get up and get that motivation to want to come in…..you all keep each other going.

Each and every participant on the study possessed emotional intelligence to a greater or lesser extent. Social integration had a positive impact on participants’ emotionality although obviously participants’ emotions and level of resilience did fluctuate during their first four semesters in line with their individuated life narratives at any given time. Nonetheless, their ability to handle their emotions and seek support as appropriate was integral to their well-being and ability to progress meaningfully in their HE journey.

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The following sections evaluate the role that time played as a resource in the participants’ lives and in their HE journey.

6.6.2 Pragmatics of Time

Pragmatics of time comprised two significant issues for the participants: namely, managing time; and developing a routine. These factors were particularly challenging for the students in the early days of HE. However, as this is a longitudinal study I had the opportunity of reviewing how participants managed their time, how their time management strategies developed over time, and how they reflected on their time and experiences and made plans for their future. During Semester 2, when a dawning reality of the pragmatics of time and time management became more apparent, P16 (FEG, Semester 2) recommended: study more. The only thing that I changed was that I tried to study at the beginning and keep on top of it, instead of leaving it until now and doing it all now, because you can't cram that much information in only two weeks or a week. In the same way, P8 (TLCS, Semester 3) became a lot more self-organised and focused: I've had more of my assignments done a week or two in advance, and I've been able to bring them in and show them to lecturers and see what I need to do. So I've been getting on a little bit better. Last year I was a little bit of a party girl…. But this year, I'm not going out and I'm going to library instead of going home.

6.6.2.1 Managing Time

Time management in terms of developing and establishing routines, and self- efficacious behaviour are issues which most participants grappled with. P2 (TLCS, Semester 1) reflected on the extent to which the students managed their unscheduled time during those early weeks as the students: were not allocated set assignments, because we were only getting introduced, so we had like three hours' break, so we were just, like, what do we do? P4 (TLCS, Semester 1) echoed this, saying: I find it hard to study in here…..I find it hard to study at home as well….. the breaks - I find really hard. I find the structure really hard. There’s barely any structure. Most participants came across as well-intentioned in terms of self-efficacious behaviour and agency. However, it proved to be difficult for them as highlighted by P5 (TLCS, WD, Semester 1): you

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just try to wrap your head around things, plan out how you’re going to go about making study plans for yourself. You’re planning for yourself. I make plans but whether I stick to them or not now is another thing…..

Time management skills were a significant issue for those who were obliged to work (part-time). Perceived lack of time, either by taking on too much extra-curricular activities, part-time employment, and/or poor time management skills, and the subsequent impact on a person’s well-being was reflected by observations from P7 (MS and SCS, Semester 1) who is finically self-supporting:

I feel very lost sometimes, everything is between work and personal life and college. It's just literally that's all I do, you know …. I could just sit on my own for five hours and just think about things. It's something I like to do. But I don't have that time anymore and kind of adjusting to that, as well, is different …. You just have to get in and get on with it. So that's my attitude for next year. It's get in, treat it like a nine to five, come in every day and then just probably them few hours that I would have spent in the poolroom with the boys, I cannot procrastinate and they could be spent in the library. So I don't have the stressful evenings of thinking about this and that. I don't like to study at home. I like to get it all done here and when I get home I like to keep that as my relaxing area.

Equally, some participants reported finding it difficult to manage their ‘free time’, especially around holidays, and study periods during the semester. It is worth noting most participants worked during holiday periods with no break/holiday and very little down-time. A number of participants such as P2 (TLCS, Semester 1) wanted to accelerate the college year and did not particularly appreciate non-festive breaks such as study weeks/mid-term. …. just a little bit of down time ….. mid-term I was so bored I just wanted to come to college….like a week is way too long. I need to go back to college (laughs). Likewise, P7 (MS SCS, Semester 1) felt the same way: I'm not an overly religious person, so I wouldn't have any application to Halloween. My only appreciation of Christmas is community and family. I don't even think we should have an Easter break either. I think it should be 12 Christmas, 12 after.

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Both P12 and P14 (SCS, Semester 1) reflected on their past experiences in HE and how they perceived it in a completely different manner. They also seem to have had a change of mind-set in terms of how they handled their time in HE:

After coming straight out of school I just wasn’t ready for college. I feel much better this time coming back…..I found this time around, it’s different, it’s more so like you come in, you just learn what you have to do and then you just have to go and do it and just get it out of the way.... it’s almost like a job....now I know what happens when I do badly in things and just, I am definitely more motivated and I just want to get, at this point, it over with and just have college done and just get on with it rather than sitting around (P12, SCS, Semester 1).

When I started first, I came straight out of sixth year and I came straight into college. Oh this is what I want to do, 100 per cent I fully invested in this. I said, ‘grand - do this’, But then when it came, I did first year I was doing well, just hated the course. ….if you need to take a year out you need to. Like, that’s that. There’s no two ways about it so. But it’s benefitted me, I must say, a lot (P14, SCS, Semester 1).

Time as a resource and as a metric was an underlying aspect of the participants’ lives. Time enabled the participants to look forward, live in the moment, and be retrospective and reflective. All facets of time were inherently essential in terms of personal and academic experiences. Grappling with and managing time was a critical issue for all of the participants and was a consistent theme throughout the study. Time was evidently an invaluable asset as it accommodated personal growth as was evidenced by the participants’ in terms of their observations and experiences. As time evolved, so too did the participants of this study.

6.6.2.2 Developing a Routine

Developing a routine as early as possible in HE was deemed to be essential, particularly in terms of developing independent learning strategies. P6 (TLCS, WD, Semester 1) advised prospective students to: work from the beginning … not to be

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dossing or you can go out like every week if you want, but come in the next day, and that the routine is pretty much set after the first six weeks and the second six weeks are more serious (P12, SCS, Semester 1) and talked about being so determined to be super- organised and to attend every single class. Additionally, new routines can be developed as journaled by P16 (FEG, Semester 3) during Semester 3: time management I think has got a little bit better…. I'm going to the library most free times, which is good to help me focus. Participants increasingly recognised time as an asset that needed to be actively managed. Developing a routine in terms of honing time management skills and independent learning strategies was essential as it grounded participants in terms of agency and motivation and also contributed to their sense of well-being. The following section explores the personal experiences of the participants during their first four Semesters in HE.

6.7 Personal Experiences

Participants’ personal experiences were clearly unique to each of them. However, the many ways in which personal growth it affected and effected the participants’ respective academic and career progression are elucidated in the findings below. Participant’s perceptions of their experiences which impacted their academic experiences and endeavours were underpinned by their ability to manage their well-being and resilience as described in section (6.7.3 - 4) and as illustrated in Figure 15.

Figure 15: Personal Experiences

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Participants’ personal experiences and sub-themes which emerged from the data included their growing sense of (emerging and evolving) self, participants’ agency and sense of well-being and resilience. Each of these sub-themes played a vital role in the participants’ overall HE experience(s) and their evolving perceptions of success.

6.7.1 The Emerging and Evolving Self

The emerging and evolving self pertains to the students’ evolving self-concept and self-identity over time. Participants’ personal experiences were reported in the past, present and future by reflecting back on their second-level experiences, their early transition to HE, and planning for the future through their existing sense of agency and time management.

The Participant as Emergent Person Over Time by Semester

Accountability Growing Maturity Second Chance Self-Efficacy Self-Esteem Student Agency Students A : Semester 1 B : Semester 2 C : Semester 3 D : Semester 4

Figure 16: Participant as Emerging Person over Time

Figure 16 presents the key sub-themes which emerged from the series of interviews conducted with the participants that described perceptions relating to their evolving and emerging selves and how they were developing (in maturity, academically,

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professionally) over time (their first four semesters). Notably in Semesters 2 and 4, the participants returned to college with a renewed sense of agency and accountability. While growth in confidence and independence from participants is observable in Semesters 1 and 2, growth in student agency were more marked throughout Semesters 3 and 4. Moreover, mature students exhibited higher degrees of agency from the initial stages of HE and throughout their four semesters in college.

One theme that clearly emerged was that participants felt they could be authentic and ‘be themselves’ once they come to college. They did not feel the same pressure to conform or to ‘fit in’ as they had at second-level. Such aspects of self-identity seem intrinsically connected to growing self-esteem. In HE they enjoyed the space and freedom to develop a ‘sense of self’. As P3 (TLS, Semester 3) reported: only now we are starting to lose that uniform mentality and stop conforming with each other…. so that kind of idea of conforming, it is leaving slowly as we are getting older, it is still there in a sense that we are not fully there. Similarly, P2 (TLCS, Semester 3) embraced her independence and self-expression, which included symbolic gestures and physical aspects such as continuously changing the colour of her hair: time is flying…..it's crazy. Like how many different hair colours have I had? I'd say three. Blue, pink, and purple. So it changes. Just everything. Everything changes….

All of the participants grew in maturity and independence throughout each semester. The most notable changes in terms of overall maturity occurred following their first summer break in Semesters 3 and 4, as participants became more focused on making choices for their flexible semester, their area of specialism, and their future career/academic paths. However, as such developments in maturity and independence manifested themselves physically, mentally and emotionally, some participants became more accepting of self and others, and were more open to change:

I think some people are better at accepting change than others. So I suppose it happens to everyone at different paces and some people don’t change and some people can go with it, but I think it is natural enough to happen. I’m more open- minded towards people, because you meet so many characters in college, it’s not like school, it’s not stereotypical and I

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accept everyone has a different opinion..... I found confidence in meeting new people (P2, TLCS, Semester 2).

Exemplars of how growing maturity, responsibility and independence flourished within the participants was evidenced by the extent of participant agency that participants such as P3 (TLCS, Semester 2) demonstrated from very early on in his HE experience: When I started I was very quiet and I don’t know what happened when I hit college, I suddenly became very studious because I used to hate studying in the secondary school and in here, the fact that it’s your own responsibility, so when you go home with bad results, it’s all on you. P8 (TLCS, Semester 2) recognised how independent she had become and how much her mother did had done for her when she was at home, and observed: I've got a lot more understanding for the things now. First Semester was kind of touch and go, I'd say I've got more mature from living on my own without my mother to do everything for me. I've definitely matured….. I've definitely grown in respect, and noted, 'I've definitely become more responsible and mature …. I know what I like and what I don't like and my boundaries….

Having commenced college in 2015, the participants in this study tended to make frequent references to their [mainly familial] experiences of the economic crisis. The participants had a heightened sense of responsibility for themselves and towards their respective families, particularly from a financial perspective. P9 (TLCS and SCS, Semester 1) stated that she worked: at least one day at weekends so you have a bit of money coming back down instead of asking my Mam for money all the time. P14 (SCS, Semester 1) and P10 (TLCS, Semester 2) respectively mentioned similar arrangements, and P14 explained: I said to my parents I’ll pay my own way, because I’m working 20, 25 plus hours a week.….so I’m not really taking any money off them, because I just don’t think it’s fair, while P10 (TLCS, Semester 3) asserted: I don’t like to be relying on them at home, they’ve enough going on….some people want to move away because they’ve no freedom at home, or whatever, but the way my mam and dad are, it never bothered me.

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Growing in maturity and independence was not easy for many of the participants, who also had to contend with commuting and working long hours at weekends:

I’m going home and working all weekend to get my bit of money for college. It has to be done. A bit less strain on me and my parents. I have two jobs. I come home on a Friday, come back on a Sunday. I don’t get a lie on. My lie on is a Thursday morning when I don’t have class until 11.15. …..Sometimes you’d be so exhausted, like you know you could work 20 hours in the weekend and then you go and you do your college and you’d be tired…..I’ve to work Christmas Day and everything…. But sure, look, what can you do? I’ll just get on with it (P8, TLCS, Semester 1).

The participants commented on their good fortune in terms of being in a position to attend HE and were acutely aware of the sacrifices their parents had made for them. The following statement highlights their efforts to demonstrate their growing maturity to their parents:

I'm hoping that I'll get a good bit of work this summer and I'll save up and then if my mum and dad are ever stuck I can just say, it's grand, I have the money there. Give it back to me when you have it or whatever. They don't even have to. I didn't really think of that last summer when I was out buying my new shoes, but this summer I'll definitely be thinking about it. I am hoping that for some months I can just turn around to my mam and just go oh, it's grand, I'll pay the rent this month. That's the least I can do (P8, TLCS, Semester 2).

When students (TLCSs, SCSs and MSs) enter a HE environment they are at different stages in terms of their personal development. As time progressed the participants became more self-aware of their growing maturity. As P8 reflected (TLCS, Semester 3) that she was: a little bit more mature anyway….this time I know that I want to do well and I want to get a good placement next year.

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Mature students also continued to develop (personally, academically and professionally) and re-establish themselves as individuals. As a parent, P1 (MS, Semester 4) reflected on the gift she was giving to herself and as a role-model to her children:

When you are a parent, the first thing that you do, you know you have that habit of dropping everything for your kids....but I remember sitting there thinking, sometimes it’s not the right thing. Sometimes to drop what you are doing yourself is not the right thing, because then what do you become then? You’ve lost a bit of yourself, and my child is X years of age …., and I’m thinking, you know, in Y years, she’s going to be in here you know. Hopefully I’ll be sitting doing my Masters and she will be in here in first year ….Because if not, you get caught up with just being a parent and I don’t want to just be a [parent], or just be a sister, or just be a daughter. I want to still be myself…. I’m glad I’m older doing it.

The emerging and evolving self is a concept connecting to time as a resource and growth in maturity of the participants. Having the time and space as well as the environment and social support to grow and develop as a person is an important part of the HE journey as evidenced by the participants’ experiences and observations.

6.7.2 Developing Agency Once the participants had settled into their new environment and programme of study, they began to commence course-work (autonomous and group) and at different times and ways began to develop their own sense of agency. P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) explained: ...it’s up to yourself. If you are a bit more driven to do the work, you will do it, no bother. And I know that I’m not going to get better if I don’t come into class., P8 (TLCS, Semester 1) agreed: I’ve started to realise that college is a bit of work and you just have to put your mind to it…. A degree of competitiveness also developed between classmates with P10 (TLCS, Semester 4) observing: none of us will admit it but we’re all really secretly competitive with each other, for everything.

Participants seemed to really enjoy the challenges and resultant benefits from communications modules in terms of enhancing their self-confidence and self-esteem.

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P10 (TLCS, Semester 2) reported having an issue in terms of standing in front of her peers and presenting and reflected: I just talked to myself into ‘just go to class’ and ….if you are going to avoid it, it’s not going to make anything better, but if I go to class and even learn one new thing in class, it’s better. So it took me a while to tell myself to cop on and go…. it forces you to do things that you normally it’s not in your comfort zone and I think I need that push to do things like that. P7 (SCS, MS, Semester 2) similarly observed that he had developed my presenting skills greatly and it’s something that I always wanted to do, because I always knew I had a natural tack to it, but obviously having a natural tack is not enough, while P12 (SCS, Semester 2) realised: in terms of life-lessons, like doing big projects and getting up and talking in front of classes, that makes a bit of a difference.

Some modules, particularly those which encompass personal development skills such as oral communications, supported growth in self-esteem in the participants of this study. Stepping out of their comfort zone boosted confidence as P13 (TLCS, Semester 2) observed: I definitely have got more confidence ….., while P15 (TLCS, WD, Semester 2) also reflected on her growth in confidence: I feel more confident this time around because obviously I didn't know what was facing me at all last time; especially at presenting.

A polarity of perceptions concerning student agency was evident and ranged from reactive and consequence-based views to positive and proactive views. P4’s (TLCS, Semester 2) views were more consequence-orientated as she reported that she did not:…want to do this, but I have to do it, whereas before it was like teachers bugging you every time. If you don’t have it done, it’s your own fault. On the other hand, P16 (FEG, Semester 1) and P10 (TLCS, Semester 3) respectively held positive perceptions on agency and on striving to reach one's potential:….I thought to myself, will I be actually able to do this? That would actually have been the lowest point, so that’s why I pulled my boots up and got help, and P10 (TLCS, Semester 2) who demurred: I’m not naturally smart but if I put work in I will get it. I think if you don’t like something get up and change it, like you have the power to change if you’re not happy with it. You can’t sit around and wait for everyone else to do it for you - you’ve to do it yourself.

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Conversations with the participants afforded them the opportunity to reflect on their lives and behaviours from second-level education to date, in terms of how they had developed, in what manner, and to what extent. A number of the participants such as P3 (TLCS, Semester 3) experienced personal transformation and started to develop their sense of agency in the HE setting as he reflected that he:….was so different back in secondary school, no drive, no focus, no motivation’ and that he ‘…. didn’t want to do anything and was a big mess…but had completely changed when he commenced HE.

Becoming an independent learner and developing learning strategies coupled with developing a greater sense of agency evolved for each participant at different paces and in different ways. P10 (TLCS, Semester 2) did not wait until study week to start studying but started a bit earlier as also clearly recognised that she had to change her learning style. She knew she was: always very good at sitting down and learning something off and regurgitating it…. whereas when it came to subjects where you had to understand why you were doing it, that’s where I struggled because I just learnt the stuff off, I just literally and spewed it out on a page….. but when I came here and accounting and economics and you have to understand why you are doing it, so it’s not just a matter of learning it straight off anymore. Meanwhile P12 (SCS, Semester 2) clearly took a very different approach suggesting he would be grand in study week and the exams, it’s just the classes now I just don’t want to go to any more classes….If I can get myself focused, I have no problem doing anything. I have just got really, really intense for a short period of time and then everything has been okay in the end.

P16 (FEG, Semester 1) reported that during her FE programme she had received a lot of feedback and help in identifying her learning style and developing appropriate learning strategies to best equip him/her for HE:

It’s about being able to break up the little habits and being able to break up your time between study and friends and things like that. It’s up to your-self. I don’t think it’s up to the college, it’s up to yourself to go to get it done if you want something enough, you don’t have to have somebody else turn around to you and ask you, just ….if you want something, ask.

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Second chance students, and even FE graduates, have certain advantages when they return or commence a HE programme, since as they have the benefit of prior experiences, additional maturity, and modified expectations. This is typified by P12 (SCS, Semester 1) who related: I only turned 18 when I started here so I was young enough. I’m 20 now …. I knew what to expect ….and I had a bit more of a plan of what I was going to do …. I know the system.

The selection of streams for BBS degree (hons) occurred in Semester 4 in WIT at a time when students are: starting to make these decisions that are going to have an impact later on. People are starting to think about how they are going to do well and how things are going to end up eventually in the future (P12, SCS, Semester 4). Findings from this part of the study suggest that particular modules connected to personal development such as communications and learning effective time management skills directly influenced the participants developing sense of agency. The final theme of well- being and resilience which underpins all of the previous themes and sub-themes will be discussed in the final section of this chapter.

6.7.3 Well-being The participants in the study discussed their physical and emotional well-being which was often interconnected. Their overall levels of well-being seemed to peak as time evolved, especially during Semester 3. However, this general sense of well-being appeared to dip by the end of their Semester 4 just before their summative examinations. The following sections trace the participants’ sense of well-being over time and as Figure 17 below demonstrates, as the participants physical, mental and/or emotional well-being slipped down so did their resilience and vice versa. The following excerpt epitomises the level of distress experienced by most first year students as most of the participants recalled how they felt on their first day in college in vivid detail: being a little bit overwhelming at first (P5, TLCS, WD, Semester 1) and terrifying because I didn’t realize how many students were going to be in the first year of business….so that was the shock (P3, TLCS, Semester 1).

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Figure 17: Well-being over Time

The following sections present the participants’ sense of their own physical and emotional well-being over their first four Semesters in HE.

6.7.3.1 Physical Well-being

One of the most significant themes that arose from conversations with the participants, particularly traditional school leavers (TLCSs) in Semester 1, was their compromised physical well-being following the strains of the Leaving Certificate cycle. I actually coined this fatigue ‘post-Leaving Certificate hang-over’ as it was evident that several of the participants were still physically and mentally recovering from the pressures of the examination process in Semester 1 and struggling with the extended daily hours in HE. P10 (TLCS, Semester 1) complained of being: absolutely exhausted. Improvement in self-esteem as a result of focusing on physical well-being is expressed by P3 (TLCS, Semester 4) who reported: I started going to the gym because I was really body conscious....I got more emotionally into it…... Similarly, over time P12 (SCS, Semester 1) became more interested in physical activity which not only benefited him physically but socially and mentally as he observed that he thought he was more focused and deemed it invaluable to: be involved in things around college…..even just as motivator to come in, and it becomes part of college as well. It’s part of the experience.

