Innovative Numerals in Malayo- Polynesian Languages Outside of Oceania

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Innovative Numerals in Malayo- Polynesian Languages Outside of Oceania Innovative numerals in Malayo- Polynesian languages outside of Oceania Antoinette Schappera & Harald Hammarströmb Leiden Universitya, Universität zu Kölna, Radboud Universityb & Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropologyb In this paper we seek to draw attention to Malayo- Polynesian languages outside of the Oceanic subgroup with innovative bases and complex numerals involving various additive, subtractive and multiplicative procedures. We highlight that the number of languages showing such innovations is more than previously recognised in the literature. Finally, we observe that the concentration of complex numeral innovations in the region of eastern Indonesia suggests Papuan influence, either through contact or substrate. However, we also note that socio-cultural factors, in the form of numeral taboos and conventionalised counting practices, may have played a role in driving innovations in numerals. 1. INTRODUCTION1 There has been much discussion of the developments in innovative numeral formations in Oceanic languages. Galis (1960) observed that many AN languages to the north of New Guinea have exchanged the ancestral decimal system for various quinary systems. More recently, Dunn et al. (2008:739) observed that the decimal system in their sample of 22 western Oceanic languages was not very stable, having changed in almost half the languages to quinary systems. Blust (2009:274) suggests that the emergence of such different numeral systems in Oceanic languages is due to intensive contact and trading between Austronesian and Papuan language-speaking peoples. Smith (1988:51-53) similarly observed that counting systems were not particularly stable due to trading and exchange relations between AN and Papuan language speaking peoples in Morobe province of Papua New Guinea. However, he noted that the influence was not one way but that Austronesian languages could 1 We thank David Mead for his insights into South Sulawesi languages, and Marian Klamer and Leif Asplund for discussions on Sumba languages. We also thank David Kamholz for his insights into Cenderawasih languages and for help with access to the typescript Starrenburg 1915. Schapper further thanks Emilie T.B. Wellfelt for discussions on the cultural significance of numerals in Indonesia and Timor-Leste. Schapper’s research was conducted as part of an ESF-EuroCORES (EuroBABEL) research project with financial support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. 1 not only lose their inherited decimal system but that Papuan languages can also acquire it. In this paper, we turn our attention to the comparatively little remarked upon innovative formation of numerals in Malayo-Polynesian (MP) languages outside of the Oceanic (OC) subgroup (cf., e.g., Ossart 2004). Based on a survey of the numerals in 470 languages, this paper reports on the results of the first systematic investigation of innovative complex numerals in non-OC MP languages. The precise aims of our study are threefold: (i) to describe the variety of innovations of complex numerals (e.g., 10-1 = 9) and of non-decimal numeral bases (e.g., base-5, base-20); (ii) to draw attention to the concentration and diversity of such innovative numeral formations in MP languages of eastern Indonesia and East Timor, and; (iii) give preliminarily suggestions as to the reasons for the geographical skewing of such innovative numeral formation in non-OC MP languages. The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 provides an overview of the terminology that we use to describe the different types of patterns of numeral formation that are observed. Section 3 examines the variety of the innovative ways of forming numerals in non-OC MP numerals. In particular, we highlight the very limited number of numeral innovations in WMP area (the Philippines, western Indonesia and mainland South-East Asia) MP languages. This is contrasted with CEMP area (eastern Indonesia and East Timor) MP languages which harbour at least a dozen distinct innovations.2 In section 4 we seek to identify causal factors that may have played a role in driving the multitude of numeral innovations in the CEMP area. We observe that the areal concentration of complex numeral innovations suggests influence from Papuan languages. We further note that socio-cultural factors, in the form of numeral taboos and conventionalised counting practices, are likely to have contributed to numeral innovation. Section 5 concludes the discussion. 2. TERMINOLOGICAL PRELIMINIARIES Numerals are ‘spoken normed expressions that are used to denote the exact number of objects for an open class of objects in an open class of social situations with the whole speech community in question’ (Hammarström 2010: 11). A numeral system is thus the arrangement of individual numeral expressions together in a language. 