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Juggling part-time employment and balancing the demands of college, work, family and friends impacted several participants. P14 (SCS, Semester 2) tried not to: overload himself or take on too much, as he maintained that: you’re just going to wear yourself out and you'll be able to do nothing by the end of the week. Nevertheless, in spite of his self-care attempts he came to experience anxiety and depression in subsequent semesters. The participants were often physically exhausted as P8’s (TLCS, Semesters 1 & 4) experiences underscore:

I have two jobs. My dad is always giving out to me about doing too much, but what can you do? When I have a day off, I just lie in bed all day feeling sorry for myself, and get up the next morning and go again…..but that day kind of just breaks it all, then you feel so much better after. Even if you meet up with someone or whatever….. I’ve had to work so much, I’ve let down friendships a little bit…let them simmer out, but hopefully when college is all over I can start going back….

Similarly, P7 (MS & SCS, Semester 2) had to contend with significant issues around work-related stress as his job had very unsocial hours:

Personally, I absolutely hate my job and it causes a situational depression at the weekends …. I’ve lagged behind due to increasing in workload …. I got to college as much as I could, did as much work as possible, but keeping within the deadlines ….it was a tough, a tough few weeks. It was worth it I suppose.

Compromised physical well-being as a result of prolonged stress manifested itself in different ways in each participant. P1 (MS, Semester 3) regularly journaled and as a single parent and mature student she documented:

I’ve had stress in my personal life that hasn't helped and I have people dragging at me from every direction it is really getting on my nerves. I am sooooooo frustrated …. I think I found that hard, at the same time I wasn’t eating and I wasn’t sleeping and I was stressing over college and I got very run down and got sick.

P11 (IntS, Semester 1) had a very intensive and stressful time prior to arriving in Ireland. His feelings on the levels of stress he was experiencing and how relieved he

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was to be in a different HEI captures so much about the costs of neglecting physical and mental well-being:

It was very hard to study; we have assignments like in a row for each subject, like 5 or 4 assignments. You can’t have any relaxation time …. So it was always like on adrenaline and always like work, work, work…... So then I just said [XXXX programme] is too hard for me so I decided to go somewhere in Europe to get a good education, close to my culture and tradition…..

I am just still a bit tired from my past year.... I am happy but a little bit sad because before I was like a robot I know… (laughs)….you have to balance both, if you work, work, work what’s the point of life? I just want to work and I want to live, like balance it normally. I feel good now.

The following is an excerpt from P7 (MS & SCS, Semester 3) as he realised that he was not looking after his physical well-being:

I’m only after getting a short amount of sleep and it’s not really a great sleep, because you are physically exhausted ….to be honest, it’s been very tough ….you know you are getting run down and then you’re eating habits get very bad because you just eat what you want, rather than what you should be eating…. You are eating to kind of cheer yourself up to a certain extent, which is never a good thing.

6.7.3.2 Mental and Emotional Well-being The participant’s perceived levels of success and agency had a knock-on effect on their emotional well-being and vice-versa. These factors had a positive effect on their levels of academic attainment and degrees of self-fulfilment and self-actualisation (striving). Living in the present and mindfulness has been acknowledged by participants as being important in terms of allowing for reflection and planning. The following excerpts are two examples from participants who were struggling physically, mentally and emotionally. P1 (MS, Semester 3) allowed herself time to rest, reflect and plan to get my head back in the game. So I am giving myself tomorrow to re-group myself and get myself in order to get ahead. Similarly, (P7, MS & SCS, Semester 3) believed that:

People who live in the moment, they live happy …., people are always looking back, are always getting peeved off about things that they did wrong ….and people who are looking

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forward are always anxious about it happening, so just what’s going on right now in this moment in time, that’s what you should be thinking about ….time for myself. A few walks here and there, exercise……..But in all other aspects of life, if someone says ‘what would be one of your favourite days?’ The day I lay on the grass and looked up at the sky ….

Accessing student support services such as counselling (psychotherapy) was not only effective in alleviating emotional distress but supported P4 (TLCS, Semester 2).in becoming: a lot more comfortable with who she was as she was as she was… fed up of trying to fit into everybody else’s comfortable thing.…. now I’m happy to be who I am. P7 (SCS, MS, Semester 3) reported that a visit to an on-campus GP had a positive impact on his life-style and well-being. In relation to well-being P7 advised that: the first thing to take control over is your hobbies….your own personal life. P7 acknowledged the role of agency from a personal and academic perspective:

….. when you don’t have control over your own life and everything in your life, in your work and in your college….that’s what’s controlling you. Whereas, you are not directly controlling your own things, so she said, “you need to take control over your work. You need to take control over your college and take control over your exercise and control over your sleep”.

Although P1 (MS, Semester 1) was dealing with her own personal issues (financial, health, familial) she expressed concern about fellow participants and the mental health policy in the institute:

Even in the welfare society (students’ union) they were talking about doing ….mental health day, they have two target markets one are the people who need the help and won’t go for it and the other are the people that need it and don’t know where to go for it (P1, MS, Semester 1).

Mental well-being was a prevalent issue for participants as it was often compromised due of the stress of impending examinations and/or repeating examinations. There is also an issue regarding aftercare and/or pre-examination support for repeat participants’ especially when they are repeating examinations during summer when lecturers are generally unavailable for consultation. As P1 (MS, Semester 2) observed:

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I think having to repeat....I got very down about it. But XXXX module is what’s throwing me all the time. My biggest fear, and I’ve had nightmares about it, is that I’m going to just fail miserably and have to repeat and what happens if I have to repeat and am I going to bother? If I have to repeat a whole year is a hard thing.... you still have to fit that in over your summer, you’re still burying your head in books…. Regarding repeats and summer time - there’s no aftercare or backup.

In spite of all she had to contend with, P1 (MS, Semester 3) maintained that attending a HEI and having goals in her life had a positive impact on her mental well-being, as well as having an overall enduring positive effect on her family:

So they don’t really pick up on your stress… So it is hard, but sometimes I think if not for college, I don’t think my mind would be good.… Because you’ve a reason to get up and go somewhere and you are doing something and your mind is active and you are focusing on something and you are doing it for yourself, like that was a big thing. My dad could say ‘oh you are putting yourself under a lot of pressure now going back to college’, and I’m thinking, “but I’ve put my life on hold for 14 years; it’s my turn’.

P14 (SCS, Semester 3) had important observations about life in HE and the consequences of: …going to college and you're unhappy, you just don't want to go. You'd just prefer to be at home or lie in your bed all day or something….you need to be happy with what you're doing to be able to come in and make a full day of it. In his final interview with me, he reported:

I wouldn’t say right now I’m happy with my course or happy with what I’m doing, but I know myself because I’ve got into not sleeping and all that is touching levels of depression to an extent ….. I’ll be burning the candle at both ends but I can crash when I have free time. I can’t crash right now…. My Mother is like ‘oh, you have to go to the doctor’, and I was like, ‘I will when I have time off, but I don’t have time off, so I’ll do it at some point….’

As time evolved and my relationships with each of the participants developed our conversations became more open and expressive. Emotional well-being and the ability to express negative emotions are critical to our well-being as P1 (MS, Semester 3) reflected:

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I think I needed a cry, and I just felt the pressure of being a single parent, when you are the only person that’s responsible for the financial side of stuff, the protective side of stuff….you are every-thing, you are their friend and their mother and their father, and their everything. And it wasn’t by choice, you know. Like nobody chooses to be on their own…..I was an emotional wreck for a week….

But I do a dinner for them every day, like, that’s the thing. I just don’t eat it, but so there’s that. Sometimes I sleep too much; sometimes I can’t sleep at all, so I think a lot of that is just juggling so many different things. Whereas, I’m juggling things with the kids, and with my home, and finances, and stuff like that. The majority of the people that are in here are …. young and don’t really have the responsibility, so my stress is more (P1, MS, Semester 4).

P7 (MS & SCS, Semester 1) also had physical and mental well-being issues to address. He had some insight into his early transition and return to HE, the issues around his lifestyle and long hours he was working as he found himself: back living at home now for the first time in three years. I was independent for a long time…. It is a bit of a struggle, to be honest. I think that adds a bit of stress to my life. Emotional stress manifests itself in different guises, be it internally or externally triggered. The following is an excerpt from P7 (SCS, MS, Semester 1) who was struggling mentally and emotionally:

I find some of my parents' burdens land on me a little bit.… I think that adds a bit of stress to my life. Just generally from being a caring person…. But at the same time, living at home now is probably the best financial decision for myself. I would much rather have my own space but at the same time I just have to keep wise to assess the situation, you know. It's just having your own space at the age of 25 is important.

I worry a little bit now about the fact of what's ahead of me over the Christmas. I don't have anything really… One thing is, I'm a very happy person, to some extent, but I can get in the situation where you're down and out about things, where I don't have anything to look forward to, to some extent. So at the moment, all I have to look forward to is constant, like, exams and work…..I think that's what people need to do in life is create things to look forward to, and that keeps you excited and happy, and it kind of keeps you focused on things….

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From the excerpt above it is evident that P7 possessed a high degree of personal awareness regarding his anxiety and depression, yet felt powerless to do anything to address it.

At times this additional responsibility, real or perceived, also placed additional physical and/or mental/emotional pressures on them. P10 (TLCS, Semester 1) pointed out the following: I’m living at home and I have my own money and....I know they wouldn’t mind, but I would have this sense of guilt almost…. we’ve a really close knit family and I’d be very close to my Mam. So I wouldn’t like to think I’d be putting them under pressure of any sort. P8 (TLCS, Semester 1) highlighted the importance of availing of financial assistance: I had to get out a student loan. I did apply for the Student Assist Fund and they granted me assistance … I just said ‘thank God’ because my Mam and Dad would be in financial difficulty. But they still wanted to send me to college.

All of the participants acknowledged the emotional support they received from their families as they gave participants like P12 (TLCS, Semester 1) space and support: they just said ‘look obviously this happens a lot of people, if you need time out, take it’. Parental expectations and emotional support was perceived to be central to well-being and commented upon by P2 (TLCS, Semester 3) as she had heard: some people have parents that expect a lot, and thank God mine don't, because I'd probably crack under pressure. Likewise, having a second chance to participate in a new programme of study has had a very positive impact on P9’s (TLCS, Semester 3) relationship with her mother as: …last year I used to go home and complain on the weekends saying how boring it was and stuff. So she's glad now. She regretted encouraging me to go for business instead of sport, just because of the job opportunities. But she said at the end ‘just do whatever you want that makes you happy’…I don't mind going to college now. I can get up in the morning. It's easier. Less stress’.

In summary, well-being comprises physical and emotional well-being. Physical, mental and emotional well-being are collectively integral to one’s overall sense of well-being and if one is not in synchronicity with either of the other elements of well-being, it

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eventually impacts on one’s overall sense of well-being. Feelings of well-being are important in order for us to be able to live our lives most effectively. Findings from the participants in this study confirm that a positive sense of well-being enhances our day- to-day experiences and allows us the opportunity to continue to strive and flourish. When one has to deal with negative experiences and emotions, our overall sense of self and resilience plays a significant part in maintaining our general well-being, agency. Maintaining a sense of well-being and resilience plays an essential part in our lives and this was evident from participant experiences as well. If one does not look after oneself physically, it is inevitable that mental and emotional well-being will be negatively affected over time. Mental well-being is dependent on levels of resilience. Social involvement and positive social experiences contribute to our well-being and a successful HE experience.

6.7.4 Resilience Self-belief sometimes wavered amongst participants once they arrived in their new environment. However, the participants endeavoured to maintain their levels of resilience and underlying levels of self-confidence. P7’s (SCS, MS, Semester 1) articulated he was: …. good at maths ….in school, but just really having to do maths now and getting back into the mathematic frame of mind is definitely stressful. But still, I am an adjustable type of person so I am confident that I will strive on and finish it up. Self-belief, particularly amongst participants at the beginning of their transition to HE and that ability to ‘believe and achieve’ is exemplified by P8 (TLCS, Semester 1): I’m optimistic. I wouldn’t be able to go into an exam and think, ‘Oh I’m going to fail it, I’m going to fail it’.... otherwise I won’t get through it….

Resilience and striving to progress in HE were deeply connected as P16 (FEG, Semester 4) considered: I just keep telling myself, you're halfway there.… I'm in my second year. Next year I'll have three more that I'll have to do. So I'm just like, you got this. Students who did not pass a particular module or failed a number of modules had to either possess or develop a significant level of resilience and agency to deal effectively with the challenges of repeating and passing the modules in a subsequent sitting.

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When I failed the exam, I was a little bit disappointed in myself because it was the only one I failed and my mother and father would never be like ‘oh, why didn't you pass that?’…. So it won't be happening again (P8, TLCS, Semester 3).

The only thing that I can do is tell myself that I’m going to keep going until I get it, that’s really all I can do….I will eventually get there (P1, MS, Semester 3).

Most of the participants revealed the tenacity to ‘dig deep’ and tap into their sense of resilience over time. Maintaining a sense of resilience by recalling ones’ strengths, by maintaining a sense of optimism and positivism, and channelling disappointment into agency and determination, encapsulated the ways in which the participants developed and maintained a sense of resilience throughout their first two years in their programme of study.

6.8 Conclusion The overall purpose of the study was to explore students’ perceptions of success in HE with particular reference to their early transition to HE and their early experiences therein. The main themes and sub-themes pertaining to the participants’ perceptions of student success early in their HE journey were presented in terms of their respective life-stages and their perceived journey (personally and academically) in terms of perceptions of success, and transitional and personal experiences. The participants who volunteered to participate in this study were of mixed gender, age profile, order of birth within their families, educational and socio-economic background, and second chance students (SCSs) which enhanced the production of very diverse and thought-provoking data.

The main findings from the study were presented according to the key themes and sub- themes that emerged from the data. Students’ perceptions of success comprised a continuum starting at the decision-making and pre-entry phase to HE and evolving from direction, surviving, striving, striving to ‘stand out’, flourishing, through to realising potential. However success was also evident in recalibrating direction in terms of embracing second chance opportunities in HE. The participants’ perceptions of success

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were fluid and evolved over time. Significantly, their perceptions of success were dependent on many other variables evidenced in the other themes and sub-themes. Furthermore, their perceptions of success were connected to neoliberal, progressivist and humanistic perspectives.

Transitional experiences to [and within] HE comprised early transitional experiences and pragmatics of time. Successful early transitions particularly from a personal and social perspective gave participants the encouragement to flourish in their academic environment and provided them with a sense of agency and agentic possibility. Successful early transitions were dependent on the degree of social integration experienced by the participants into their new HEI and their programme of study. This impacted on additional facets of their HE experience, particularly their well-being and agency.

The progression of time afforded the participants the time and space to grow in maturity and develop personally, emotionally and professionally. The temporal aspect afforded both the participants and the researcher the opportunity to reflect, plan, anticipate, and ‘be’ in the moment. Time management was also a major issue especially in the early stages as participants struggled with autonomous learning and even managing their leisure activities. Second chance students (SCSs) were palpably more aware of time and of maximising time and resources in their new programme of study.

In-depth reflections based on personal transitions garnered from the participants was a significant theme which was evident from the data, particularly in relation to the participants’ sense of self, in terms of their emerging self and evolving self-identity. This data was deeply personal, insightful and authentic and delved far deeper than the social element of early transitions in HE. It educed the participants’ personal experiences, struggles, joys, worries and anxieties, and a strong sense of obligation towards their families, especially their parents. Further educations graduates (FEGs) and second chance students (SCSs) were more determined to optimise the time and

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resources available to gain the most from their (second) HE experience. The individual experiences relating to well-being and resilience of participants seemed to be most significant in Semesters 3 and 4 in terms of apprehending or sensing the motivation to succeed personally, academically and professionally.

Possessing a strong sense of agency and agentic possibility were dependent on the participant’s nurturing a healthy sense of being pro-active in managing their own well- being and resilience. Support from family members and their new friends were integral to the participants’ sense of resilience and overall well-being. This support had further positive implications in that it allowed the participants the necessary time and space to find own path in their personal and academic lives which in turn, afforded them the opportunity to survive, thrive and flourish.

The findings from this study deliver an authentic insight into the experiences of a cross- spectrum of HE students from a variety of personal and academic backgrounds. The study gives voice to the participants and illuminates the current experiential and emotional reality of the contemporary HE student. The findings dispel the many derogatory misnomers of todays’ students and millennials as ‘the snow-flake’ generation. The findings remind and inform key stakeholders in HE, particularly parents, educators and policy-makers, that success is a life-long journey which the HE experience should support, accommodate and facilitate.

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Chapter 7 Discussion of Findings

7.1 Introduction This study sought to explore the contested concept of success from the perspective of the HE student. The previous chapter therefore presented both an analysis and an in- depth exploration of personal and transitional experiences extrapolated from the research findings. Three key themes which emerged from the data collected once per semester over four consecutive semesters were analysed: namely, the participants’ perceptions of success in HE; their transitional experiences in the early stages of HE; and the participants’ personal experiences. In this chapter, the key themes and sub- themes therein are debated and related, and compared and contrasted to existing knowledge and theories. This chapter concludes with the key findings on the research topic and a critique of the study which includes a qualitative evaluation and reflexive commentary.

7.2 The Contested Concept of Student Success in Higher Education One of the underlying prepositions of this thesis is that it is possible to measure success in HE in many ways, including neoliberal, progressivist/humanistic and critical theorist perspectives. In fact, I acknowledge the importance of all and advocate a more inclusive and holistic approach to definitions of success in HE. Nevertheless, it is fair to say that the neoliberal perspective has dominated political discourse over the last two decades. This stance is based on performativity measurements used globally by many policy- makers and has been criticised by a significant number of educationalists such as Apple (2001); Giroux (2014) and Walsh and Loxley (2015). The diametrically opposite of this approach to HE learning is the humanist perspective which broadly embraces personal growth, empowerment, and voluntarism as advocated by Kascak et al. (2011) and Dull (2012). The progressivist approach embraces transformability, reflectivity and experiential learning as its core tenets (Atkinson 2013; Snepvangers & Bannon 2016). Lastly, a critical theorist perspective considers the ‘potential for true emancipation

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because it is centred on the role of social justice, liberation and the dialectic’ (Adorno 1990; Marcuse 1992; Jay 1996 in Letizia 2013, p.215; McArthur 2011).

Moreover, numerous initiatives have been developed within HEIs, and more specifically by student life and learning centres, which endeavour to support student success (Hoops et al. 2015). Fowler and Boylan (2010) developed a programme that emphasised a triad of success factors (academic, non-academic, and personal) that may have a positive influence on student academic success. The normative measure and hard outcome of academic success is usually based on the final grade assigned to the student by the lecturer. Social success is a softer outcome and is often a matter of student perception in relation to social standing with their peers (Zepke & Leach 2010a: Life 2015). When these perspectives are collectively adopted by HE policy-makers and practitioners, they represent a more realistic construct of success from all individual and collective stakeholders. Based on findings of this study, overall student success and personal perceptions of success are ever-changing and encompass all three perspectives as illustrated in Table 10:

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Key Perceptions of Success Transitional Experiences Personal Experiences Themes Sub- Student Direction Early Transitions to HE Emerging & Evolving Self themes Unclear direction Post-leaving certificate recovery Evolving self-identity Clear & focused sense of direction Extreme emotions (stress) Embracing independence Recalibrated direction (SCSs) Changing expectations Autonomous learning Supported with direction Practical realisations Increasing responsibilities Psycho-social aspects Surviving in HE Social Integration Student Agency Asserting independence Establishing new friendships & grieving old Personal responsibility Integrating socially friendships Developing work ethic Academically surviving Interacting via social media Competition between peers Financially surviving Independent learning Future-proofing Striving Motivational Well-being & Resilience Strong agency (focus) & Strong agency (& focus) Physical & emotional well-being Time management strategies Optimising that second chance in HE Health (physical & mental) maintenance strategies Independent (autonomous) learning Familial support Overwork & stress strategies Anxiety & depression Support-seeking strategies Sleep deprivation Competitiveness with peers Comfort eating Striving to stand out Substance abuse Flourishing Emotional Mental & Emotional Well-being Growing self-confidence and social Sources of emotional support Rest & reflection skills Attachment to new friendships Living in the moment (mindfulness) Maintaining focus Accessing support (personal & institutional) Volunteerism Regulating own life-style Regulating academic life Realising Potential Pragmatics of Time Resilience

Self-confidence The value of time (past, present and future) Strong agency & self-belief Strong work ethic Time management Ability to adjust High agency Greater awareness of time from SCSs Optimism Welcoming feedback Developing routines Maximising potential Table 10: Summary of Research Findings by Themes and Sub-Themes 225

7.3 Student’s Perceptions of Success

Students’ perceptions of success evolved over time and were based on how each person felt physically and emotionally during each semester. Their perceptions altered according to their personal levels of resilience and how they were feeling at the time that I met them for their interviews at the end of each semester. Gaskell (2008, p.155) proposes that ‘success to a learner may include the fulfilment of personal goals, completion of modules, graduation and future employment’. Perceptions of success are therefore fluid, temporal and dependent on internal, experiential and personal factors such as physical and emotional states, levels of resilience and the individual’s sense of agentic possibility. This longitudinal study afforded the participants and researcher the opportunity to explore past, present and current experiences, and past, present and future expectations. Perceptions of success are framed by state of mind at a given time and in terms of time, and are thus re-framed with the benefit of experiences: I was convinced I was going to go and do engineering….which sounds really bad now that I’m doing the business….evolved to: I love the course…..I’m happy that she [Mother] did that…she pushed me to finish the first year (P4, Semester 4). The over-riding themes based around perceptions of success were having a clear sense of direction, or gaining that sense of direction over time, the ability to physically, emotionally and academically survive the transition to HE, having the agency and resilience to strive and achieve specific goals, and personal flourishing and realising potential.

7.3.1 Direction

Findings from this study revealed that in certain cases, students were ‘unclear in their direction’ of programme selection: I didn’t really know what I wanted to do (P6, TLCS, Semester 1) and therefore ‘changed their mind’ on the Central Applications Office8 application system at a later date: I ended up I changed my mind and actually I wasn’t doing business until I got offered it (P4, TLCS, Semester 1). This is consistent with evidence that many students are unsure of what programme of study and/or what HEI they will attend (HEA 2010; Smyth et al. 2011). Research has demonstrated that students who have a more defined sense of ‘direction’ in terms of academic and career

8 The Central Applications Office is the body/organisation used to process applications for HE.

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aspirations and those who gain their preferred programme of choice in HE, are happier and perform optimally in HE (Crosling et al. 2009; Fowler & Boylan 2010; Wilcoxson et al. 2011): I’ve always known what I wanted to do and I’ve always wanted great things….I knew from early on that I wanted to do business (P10, Semester 1). Furthermore, possessing a clear sense of direction and being happy in a programme of study enhances agency as shown in Figure 18:

Figure 18: Direction and Transition to Higher Education

With regard to appropriate supportive direction (familial, student counselling and academic) P4 (TLCS, Semester 2) settled into her new environment and was enjoying her programme of study in spite of experiencing reservations in Semester 1: I know where I’m going. I think I was lost… this is ‘not going to plan’. That’s what it was like, whereas now, I’m back on plan. Parental expectations are often shaped by the parent’s own socio-economic and terminal education backgrounds and also influenced by their second-level educational establishment and their teachers (Smyth 1999; Smyth et al. 2011; 2016). Students whose prior HE expectations have been realistically managed by family, peers, career guidance, HEI programme descriptors, student testimonials and/or by academic managers, programme directors, tutors, and/or mentors, have a clearer sense of agency and resilience than those whose expectations have not been mediated (Wilcoxson et al. 2011).

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Findings from this study align with a study conducted by Brinkworth et al. (2009) which illuminated the disjuncture between student expectations and their experiences and recommended the development of non-specialised transition programs to meet the needs of first year students, help inform them of the realities of university life, and facilitate the transition from secondary to tertiary education. The commonality of disjuncture between expectations and experiences are highlighted by P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) who stated that: the course is not really what I expected it to be…it’s nothing like school and by P4 (TLCS, Semester 1) who maintained: it is difficult to know the standard that’s expected of you. Furthermore, their study proposed ways by which the expectations of first year students could be better balanced and integrated. In a complementary vein, Pargetter et al. (1998) and Staddon and Standish (2012) advocate for the inclusion of HEIs 'transition charters' specifically designed to pinpoint disparities between programme expectations and programme experiences during academic [orientation] programmes.

Recalibrated direction refers to students such as P14 who have already changed their minds and availed of this new programme of study: I may have lost a year, but it was much more beneficial to me in the long run, I think, and also students who suspected the programme was not for them. As P6 reported: the course is not really what I expected it to be. Findings from participants in this study found that first generation students’ whose parents or siblings had not attended HE often felt a sense of greater responsibility, drive and determination that those whose parents or siblings had attended HE before them. This chimes with one of the findings from studies conducted by Watson et al. (2009), Clegg (2011); Luzeckyj et al. (2011) and O’Shea et al. (2015) relating to lack of cultural capital associated with being first in family to attend HE and how this related to choice of university and programme. Approximately half of the participants in this study were first generation HE students, while P16 had attended a further education programme (FE) before applying for the BBS programme of study at WIT. Findings from this study corresponded with those of O’Shea (2016) whereby knowledge acquisition was engendered within the household from the decision-making stage of going to HE, and participants described how their learning was encouraged by support from both family and close friends throughout (P16, FEG, Semester 1 and 2).

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Effective feedback, mentoring and role models are also important in terms of encouraging students to continue to reach their goals (Pascarella & Terenzini 2005: Drake 2011). Such feedback from academics is deemed to be a form of ‘social’ and ‘verbal’ persuasion that augments self-efficacy (Van Dinther et al. 2011). ‘Academics must make their expectations clear in their teaching and employ methods of formative assessment that act as a guide towards the desired goal’ (Hussey & Smith 2010, p.161). It is evident that effective feedback and encouragement builds self-efficacy (Staddon & Standish, 2012), may originate from academics, and was perceived to be important to participants: I think he is so encouraging ….he really allowed the time and he interacted (P1, MS, Semester 3). Krumrei-Mancuso et al. (2013) go so far as to suggest that students themselves can be encouraged to be their own source of positive feedback.

7.3.2 Surviving

‘Surviving’ refers to students who are transitioning relatively successfully to HE (Trotter & Roberts 2006). The qualifier ‘relative’ is pivotal in this context, as every individual is unique in terms of personality (agency and resilience) and perceptions of experiences (Dean & Gibbs 2015; Klemenčič 2015). The majority of students and their families hold certain clear bench-marks for transitioning successfully to HE in their minds, particularly in terms of appropriate timeframe. In this study, two of the participants who successfully progressed through year one decided to leave the BBS programme: one because she felt the programme was not for her and took a year out re consider her academic path; and another who remained at WIT but transferred to a new programme of study, commencing again at year one. As she explained: there’s no point in doing something for four years that you’re going to not be happy doing. Hopefully now when I finish I will have a better idea of what I want to do and progress and do that then (P9, TLCS, Semester 2).

For many students, this is their first experience of living independent of their primary care-givers and the tasks of managing laundry, shopping and cooking for oneself may be accomplishments in their own right. It must be acknowledged that continuing to meet their intrinsic and extrinsic needs according to Maslow’s (1970) expanded hierarchy of

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needs and further advocated in HE by Freitas and Leonard (2011) is also significant. Failure to meet basic needs, from physical to social, inhere implications for striving to achieve and meet higher level needs and the ability to strive for self-actualisation and success, as: college life is all about balance (P10, TLCS, Semester 2). A study undertaken by Zepke et al. (2011) reinforces that settling in and integrating socially with peers during the initial HE period is fundamental to progressing well and enjoying the overall HE experience. In a study conducted on first year HE students in Australia, Richardson et al. (2012) contrasted the experiences and coping strategies of ‘thriving’ students with those who described themselves as ‘just surviving’. The findings revealed that the combination of forming close social relationships with peers, good time management and organisational skills, and effective coping strategies enabled students to transition more successfully into university life. P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) advises incoming first year students to: work from the beginning.

Van der Meer et al. (2010) maintained that first year students do not fully understand the expectations placed upon them in terms of the individual study requirements of the programme and expectations of their respective lecturers. The authors suggest that universities could play a more active role in helping first year students make sense of time management as many students embraced their new-found freedom, mismanaged their time and neglected their studies in those early days, only to then acknowledge that: you have to work in college, like people think ‘oh college life is brilliant’ … but it’s not as easy as it’s made out to be (P6, TLCS, Semester 1).

Depending on the personality-type of the student, some may feel that academically surviving implies passing all forms of assessment in a satisfactory manner is enough, whereas for others, academically excelling is their minimum requirement, as shown by P4 (TLCS, Semester 1) who attested: I passed them all, but ….was disappointed in my results. However, most students agree that ‘surviving’ those early days, getting to know their peers, lecturers, their way around campus, and their time-tables, are more than enough of a challenge in terms of: Just hoping I pass all my exams (P9, TLCS, Semester 1).

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Finally, surviving the early transition to HE entailed managing finances and at this stage students are confronted with the reality of the considerable expenses incurred during this early period of HE with regard to payment of fees, accommodation, travel, clothing, books, and technological and other learning materials. Such concerns also extend to how such cost affect the student’s family: I can pay my own way, so I’m not really taking any money off them, because I just don’t think it’s fair on them (P14, Semester 1). Significantly, while most of the participants did not work part-time when they started HE, by year two the majority of the participants were in part-time employment as a means of alleviating the financial pressure placed on families in maintaining a HE student.

7.3.3 Striving

‘Striving’ denotes students who have developed a sense of self and a degree of agency, resilience, motivation and agentic possibility (Giddens and Pierson 1998; Archer 2000, 2003, 2007; Klemenčič 2015). As time went by and as the participants became more immersed in their programme of study and accustomed to their environment, their propensity to strive to achieve their goals became more pronounced. P5 (TLCS, Semester 1) underscored the importance of time management and organisation: planning and trying to get the best out of the lectures. Similarly, Wingate (2007, p.395) observes that autonomous or ‘independent learning requires students to switch from their previous experience at school, when learning was planned, closely monitored and evaluated for them by their teachers, to an environment in which they have to plan, monitor and evaluate large portions of learning by themselves’.

Participants became more aware of managing their time and demands on their time especially in their third and fourth semester. HE experiences allow individuals the time and space (Nespor 1994) and opportunity to personally develop and mature, as well as to pursue academic and personal aspirations. The transition to HE is a chance to break old habits and embrace new ones, particularly in terms of time management and study skills development (Trotter & Roberts 2006). Moreover, HE is a journey which gives individuals the opportunity to explore new theories and ideas, develop a love of

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learning, have space and time to learn about one-self, become a critical thinker, and develop one's own voice (both academically and personally) (Westover 2018). These sentiments are best expressed by P12 (SCS, Semester 4) who reflected: If someone said ‘this is successful like mission complete’…. do you want the mission to be complete?….I mean the joy is in the journey…...

Support-seeking strategies by the participants included familial, friendship, peer-to- peer, and guidance and advice from tutors, and to a lesser extent, medical and psychological professionals. This reaffirms that preposition that progression in HE is enriched by familial support, peer support, mentoring (Crisp & Cruz 2009; Loots 2009; Howard & Smith-Goodwin 2010; Hu & Ma 2010; Sheridan et al. 2015; Ruehl 2018), positive feedback, positive reinforcement, and rewards. HEIs need to consider the means by which they can encourage personal, academic and professional development in order that students make the most of their HEI opportunities and their own potential. Furthermore, Young-Jones et al. (2013) suggest that academic advising might be tailored, especially to first generation students, while Tinto (2012a; 2012b) and Nelson (2018) are key proponents of classroom strategies which enhance student success. Achievement-orientated reward programmes which recognise exceptional personal, academic and voluntary commitments should be deemed as important to HEIs as conventional mentoring and support programmes (Leidenfrost et al. 2011; Oades et al. 2011). The relationship and interaction between academics and their students is fundamentally important to students on a personal, social, emotional and academic level (Brinkworth 2009; Brown 2011; Willcoxson et al. 2011). P12 (SCS, Semester 1) draws particular attention to the importance of lecturer and classroom strategies: I think it’s kind of extra important, especially maybe for lecturers to try and motivate people to get the work done and to try and do this.

Independent learning (IL) strategies became more intuitive to the participants in their second year of HE and comprised being more focus, increased awareness of time management issues, seeking support as appropriate, developing a general feeling of empowerment, and becoming more strategically focused in terms of further HE awards

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and career opportunities. However it is worthwhile noting that these I.L. strategies develop from transitional initiatives in year one in the HEI, from specific schools, faculties and departments and tutors as well as on an individual [personal and academic] basis. Furthermore, competitiveness with peers become more prevalent in the fourth semester at which time participants were considering their options for their flexible semester, especially those who were considering internships with companies. This gave rise to the phenomenon of striving to ‘stand out’.

7.3.3.1 Striving to ‘Stand out’

A number of students really embrace the opportunities presented to them in HE, especially second chance and mature students. As ‘Striving to Stand out’ implies, students with a high sense of agentic possibility are more driven to excel personally, academically and professionally. These findings resonate with findings from a study undertaken by Reay et al. (2010) on students ‘fitting in’ or ‘standing out’ in their HE habitus. Zepke and Leach (2010a) argue that developing the ‘soft’ skills of motivation, flexibility and reliability is as important to an individual’s livelihood as the ‘hard’ outcomes of academic achievements. It is evident that several participants aimed to do more than merely ‘survive’ and/or ‘strive’: they wanted to ‘stand out’ and aspired to be recognised internally and academically on the Deans’ List and/or attain a First Class or high Second Class Honours degree award. Moreover, they were keen to avail of/be offered the prestigious placements/ internships with highly regarded MNCs and their graduate programmes.

Brooks and Youngson (2016, p.1563) found that ‘completing a sandwich work placement’ is associated with improved academic performance in the final year of study. Placement students are also more likely to secure appropriate graduate-level work and higher starting salaries upon completion of their degree in comparison to non- placement students. As P7 (MS & SCS, Semester 3) reflected: this time I know that I want to do well and I want to get a good placement next year. The placement programme is the most sought-after module of the flexible semester in BBS, and particularly those placements offered by blue chip companies and MNCs. P12 (SCS,

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Semester 3) hoped to do well in the exams: because I really want to get a good placement….because I think when you come out of a year like that it's just essential. Excelling, personally and academically is paramount to these students. P12 (SCS, Semester 3) agreed that: …..if I come out of here with a good degree and a good work placement and I want to get a good job….. So I just have more focus now, I'm willing to do the work, I understand what I need to do better…. these decisions that are going to have an impact later on.

7.3.4 Flourishing

Both the term and activity of a ‘flourishing’ individual signifies a student who has grown in stature personally and academically in their chosen HEI and programme of study. For instance, P2 (TLCS, Semester 2) observed: I’m definitely more open-minded and definitely found confidence in meeting new people and talking to new people… P12 (SCS) clearly aimed at ‘striving to stand out’ and ‘flourishing’ both personally and academically in his new programme of study, and in how he has evolved over time in terms of his reflections and realisations of his development and maturation. P12’s attitude confirms that taking a break from formal education and changing programmes gave him the opportunity to build agency: I know that I'm actually working harder this year, I'm pretty confident that I can do well…. (P12, SCS, Semester 1). Schreiner (2010a, p.10) suggests that a:

…focus on thriving rather than merely surviving in college has the potential to change the way higher education views student success. Rather than defining success solely as grades and graduation, a focus on thriving encourages a more holistic view of student development that expands to include healthy relationships, sense of community, making a contribution, and proactively coping with life’s challenges.

7.3.5 Realising Potential

‘Realising potential’ corresponds to Maslow’s (1943; 1970) theory of motivation, specifically, self-actualisation. Maslow (1987, p.22) defined self-actualisation as ‘people’s desire for self-fulfilment, namely, the tendency for them to become (self)

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actualized and reach their potential. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one idiosyncratically is’. Realising one’s potential encompasses striving and flourishing in a series of continuous activities and realisations, but is rarely a discrete and final activity. In fact, motivated individuals tend to continue on this trajectory throughout their lives: What I find about college is though you can be whoever you want to be in college ….it’s like you’re starting again (P10, TLCS, Semester 3). Mountford-Zimdars et al. (2017, p.108) are unequivocal in the assertion that ‘universities can have a genuine impact on the space that they do have influence over: university students’ experiences. Student progression outcomes can be enhanced for all learners with an aim to particularly benefit those who might not currently reach their full potential’.

Hussey and Smith (2010, p.155) posit that ‘education involves changes of many kinds and magnitudes: from learning to spell a new word to transforming a person’. P1 (MS, Semester 3) reflected on her journey considering being in a HE environment was already success for me…I’m not a stereotype now…...P12 (SCS, Semester 3) also acknowledged he felt he was realising his potential and it was something he was clearly relishing and had: a better work ethic this year. Whereas, P2 was more focused on realising her academic potential in the medium-to long-term, suggesting (TLCS, Semester 3): I'd stay in college forever if I could. I wouldn't mind doing a Master's. I know it would be hard, but it'd be worth it. Personally and from a more intrinsic perspective, P7’s (SCS, Semester 1) early perceptions of success are based around personal integrity and adaptability. His personal perceptions of success encapsulate the broader definition of success:

My definition of success is to always live up to your own potential and be honest with yourself about what your potential is…. I was successful in my own mind, in the sense that I got through it. I adapted.

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The above statement from P7 on his (broadly positive) return to HE in Semester 1 supports the sentiments that: ‘….students should be responsible for their own academic success. Ultimately, no one should care more about academic success than the students…..Every good student understands that there is always room for improvement’ (Ensign & Woods 2012, p.22). Furthermore, findings from a study carried out by Ghanizadeh (2017, p.112) suggest that ‘the core of a meaningful and successful education is to empower students with criticality and reflective thinking skills as well as self-monitoring to cope with this world of continuous change. In the HE domain, an important consequence of learning how to think and how to monitor ones’ own performance and progress is the enhancement of students’ achievement’. In aligning with view, P2 (TLCS, Semester 4) maintains that HE and the journey affords one the time to: always trying to be better, I suppose improving yourself, improving your work and just be a better person.

7.4 Transitional Experiences

While successful student transition early in HE plays a major role in future academic performance and success, Hughes and Smail (2015) note there is no universal agreement as to how best to support students during this process. Although theoretical constructs of transition developed by Tinto (1975) offer some direction to policy- makers and educators, many students remain perplexed as to how to act in their new environment (Hussey & Smith 2010). Transition in the sense of ‘becoming’ pertains to whole of life and represents the progressive series of stages in life and one’s subjective experiences (Gale & Parker 2014). The social realist theory advocated by Archer (2000; 2003; 2007) on the concepts of ‘being’ and ‘becoming’ as opposed to acquisition of ‘knowledge’ and ‘skills’ (Barnett 2009) are considered by Williams (2012) as an invaluable ‘ontological turn’ in terms of student learning in HE. These concepts very much correlate with the key findings and themes of this study.

Many participants who commence HE are still weathering the after-effects of the Leaving Certificate programme, examination process, and the points race for their preferred HEI programme. The main findings of this study reinforced the reported

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levels of stress secondary school students experience which result in physical and psychological pressures: I remember just being absolutely exhausted. I just wanted to sleep (laughter) … after doing your Leaving Cert.... (P10, TLCS, Semester 1). The psychological impact and implications of the Leaving Certificate programme, high- stakes testing and life consequences were critically reviewed, as part of a longitudinal study of students in second-level education by Smyth and Banks (2012a; 2012b; 2015).

Academic HE staff may be inadvertently or broadly unaware of the extreme levels of physical fatigue, or what I have labelled the ‘Leaving Certificate hangover’ experienced by many first year students during the initial adjustment their new environment in HE. It is also worth noting that considerable criticism has been levelled at the Leaving Certificate with regard to the so-called ‘rote-learning’ pedagogies used to instruct second-level students and that HEI academics consistently note that in arrival at third- level, post-Leaving Certificate students are notoriously ill-equipped to think and learn independently (HEA, 2010; Smyth et al. 2011). P6 (TCLS, WD, Semester 1) concurred with this assessment, noting: ‘it’s a step up, and they don’t realise it until they get into it’.