2 Given the problematic nature of the WMP and CEMP nodes in the AN tree (see, e.g., Adelaar 2005), we use the terms “WMP area” and “CEMP area” to refer to broad geographical regions in which MP languages are spoken and not to genealogical groupings. 2 For the purposes of the present paper, a numeral system may be classified as follows: Base-5 (or quinary): if more than half the expressions 6-9 are formed as 5+1, .., 5+4 respectively Base-10 (or decimal): if more than half the expressions 20-99 are formed as x*10+y where x, y range from 1..9 Base-20 (or vigesimal): if more than half the expressions 20-99 are formed as x*20+y where x ranges from 1..9, and y from 0..19 A numeral system may be both quinary and decimal or both quinary and vigesimal (in fact, all bona fide attested quinary systems are also either decimal or vigesimal – see Hammarström 2010). So, for instance, Pazeh has a mixed-base numeral system in which numerals ‘six’ to ‘nine’ are formed with a quinary base and higher numerals with a decimal base. By contrast, Saisiyat has only a decimal base; ‘six’ does not constitute a base in the language even though it is used in forming the numeral ‘seven’. The fact that Saisiyat ‘six’ is limited to building only one other higher numeral means that it does not meet the requirements for basehood as given above. TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE. Whilst Saisiyat ‘six’ does not constitute a base in the language, its use in the numeral ‘seven’ draws attention to another kind of numeral formation with which we are also concerned in this paper. We are not only interested in the numeral bases in a language, but more broadly the internal composition of numerals, that is, if and how numerals are made up out of other numeral expressions. We call a monomorphemic numeral a “simplex numeral”, and a numeral composed of several numeral expressions a “complex numeral”. To describe (i) the arithmetical relation between component elements in a complex numeral, and (ii) the role of component elements in arithmetical operations3, the following terms are used: “additive numeral”: a numeral where the relation between components parts of a complex numeral is one of addition. The component parts are “augend” and “addend”. So, for example, in the equation 6+1 = 7, the augend is 6 and the addend is 1. “subtractive numeral”: a numeral where the relation between component parts of a complex numeral is 3 It is of course possible for arithmetical operations to be used in conjunction with one another, e.g., 3x20 + 5+2 for ‘67’. Since these can still be accurately characterised with a combination of the three basic operations (additive, subtractive and, multiplicative), we restrict ourselves to these terms. 3 one of subtraction. The component parts are “subtrahend” and “minuend”. So, for example, in the equation 10−2 = 8, the subtrahend is 2 and the minuend is 10. “multiplicative numeral”: a numeral where the relation between components parts of a complex numeral is one of multiplication. The component parts are “multiplier” and “multiplicand”. So, for example, in the equation 3x2 = 6, the multiplier is 3 and the multiplicand is 2. Our analysis of numerals breaks down each number expression into morphemes. The meaning, if known, of a morpheme can be inferred from the meaning of it in isolation or inferred from the mathematical equation the number expression constitutes. Throughout this paper we rely on the definitions made in this section. We repeatedly make use of the terms presented here and the reader is referred to this section for clarification of any terminology. 3. DATA A decimal counting system can be reconstructed for proto-Austronesian (Blust 2009a: 268-274). This system is found spread throughout the Austronesian world with easily recognisable cognates and it can be reconstructed to various lower nodes of the Austronesian tree, such as proto-Oceanic. This can be seen by comparing the reconstructed PAN and POC numeral forms given in Table 2. In the following subsections, we will see that multiple Austronesian languages outside of the Oceanic subgroup have replaced these simplex etymological numerals with innovative complex numerals. The majority of our discussion deals with innovations in numerals ‘six’ to ‘nine’. However, in cases of base changes (e.g., decimal > vigesmal) we also discuss the expression of the numerals ‘ten’ and ‘hundred’. Unless otherwise stated, however, the reader should understand there has been no base change and that, for instance, *Ratus for ‘hundred’ is retained. All data is cited in a unified IPA transcription from the earliest known attestations to avoid interference from any post-historical changes. However, unless otherwise noted, for all languages cited, all later attestations (including own fieldwork by the second author on Bedoanas, Erokwanas, Yaur, Yeresiam, Yeretuar and Wandamen in 2010) agree with the earliest sources except for transcriptional matters irrelevant for the present paper. TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE. 3.1. Sumba In three languages of western Sumba we find innovative numerals for ‘eight’ and ‘nine’. They are Lamboya, Kodi and Weyewa, and their 4 numerals are set out in Table 3.