Early successful social integration is paramount to positive early transitional experiences (Nelson et al. 2006; Tinto 2013). Social integration is facilitated by HEIs that offer early intervention and support programmes such as induction and orientation programmes, mentoring programmes, academic and career advising services, support services for literacy and numeracy, and student counselling services. P16 reported: (FEG, Semester 1) the friends I made on induction day I still have. They were the good friends I was telling you about, that are like-minded like me. They’re the ones I actually stayed with so I actually thought the induction day was great.

Engagement by the HEI at the pre-orientation and post-orientation phase on-campus and/or through social media is invaluable and assists students in engaging (DeAndrea et al. 2011; Penn-Edwards & Donnison 2011; Dabbagh & Kitsantas 2012). P13 (TLCS,

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Semester 1) recalled: I went to the WIT open day with my school, and I just really loved the place. Hughes and Smail (2015) further contend that social and psychological support (social capital) are highly important in assisting students to successfully transition to their new environment than academic support and this broadly corresponds with findings from this current study and P6’s (TLCS, Semester 1) experience of orientation and induction: it was such an advantage to have that induction day…

7.4.1 Early Transitions to HE

One of the most notable aspects of early transition to HE which impacted the participants in this study related to post-Leaving Certificate exhaustion and recovery from protracted stress. While having to meet the various demands to attain a place on an HE programme, there are a number of significant physical and emotional factors that affect student well-being during their early transition to HE. These include geographical relocation and finding appropriate affordable accommodation, engagement with self- directed learning, developing a renewed sense of community, and managing time and competing demands (Wrench et al. 2013; Finley 2016). In looking back to their early days in HE the emotions recorded by participants were quite intense: Induction day I was really scared (P4, TLCS, Semester 1), while P5 (TLCS, Semester 1) found it a little bit overwhelming at first… As a mature student P7 (SCS, MS, Semester 1) was: a bit nervous, and P13 (TLCS, Semester 1) confessed her first day was: very, very nerve- wracking.

In terms of physical transition, research has particularly shown that first year students who live on-campus tend to fare much better than those who live off-campus or commute (Pascarella & Terenzini 2005; Kuh et al. 2006; Jones-White et al. 2010; Thomas 2012). P13’s (TLCS, Semester 1) experience of living on-campus proved to be very beneficial for her as: you can make friends……and are close to the on-campus resources, being just: five minutes away from the library, it's just so easy to go over in the evenings and get your work done…. It is clear that the advantages were physical, social and academic. The findings from the participants of this study correspond with observations from Hussey and Smith (2010, p.159) who assert that ‘becoming and

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remaining a successful student involves ...identifying, understanding and assimilating a complex range of assumptions, behaviours and practices.’

The participants’ expectations (academic and social) in terms of the demands of HE, more specifically those relating to personal expectations and parental expectations, gradually and changed as a result of practical realisations about HE associated with growing financial independence and time management skills. Study strategies were also found to be significant from the early interactions with participants such as P8 (TLCS, Semester 2) who reflected that she had become: more mature from living on her own without her mother to do everything for her. The noticeable evolution of these interrelated factors in participants comprised a strong and positive indicator of how well they were settling in to their new environment. However, when expectations and practical realisations jarred with each other, it had a negative influence on the participants’ ability to successfully progress, as arose in P6’s (TLCS, Semester 1) case: the course is not really what I expected it to be….. This was so much so, that despite successfully progressing through year one, she withdrew from the programme and took a year out from HE.

Positive psycho-social factors were fundamental to the ease with which participants transitioned to HE (Zepke & Leach 2010b; Kahu 2013) and encompassed developing and evolving friendships, and appropriate emotional and academic supports. Such psycho-social factors and healthy [covert] competitiveness between peers also had a positive impact on the participants’ behaviour and motivation as in P2’s (TLCS, Semester 1) experience: I've made lifelong friends already ….we all help each other, and P10 (TLCS, Semester 4) who observed: none of us will admit it but we’re all really secretly competitive with each other, for everything. The findings from this study significantly align with the typology of student transition to and within HE developed by Gale and Parker (2014) wherein they identified three over-riding concepts of student transition in HE: transition as induction; transition as development; and transition as becoming.

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7.4.1.1 Social Integration

Positive early social experiences are beneficial to new HE students particularly in terms of their mental well-bring (Hughes & Smail 2015). It is noteworthy that findings from participants in this study found that supportive and empathetic relationships were a priority and the importance of social support and integration was crucial to the participants’ well-being throughout all four semesters with significantly more references made to this theme than to any other. P10 (TLCS, Semester 1) observed that: You’re going through the same experience as them [class-mates] … they understand and the friends you meet in college are the ones you have for life, adding we’re blessed because the classes are so small. Social support emanates from peers, academics, students’ union representatives, from family, and pre-existing and current friendships. Early social experiences in HE play a significant role for a person in terms of supporting evolving self-identity, developing interpersonally and growing in maturity (Bandura 1989). A number of participants (including SCSs) such as P2 (TLCS, Semester 2) commented on: …changing friends, which was difficult to come to terms with, and a number of participants referred to the idea of ‘moving on’ physically, socially and emotionally from home and/or from some of their previous friendships from home with a sense of grief, acceptance, or anticipation.

‘Facilitating social integration in the academic sphere is particularly important as it develops cohort identity and belonging to a programme’ (Thomas 2012, p.48). Developing a sense of belonging within new friendships and the wider HEI community supports students in their health and well-being and academic success (Wrench et al., 2014). P2 (TLCS, Semester 3) epitomises this: I am happy about my grades, the friends I've made. The whole place in general. Like the canteen ladies, I love them. It's so much easier. It's just being happy….if you're happy you're successful…. If you're doing what you love, I think, that's it. I'm fortunate enough to be able to do all that…because I love going to college! Friendship has a positive influence on the overall HE experience and findings from Thomas’ (2012) report parallel strongly with this study which found that newly-established friendships are a very useful support structure to participants who are finding their own identity, and asserting themselves and their independence. This was

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evident from participants in my study: I love my class….I think I've made lifelong friends already….we all help each other (P2, TLCS, Semester 1).

‘Fitting in’ is equally important for social integration and academic success (Reay et al. 2010; Harvey et al. 2006, cited in Severiens et al. 2015). Thus P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) maintained she was: after making kind of friends for life… because ….You’re going through the same experience as them, (P10, TLCS, Semester 1), adding we’re blessed because the classes are so small, which is more the norm for IOTs. Trotter and Roberts (2006, p.373) contend it is ‘possible to lessen considerably the social trauma’ of moving to a new environment through induction programmes that develop peer support as well as offering learning strategy programmes to new students. P16 (FEG, Semester 1) found the friends that she made on induction day I still have. Part of the social transition for participants in this study involved establishing new friendships and dissolving previous friendships thereby reinforcing Bourdieu’s (1986) theory of acquiring social capital. As P12 (SCS, Semester 4) described moving on from older school friends and making new friends in HE that had similar aspirations and agency: I did always fit in with them [school friends], but I think it was just because of the circumstances….I think the further you get away from it, the further you are going down two different roads.

Students’ positive affective development is notable at institutions which encourage student socialisation and students’ experiences of social support positively influence many aspects of student adjustment (Tinto 1975; 2014; Pascarella 1985). Tomas (2012) suggests that HEIs which have taken the initiative to set up social networking groups are very well received by the students. However, this was not followed up in this specific report with recommendations to HEIs or student support services. Social networking through social media platforms was reported to be integral to participants’ day-to-day living as it is their way of communicating with each other throughout the year and….worked really well on a social side as well as academic side (P16, FEG, Semester 1). It has been argued that the impact of social integration on students’ subsequent institutional commitment is conditional on gender (Warin & Dempster 2007; Jones 2010). However, the participants’ experiences in this study did not mirror

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the findings from Jones’ (2010) study in that both male and female participants cited the importance of peer-to-peer support and friendships as individuals. Noyens et al. (2018) purports that social integration could play a crucial role in positively changing students’ identified regulation during the first year of HE. Students who experienced a greater degree of social integration at the start of the first year had a higher score on identified regulation at the end of the first year. These results highlight the importance of creating a learning environment which fosters students’ social integration, as well as supporting less-motivated students at the start of the first year.

7.4.1.2 Motivational Influences

Motivational components of self-regulated learning help students to persist in the face of difficult tasks (Dabbagh & Kitsantas 2012). Zimmerman and Schunk’s (2001) theories of self-regulation and academic achievement comprise a three-phase cyclical model, involving forethought, performance and self-reflection. This is exemplified by P12 (SCS, Semester 3) who maintained: I know that if I'm actually working harder this year…. I'm pretty confident that I can do well….and had an added motivation … this year I'm trying to do well in the exams because I really want to get a good placement. Social cognitive theory (Bandura 1986) which embraces self-regulated learning occurs as a result of the interrelationship between three influence processes: personal processes such as perceptions of ability and self-motivation (e.g. goals); the learning environment, including task, encouragement from teachers and individual behaviour such as performance outcomes (Cassidy 2011). This improvement in self-regulated learning was evident from reflections of behaviour(s) from most of the participants thanks to the longitudinal nature of the study. On reflection, P8 (TLCS, Semester 3) maintained: I didn't really give myself the opportunity to do as good as I wanted to do. But this year I'm not going out and I'm going to library instead of going home.

Cassidy (2012) proposes that student motivation is likely to partly depend on perceptions that their learning environment is controllable (i.e. internal locus of control beliefs). As time elapsed the participants’ became increasingly motivated, particularly in Semesters 3 and 4 in their efforts to realise personal/academic goals and win internships

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in prestigious companies. In a particularly forthright moment, P10 (TLCS, Semester 4) disclosed: none of us will admit it but we’re all really secretly competitive with each other… for everything. Motivation influences agency. As such, gaining agentic possibility and/or reaching one’s potential is both personality-based and situation/time dependent (Giddens 1984; Archer 2003; Klemenčič 2015). Agency is behavioural, can be consequence-based and based on one's desire to strive and achieve one's potential exemplified in P12’s (SCS, Semester 3) observation: I need to do really well in this and when I'm looking for a work placement next year I'll need to have these exams.

7.4.1.3 Emotional Influences

Self-adapted cognitive and behavioural strategies have an impact upon students’ transitional experiences (Bandura 1989). Engaging in these approaches by supporting students to address negative thoughts, emotions and behaviours and to cultivate positive self-belief strategies could assist in a smoother transition to the HE environment and enhance resilience (Hughes & Smail 2015). Klemenčič (2015) maintains that ‘higher learning’ in HE is associated with elevated levels of cognitive, emotional and practical maturity. In the early stages of HE students’ emotions are usually more acute and heightened, as in, for instance feeling: scared…really nervous (P4, TLCS, Semester 1), overwhelming (P5, TLCS, Semester 1), so nervous (P8, TLCS, Semester 1), very nerve-wracking….stressful (P13, TLCS, Semester 1), it was still a shock coming back …..(P14, SCS, Semester 1), It was really scary actually (P15, TLCS, Semester 1). Participants’ emotions tended to be more negatively aligned and manifested feelings of anxiety and stress in their early transition to HE. However, it is evident that either addressing or caring for students’ emotions in HEIs is not as routinely supported as cognitive and behavioural elements, findings which closely align with those of Chickering (1969). Structured support programmes within HEIs comprise orientation, induction, mentoring programmes and also [limited]9 support programmes for academic and support staff (Mountford-Zimdars et al. 2017).

9 Support programmes such as Staff Well-being programmes are often sub-contracted to third party organisations, off-campus.

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Seeking out like-minded people and attaining support from a group was beneficial to participants as: You need to be around people as well that want to ’push it’….and are genuinely interested (P12, SCS, Semester 4). These sentiments correspond with the assertion that agency is inherently developed individually and collectively (Klemenčič 2015). Emotional support was derived from newly established friendships as well as from people living together or nearby: our house is nice…we got it all clean and homely (P8, TLCS, Semester 1) and from P10’s (TLCS, Semester 3) home: the girls come up once every week for dinner, Mam cooks them dinner. This correlates with research findings from Tinto (1975; 2002), Wilcox et al. (2005) and Beard et al. (2007) pertaining to students living with or close to each other, providing social support to each other since most students’ closest friendships were formed in their accommodation and more social environment.

7.4.2 Pragmatics of Time

Mattley (2002, p.363) argues that ‘emotional pasts’ at an individual, interactionist, and social-structural level are used as a bases for ‘situated actions’ and how individuals ‘construct and enact behaviour’. This was a longitudinal study and therefore it afforded the participants and researcher the opportunity to contemplate the pragmatics of time in a similar manner. During this research process, the temporality of emotions had a strong resonance with all participants through reflections, realisations and aspirations which equate to past, present and future timeframes. Semesterised programmes are relatively compact and intense, as summed up by P2 (TLCS, Semester 3) who observed that: time is flying….it's crazy. Like how many different hair colours have I had? I'd say three. Blue, pink and purple. So it changes. Just everything. Everything changes…..The statement is significant in terms of measuring time, transitional experiences, and evolving identity.

7.4.2.1 Managing Time

Ackerman and Gross (2003) suggest that time pressure is not necessarily a negative factor in students’ lives. On the contrary, it is evident that students who reported less free time performed better in university in terms of grade point average than those who

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reported more free time. However, their study also found that perceived time pressure and time deprivation were associated with negative emotions. During the early days (first six weeks) most of the participants spent time getting to know their classmates and gaining in awareness of the college facilities: we just walked around and explored the college….just chatted and got to know one another…..we sat down for three hours one day and just chatted. But now we're so busy…..that's good….. I'd rather be busy than sitting there doing nothing (P16, TLCS, Semester 1) as: it’s very important to be focused and when you do that you will use all the resources of the college (P3, TLCS, Semester 1). One of the major issues students experienced during the early days was how to manage their time and breaks between lectures and independent learning. P2 (TLCS, Semester 1) recalled: …so we had, like, three hours' break. So we were just, like, what do we do? These constructs of time very much correlate with the perspectives of time theory outlined by Duncheon and Tierney (2013) in terms of students managing clock-time, socially constructed time, and virtual time. Some participants found time management and the development of independent learning most challenging: I find it hard to study in here. I find it hard to study at home as well more:…the breaks I find really hard…. I find the structure really hard. There’s barely any structure. (P4, TLCS, Semester 1) P15 (TLCS, Semester 1) felt similarly ill-prepared for the transition: I suppose next semester I’ll realise that you have to use your hours [free time during the day] to do your assignments. This particular time management issue seemed to dissipate as time evolved and participants became more involved in formative assessment.

The level of focus and sense of agency very much depended on the personality type of the participant. P6 (TLCS, Semester 1) advised: work from the beginning, and (P7, SCS, MS, Semester 1) claimed: you just have to get in and get on with it…. treat it like a nine to five, come in every day. In the same way, P8 (TLCS, Semester 1) observed: I’m trying to keep on top of it so it’s not too bad, I’ve been doing it bit by bit all along, while P12 (SCS, Semester 2) preferred to make the most of the actual HE environment and resources: I come in and I sit over in the library to do an assignment, because I won’t do it at home at all, I just can’t function at home.

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These experiences correlate with findings from Baeten et al. (2012) which demonstrated that autonomously motivated deep-strategic learners were more positive about the various types of learning environment compared to little motivated and less pronounced deep-strategic learners. As time elapsed and as participants’ matured, issues of future time and agentic possibility (Klemenčič 2015) was of greater importance to them. These findings correspond with a study by Van der Meer et al. (2010) wherein many students admitted to difficulties in regulating autonomous learning. Moreover, they were often unsure about how they were expected to organise their self-study time. It is therefore argued that universities could and should play a more active role in helping students to gain a more meaningful and applicable sense of time management.

7.4.2.2 Developing a Routine

Developing a routine and skills in autonomous [independent] learning [AL or IL] is part of a successful transition to HE. ‘Engagement helps to develop habits of the mind and heart that enlarge their capacity for continuous learning and personal development’ (Kuh 2009, p.5). According to P3 (TLCS, Semester 2): a key factor is structure, like going to the library after college, because I realised I was not doing anything at home. P12 (SCS, Semester 1) similarly remarked: the routine is pretty much set after the first six weeks. Ultimately P10 (TLCS, Semester 2) concluded that: college life is all about balance. Inevitably some participants’ personalities lent themselves to having more of a routine and structure than others, as in the case of P2 (TLCS, Semester 3): having the routine and seeing my friends….. I just have a routine when I get home.…. I have a mind-set where I need organisation, so I need a routine. Many participants reported that a routine enabled them to thrive in their HE environment: I couldn’t wait to come back and see everyone (P10, TLCS, Semester 3), and in fact, several did not relish college breaks, such as reading week or extended Christmas holidays because they were unyoked from their routine, they missed their friends, and/or had to work. P2 explained that lack of routine and structure could be problematic for her: mid-term I was so bored I just wanted to come to college. Similarly, P16 (FEG, Semester 3) enthused that coming back to college has been great….

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7.5 Personal Experiences

At least two of the participants discussed not only the transition from second-level to HE but also reflected that they had been ‘spoon-fed’ at secondary school. Smyth et al. (2011, p.236) comment that the Leaving Certificate as it is currently assessed comprises a range of terminal exams and ‘is likely to lead to shallow, rote learning rather than deeper, more authentic learning experience’ and this observation is further reinforced by P12 (SCS, Semester 1) observed that the main difference between second level education and HE: is having to come up with your own stuff for college, not just re- generating things, you actually have to think for yourself. The DES (2015c) has instantiated a new grading scale (introduced in 2017) aimed at around further reforming the current points system to support a better transition from second-level to HE, thereby encouraging students to attempt higher level papers which support them in fulfilling their potential. P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) observed that in HE: if you don’t give yourself a goal and don’t focus yourself…. then you will slack off …. P2 (TLCS, Semester 2) also found the transition to be extremely socially and emotionally challenging: changing friends, that was difficult to come to terms with….

Personal experiences of participants were all inherently individualised. However, certain similarities were discernible between participants’ experiences based on variables of age profile(s), socio-economic background, stage of life, and shared goals and value system(s). These observations align with Bourdieu’s (1990a) theories of ‘habitus’ and ‘capital’ and Gidden’s (1984) theories of structure and agency and Clegg’s (2011) critique of both in a HE setting. Habitus refers to the system of durable and transposable dispositions through which individuals perceive, judge and behave within, and think about the world, while capital refers to any resource that holds symbolic value within, and therefore acts as a currency of a given field. Capital comprises economic (material and financial assets; cultural, (scarce symbolic goods, skills and titles, and embodied dispositions such as accent, clothing and behaviour); and/or social, (resources accrued through membership of social groups and networks).

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According to Carroll et al. (2011, pp.1-2) preparedness is ‘an adaptive goal state of readiness to respond to uncertain future outcomes. It can involve a readiness to seize possible opportunities, avoid possible threats, or simply adjust to possible changes before they actually emerge. Preparedness for any future possibility - threat, opportunity, or simply change – requires the construction of a specific possible self (PS)’. Findings from this study demonstrated the commonality of early personal experiences, and particularly emotions in terms of transition or re-transition to HE. As P3 (TLCS, Semester 1) stated: it was a bit of a culture change ….a lot to process really at the start, but then you get it under control…. Diligent, focused preparation of students at the latter part of their second level education, prior to entry to their chosen HEI programme has been advocated and extoled in literature and policy. Such positive [and proactive] transition initiatives comprise: offering taster, pre-orientation and induction programmes, as well as more regular tutor support and peer-to-peer mentoring (Trotter & Roberts 2006; Crisp & Cruz 2009; Loots 2009; Watson et al. 2009; Howard & Smith-Goodwin 2010; Hu & Ma 2010; Wilcoxson et al. 2011; Thomas 2012; Collings et al. 2014).

Positive personal and academic experiences, coupled with a strong sense of self- awareness and agency were evidenced by P8 (TLCS, Semester 1): I love the course. I love everyone in the course. …. But in second Semester I’m just going to put my head down, do my work and then ….have my fun. Making the most of the HE experience comprises: just to be involved in things around college and you meet a lot of people through it….Even just as motivator to come in… it becomes part of college as well, it’s part of the experience (P12, SCS, Semester 1). P2 (TLCS, Semester 2) had become more open-minded and definitely found confidence in meeting new people.... This theory of involvement corresponds with Tinto’s (1993) contention of the importance of student ‘involvement’ by strengthening students’ [physical, social and emotional] connections with their HEI and engaging students in meaningful academic and non-academic out-of- class activities (Jamelske 2009).