Recommended publications
  • Plural Words in Austronesian Languages: Typology and History
    Plural Words in Austronesian Languages: Typology and History A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Research Master of Arts in Linguistics by Jiang Wu Student ID: s1609785 Supervisor: Prof. dr. M.A.F. Klamer Second reader: Dr. E.I. Crevels Date: 10th January, 2017 Faculty of Humanities, Leiden University Table of contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... iv List of tables ................................................................................................................... v List of figures ................................................................................................................ vi List of maps ................................................................................................................. vii List of abbreviations .................................................................................................. viii Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2. Background literature ................................................................................... 3 2.1. Plural words as nominal plurality marking ....................................................... 3 2.2. Plural words in Austronesian languages ..........................................................
    [Show full text]
  • SCHAPPER, Antoinette and Emilie WELLFELT. 2018. 'Reconstructing
    Reconstructing contact between Alor and Timor: Evidence from language and beyond a b Antoinette SCHAPPER and Emilie WELLFELT LACITO-CNRSa, University of Colognea, and Stockholm Universityb Despite being separated by a short sea-crossing, the neighbouring islands of Alor and Timor in south-eastern Wallacea have to date been treated as separate units of linguistic analysis and possible linguistic influence between them is yet to be investigated. Historical sources and oral traditions bear witness to the fact that the communities from both islands have been engaged with one another for a long time. This paper brings together evidence of various types including song, place names and lexemes to present the first account of the interactions between Timor and Alor. We show that the groups of southern and eastern Alor have had long-standing connections with those of north-central Timor, whose importance has generally been overlooked by historical and linguistic studies. 1. Introduction1 Alor and Timor are situated at the south-eastern corner of Wallacea in today’s Indonesia. Alor is a small mountainous island lying just 60 kilometres to the north of the equally mountainous but much larger island of Timor. Both Alor and Timor are home to a mix of over 50 distinct Papuan and Austronesian language-speaking peoples. The Papuan languages belong to the Timor-Alor-Pantar (TAP) family (Schapper et al. 2014). Austronesian languages have been spoken alongside the TAP languages for millennia, following the expansion of speakers of the Austronesian languages out of Taiwan some 3,000 years ago (Blust 1995). The long history of speakers of Austronesian and Papuan languages in the Timor region is a topic in need of systematic research.
    [Show full text]
  • The Position of Enggano Within Austronesian
    7KH3RVLWLRQRI(QJJDQRZLWKLQ$XVWURQHVLDQ 2ZHQ(GZDUGV Oceanic Linguistics, Volume 54, Number 1, June 2015, pp. 54-109 (Article) 3XEOLVKHGE\8QLYHUVLW\RI+DZDL L3UHVV For additional information about this article http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/ol/summary/v054/54.1.edwards.html Access provided by Australian National University (24 Jul 2015 10:27 GMT) The Position of Enggano within Austronesian Owen Edwards AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY Questions have been raised about the precise genetic affiliation of the Enggano language of the Barrier Islands, Sumatra. Such questions have been largely based on Enggano’s lexicon, which shows little trace of an Austronesian heritage. In this paper, I examine a wider range of evidence and show that Enggano is clearly an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian (MP) subgroup. This is achieved through the establishment of regular sound correspondences between Enggano and Proto‒Malayo-Polynesian reconstructions in both the bound morphology and lexicon. I conclude by examining the possible relations of Enggano within MP and show that there is no good evidence of innovations shared between Enggano and any other MP language or subgroup. In the absence of such shared innovations, Enggano should be considered one of several primary branches of MP. 1. INTRODUCTION.1 Enggano is an Austronesian language spoken on the southernmost of the Barrier Islands off the west coast of the island of Sumatra in Indo- nesia; its location is marked by an arrow on map 1. The genetic position of Enggano has remained controversial and unresolved to this day. Two proposals regarding the genetic classification of Enggano have been made: 1.
    [Show full text]
  • The Reconstruction of Proto-SHWNG Morphology
    David Kamholz Proto-SHWNG morphology David Kamholz <[email protected]> The Long Now Foundation, PanLex project The reconstruction of Proto-SHWNG morphology 1 Introduction • Proto-SHWNG is a high-level subgroup of Proto-Austronesian (Figure 1), first put on a firm empirical basis by Blust (1978) • About 40 SHWNG languages are now spoken on South Halmahera, the Raja Ampat islands, Cenderawasih Bay, and the lower Mamberamo river (Figure 2 on the next page) • Kamholz (2014) proposes a new subgrouping of SHWNG languages on the basis of morphological innova- tions, regular sound changes, and irregular phonological developments (Figure 3 on page 3) • Kamholz (2014) locates the homeland of Proto-SHWNG in southern Cenderawasih Bay • There is little previous work on Proto-SHWNG reconstruction; van den Berg (2009), by far the most ambitious previous attempt, is useful but relies on questionable subgrouping assumptions • Goal: To reconstruct, if possible, the Proto-SHWNG subject and inalienable possessive marking paradigms, assuming the subgrouping of Kamholz (2014) • Methodology: iterative bottom-up and top-down reconstruction, using data collected in Kamholz (2014) Proto-Austronesian Formosan Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Western Malayo-Polynesian Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian Central Malayo-Polynesian Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian Proto-South Halmahera–West Proto-Oceanic New Guinea Figure 1: The higher branches of the Austronesian family tree, after Blust (2013: 729–743), originally appearing as Blust (1977). Nodes in italics are not proto-languages, but rather are cover terms for multiple primary branches. 13-ICAL – 1 – Academia Sinica, Taipei, July 19, 2015 David Kamholz Proto-SHWNG morphology Figure 2: Map ofRaja the Ampat SHWNG archipelago.
    [Show full text]
  • Spices from the East: Papers in Languages of Eastern Indonesia
    Sp ices fr om the East Papers in languages of eastern Indonesia Grimes, C.E. editor. Spices from the East: Papers in languages of Eastern Indonesia. PL-503, ix + 235 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 2000. DOI:10.15144/PL-503.cover ©2000 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. Also in Pacific Linguistics Barsel, Linda A. 1994, The verb morphology of Mo ri, Sulawesi van Klinken, Catherina 1999, A grammar of the Fehan dialect of Tetun: An Austronesian language of West Timor Mead, David E. 1999, Th e Bungku-Tolaki languages of South-Eastern Sulawesi, Indonesia Ross, M.D., ed., 1992, Papers in Austronesian linguistics No. 2. (Papers by Sarah Bel1, Robert Blust, Videa P. De Guzman, Bryan Ezard, Clif Olson, Stephen J. Schooling) Steinhauer, Hein, ed., 1996, Papers in Austronesian linguistics No. 3. (Papers by D.G. Arms, Rene van den Berg, Beatrice Clayre, Aone van Engelenhoven, Donna Evans, Barbara Friberg, Nikolaus P. Himmelmann, Paul R. Kroeger, DIo Sirk, Hein Steinhauer) Vamarasi, Marit, 1999, Grammatical relations in Bahasa Indonesia Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, the Philippines, Indonesia, Southeast and South Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at The Australian National University. The Editorial Board of Pacific Linguistics is made up of the academic staff of the School's Department of Linguistics.