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Participants’ varied in terms of their perceived and agency according to individuated circumstances and personal achievements. Therefore participants who did well in their end of semester examinations and continuous assessments from the first semester, tended to continue to do well over the four semesters. In year two, most participants developed a greater sense of agency as decisions’ around stream choices (major areas of specialism), flexible semester, and placements/internships loomed closer. It is important to contextualise the participants’ personal, social and economic backgrounds and remain mindful that the participants of this study and their families had experienced a severe economic recession while they attended secondary school and were making decisions about whether to proceed to FE and/or HE. It was evident from interviews conducted with the participants that many felt a deep sense of obligation and gratitude towards their parents and families, especially from a financial perspective. This is hardly surprising given that the in-depth interviews were conducted from 2014-16, at the latter part of the economic crash.

7.5.1 The Emerging and Evolving Self

Berzonsky and Kuk (2000, p.81) maintain that a ‘coherent, well-integrated identity structure provides a sense of purpose and direction’. Their study found that progress in identity formation can predict how successfully students will negotiate the transition to university. Such sentiments are best represented by leaving behind the ‘uniform’ that most participants are compelled to wear in post-primary school, the transition to greater self-regulation, and a growing sense and acceptance of self-identity. HE provides young adults the latitude to develop a sense of self-identity, explore future possibilities, and expand their horizons supporting a variety of frameworks on student identity (Torres’ et al. 1992). P2 (TLCS, Semester 3) asserted that: In college no one bats and eyelid at you if you're wearing whatever you want or a hair colour. …you can do your own thing. So you have more freedom here, than in school where you're restricted to your uniform and you can't wear makeup and you can't have pink hair. … it takes a load of time to figure out what you want to do as well. So you have time here to do things…. it's great because you can always defer a year, or at least you have a chance to repeat things and… it's better! These reflections reinforce Gidden’s (1984), Sewell’s (1992) and Archer’s

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(2000; 2003; 2007) theories on the dynamics and temporality between structure and agency.

7.5.2 Developing a Sense of Agency

Personal and collective agency, operate on action through motivational, cognitive and affective processes (Giddens 1984; Sewell 1992; Archer 2007; Klemenčič 2015). From an individuistic perspective, an optimistic frame of mind is arguably linked to some participants’ sense of agency. Findings from a study conducted by Chemers et al. (2001) proposed that self-belief and optimism were strongly correlated to academic performance and adjustment in terms of coping perceptions on performance, stress, health, overall satisfaction, and commitment to remaining in education. P16 (FEG, Semester 1) possessed a high degree of agency and agentic possibility as she revealed: I’m the first one in my family to attend college so that’s the motivation to pull the socks up and power through. Educational programmes have the possibility to enhance students’ agentic possibility (Van Dinther et al. 2011). P2 (TLCS, Semester 3) demonstrated consciousness of her growing agency, saying: The fact that I'm doing it myself… I came here not knowing anyone. I made my friends and I study myself. I do my work myself. It's just the fact that I can say I went to college, and I did it myself.

Dabbagh and Kitsantas (2012, p.8) advocate that ‘teaching students to become effective self-regulated learners may help them acquire basic and complex personal knowledge management skills that are essential for creating, managing, and sustaining PLEs using a variety of social media’. P2’s (TLCS, Semester 2) sense of agency increased because of her successful transition personally, interpersonally and collectively from Semester 1 through to Semester 4: this semester I know the standard that’s required of me and I’ve a very good group of friends now. At the latter part of the study, P8’s (TLCS, Semester 4) agentic possibility had grown, as she disclosed: before I was thinking: right, I’m just going to finish out my Degree. But now I’m thinking: right, I can go on and do a Masters, and I can get my Ph.D. if I want to…knowing that it’s something you are interested in, you can go on and do whatever you want to. As time evolves, maturity develops and helps students to envision new possible images of future selves, and along

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with these projections, the ways to achieve them (Giddens 1984; Archer 2007; Klemenčič 2015).

Occasionally, students will select streams they believe will offer them the most opportunities in terms of employability or which are deemed to offer more ‘professional’ qualifications than other specialisms. The selection of streams for BBS degree (hons) occurred in Semester 4 in WIT at a time when students: are starting to make these decisions that are going to have an impact later on. People are starting to think about how they are going to do well and how things are going to end up eventually, in the future (P12, SCS, Semester 4). Kelly et al. (2010) have reinforced these perceptions of the ‘earnings’ potential’ of certain fields of study and careers in Ireland using an economics-based returns model. Occasionally, academics may be reluctant to counsel students out of a particular stream of study because of their own insecurity around student numbers in their academic area. In some HEIs and business programmes, students may be carrying failed components/modules in a numerical area from year one or two and are intent on pursuing an accountancy/economics qualification due to the perception that this stream has a more professional framework than other streams.

7.5.3 Well-being and Resilience

Physical, mental and emotional well-being is collectively vital to student success (Wrench et al. 2014). As part of a holistic educational experience, HE institutions and student bodies are slowly incorporating well-being programmes into their academic calendars. Physiological, socio-emotional and psychological aspects which relate to well-being are currently incorporated into HE induction programmes and extended institutional and student-led well-being initiatives are increasingly used, particularly in Semester 1, but are largely non-existent in Semesters 2, 3 and 4. Initial transition and a sense of loss from their previous environments and acquaintances therein implies that health and well-being can be compromised through changing social conditions, such as those brought about by relocation and dislocation felt when students no longer have easy access to support networks, including friends and family (Keeling 2014; Wrench et

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al. 2014). Smyth and Banks (2015, p.600) found that ‘parental support has been found to operate as an important mediating factor in young people’s stress levels’. Furthermore, students contextualise their immediate social experiences and interactions by connecting past experiences and future orientations to present situations (Archer 2000, 2003; 2007; Biesta 2008; Klemenčič 2015).

Participants were aware of the importance of managing their physical well-being and some of the male participants discussed the importance of going to the gym and being involved in sports activities from a social, a health-orientated and body-conscious perspective. P3 (TLCS, Semester 4) reported: I started going to the gym because I was really body conscious, and confirmed that he subsequently: got more emotionally into it…... Similarly, P12 (SCS, Semester 1) became more interested in physical activity which not only benefited health but also socially and mentally. He described himself as: more focused, and considered it invaluable to be: involved in things around college….even just as motivator to come in and it becomes part of college as well, it’s part of the experience.

However participants who had greater financial demands on them felt more aware of adverse effects, particularly from a physical perspective. Left unchecked, these excessive physical demands had a negative effect on their ability to attend all their lectures and therefore impacted on them academically. For some participants, extreme physical neglect had a negative impact on their mental well-being as in the case of P14 (SCS, Semester 3) who admitted:

…. I wouldn’t say right now I’m happy with my course or happy with what I’m doing but I know myself because I’ve got into not sleeping and all that is touching levels of depression ….. I’ll be burning the candle at both ends but I can crash when I have free time. I can’t crash right now…. My Mother is like ‘oh, you have to go to the doctor’ and I was like ‘I will when I have time off but I don’t have time off so I’ll do it at some point’ ….

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Promotion of and access to medical and psychological facilities and a variety of institution-led and student-led student support services and reinforcement of these aforementioned services is clearly critical (Warwick et al. 2008; Richardson et al. 2012). ‘It is important to acknowledge that this combination of personal responsibility and external cultural and economic forces could lead to continued high levels of anxiety, depression and other mental health problems amongst these university students’ (Wrench et al. 2014, p.163).

Keeling (2014, p.145) advocates the development of well-being initiatives by HEIs and extols the consequences of this policy by highlighting that:

Well-being is necessary for higher learning; the mind (which is, notably, part of the whole student) must be free of constraints to be ready to learn. Those constraints may be individual and personal or systematic and structural; either way, they demand the notice of the institution, call upon the institution’s responsibility, create reasonable expectations for competent action, and do not (and should not) require reciprocity from students’.

7.6 Refining Students’ Perceptions of Success Framework

The multi-layered process and synchronous data collection approaches provided a rich and detailed view of the reflective thinking process in relation to the participants’ epistemic stances and personal development (Ostorga 2006). In providing the opportunity, time, and space for such reflection, the participants felt safe to reflect on their experiences, assess their values, plan for their future, and develop personally, academically and professionally.

The research process adopted in this study was supported by the conceptualisation (Figure 19) of the dynamics of student success in HE based on the theoretical framework (Figure 6) in Chapter 4. Personal and social factors of each student influence

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their structure and agency. Personal factors that impact HE decisions include gender, socioeconomic class, previous educational background, achievement on entry and ethnicity. Social factors that influence pre- and post-entry experiences to HE included socio-economic background, post-primary education experience(s) and transitional and social experiences. Structure and agency continually evolve prior to and throughout student engagement in the HE journey and consideration of structure highlights the daily interactions between habitus, adaptation and progression through engagement and specific transitions which shape identity and agency in ways that are transformational (Eccelstone 2007).

The participants’ perceptions of success were based on having a clear or recalibrated (SCSs) sense of direction, the ability to survive the transition to HE, striving for success and flourishing in themselves personally and academically. Transitional experiences commence prior to commencing the HE journey through pre-engagement initiatives which may be institution-led, faculty-led, parent-driven or student-driven. Orientation programmes for first year HE students generally comprise a minimum of one to a seven week programme and progress throughout the first semester of the first year HEI experience. Typically, in the early period of the HE journey, first year engagement (FYE) initiatives are prevalent, with subsequent years of programmes and cohorts of students therein, frequently being neglected in terms of student support initiatives.

Time is a critical resource for the [HE] student facilitating personal growth and development, particularly in terms of emerging and evolving identity (Sharron 1982; Mattley 2002; Duncheon and Tierney 2013). Time is frequently measured in HE according to a semesterised system, which is experienced by all involved as intense and goal-orientated. Time management skills particularly in terms of prioritising activities (personal, academic and social) such as personal care, a balanced life-style, self-directed learning, meeting deadlines and participating in social activities are key facets of student engagement and transition to HE that the student is encouraged to develop and foster.

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In terms of emerging and evolving identity, the more developed the students’ sense of identity was, the more aware they seemed to be of their own uniqueness and similarity to others and their strengths and weaknesses in terms of their personal, academic and professional development. The less developed this structure was, the more confused individuals seemed to be. The HE environment supports the constant exchange of new ideas, development of social relationships, and potential career paths offered within the university context, is likely to provoke identity exploration in certain individuals (Montgomery & Côté 2003).

The key findings from this study highlight that authentic personal development is underpinned and reinforced by student well-being and resilience. Successful learning requires learners to be and feel well physically, socially and emotionally (Field 2009) and this is the corner-stone of the dynamics of student success in HE. The transition to university is complex with several factors impacting on student well-being: namely, engagement with independent learning; developing a sense of belonging to an academic community; managing time; and competing demands (Wrench et al. 2013; Finley 2016). Keeling (2014) argues that consideration of students’ well-being requires attention to students as ‘whole people’. In essence, the dynamics of student success in HE are dependent on well-being and resilience, and acknowledging and valuing these prerequisites influences how we [educators and stakeholders alike] engender, describe and measure [the concept of] success holistically as a society.

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Figure 19: A Refined Model of the Dynamics of Student Success in HE

7.6.1 Reconceptualising the Dynamics of Student Success in HE

This refined model of the dynamics of student success in HE acknowledges the importance of the theories of structure and agency (Giddens 1976, 1984; Archer 2003) in terms of students and their backgrounds particularly in terms of their cultural capital (Bourdieu & Passeron 1979; Reay et al. 2001; Thomas 2002; Thomas 2012) and their decisions around accessing and participating in HE (Reay et al. 2004; 2010). Personal and social factors (Smyth et al. 2011; Banks & Smyth 2015; DfE 2017; Taylor et al. 2017) that influence and impact HE experiences are integral to the study. Pre- engagement (Crosling et al. 2008; Currant and Currant 2009; McKillop et al. 2009) orientation (Barry et al. 2015; Hughes and Smail 2015) and engagement strategies (Crosling et al. 2009; Thomas 2012; Tinto 2012b) are fundamental to successful transition to HE (Pascarella and Terenzini 2005; Tinto 1993, 1997, 2012b and Thomas 2012). In terms of the empirical findings from the study, the efficacy of time (as a resource) and the passage of time (Sharron 1982; Mattley 2002; Duncheon and Tierney

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2013) are important underlying concepts in terms of understanding the dynamics of student success beyond the first year HE experience (Kahu 2013). Due to the fact that this was a longitudinal study, it became evident that ‘success’ from the perspective of the student was a very subjective concept, fluid, deeply personal and unique.

Consequently, student success may be described as a dynamic experience that fluctuates for each individual over the course of time. At pre-college phase, there is a search for ‘Direction’ and also perhaps a ‘Recalibration of Direction’ for further education (FE) and ‘Second Chance Students’ (SCSs). During the early phases of HE students are primarily in ‘Survival’ mode and if they integrate successfully (personally, socially and academically) into their new environment they have every opportunity to ‘Strive’ to realise their goals. A number of participants of this study indicated that they wanted to ‘Strive to Stand Out’ to maximise their opportunities for their flexible semester in terms of gaining work placement with a blue chip company. Students who are ‘Flourishing’ are optimising their HE experience and are gaining a deeper sense of self and are effectively ‘Realising their Potential’. There is overwhelming evidence that supports the importance of wellbeing and resilience in terms of how these factors underpin the ability of the student to positively and progress holistically over time (Ryff & Keyes 1995; Keyes 2007; Rath & Harter 2010; Seligman 2011).

A broader and more holistic perspective to the development of the person within the HE sector is one of the main findings of this study. Additionally, the value of the HE experience in the allowing the time and space for the development of emerging and evolving self is supported through literature and empirical findings. Further self- transformation and maturation and the continuing (supported) personal, interpersonal and social development is often overlooked as a measurable outcome or KPI, particularly from a neoliberal perspective. Moreover, the ability of the student to look outside and beyond themselves to be [become] a key contributor to wider society is a fundamental challenge as well for HE policy-makers, institutions and educators collectively (McArthur 2011; Case 2015; Dean and Gibbs 2015).

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7.7 Conclusion

The findings from this study closely resonate with the typology of student transition in higher education as developed by Gale and Parker (2014). The authors suggest that transition tends to be based on induction, development and becoming, and noted that much of the policy that is developed around transition to higher education is predicated on induction and development. This study follows on from their recommendations relating to ‘adding to the corpus of enquiry…. this includes research with vertical foci beyond first year’ (p.748) and that ‘future research…. needs to be cognisant of students’ lived reality’ (p.474) which this study is focused on. At present, well-being initiatives in HE are not policy-driven by the Department of Education and Skills (DES) but are rather institute-driven and are mainly dependent on college resources and college policy. There is no doubt however that as a result of the DES budgetary restraints of recent years, most HEIs and student bodies are stretched to do little more than pay lip- service to comprehensively, proactively or genuinely addressing staff and student well- being, other than from a fire-fighting perspective (Abery & Shipman Gunson 2016). The central tenet of this thesis is that student success cannot be fully supported by HEIs unless well-being initiatives are freely available for all students.

7.8 Reflexive Commentary

This study was a longitudinal study and I considered that a constructivist approach was the most appropriate way to explore what constitutes ‘success’ from a student’s perspective. It afforded both the participants and me the time and space to explore and evaluate various constructs of success over time. Key themes emerged relating to the concept of time in the study, from the pragmatics of time, time management and in terms of experiences and expectations that evolve over time. Meeting the participants once a semester during their first four semesters allowed us the chance to reflect and explore the key constructs of success together.

It is worthwhile acknowledging that my own philosophical approach and perspectives become less polarised as time went on and as a result of the fortunate and considered

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feedback I received during my annual reviews. My research style and interpretative ability also evolved as time progressed and I consequently developed a better understanding of the role of the researcher-practitioner and that of my own personal and professional experiences in informing my interpretation of the data and literature as a whole. I adhered to a process of reflectivity and reflexivity at all times throughout the study through note-taking and post-interview reflections. I generated a detailed data analysis trail as a result of using a CGT approach and utilising NVivo software, discussions and feedback from supervisors and mentors, and feedback from annual reviews of my work.

Most importantly, my rapport and relationship with the participants developed and become closer over time as the in-depth interviews became an opportunity for them to express their own personal reflections ever-more freely. In fact, the successive interviews grew into an exercise in mindfulness and exploration of possible future selves. The volume of data derived from the study and my sustained commitment to honouring the voices of the participants was so intense that it posed a significant challenge for me: how best to present the data in the optimum manner. I therefore approached the research process and data analysis in the most rigorous manner possible, developed a logical and transparent audit trail, and faithfully endeavoured to synthesise the perspectives of the participants through an holistic perspective that searches beyond the stark black and white realities of our lives to the in-between and elusive grey patterns of experience and perception.

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Chapter 8 Conclusion

8.1 Introduction The previous chapter examined and discussed the research findings of this study in the context of the extant literature in which critical insights relating to the contested concept of student success in HE were theoretically and/or practically supported or extended. In order to reflect and elaborate on the key findings, the overall themes and sub-themes pertaining to student success in HE were further expounded upon in the discussion chapter. In addition, a discussion of successful early transition to (and within) HE identified the main challenges experienced by the participants and contrasted them with the previous research findings, policies and strategies developed to support students. The importance of social integration in facilitating successful transition was evaluated. The pragmatics of time was discussed in terms of perceptions of time, managing time, and the intrinsic value of time for the student, in the context of personal maturation and development. Personal experiences of evolving identity and the importance of student agency were confirmed to be critical success factors. Finally student well-being (physical, mental and emotional) and the role of resilience were examined and found to be the most fundamental contributing factors to success.

This chapter reprises the research question and objectives and summarises the main research findings to establish connections between a critical review of the literature and the findings. The fulfilment of the overall brief of the study is addressed in terms of identifying and discussing the key themes, conclusions, contributions to theory, and practice and recommendations. Specific limitations of this study are acknowledged and further research avenues suggested. In closing, a reflexive analysis of the researcher’s positionality is presented, along with a number of concluding remarks.

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8.2 Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study was to explore the contested concept of student success in HE with particular emphasis on early students’ experiences and perceptions of their progress in HE. The focus of the study was to explore and present participants’ definitions and perceptions of what success within that context means to them. The research objectives aimed:

8.3 Summary of Research Findings

This section provides an overview of the relationships between HE policy (Chapter 2), the literature reviewed (Chapter 3), the methodology adopted for this study (Chapter 4), the findings (Chapters 5 and 6) and the discussion thereof (Chapter 7). A review of contemporary and relevant HE policy and literature contextualised the study and provided the researcher with in-depth knowledge of key theories and findings from previous studies which were then compared to findings from this current study.

The main themes of the study comprised:

i. Students’ perceptions of success in HE ii. Early transitional experiences to HE iii. Personal experiences in HE

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8.3.1 Students’ perceptions of success in HE

Student success in HE is perceived and measured in diverse and discrete ways by the various stakeholders. However, one of the central tenets of this thesis is that student success can be defined in a multi-faceted way; namely, from neoliberal, progressivist, and humanist perspectives. Findings from this study demonstrated that individuals’ particular viewpoints are fluid and vary in terms of significance, as personal needs and circumstances evolve over time. As such, it is clear that success in HE may be viewed from an academic, non-academic, and personal perspective (Fowler & Boylan 2010). Perceptions of success are framed by an individual’s mind-set at a given time and later re-framed with the benefit of time and experiences. Students’ perceptions of success may be connected to intrinsic and/or extrinsic rewards. The overriding themes based on the students’ perceptions of success included having a clear sense of direction or in gaining a better sense of direction over time, the ability to survive the early and testing transition to HE, possessing the agency and resilience to strive to achieve one’s goals, personal flourishing over time and facilitated by the HE environment, and realising potential.

In respect of the clear sense of direction, based on the current application system to HE and the statistics from initial applications to the CAO, it is clear that the many PPE students are uncertain of their chosen academic HE programme of study and/or on a chosen career. In fact, the vast majority of second-level students avail of the early spring ‘change of mind’ option regarding the possible HE programme(s) they would like to progress to HE to study. Moreover, there is an evident lack of preparedness for PP students coming into HE, resulting in expectations that tend to jar with reality and thus require improved management. Pre-orientation [taster] programmes should be more widely available to students in PPE, particularly for specialised programmes. Generic or foundation programmes that inhere more specialised programmes of study are also worthwhile as is the flexibility to enable students to transfer between HEI programmes of study internally or externally in HEIs in cases where students have qualifying points and places remain available.