    [Show full text]
  • Journal of Arts & Humanities
    Journal of Arts & Humanities Volume 09, Issue 10, 2020: 40-48 Article Received: 06-10-2020 Accepted: 19-10-2020 Available Online: 29-10-2020 ISSN: 2167-9045 (Print), 2167-9053 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.18533/jah.v9i10.1990 The Codification of Native Papuan Languages in the West Papua Province: Identification and Classification of Native Papuan Languages Warami Hugo1 ABSTRACT This study aims to discuss how regional languages as the local language of Indigenous Papuans (OAP) in West Papua Province can be codified at this time or at least approach the ideal situation identified and classified by the State (government), so that local languages can be documented accurately and right. Starting from the idea that the extinction of a language causes the loss of various forms of cultural heritage, especially the customary heritage and oral expressions of the speaking community. There are two main problems in this study, namely: (1) Identification of the regional language of indigenous Papuans in West Papua Province, and (2) Classification of regional languages of indigenous Papuans in West Papua Province. This study uses two approaches, namely (1) a theoretical approach and (2) a methodological approach. The theoretical approach is an exploration of the theory of language documentation, while the methodological approach is a descriptive approach with an explanative dimension. This study follows the procedures of (1) the data provision stage, (2) the data analysis stage, and (3) the data analysis presentation stage. The findings in this study illustrate that the languages in West Papua Province can be grouped into four language groups, namely (1) Austronesian phylum groups; (2) West Papua phylum group; (3) Papuan Bird Head phylum group; and (4) the Trans West Papua Phylum Group.
    [Show full text]
  • Zoologische Mededelingen Uitgegeven Door Het
    ZOOLOGISCHE MEDEDELINGEN UITGEGEVEN DOOR HET RIJKSMUSEUM VAN NATUURLIJKE HISTORIE TE LEIDEN (MINISTERIE VAN CULTUUR, RECREATIE EN MAATSCHAPPELIJK WERK) Deel 56 no. 7 7 mei 1982 BIRD RECORDS FROM THE MOLUCCAS by G. F. MEES Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden Vom 2.-15. August 1876 sammelte Teysmann Vögel bei Kajeli, wovon niemals eine Liste publiciert wurde, da sie nach Leiden gelangten. E. Stresemann (1914b: 360). INTRODUCTION For the past thirty years I have, from time to time, come across bird material and literature records which have added localities and in a few instances have ad• ded new species, to Van Bemmel's (1948) list of birds of the Moluccan Islands and its supplement, published five years later (Van Bemmel & Voous, 1953). I have kept notes of these additions with the vague idea of perhaps, some time in the future, publishing a revised edition of the list of the avifauna of the Moluc• cas, zoogeographically one of the most interesting regions of the world. The sum total of my notes to date would hardly have justified publication, were it not for the fact that a new list of Moluccan birds was in the course of preparation by the late C. M. N. White, and is to be posthumously completed and published (cf. Benson, 1979; Cranbrook, 1980). This made it desirable to have my notes published, so that they will be available for inclusion in the new list. Ornithological activity in the Moluccas since the publication of Van BemmePs list has been limited. Many of De Haan's results were already incorporated in the paper by Van Bemmel & Voous (1953); subsequently two new subspecies from his collections were described by Jany (1955).