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Transition and engagement programmes comprising additional/prolonged support programmes should also be developed and offered to second year HE students. Participants’ in the study who had the opportunity to recalibrate their academic direction, even after taking time out, benefitted from this time and possessed greater agency as a result. One of the strongest sub-themes to emerge from findings in the study was simply surviving the transition to HE which was found to be dependent on numerous factors including the degree of congruence between participants’ expectations and experiences of the programme and the HE environment in general. Heavy reliance on academic, personal, social, psycho-social and socio-economic elements chime with Tinto’s (1975) and Thomas’ (2012) frameworks which both foreground social integration as fundamental to successfully transitioning to HE. Surviving further implied that each individual was in the position to continuously ensure their individual, sequential hierarchy of needs were fully met (Maslow 1970).

The concept of striving emerged more distinctly as time progressed. This revealed that the participants were developing a growing and/or stronger sense of agency, agentic possibility and resilience (Klemenčič 2015). As participants became more immersed in their new HE environment and accrued cultural capital, their sense of self-identity and agency developed. Both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards were acknowledged as reasons for striving, although at any given time, participants may have been consciously or unconsciously seeking hard and/or soft outcomes. As time elapsed, participants became more alert to the utility of proper time management and devised independent learning strategies. The ability and willingness to seek appropriate support at this juncture was another noteworthy proactive strategy for students to adopt during these early stages in HE. Lastly, the phenomenon of peer competitiveness was observable in the latter semesters of the study, with participants striving to ‘stand out’ in order to achieve [extrinsic] academic distinction such as the Deans’ List, and/or appointments to coveted internships with prestigious blue-chip companies.

The flourishing individual refers to an individual who possesses a strong sense of self- identity and has grown in stature personally, inter-personally, academically, and

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holistically (Schreiner 2010a; 2010b; 2010c). This further subsumes the ideal that the person is aware of others, possesses a strong sense of community and wants to contribute to an organization, community, family, and/or societal cause(s). Flourishing was evident across all participants who continually embraced the entirety of HE experience to maximise their own potential. It therefore follows that realising one’s potential is not a discrete aim or activity, but rather comprises a continuously striving, flourishing and agentic sense of possibility.

8.3.2 Students’ early transitional experiences in HE

Successful early transition to HE has a positive impact on student levels of agency/motivation, performance, and their overall experiences. Findings from this study highlighted the acutely negative physical and mental impact that the Leaving Certificate process exerted on the participants. The fact that several of the participants of the study were still completely exhausted from the process in Semester 1 correlate with findings from a longitudinal study conducted by Smyth and Banks (2012a; 2012b) on the residual impact of the Leaving Certificate and high-stakes testing. It was also evident that some participant’s expectations significantly diverged from the reality of their early experiences in the HE environment, with some feeling inadequately prepared (practically, academically, psycho-socially and emotionally) for the experience.

Successful early social integration facilitates informal psycho-social support structures and provides a strong foundation for personal and learning development which greatly enhances evolving self-identity and resilience. These informal support systems include family, existing friends, new friends, and classmates. Social media proved to be a very useful format of communication in facilitating accessible, continuous (virtual) social interaction for the participants from an academic and [informal] social support perspective. Friendships that were formed by the participants in the earliest days of their HE experience were, for the most part, those that tended to last, with some of the female participants attesting they had formed life-long friendships from this time. Formal psycho-social support structures integral to the various HEIs are also critically

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important in advancing the transition to HE. These comprise tutor support, appropriate academic support (one-to-one and in groups), peer support, and psychological support.

Students’ positive affective development, sense of motivation, and resilience is greatly enhanced by early social integration into a HE learning environment and communities which support this. Social cognitive theory posited by Bandura (1986) purports that three interrelated processes take place which impact on self-regulated learning: namely, development of personal processes; the impact of the learning environment; and individual behaviour. This ability to self-regulate, devise independent learning strategies and time management skills, developed over time and at different paces for all of the participants in the present study. Moreover, as time progressed, it became clear that failure to develop these skills over the first four semesters adversely impacted the students’ perceptions of agency.

The pragmatics of time was an integral part of this study. The inherent value and effect of time from past, present and future perspectives, managing time, and developing routines were key sub-themes of the study. One shortcoming of Kahu’s (2013) interesting framework was in failing to capture how different temporal orientations shape individual student behaviour (Klemenčič 2015). This longitudinal study redresses this oversight. The nature of the study comprised of sequential interviews with each participant over four consecutive semesters afforded the participants the opportunity to reflect on the past, be in the present, and consider future experiences and possibilities. The semesterised system of programmatic and modularised delivery has its own pulse and effect on perceptions of time. The compression of the HE experience means that each module and learning experiences operates within the constraints of a tightly defined and bounded timeframe. Nonetheless, the cursive timeframe of the study afforded both the participants and researcher successive opportunities to review and reflect on past and current experiences and to discuss future possibilities. It also educed the opportunity for me to observe the formative process of the participants and to witness at first-hand how growing self-identity, maturity, and independence, evolves so significantly for young adults.

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8.3.3 Students’ personal experiences in HE

Personal experiences are shaped by subjective expectations and perceptions of experiences, and influenced by levels of maturity and general preparedness for the HE environment. First generation (HE) students or those who experiences cultural, social or economic deficit(s) may endure additional challenges in their transition to HE. Moreover, personal experiences are impacted by the congruence of academic and personal goals with the particular HE environment in which students find themselves. These factors impact on a person’s general sense of well-being and this, in turn, affects their degree of both perceived and actual agency Thus cultivating a strong and positive sense of well-being, resilience and agency, impinges on academic progression, which in turn, impacts on positive experiences in HE.

Physical, mental, and emotional well-being and resilience are collectively vital to student success (Wrench et al. 2014). In order to provide the best possible experience for students, HEIs are gradually incorporating well-being initiatives and programmes into their specific communities and programmes. Since students’ well-being is affected by many factors, appropriate and timely support systems need to be in place to address issues such as financial, medical, mental health, academic ability, and/or social integration/ engagement issues. Appropriate learning support infrastructures as well as support around certain subject areas or modules could also be instantiated in the provision of a centre and/or tutor(s). In any event, HEIs and faculty must consider prioritising the well-being of the student as an ethic of care as well as of academic integrity. Indeed, staff and student well-being needs should become a routine concern of the culture of the organisation and the formal and informal learning environment (Abery & Shipman Gunson 2016). In short, such well-being initiatives could and should be prioritised within government and DES policy at primary, post-primary and HE level.

8.4 Synopsis

When neoliberal, progressivist/humanistic and critical theory perspectives are combined they present a more realistic construct of success from all stakeholders’ perspectives.

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Documenting and reflecting on the dynamics of student success in HE is invaluable as it provides other students (prospective and current), their families, faculties, HEI managers and policy-makers with rich insight into contemporary students’ transition to HE and their early, often adverse, experiences. This study elaborates on a multi-faceted awareness of the challenges that students face and urges PP, FE and HE policy-makers, managers, and HEI faculty members to reassess how they may better support students who have the ability, drive, and determination, to succeed in HE. Since a greater proportion of first-generation students attend IoTs, they may unfortunately lack the cultural capital of many of their HE peers and therefore be thwarted by additional and unforeseen hurdles (Luzeckyj et al. 2011). As ever-growing numbers of PP and FE students gain access to HE, it is clear that policy-makers and educationalists alike have a fundamental duty of care to optimise the learning experiences and potential success of all third level students. Table 11 below provides an overview of the three main approaches to framing success in HE.

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Neoliberalist Progressivist/ Humanist Critical Theorist

Retention Adaptability/ Creativity Social justice advocates

Adjustment Autonomy/ Empowerment Democratic citizens

Progression Rates Flexibility(transferable skills) Social agents

Completion Life-Long Learner/ Personal Civically mindful Growth

Graduate Output Thriving Contributing to wider society

Persistence Transformability/Evolving Expansive learning Identity

Competence Reflectivity Metamorphoses

Attainment Flourishing & Well-being Individual and collective wellbeing

Value-laden & positivistic Values-driven Social justice advocates

Advisement Experiential/ Engagement Democratic citizens

Conformity Authenticity Social agents

Compliance Social Activity/Voluntarism Civically mindful

Employability Entrepreneurialism/Multiple Contributing to wider society Careers/Multipotentialite

Table 11: Framing of Success in Higher Education

(Sourced and adapted from: Adorno 1990; Marcuse 1990; Jay 1996; Tinto 1997; Kuh et al. 2005; Wirth & Padilla 2008; Zepke & Leach 2010a; Schreiner et al. 2012; Stevens-Long et al. 2012; Letizia 2013; 2016 Smith Pangle 2013; Keeling 2014; Reilly 2018)

This study seeks to present a holistic definition of success from the students’ perspectives. ‘Student success’ is often understood by educational stakeholders as engagement, persistence, completion, graduation, and entry to employment (Zepke et al. 2011). This is evident from the discourse presented in this chapter (Table 11) and the policy reports and strategies critically reviewed in Chapter 2. Both note the significant

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volume of research conducted on how higher educational institutions (HEIs) influence student success. From a neoliberal perspective, it could be argued that current HE strategies seem to focus expressly on developing skills that produce ‘work-ready’ graduates, which ‘may restrict our openness to people and to our own contentment with ourselves’ (Gibbs 2015, p.54). Furthermore, he proposes that a neoliberal agenda:

…has resulted in practices that deny students potentially valuable education experiences, a university should challenge students to develop the capabilities to optimise their potential to make responsible choices. This may often be achieved through more space in the curriculum to ‘potter about’, to follow the byways of their curiosity and not to worry about learning outcomes or assessment criteria – all the things that are designed to fill up time, to create the urgency of immediate demand and to induce a fear of forgetting who you are.

(Gibbs 2015, p.56)

Neoliberal outcomes comprise the use of hard-outcomes metrics that include, but are not limited to, graduation rates, level of attainment, percentage of the population with some level of attainment, or the number of degrees awarded every year. As such, evaluations of student success tend to rest on economic, institutional and/or the individual ‘units of analysis’ ensuring that neoliberal discourse equates student success in HE to performativity and student throughput (Wirth & Padilla 2008). Neoliberal measures of student success include meeting student learning outcomes which are measured through assessment, and meeting economic work-force orientated outcomes.

From a personal and professional perspective individuals wish to achieve high and more advanced grades from undergraduate to post-graduate levels for academic and/or social position reasons (Life 2015). While there are a number of alternative definitions and no agreement as to a comprehensive perspective, one definition which arguably incorporates the neoliberal, progressivist and humanist approaches of student success is posited by Kuh et al. (2005, p.xiv) who demarcate student success as ‘satisfaction, persistence, and high levels of learning and personal development’. From an IoT

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(community-orientated college) perspective, Wirth and Padilla (2008) contend that student success is often perceived in a more holistic perspective in community colleges as opposed to comparable perceptions in higher level university environments.

The softer-outcomes based humanist perspective embraces personal growth, empowerment and voluntarism (Kascak et al. 2011; Dull 2012; Ghanizadeh 2017) while the progressivist approach embraces transformability, reflectivity and experiential learning as its core tenets (Atkinson 2013; Snepvangers & Bannon 2016). Gaskell (2008, p.155) asserts that ‘success to a learner may include the fulfilment of personal goals, completion of modules, graduation and future employment’. Such observations reinforce my initial contention that no single definition of success exists, especially from an individuated perspective. What is deemed to be a success to one person may be perceived as wholly inadequate to another. However, when all of these perspectives are collectively adopted they offer a more realistic and balanced construct of success from all stakeholders’ individual and collective perspectives.

From a critical theorist’s perspective, the legacy of enlightenment is a society in which critical reason are valued above all whereby the individual is ‘not just a consumer or a cog, but a truly rational being rooted in a community, able to evaluate his/her society and dialectically progress to a higher reality’ (Letizia 2013, p.190). HE policy rarely mentions civic and democratic purposes of HE (Giroux 2011). What is required is scholarship, lobbying, activism and reaching out to the general public. Children represent the hope and future of society (Giroux 2011). McArthur (2011, p.737) argues for a ‘redefinition of the purposes of higher education to ensure that both universities and workplaces are sites of human creativity and that the profound and exciting work within institutions of higher education benefits all members of society’.

Consequently from a holistic perspective, when students are flourishing they enjoy a sense of well-being and agency, which in turn facilitates the individual to reach or strive to fulfil potential. This culminates in positive reinforcement. Flourishing infers that the

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individual is intrinsically content with their environment/locus of control. Scant research has been undertaken to date in determining the holistic impact of Student Success Courses/Initiatives (SSC/Is) to ascertain which aspects of course curriculum and conditions within the HE environment most impact students’ learning and achievement (Hoops et al. 2015). Appropriate levels of student support are desirable then, not merely for first years but for all students (under-graduate and post-graduate) as they progress through HE. Follow-up student support, particularly in the wake of examination results (especially if results are sub-optimal) or after students prematurely depart a programme also need to be augmented and extended.

8.5 Contributions

This study aimed to explore student perceptions of success early in HE. The use of a longitudinal methodology afforded me the opportunity to elicit an in-depth narrative(s) of student’s evolving perceptions of what constitutes success in higher education. Furthermore, this study investigated how early transitional experiences in HE and pragmatics of time impact on the student academically and personally. Finally, findings from the study evaluated how personal experiences impact students and their perceptions of success in HE.

This research makes a valuable contribution on a number of levels as follows:

8.5.1 Significance for Theory

A constructivist grounded theory (CGT) approach was adopted to gather and analyse the data for this study. This approach allowed me the opportunity to review data with similar themes and sub-themes from leading researchers/academics/projects and to generate and test new theory based on the current HE experience of participants and their evolving perceptions of success and the conditions that facilitate student success, more specifically, within the IOT sector. As such, this research study has uncovered,

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developed, and described, new narratives around the dynamics of student success in HE and extended existing theory based on CGT.

At the outset of this study, discourse around the concept of success in HE was measured most significantly from a neoliberalist perspective, at times from a progressivist/humanist approach, and from a critical theory perspective. Thus evaluation often depended on the programme of study and/or perspective of the researcher, or the agenda or remit of the policy-maker. This in-depth exploration of the concept of student success from the perspective of the student in their early stages of their engagement with HE is the first of its kind, and the decision to conduct a longitudinal study wherein I engaged with participants through in-depth interviews once a semester over four consecutive semesters as they transitioned through their early HE experience strengthened the depth and scope of the research. The dual process of eliciting and collating key themes and sub-themes which emerged from the participants’ perceptions of their progress over time further illuminated their experiences of the framing and dynamics of success in HE initially and beyond the first year.

Pragmatics of time is a central concept to the study and it facilitated and enhanced the study from a retrospective, contemporaneous, and prospective perspective. The collation of these multiple perspectives over four semesters facilitated the calibration of what constituted success from the perspectives of the students over time. I was fortunate to have access to a wide range of students’ viewpoints represented in the study: namely, traditional schools leavers (TSLs); second chance students (SCSs); and mature students (MSs). Time is the most precious resource that we have and how we use it and how we view it are equally important. As such, time was an integral concept in this study for the students from a personal, interpersonal, intrapersonal, developmental, transformative and as academic perspective.

The data collection process involved a co-constructivist approach to understanding the conditions that facilitate success in HE from the students’ perspectives. The overriding

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concern was to attempt to comprehend and represent the perceptions of success from the perspectives of the participants. Transitional and personal experiences influence perceptions of success, are fluid and evolve both intrinsically and extrinsically. The findings of this study suggest that the emergent student success model has the potential to provide a learning and engagement context wherein students are supported and facilitated in developing their abilities from a holistic perspective. HEI programmes and academics who deliver such programmes and actively engage with the students embrace a HE framework that is neoliberal, progressivist, humanistic, and holistic. The concept of the positive internal university model advocated by Oades et al. (2011) can be expanded upon to include external communities of learning and practice by incorporating definitions of success which are both intrinsic and extrinsic, and more readily accepted as fluid over time.

8.5.2 Significance for Policy

Historical and contemporary relevant HE policy documentation were reviewed for the purpose of this study in terms of strategy and programme development with particular sensitivity to the discourse employed from neoliberal, humanist/progressivist and critical theory approaches. Findings from this study have repeatedly demonstrated that contemporary HE is largely framed in economic terms and that other HE outcomes such as criticality, and civic and social engagement are undermined in the prioritisation of economic advancement (Lolich, 2011). This study also emphasises that the HE remit has devolved into an economics-based model whereby student volumes, student retention, research funding, and serving industry has become the accepted, and acceptable, norm. It is time for a change in policy at micro-, meso- and macro-levels both in the HE environment and at post-primary level, where the discourse and culture has become quantitative, performativity-driven and outcomes-based.

HEIs are therefore encouraged to:

a. Establish stronger connections with PPIs and FETCs and offer increased access to pre-college learning experiences, including taster modules and taster

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programmes during holidays and transition year to accelerate learning momentum (Wang et al. 2015). Develop deeper connections with all stakeholders at primary school (PS) level (pupils, teachers, parents), particularly DEIS schools, and offer mini taster courses during holiday periods

b. Manage the expectations of all key stakeholders (specifically prospective students, their parents/guardian and teachers) effectively through the provision of more detailed and clearer programme documentation (physical and online) concerning key modules (such as pre-requisite core subjects and subsequently modules) on specific programmes; authentic testimonials from existing students and graduates to prospective students, their parents/guardians, second level teachers especially career guidance teachers and FE teachers and provision of taster modules (on-line or on-campus) to prospective students at earlier points in their second level programmes for example in transition year or early in their pre-leaving certificate examination year

c. Develop additional non-specialised transition programmes to meet the needs of first year students, first generation students and distance learning students, which properly inform them of the realities of university life and facilitate the transition from secondary to tertiary education (Brinkworth et al. 2009). HEIs need to be encouraged and incentivised to further develop the Transitions Initiative (NFETL 2015c) which is a commitment to significantly reduce the number of Level 8 honours Bachelor Degree programmes in the universities so that these become broader and less specialised, and to ensure a more mixed portfolio of Level 8 programmes with both denominated and generic entry in the IOTs10

10 A review of CAO handbooks shows that the number of Level 8 courses has dropped from a high of 1,036 in 2014/15 to 964 in for the 2017/18 academic year. Thereby offering more generic programmes arts-based programmes in year one of a three year degree programme of in years one and two of a four year degree programme and where students specialise in a specific field or discipline later (Brinkworth et al. (2009)

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d. In terms of early transitions to HE, additional tutor support and peer-to-peer support as well as access to counselling services should be available and accessible to students, not just in their first year of HE but also in their second year and beyond

e. Implement practices of care in HE to effect change in organisational structures and institutional cultures that influence who gives and receives care, and how that care is valued (O’Brien 2010). Call for educators to ‘critically examine how multiple processes of the caring function for people within organisations and social contexts (McKamey 2011, p.79, cited in Mariskind 2014, p.318). Implement strategies for emotional well-being and not just strategies for academic advancement or behavioural/learning in an Irish context at macro-, meso- and micro-levels. Implement a dual-strategy to practice a duty of care of emotional well-being of staff as well as students, such that staff are able to support learners in every way in so much as is practicable.

8.6 Significance for Practice

On a practical level, the data from this study, presents rich, thick descriptions of a qualitative nature on evolving perception(s) of success in HE, early transitional experiences, personal experiences and over (semesterised) stages of a young adult’s life. Findings in this study resonate with findings from a study conducted by Trotter and Roberts (2006) whereby in every semester both the academic team involved in the management and delivery of the programme and each participant operates with different expectations and perhaps differing value systems. Therefore from a practical (institute- based) perspective:

a. Develop proactive pre-orientation measures such as taster programmes and additional online information (Penn-Edwards & Donnison 2011). DeAndrea et al. (2012) advocate the development of a student-centred social media site by the HEI prior to students commencing their programmes of study on campus.