    [Show full text]
  • Kodrah Kristang: the Initiative to Revitalize the Kristang Language in Singapore
    Language Documentation & Conservation Special Publication No. 19 Documentation and Maintenance of Contact Languages from South Asia to East Asia ed. by Mário Pinharanda-Nunes & Hugo C. Cardoso, pp.35–121 http:/nflrc.hawaii.edu/ldc/sp19 2 http://hdl.handle.net/10125/24906 Kodrah Kristang: The initiative to revitalize the Kristang language in Singapore Kevin Martens Wong National University of Singapore Abstract Kristang is the critically endangered heritage language of the Portuguese-Eurasian community in Singapore and the wider Malayan region, and is spoken by an estimated less than 100 fluent speakers in Singapore. In Singapore, especially, up to 2015, there was almost no known documentation of Kristang, and a declining awareness of its existence, even among the Portuguese-Eurasian community. However, efforts to revitalize Kristang in Singapore under the auspices of the community-based non-profit, multiracial and intergenerational Kodrah Kristang (‘Awaken, Kristang’) initiative since March 2016 appear to have successfully reinvigorated community and public interest in the language; more than 400 individuals, including heritage speakers, children and many people outside the Portuguese-Eurasian community, have joined ongoing free Kodrah Kristang classes, while another 1,400 participated in the inaugural Kristang Language Festival in May 2017, including Singapore’s Deputy Prime Minister and the Portuguese Ambassador to Singapore. Unique features of the initiative include the initiative and its associated Portuguese-Eurasian community being situated in the highly urbanized setting of Singapore, a relatively low reliance on financial support, visible, if cautious positive interest from the Singapore state, a multiracial orientation and set of aims that embrace and move beyond the language’s original community of mainly Portuguese-Eurasian speakers, and, by design, a multiracial youth-led core team.
    [Show full text]
  • Languages with Longer Words Have More Lexical Change Søren
    Languages with longer words have more lexical change Søren Wichmann and Eric W. Holman 1. Introduction: Aims and data1 The findings to be presented in this paper were not anticipated, but came about as an unexpected result of looking at how the application of a version of the Levenshtein distance to word lists compares with cognate counting. We were interested in the degree to which the two correlate. The results of this investigation are intrinsically interesting and will be presented in the following section 2, but even more interesting is our finding that differ- ences between counting cognates and measuring the Levenshtein distances vary as a function of average word lengths in the word lists compared. This observation will occupy the remainder of the paper, with section 3 devoted to establishing the sta tis tical significance of the observation across language families, while section 4 establishes the significance within language groups, and section 5 discusses competing explanations. First we briefly explain the specific version of the Levenshtein distance used and the concept of cognate identification. In numerous previous papers, beginning in Holman et al. (2008a), the present authors as well as other members of the network of scholars partici- pating in the project known as ASJP (or Automated Similarity Judgment Pro gram) have applied a computer-assisted comparison of word lists in order to derive a measure of differences among languages. Our method consists in comparing pairs of words to determine the Levenshtein distance, LD, which is defined as the number of substitutions, insertions, and deletions necessary to transform one word into another.
    [Show full text]
  • An Illustrated and Annotated Checklist of Jamides Hübner, 1819, Taxa
    ZOBODAT - www.zobodat.at Zoologisch-Botanische Datenbank/Zoological-Botanical Database Digitale Literatur/Digital Literature Zeitschrift/Journal: Nachrichten des Entomologischen Vereins Apollo Jahr/Year: 2014 Band/Volume: 35 Autor(en)/Author(s): Rawlins Andrew, Cassidy Alan, Müller Chris J., Schröder Stefan, Tennent John W. Artikel/Article: An illustrated and annotated checklist of Jamides Hübner, 1819, taxa occurring in the Indonesian provinces of North Maluku and Maluku (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) 5-39 ©Entomologischer Verein Apollo e.V. Frankfurt am Main; download unter www.zobodat.at Nachr. entomol. Ver. Apollo, N. F. 35 (1/2): 5–39 (2014) 5 An illustrated and annotated checklist of Jamides Hübner, 1819, taxa occurring in the Indonesian provinces of North Maluku and Maluku (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) Andrew Rawlins, Alan Cassidy, Chris J. Müller, Stefan Schröder and W. John Tennent Andrew Rawlins, 392 Maidstone Road, Rainham, Kent, ME8 0JA, England; [email protected] (corresponding author) Alan Cassidy, 18 Woodhurst Road, Maidenhead, Berkshire, SL6 8TF, England; [email protected] Chris J. Müller, Honorary Associate, Australian Museum, 6 College Street, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia; [email protected] Stefan Schröder, Auf dem Rosenhügel 15, D­50997 Köln, Germany; [email protected] W. John Tennent, Scientific Associate, Department of Life Sciences, Division of Terrestrial Invertebrates, the Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, England; [email protected] Abstract: This paper recognises 55 taxa (21 species) of the Hüb ner, 1819 (Lycaenidae, Poly om ma tinae) known to po lyommatine lycaenid genus Jamides Hübner, 1819, oc cur­ oc cur in the Indonesian provinces of North Maluku and ring on the islands of the Indonesian provinces of Ma lu ku Ma luku, together with their known ranges.
    [Show full text]
  • Toward a Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Sula (PDF)
    W O R K I N G P A P E R S I N L I N G U I S T I C S The notes and articles in this series are progress reports on work being carried on by students and faculty in the Department. Because these papers are not finished products, readers are asked not to cite from them without noting their preliminary nature. The authors welcome any comments and suggestions that readers might offer. Volume 46(8) December 2015 DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA HONOLULU 96822 An Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Institution University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa: Working Papers in Linguistics 46(8) DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS FACULTY 2015 Victoria B. Anderson Andrea Berez-Kroeker Derek Bickerton (Emeritus) Robert A. Blust Lyle Campbell Kenneth W. Cook (Adjunct) Kamil Deen Patricia J. Donegan (Chair) Katie K. Drager Emanuel J. Drechsel (Adjunct) Michael L. Forman (Emeritus) Gary Holton Roderick A. Jacobs (Emeritus) William O’Grady Yuko Otsuka Ann Marie Peters (Emeritus) Kenneth L. Rehg (Adjunct) Lawrence A. Reid (Emeritus) Amy J. Schafer (Acting Graduate Chair) Albert J. Schütz, (Emeritus, Editor) Jacob Terrell James Woodward Jr. (Adjunct) #ii TOWARD A PHONOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-SULA1 TOBIAS BLOYD ABSTRACT. This paper describes the primary dialect division in Sula, an under-documented language of eastern Indonesia. It uses the Comparative Method with new primary data to describe the protolanguage and its transformations, and in the process helps to narrow the regional literature gap. Collins (1981) placed Sula within a Buru–Sula–Taliabo subgroup of Proto–West–Central Maluku with- in the Austronesian family.
    [Show full text]
  • Fieldwork in Timor-Leste
    Understanding Timor-Leste, on the ground and from afar (eds) and Bexley Nygaard-Christensen This ground-breaking exploration of research in Timor-Leste brings together veteran and early-career scholars who broadly Fieldwork in represent a range of fieldwork practices and challenges from colonial times to the present day. Here, they introduce readers to their experiences of conducting anthropological, historical and archival fieldwork in this new nation. The volume further Timor-Leste explores the contestations and deliberations that have been in Timor-Leste Fieldwork symptomatic of the country’s nation-building process, high- Understanding Social Change through Practice lighting how the preconceptions of development workers and researchers might be challenged on the ground. By making more explicable the processes of social and political change in Timor- Leste, the volume offers a critical contribution for those in the academic, policy and development communities working there. This is a must-have volume for scholars, other fieldworkers and policy-makers preparing to work in Timor-Leste, invaluable for those needing to understand the country from afar, and a fascinating read for anyone interested in the Timorese world. ‘Researchers and policymakers reading up on Timor Leste before heading to the field will find this handbook valuable. It is littered with captivating fieldwork stories. The heart-searching is at times searingly honest. Best of all, the book beautifully bridges the sometimes painful gap between Timorese researchers and foreign experts (who can be irritating know-alls). Academic anthropologists and historians will find much of value here, but the Timor policy community should appreciate it as well.’ – Gerry van Klinken, KITLV ‘This book is well worth reading by academics, activists and policy-makers in Timor-Leste and also those interested in the country’s development.
    [Show full text]