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Such interactions enable users feel that they have access to a more expansive and familiar support network on campus b. Develop a strong and tailored introduction to the HE environment where incoming students are informed about procedures and supports is essential as well as on-going support programmes. A framework for developing first-year students’ learning is proposed similar to Wingate’s (2007) proposal in facilitating transition to university by helping students to understand what is expected from them at university, by addressing their conceptions of learning and knowledge, and by gradually developing their competence as independent learners as well as their competence in constructing knowledge in their discipline c. Flexible institutional and practices in terms of (programme) design, development, re-development and delivery could be implemented which are more student-centered, such as more increasing choice and flexibility for students and offering increased ease of transfer between programmes of study. Kappe and van der Flier (2012, p.605) recommend that highly motivated and conscientious students might ‘be offered more challenging modules with special commendations on their diplomas, whereas lower achieving students be offered more structure and support’. Furthermore ensure programmatic development and reviews integrate cognitive, affective and emotional learning strategies within modules with a view to developing an educational experience that develops independent, critical thinkers who continue to develop personal, professional and societal values d. One-to-one support for students, especially in the first year with scheduled tutor, and peer support in year two. Ensure that personal tutor meetings should be timetabled regularly in the first semester, reverting to at least once per semester after that. An agenda for the meetings should be provided with an academic link, for example, personal development planning, study skills, review and reflection on assessment results. Programme directors in HEIs might also consider the transition students’ in other years namely two, three and four of

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under-graduate programmes and post-graduate students’ make in settling into specialist areas of study

e. Cultivate a friendship-based educational model whereby friendship and support programmes such that the relational dimension of peer-to-peer mentoring is at the forefront in the HE environment (between lecturers and students and students collectively for mutual betterment) (Ruehl 2018). Moreover, Astin (1993) notes that being in a particular type of institution does not necessarily limit the effectiveness of under-graduate education, and that what really matters is the environment created by the faculty and students.

f. Further development of ‘the self’ and knowing oneself, coupled with the development of a more civic orientated ‘we’ approach to life.11 This supports the continued development of moral self-identity (Lapsley & Stey 2008) of the individual at a pivotal time in the young person’s life. Recognizing the development of the young adult as an individual and their evolving self-identity situated in a constructive and creative learning environment. Finding and/or re- affirming their sense of direction from a personal and academic perspective may be an on-going journey since it is important for new first years in HE to understand that this is acceptable and a normal part of life

g. The findings from this research study identify the importance of availing of on- going social and emotional supports and the importance of well-being programmes at all levels of education. Consider offering continuous and accessible well-being and resilience programmes that offer proactive strategies to support staff and students physically and emotionally (Mountford-Zimdars et al. 2017). Connect with students’ lives and being culturally aware (Gale & Parker 2014). Hughes and Smail (2015, p.477) contend that universities may benefit from ‘focusing their initial interactions with students on supporting

11 A current example is the national programme is StudentVolunteer.ie which was established in 2016 connects higher education students with civil society organisation volunteering opportunities. It comprises an online system that is the first of its kind in the world, aimed at nurturing the next generation of civically responsible students and enhancing public awareness of students role and responsibility in contributing to solving societal challenges.

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social integration, promoting positive thinking patterns and behaviours and challenging negative thinking and lifestyle choices’. A holistic, integrated and institution-wide approach that engages senior managers, academic staff, professional service staff and students as stakeholders and agents through formal means (governing body and academic council) and informal means (charity and volunteering initiatives comprising a college-wide community approach). Practical, emotional, well-being programmes need to be available on a continuous basis for staff and students to avail of. Well-being programmes must not be perceived as ‘one-off’ or only offered as a result of a negative incident, but rather be regarded as positive, proactive, useful and non-stigmatised by all.

8.7 Significance for Social Issues and Action

HEIs, Deans, programme directors and lecturers could revisit the misconception that strategies for academic standing [high grades] and societal input [volunteerism] are often in conflict with each other. Positive strategies and reinforcement of these strategies can be fostered by the instructor in the classroom environment. Academic standing and social position can be united by including social skills in the academic evaluation and allowing other forms of reward for social success outside of the grading system’ (Life 2015, p.694). The value of HE could evolve as a more holistic contributory societal perspective as well as from a purely a ‘social’ or an ‘economic perspective. Growth for HEIs and individuals comes from an outward–in perspective as well as an inward-outward perspective. HEIs should aim to reach out and make a positive contribution, not just to the wider community in terms of access to education and redefining student type, but more practically in terms of engagement with economy and industry, is highly pertinent to our society’s and economy’s overall prosperity (Glover et al. 2002; Purcell et al. 2002; Crosling et al. 2009; Zepke & Leach 2010a; Willcoxson et al. 2011; Tinto 2012a).

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8.7.1 Dissemination and Policy Relevance

This study will contribute to knowledge about early experiences and perceptions of student progress in HE. It will inform policy at a micro- and macro-level. It will provide direction for the development of transitioning programmes for students including preparing students for HE when they are still considering their choices at second level. It will inform and enhance policy and practices in relation to extended induction programmes, student engagement, student development and progression/retention. It will inform programmatic design from a developmental and holistic perspective, and assist in the development of more informed support services for students, to ensure that, in spite of funding issues at third level, appropriate support structures (holistically) are maintained and available throughout their college life.

8.8 Limitations of the Study

The current study has a number of research limitations which are addressed in this section. This research study was an invaluable learning experience that has raised important questions regarding policy and practice in HE. The purpose of this study was to conduct an exploratory investigation into students’ perceptions of success in their early stages of HE. This study was conducted in one Irish HEI, more specifically an IOT, with a sample of 16 students (Semester 1: n = 16; Semester 2: n = 14; Semester 3: n = 12; Semester 4: n = 12) from one particular programme of study over four semesters and all findings need to be interpreted in that context. Whilst one cannot generalise from one ‘case’, there is no reason to suppose that significantly divergent results would have been found in any of the other IoTs or HEIs in general.

The study was conducted in the IoT where I work and therefore potential preconceptions and bias could have influenced the study. However, I endeavoured to maintain a rigorous researcher-orientated focus as I engaged in all stages of the research process. I also maintained a professional researcher-orientated relationship with the participants of the study and ensured that I did not lecture them while we were engaged in the study. This ensured that ethical and academic boundaries were maintained wherein the participants’ care and well-being were always the first priority.

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All research studies have limitations and Patton (1990, p.162) notes ‘there are no perfect research designs. There are always trade-offs’. Limitations derive from the conceptual framework and design of the study (Marshall & Rossman 1999). The nature of the study and my ontological perspective is relativist in that I viewed realities of the participants as multiple, constructed and holistic, as I explored experiences, interactions, social processes, and the construct of time. My epistemological position is constructivist and this practice endorsed the researchers and participant’s co-construction of knowledge and mutual interpretation of meaning, with the objective of fashioning an interpretive depiction of participant’s experiences. I was at all times cognisant of subscribing to a subjectivist and constructivist epistemology which was flexible, descriptive, holistic, and context sensitive.

The subjectivist nature of the research subscribes to the idea that understandings are created though interaction between the knower and the unknown or subject. I was at all times conscious of my own experiences and pre-conceptions and how these might shape my interpretation of the data. As such, I consistently endeavoured to represent the voice of the participant. The inductive iterative process of going back and forth between data collection and analysis facilitated emergent constructivist grounded theory analyses which was focused and incisive. The abductive process of accounting for emergent findings raised the level of abstraction of the analysis and its theoretical reach. I axiomatically adhered to the principle that the integrity, quality, and credibility of a study starts and ends with the data (Charmaz 2006).

While due diligence, reflectivity and reflexivity were constantly employed when analysing the data adopting a CGT approach, the possibility that my own personal and academic experiences as a student and as an educator would influence my perceptions and approach to the coding process was considered. However, a trusted and respected colleague coded two transcripts and an inter-rater reliability of over 70% (Appendix I) was achieved which corroborated my robust approach to data analysis and enhanced the overall trustworthiness and credibility of the study.

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8.9 Avenues for Future Research

While this study was longitudinal in nature, it would have been fascinating to continue to follow this particular cohort of students throughout their eight semesters in HE, rather than conclude the study mid-way through their HE journey. By this point, the participants and I had developed a positive empathetic relationship which both parties profited from, and an extended study would have yielded additional invaluable data as the participants continued to evolve. Both the participants and I had a vested interest in the research and its potential impact.

Furthermore, it would be timely to undertake further research in the Irish HE sector adopting the same approach with other HEIs (both universities and IoTs) with appropriate support from key stakeholders. Findings from a broader, more extensive study would contribute to policy development in the HE sector at micro-, meso- and macro-levels could generate an open and informed debate concerning the role of HE for the individual and society as a whole.

Finally, given the widely recognised relationship between students’ self-efficacy beliefs and their academic achievement, persistence and realising their personal potentiality, (Kahn & Nauta 2001, cited in Lizzio & Wilson 2013) exploring student self-efficacy and its development through the enhancement of Student Success Programmes (SSPs) would be worthwhile. More specifically, investigating how HEIs and programme leaders/tutors/lecturers and student support services can support and enhance first year students’ academic confidence or self-efficacy as part of Student Success Initiatives (SSIs) would be invaluable.

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8.10 Reflexive Analysis of the Researcher

Self-reflexivity and transparency are invaluable ways to portray a sincere approach to the qualitative research process (Tracy 2010). Key elements of my personal and professional development emanated from:

Learning to reflect on your behaviour and thoughts, as well as on the phenomenon under study, creates a means for continuously becoming a better researcher. Becoming a better researcher captures the dynamic nature of the process. Conducting research, like teaching and other complex acts, can be improved; it cannot be mastered.

(Glesne & Peshkin 1992, p.xiii)

This study is a worthy topic as it is ‘relevant, timely, significant, and interesting’ (Tracy 2010 p.843). Worthy topics emerge from personal and social perspectives and Guba and Lincoln (1989; 2005) recommend topics that may provide ‘educative authenticity’. The findings make a significantly positive and progressive contribution to future policy development in terms of the Irish HEI sector and ongoing debates around the meaning and value of “success”. This study extends knowledge in the field and contributes to policy and practice particularly in the primary, PP, FE and HE sectors.

Reflexivity is a critical component to maintain rigor throughout all phases of the qualitative research process (Berger 2015). The longitudinal nature of the study has had positive implications for the depth of findings that emerged and the overall credibility of the study. I used reflective journals after every interview was conducted and this assisted greatly with reflexivity in terms of planning subsequent interviews. I documented memos around key decisions and iterations of coding at all of the key phases of the coding process. I adopted a CGT approach to data analysis, employed a rigorous coding framework, and sought feedback from peer researchers in terms of inter-rater reliability of the coding framework. This was very useful in terms of gaining feedback and in ensuring the data and participants’ voices were properly represented.

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As an academic with a background in the business sector, it was a challenge in the earlier stages to find ‘my own voice’ and situate myself in the context of the study. But when I eventually wholly succumbed to this co-constructivist approach, it was very liberating and simultaneously brought much more rigour to the analysis of the data and how best to present it. I was at all times aware of my role as an academic in terms of ‘insider research’ and therefore strove to remain professional, yet empathetic towards the participants of the study. This study has not only afforded me the opportunity to gain insight into the perceptions and experiences of students in HE today, but also allowed me the time to reflect on my own practices as a lecturer and researcher, especially in terms with how I continue to engage with students in an environment of sharing and co-creating experiences, memories and future possibilities. I have been employed for over 20 years in WIT and personally and professional consider myself to have a positive working relationship with my students.

As part of the research process I met with the participants four times to conduct in-depth interviews with them and our ability to engage and the rapport we developed resulted in garnering profound insights into students’ experiences. I have never taken the duality of my role for granted and consider myself to have a natural, warm and empathetic relationship with students. In terms of teaching practice, I became more aware of my role as a supporter, facilitator, and motivator, as well as an educator. Effectively delivering academic content, engaging with our students, imparting knowledge and delivering feedback are fundamental to the HE experience. However, the HE experience is part of a personal and collective journey for each of us and progressive educationalists should be mindful of this premise at all times.

8.11 Concluding Comment

The current study endeavoured to explore the contested concept of student success in HE from the perspective of the student. The study has encompassed the most widely discussed narratives and discourse around the concept of success in HE and examined them in light of the participants’ experiences by considering neoliberal, progressivist and humanist perspectives. Through in-depth analysis the key themes were predicated

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on perceptions of success, transitional experiences to HE, and the personal experiences of students in their HE journey. This research demonstrates the role of well-being in underpinning success of the individual and also the function of time in the development of the student from a personal, professional and academic perspective. The researcher is of the view that this study has and will inform key stakeholders of how best to redress current policy and practice at micro- and macro-levels in education from second-level through to FE and HE levels. As Keeling (2014, p.145) advocates:

This sentiment reminds HEI policy-makers and managers of the need to maintain awareness of and actively ascribe to ensuring that all appropriate supports are in place for their students. For my own part, as a lecturer, a tutor, and a researcher, I have, and always will ascribe to the academic philosophy that ‘education is a living breathing vital thing that you engage in for yourself. I don’t think that getting an education should be about making a living. It should be about making a person’ (Westover 2018, cited in Conroy 2018)12.

12 Catherine Conroy press interview with Tara Westover author of Educated, Irish Times, 24th February 2018, available: https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/you-could-miss-someone-every-day- and-still-be-glad-they-re-not-in-your-life-1.3393409, [accessed 1st Aug 2018]

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Appendices

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Appendix A: The Institute of Technology Sector

There are 14 Institutes of Technology that operate a unique system whereby they allow students to progress from two year (associate degree programmes) through primary degree to Masters and PhD. Institutes of Technology awards are integrated with the highest award levels of the Irish National Qualification Framework which in turn is aligned to the Bologna Framework. They are to the forefront in ensuring that Ireland’s modern economy continues to have the requisite array of leading-edge skills demanded by our knowledge-based industries. The Institutes provide programmes that reflect current and emerging knowledge and practices and promote self-management, critical analysis, decision making and entrepreneurship. They foster graduates ready to undertake roles, responsibilities and challenges in business, industry, the professions, public services and society. Institutions in the technological sector provide programmes of education and training in areas such as Business, Science, Engineering, Linguistics and Music to certificate, diploma and degree levels.

Source of Statistics: Technological Higher Education Website [accessed 17th July 2018] http://www.thea.ie/facts-and-stats/

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The Institute of Technology sector provides colleges with the right to promote the principles of academic freedom yet the minister retained much more power over this sector than the universities as governing authorities were required to comply with ‘policy directions as may be issued by the minister from time to time’, and were required to ensure that the colleges contributed to ‘the promotion of the economic, cultural and social development of the state’. ‘The benefits of higher education participation to the individual and society are widely established’ (McCoy and Byrne, 2011, p.155). The Minister for Education and Skills, Ruairí Quinn T.D., has announced the publication of the Heads of a Bill which will allow for the future establishment of Technological Universities and the mergers of Institutes of Technology. The Bill provides the legislative underpinning for institutes of technology who have established partnerships and wish to merge, with a view to becoming Technological Universities.

Source of Statistics: Technological Higher Education Website [accessed 17th July 2018] http://www.thea.ie/facts-and-stats/

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Evolving Legislation in the Institute of Technology Sector

Vocational Education Act 1930 (Number 29 of 1930)

Vocational Education (Amendment) Act 1944 (Number 9 of 1944)

Vocational Education (Amendment) Act 2001 (Number 23 of 2001)

Dublin Institute of Technology Act, 1992 (Number 15 of 1992)

Regional Technical Colleges Act, 1992 (number 16 of 1992)

Dublin Institute of Technology (Amendment) Act, 1994 (Number 31 of 1994)

Regional Technical Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1994 (Number 29 of 1994)

Regional Technical Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1999 (Number 20 of 1994)

Institutes of Technology Act, 2006 (Number 25 of 2006)

Technological Universities Act 2018 (Number 3 of 2018)

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Appendix B: Well-being initiatives

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Appendix C: Ethical Approval

University of Limerick

Thank you for your Research Ethics application which was recently reviewed by the Education and Health Sciences Research Ethics Committee. The recommendation of the Committee is outlined below:

Project Title:_09_03_EHS Evaluating Early Student Experiences & Perceptions of Progress – The Contested Concept of Student Success in Higher Education Principal Investigator: Sarah Moore Other Investigators: Fiona Whelan-Ryan Recommendation: Approved until September 2021

Research Design This study is longitudinal study and will have four phases as previously described Offer of a small incentive to students to participate in the study

Data Collection Method

Enlisting participation from 16 students over four Semesters for an in-depth interview & inviting them to journal on a weekly basis).

Please note that as Principal Investigator of this project you are required to submit a Research Completion Report Form (attached) on completion of this research study.

Yours Sincerely Marianne Tormey

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Ethical Approval

Waterford Institute of Technology

Ref: 13/MO/03

7th October, 2013.

Ms. Fiona Whelan-Ryan,

Department of Management & Organisation,

School of Business, WIT.

Dear Fiona,

Thank you for bringing your project ‘Evaluating Student Experiences and Perceptions of Progress’ to the attention of the WIT Research Ethics Committee. I am pleased to inform you that we fully approve WIT’s participation in this project and we will convey this to Academic Council.

We wish you well in the work ahead.

Yours sincerely,

Professor John Wells,

Chairperson,

Research Ethics Committee cc: Prof. Sarah Moore, University of Limerick

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Appendix D: Information Sheet for Student Success HE Study

Information Sheet The Contested Concept of Student Success in Higher Education

What is the purpose of this study? The aim of this study is to explore the contested concept of student success in higher education with particular emphasis on early students’ early experiences and perceptions of their progress in higher education with a focus on participant definitions and perceptions of what success within that context means to them.

The research objectives:

i. To explore the student’s perceptions of what constitutes success in higher education; ii. To examine how transitional experiences in higher education and pragmatics of time impact on the student academically and personally; iii. To evaluate how personal experiences in higher education impact on the student.

Why have you been chosen? Year one Bachelor of Business Hons (level 8) programme students will be provided with an in-depth information session pertaining to this information sheet where students (aged 18 years and over) may volunteer to participate in the study of which the duration is two years/four Semesters.

Do you have to take part? It is up to you whether or not you choose to take part. If you decide to take part and volunteer to participate in the study you may indicate this to your course leader/year tutor by providing Dermot Moore with your contact details (email address) so that the researcher may them make contact with you. Whilst I hope you will find the process engaging, there are no explicit academic advantages or disadvantages in participating in the study.

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What will happen to me if I take part? If you participate in this study you will be encouraged to maintain a personal journal on a weekly basis in Moodle to record your academic experiences and thoughts for each week. This entails just recording some short observations and thoughts on your experiences during the week, which you will record via a specially designed and secure area via Moodle. I will also schedule an interview with you at a time most convenient for you once a Semester. This interview will be maximum a one hour in duration and will take place on campus in a quiet location (most likely one of the D interview rooms) and it will be recorded and transcribed. This recording will be kept in a secure environment according to data protection guidelines.

How much of my time will participation in this study entail over the four Semesters? Each participant will be required to attend an in-depth interview lasting one hour duration in Semester 1, two, three and four = 4 hours.

Each participant is also encouraged to record their thoughts, perceptions, feelings in a journal once a week, maximum time to be spent on this 5 to ten mins * 12 weeks per Semester * 4 Semesters = 4 to 8 hours max.

Minimum time involved in participation in the study, over the four Semesters will be: 4 hours Maximum time involved in participation in the study, over the four Semesters will be: 12 hours. Will my taking part in the study be kept confidential? All information you give will be in confidence. Any information that is collected or reported on will have any evidence of your identity removed. Your journals and transcripts from interviews will have your identity removed and will be maintained according to strict data protection legislation and policy.

However if you discuss some issue with me that I feel I need to report, I will consult with you first.

If at any point (during an interview or over the course of the study) I feel that you need some additional support (emotional, medical or otherwise) or if I am concerned about your well-

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being, following a discussion with you, I may need to contact the appropriate support services and/or appropriate institute staff to ensure you are offered appropriate support.

If after my interview(s) with you, any issue(s) arise(s) that you feel you need to discuss further, please feel that you can indicate this to me.

At the end of each interview I will provide you (and all participants) with an information sheet on contact details of student support services and I will do my best to ensure that you are aware of appropriate support services and personnel.

Your anonymity may be waived, only if I, as the principle researcher in this study, feel this is necessary, to ensure your well-being at all times.

What will happen to the results of the study? The intention is to collate the findings from this study to use as part of dissertation entitled: ‘Evaluating Student Experiences & Perceptions of Progress’ as part of a PhD in education at University of Limerick. If findings are deemed to be of scholarly potential, the information may also be used to prepare work for scholarly presentation and publication. Within any resulting publications no information that might reveal your participation will be disclosed.

Who has reviewed the proposal for this research? The UL and WIT ethics committee has reviewed and endorsed this proposal. Further Information If you require any further information regarding this study please contact Fiona Whelan- Ryan the researcher for this study and lecturer in Marketing at Waterford Institute of Technology by email – [email protected] or at (051) 845623.

This research study has received Ethics approval from the Education and Health Sciences Research Ethics Committee (2013_09_03_EHS). If you have any concerns about this study and wish to contact someone independent you may contact: Chairman Education and Health Sciences Research Ethics Committee EHS Faculty Office University of Limerick Tel (061) 234101 &/or Email: [email protected]

Thank you for considering taking part in this study.

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Appendix E: Consent Form for Student Success HE Study

The Contested Concept of Student Success in Higher Education

Consent Form for Journals & Interviews.

I consent to the publication of the study results so long as the data is kept confidential, so that no identification can be made.

I understand that my responses are anonymous and will be identified by number only.

I have read the information sheet provided and understand what is required of me and my time for the duration of the study.

1) I have been informed that my participation in this study will require my involvement in a series of four in-depth interviews, over two years (one per Semester) where I will be answering questions. 2) I have been informed that my interviews will be recorded and transcribed (it will be typed up and anonymised). 3) I have been informed that as part of the process, I am encouraged to maintain a journal on a weekly basis. 4) I have been informed that this study is involved in evaluating the influences of student progression and success. 5) I have been informed that there are no known expected risks or discomforts involved in my participation in this study. 6) I have been informed that participation is voluntary. If at any point during the course of the project, I wish to withdraw from the study, my decision will be respected immediately. 7) I have been informed that the researcher will gladly answer my questions about the research when the interviewing and experimental session is completed.

Concerns about any aspects of this study may be referred to Fiona Whelan-Ryan, a lecturer in Marketing for the School of Business at Waterford Institute of Technology.

Contact details: (051) 845623 or Email: [email protected]

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Chairman Education and Health Sciences Research Ethics Committee EHS Faculty Office University of Limerick Tel (061) 234101 &/or Email: [email protected]

I give my informed consent to participate in this study on defining how student choice affects the concept of student performance and success.

Signed______

(Researcher) (Participant)

Please print your name: ______

Date: ______

Thank you for considering taking part in this study.

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Appendix F: Interview Guides for Student Success HE Study

Guide for Interview One (by Category)

Interview One – Semester 1

Introduction

Thank you for agreeing to take part in my study.

I would like to verify with you that you have read the information sheet and that you understand what is required of you in terms of your participation in this study.

I also wish to remind you of the confidentiality agreement that you reviewed on the information sheets and have agreed with on signing the participation form.

I wish to remind you that everything we discuss here today will be in complete confidence, with the exception of when, at any point in time, you disclose some issue to me where I feel you may require a referral and need additional support. In this instance I will discuss this further with you and in the event I feel you need additional support I will contact an appropriate person in student support services.

The aim of this study is to explore the contested concept of student success in higher education with particular emphasis on early students’ early experiences and perceptions of their progress in higher education with a focus on participant definitions and perceptions of what success within that context means to them.

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The research objectives:

1. To explore the student’s perceptions of what constitutes success in higher education; 2. To examine how transitional experiences in higher education and pragmatics of time impact on the student academically and personally; 3. To evaluate how personal experiences in higher education impact on the student.

Interview One – Semester 1

Two main questions

Question 1 – Student Choice of Programme & Influencers regarding Choice of programme

I would like you to recall the time where you were completing your CAO form and I would like you to tell me about the process of filling out that form.

What or who influenced your decisions relating to choice and ranking of programme?

Tell me about the choices you made?

How did you make the final decision relating to the CAO form?

Additional Prompts - Question 1

Student Background

Tell me about yourself, your family….

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Did you know anyone else in this course (currently or in another year) or attending this college prior to starting the course & did they influence your decision in any way?

Student’s Choice & Academic Aspirations

Why did you decide to choose the Bachelor of Business level 8 programme at WIT?

How did you feel when you were offered the course?

How happy do you feel about the programme of study you chose?

How are you managing personal study time with group work and so forth?

Do you have a specific career plan in mind?

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Interview Two – Semester 2

Guide for Interview Two (by Category)

Introduction

Thank you for agreeing to take part in my study.

I would like to verify with you that you have read the information sheet and that you understand what is required of you in terms of your participation in this study.

I also wish to remind you of the confidentiality agreement that you reviewed on the information sheets and have agreed with on signing the participation form.

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The research objectives:

Guiding Questions for Interview - Phase Two of the Early Student Experiences and Perceptions of their Progress and Success Study

1 How were your examinations and CA results last Semester and how did you feel about them? Do you think they had a positive effect on your behaviour or a negative effect? So how motivated have you felt and why do you think you are more or less motivated?

2 In general how do you feel you have progressed academically?

3 If you compare both Semesters’ experiences, did you learn anything from your experiences last Semester that you are implementing this Semester into your daily routine?

4 Experiences of group-work and momentum with project work and study & assignments and learning experiences/strategies

5 Social networking?

6 How happy do you feel about the programme of study you chose? Do you feel this programme is suited to you personally, academically?

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7 Do you think you are changing/have changed in any way since you started college?

8 Regarding you first year at college, are there any experiences that stand out for you as defining moments?

9 How successful has the year been for you?

10 If you were giving advice to a first year this September what would you say to them?

11 Do you think this experience of being involved in the study is having an effect on you managing your adjustment to college life and on your progress?

12 Any plans for summer?

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Interview Three – Semester 3

Guide for Interview Three (by Category)

Introduction

Thank you for agreeing to take part in my study.

I would like to verify with you that you have read the information sheet and that you understand what is required of you in terms of your participation in this study.

I also wish to remind you of the confidentiality agreement that you reviewed on the information sheets and have agreed with on signing the participation form.

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The research objectives:

Semester 3 - Generic Questions

How was your summer and did you re-connect with friends at home and/or stay in touch with college friends?

Did you have any repeat exams and if so how did they go and how did it affect your summer?

How has it been settling back into college life? How does it feel to be back and does it feel different to year one and in what way? Is there much of a transition between year one and two and do you feel prepared for it?

What are your new modules like and the lecturers that are leading them?

Do you think it is more challenging academically this year?

What is your workload like this Semester?

Do you have a better sense of what your major/stream will be or will you decide later?

Where or from whom have you sought advice about this, if at all?

Do you think about post-graduate opportunities and/or career opportunities when considering your choice of stream?

Do you have a new ‘year’ tutor and do you still see the course leader? Who do you rely on mostly?

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Do you feel you get the same level of support (in college and outside college) this year as last year?

Have you maintained your friendships from last year or have they changed? If so, in what way?

Has the group dynamics in your class changed, if so, in what way?

Are you involved in extra-curricular activities linked to the college or otherwise?

What are your goals and aspirations for this year?

Any standout experiences – highs and lows?

How would you define ‘success’ in overall terms for you this Semester?

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Interview Four – Semester 4

Guide for Interview Four (by Category)

Introduction

Thank you for agreeing to take part in my study.

I would like to verify with you that you have read the information sheet and that you understand what is required of you in terms of your participation in this study.

I also wish to remind you of the confidentiality agreement that you reviewed on the information sheets and have agreed with on signing the participation form.

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The research objectives:

Semester 4 Generic Questions

How did your Semester 3 exams go? Were you pleased with your results?

How do you feel about the programme now?

What has been the major challenges, if any, you have faced this year?

What is your workload like this Semester?

What have been your highs and lows over the last academic year?

Have you made a decision about your major/stream? How did you decide what to choose to pursue?

Do you think you have changed in any way, since you started the programme or even in the last year? If so, in what way?

What have been the defining moments for you in the last two years?

Is there anything you would have done differently and why?

What advice would you give to incoming second years?

Have you chosen your stream choice for year three? If so what is it?

Any standout experiences – highs and lows?

How would you define ‘success’ in overall terms for you this Semester?

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If you were to give feedback to senior management in the college regarding the programme that might enhance student experiences what could that be?

Are there any initiatives that could be implemented that would positively contribute to the overall student experience on a personal level, at a micro level (classroom) and macro level (institute-wide)?

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Contact Details for Student Support Services

Dear student,

Thank you for taking the time to participate in this study:

Evaluating Student Experiences & Perceptions of Success in Higher Education.

Your time and insights are important to this study. If you feel that any issues have arisen for you before, during or after the interview and that you would like to talk to someone in confidence please contact me and/or one of the following to avail of support:

Fiona Whelan-Ryan: 051 845623 or [email protected]

Course Leader & Year tutor BBS 1- Dermot Moore: 051 845620 or [email protected]

Year tutor BBS 2 – Stephanie Keating: 051 845530 or [email protected]

WIT Medical Centre: 051 302873

WIT Counselling (Cork Rd. Campus): 051 302878

WIT Chaplaincy: 051 302617

Nurse Louis Nevin: 087 2724422

Nurse Geraldine Harrison: 087 7739055

Samaritans: 1850 609090.

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Appendix G: Reflective Journal Prompts for Students

Document briefly what your week has been like.

Identify key positive experiences from you week

Identify any negative experiences from your week

Is there anything of interest coming up?

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Appendix H: Reflective Journal Prompts for Researcher (post interviews)

Conduct of the interview:

What went well during the interview?

What could have gone better? (What could I have done/asked in a better manner?)

The Participants:

Any observations about the participants and their interview experience?

Any other notes or nuances about the interview (e.g. rapport with the participants).

Improvements:

Timing, Sequencing, Style

Note to consider for further interviews (in terms of questions/style/timing)

Possible Emerging Data:

Key areas which appear to emerge from the interview(s)

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Appendix I: Inter-rater Reliability Report

Interview 2 was coded and there are significant levels of agreement between my colleague and I. Our score averaged across all coded nodes was just under 72% which is a good score. Through a QDA N Vivo report the researcher could drill down and the details behind each line of the report by going to 'Queries->Inter-rater Reliability Test. By right clicking on the query and select

'Run', you can see the same report as attached but in dynamic format. A score of zero means no agreement while a score of 1 means total agreement and a score between zero and 1 means partial agreement. Bear in mind that if both don't code something, this will count as agreement. By double clicking on any line of the report, it will open up the text behind it. Scrolling down on the right side until you see the coding stripes. Clicking on my colleague’s stripe highlights what he coded and the same mode for my coding. This means a researcher can see exactly where you agreed/disagreed or partially agreed with another colleague. See screenshots below for examples. The first one is Chris's coding and the second one is mine:

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Appendix J: Participant Reflectivity

The Effect of Participating in the Study

P7: …. it was motivational….. reflection is something that I do tend to try to avoid but no one can you know, you always look back. I did find it beneficial going forward to sit here and reflect with you. When I left [interviews] I always felt a bit more motivated…..you’ve talked about a lot of things in there and you might talk yourself up a little bit too, so you need to start living up to that.

The Journaling Effect

P3: Reflecting on my weeks doing the journaling, it was literally like the only thing that like makes the week clear, …. typing it out was just kind of therapy in itself…., it kind of was a good place to kind of reflect on how you should go about certain things, how you should react to some situations…..reflecting on your-self is one thing that it had an effect on. I was journaling and because writing down what I was doing, it's almost an incentive to keep doing what you're doing.

P4: I was having that conversation with you in my head, that wasn’t something that we planned, but it was just that it kind of reminds you that you have this accountability.

P1: Your study had a major part to play in reminding me I have

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the responsibility and accountability myself and when u asked the question "what is success to me now"? I asked myself over and over and over and over this week and although my success this term is passing, my success long-term is graduating, my success this week is sorting out those possibilities and that pushed me completely this week and I am very driven now. So I owe my success to you this week and your study I appreciate your support and encouragement and I wanted to thank you for being my spring board you really helped me leap.

Reason(s) for Non Journaling

P7: It made me question why I refused to diary because I would like to have been able to do it … I’ve never diaried daily and it was always something I struggled to do … sometimes I can null emotion so I can go through a week and forget, whereas if I was to be dairying every day I would be constantly within myself and I would have found that something that personally I wouldn’t have enjoyed every day expressing my thoughts. …..I suppose reflecting over time gone was interesting. It’s not something I do normally. I don’t know if I mentioned this last time, I think I did, it was like kind of the person who lives depressed lives in the past, the person who lives anxiously lives in the future and a happy person is in the present..

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Appendix K: Students’ Perceptions of Success Codebook

Example of Annotation:

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Appendix L: Example of Linking Literature to Primary Sources Examples of linking concepts in the literature to recognised concepts in the primary data

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Appendix M: Generating Initial Codes (Data collected in Semester 1) (73 initial codes developed)

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Appendix N: Generating Focused Codes

(Data collected in Semester 2) (Searching for themes)

226 nodes and collapsed into 9 categories of codes

Searching for themes Sources References

Secondary Initial Experiences 32 2824

Supports 30 294

Motivation 28 158

Routines 28 146

Independent Learning 26 140

Established Social Groups and Friendships 28 136

Growing Confidence 26 128

Coping with Group-work 22 120

As a mature student 8 114

Repercussions 26 112

Developing Relationships with Staff 22 108

Exam Preparation 28 106

Awareness of Academic Standards and Lecturers’ Expectations 24 106

Perceived Progress Academically 26 102

Getting Busier 28 98

Settled In Phase 24 88

Frustrations 22 84

Growing Anxiety Around Examinations 24 82

Awareness and Impact of Dropouts 10 70

Time Management Skills Second Six Weeks 20 66

Happiness with College Life or Experience 24 58

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Lack of a Relationship with Lecturers 16 58

Attendance 16 54

Happiness with Programme 20 46

Growing Awareness of Subject Preferences 22 44

Experiences versus Expectations 20 44

Thinking about Streams in Semester 2 18 42

Stress related issues 16 38

Dissatisfaction with Programme of Study 6 32

Procrastination 12 22

Freedom to Explore 12 20

Intentions Around Next Semester 10 20

Importance of Incentives 4 16

Influence of Familial Support and Motivation 2 16

Poor Social Networking 12 14

Relief 10 10

Planning 6 8

Feeling Stuck 4 6

Providing Feedback informally through class reps 2 6

The Environment 4 4

Lack of Engagement 2 4

Being Homesick 2 2

Initial Experiences 34 2462

Independence 26 232

Making the Transition 30 228

Supports 30 184

Making Friends 30 150

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Dawning Reality 30 110

Impact of Induction 30 110

As a Mature Student 10 102

Early social experiences 26 88

Environment 18 82

Anxiety 26 82

Being Overwhelmed 24 82

Academic Challenges 24 76

Becoming Secure 20 64

Role of Academic Staff 16 64

Structures of the College 14 62

Icebreakers 18 58

General Challenges 14 56

Students’ Academic Preparedness 18 54

Pressures Experienced by Mature Students 8 54

Experiences As a Second Time Student 4 54

Feelings on Offer 14 44

Developing Coping Mechanisms 20 40

Expectations 20 40

Stress 16 38

Accessing College Resources 12 38

Overall Happiness 20 36

Happiness with Programme Of Study 16 34

Planning 18 30

Development Time Management Skills 16 30

Feelings of Accomplishment 18 28

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Concern for Fellow Students 12 26

Excitement 10 18

Impact of Student Accommodation 4 16

Feelings of Doubt 6 10

Early Student Group-work 6 8

Class Becoming a Cohesive Unit 2 4

Decision Making 34 1118

Influencing Factors 32 860

Second Time Back to College 8 86

Decision-making for International Students 2 80

Undecided 14 38

Not Getting First Preference 10 24

Deferring the course 2 4

Social Integration 30 566

Social Media 24 92

Internal College Networks 14 84

Study Groups 20 80

Extra-Curricular Activities 16 78

College Clubs and Societies 18 66

Personality 12 32

External Social Networks 16 30

Development of Friendships 8 28

College Initiatives such as Science Week 2 16

Independence 34 466

Financial Independence 30 224

Time Management 16 104

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Personal Goals 18 62

Growing Maturity 20 46

Virtual Learning Environments 4 6

Early Social Integration 28 122

Student Union Initiatives in Early Weeks 2 4

Early Social Integration Externally to Campus 2 2

College and Campus Resources 20 78

Structures of the College 24 60

Second Semester Experiences Student Journals 3 54

Levels of Motivation 3 129

Types of Assessment 3 81

Student's Perceptions of New Modules and How Challenging 3 63 They Will Be

Changes in Routine 3 51

Relationships with Lecturers 3 42

Pace and Time Elapsing Quickly 3 39

Challenges Experienced by Students Early in Semester 2 3 36

Extra-Curricular Activities - Semester 2 3 36

Challenges Experienced by Students in Latter Part of Semester 3 36

Personal Experiences 3 33

Feelings about Being Back in College in Semester 2 3 30

Impact of Examination Results 3 30

Stress and Contributors to stress 3 27

Taking a New Approach to Study 3 24

Good Quotes 33 204

Lack of Particular Resources on Campus 3 21

Experiences of Group-work 3 18

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Anxiety about Examination Results from Semester 1 3 18

Relationships in Class Groups 3 15

Mature Students Experiences in Semester 2 3 12

Anxiety Around Semester 2 Exams 3 12

Perceptions about the Impact of the Students Union 3 9

Students Experiences and Perceptions of Teaching Style of 3 9 Lecturers

Feelings about Free-time 3 9

Impact of Journaling 3 9

Utilising College Resources 3 9

Students Seeking Additional Academic Support with Modules 3 9

Impact of Poor Attendance 3 9

Frustrations in Semester 2 3 9

Perceptions and Preconceived Notions about College 3 6

Relationships with Housemates 3 6

Social Skills with Others 3 6

Changes to Student Groups 3 3

Reasons to Approach the Course Leader 3 3

Doubts about the Programme 3 3

Impact of Financial Support 3 3

No-show of Lecturers 3 3

Students Thinking of Dropping Out 3 3

Support from Family 3 3

Role of Course Leader in Semester 2 3 3

Perceptions about Rules and Regulations on Campus 2 2

Success 18 44

Relationship with Participants 2 42

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Appendix O: Generating Theoretical Codes –

Data collected in all Semesters

Defining and Naming Themes Sources References (Data Reduction & Consolidation)

T 1 The Contested Concept of Student Success Over Time 58 1628

T 1.1 Direction 41 116

T 1.2 Surviving 29 70

T 1.3 Striving 54 372

T 1.3.1 Standing Out 19 36

T 1.4 Thriving & Flourishing 38 98

T 1.5 Realising Potential 57 503

T 1.5.1 Academic Success 34 74

T 1.5.2 Finding Your Passion & Aspirations 21 37

T 1.5.3 Contribution to Society 10 22

T 1.5.4 Positive Psychology & Happiness 55 279

T 2 Transitional Experiences 59 2389

T 2.1 Transitions & Early Experiences 59 999

T 2.1.1 Psychosocial Factors 53 363

T 2.1.1.1 Networking, Relationships & Social Integration 47 189

T 2.1.1.2 Community 47 174

T 2.1.2 Emotional Experiences Over Time 51 287

T 2.2 Pragmatics of Time (Managing Time) 58 974

T 2.2.1 Developing Routines 35 85

T 2.2.2 Student Agency 58 662

T 2.2.2.1 Maximising Opportunities & Immersion 56 285

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T3 Personal Experiences 59 438

T 3.1 The Emerging and Evolving Self 59 1754

T 3.1.1 Independence 46 145

T 3.1.2 Growing Maturity 58 556

T 3.1.3 Self-Esteem 35 74

T 3.1.4 Self-Efficacy 23 49

T 3.1.6 Second Chance Students 15 120

T 3.1.7 Mature Students 12 160

T 3.2 Well-being & Resilience 53 665

T 3.2.1 Physical, Mental & Emotional Well-being 51 311

T 3.2.2 Resilience 28 65

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Appendix P: Memos and Exemplar of Memo on Student Perceptions of Success

Example of a memo linked to student perceptions of success.

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Appendix Q: Most Frequently Cited Words by Students (Interviews and Reflections)

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Appendix R: Coding iteration for Transition & Early Experiences - Initial Coding

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Focused Coding:

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Theoretical Coding:

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