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The Geography of the Intra-National Digital Divide in a Developing Country: a Spatial

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The Geography of the Intra-National Digital Divide in a Developing Country: a Spatial The Geography of the Intra-National Digital Divide in a Developing Country: A Spatial Analysis of Regional-Level Data in Kenya A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Regional Development Planning in the School of Planning of the College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning By Kenneth Koech Cheruiyot M.A. (Planning) (Nairobi), M. Arch. in Human Settlements (KULeuven) December 2010 This work and its defense approved by: Committee Chair: Johanna W. Looye, Ph.D. ABSTRACT It is widely agreed that different technologies (e.g., the steam engine, electricity, and the telephone) have revolutionized the world in various ways. As such, both old and new information and communication technologies (ICTs) are instrumental in the way they act as pre- requisites for development. However, the existence of the digital divide, defined as unequal access to and use of ICTs among individuals, households, and businesses within and among regions, and countries, threatens equal world, national, and regional development. Given confirmed evidence that past unequal access to ICTs have accentuated national and regional income differences, the fear of further divergence is real in developing countries now that we live in a world characterized by economic globalization and accelerated international competition (i.e., New Economy). In Africa and Kenya, for instance, the presence of wide digital divides – regionally, between rural and urban areas, and within the urban areas – means that their threat is real. This research, which employed spatial analysis and used the district as a geographical unit of analysis, carried out a detailed study of ICTs’ development potential and challenges in Kenya. It addressed the following questions: (1) What is the extent of the intra-national digital divide in Kenya? (2) What are the factors that determine Kenya’s intra-national digital divide? and (3) How can the intra-national digital divide be substantiated using regional-level data? The research obtained socio-economic, infrastructural, and geographical data. Using descriptive, concentration, and spatial modeling techniques, the results indicate the presence of marked spatial digital divides as measured by the number of telephone connections and the number of Internet cafés in Kenya. These measures correspond with “old” and “new” digital divides, respectively. Spatial regression results showed lack of significant spatial ii dependence in the “old” digital divide and presence of significant spatial dependence in the “new” digital divide. Interpretation of regression results discusses the significant determinants of Kenya’s intra-national digital divide. These determinants include broadly socio-economic, infrastructural, and geographical variables. Further evidence identified roughly that telephone and Internet clustering in the country mirror the existing pattern of economic development. This means that the role of deliberate government policies in guiding ICT-related development towards convergence is paramount. iii iv DEDICATION For my wife, Roselyne, my daughters Chebet and Cheptoo, for their untiring sacrifice during the long duration of my doctoral studies, and my parents. I will always love you all. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In working towards the completion of this dissertation, I have gained from input and assistance of many people and institutions. I am most grateful to the University of Cincinnati’s Graduate School and the School of Planning for funding my studies. Without this funding, it would have been practically impossible to complete my studies. I am also gratefully indebted to my dissertation committee – professors Johanna W. Looye (chair), Rainer vom Hofe, and Joseph Takougang – for their thought-provoking supervision and constructive critiques. To my dissertation chair, her ever-nurturing personality enabled me to steer this dissertation to completion. I will always be indebted to Emily Lewis for her editing prowess and interesting suggestions. Many people proved instrumental by providing data during my fieldwork research in Nairobi, Kenya. I am grateful to Yusuf Mbuno (formerly of Rural Planning Department, Ministry of Planning and National Development), Robert Lang’at and Eric Ng’eno (Kenya Data Network), Veronica Kimani (Communication Commission of Kenya). Others are K. Kibiru and Maina Gatheru (Kenya Power and Lighting Company), Vincent Ngundi (The Kenya Network Information Center), and the Director-General Antony K.M. Kilele and Ms. Ouma (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics). However, all errors and omissions are mine alone. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Dedications.................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. viii List of Appendices ...................................................................................................................... viii Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 A. THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .............................................................................................................. 2 B. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................................................... 5 C. SELECTION OF STUDY AREA .......................................................................................................................... 6 D. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................................. 11 E. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE STUDY .................................................................................. 11 F. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS ......................................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER II: INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES AND REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT......................................................................... 13 A. REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................................... 13 1. What is a Region? ..................................................................................................................................... 13 2. The Meaning of Regional Development .................................................................................................... 15 3. Overview of Key Regional Economic Development Theories .................................................................. 17 a. Theories of Regional Economic Convergence .......................................................................................................... 17 b. Theories of Regional Economic Divergence ............................................................................................................. 18 c. Structural Theories of Regional Economic Development ......................................................................................... 21 4. Regional Development in Kenya .............................................................................................................. 23 a. Pre-Independence Regional Development in Kenya ................................................................................................. 23 b. Post-Independence Regional Development in Kenya ............................................................................................... 24 B. ICT S AND THEIR ROLE IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................... 27 1. The Meaning of Technology and its Development Worldwide ................................................................. 27 2. ICT Impacts on Economic Development .................................................................................................. 31 3. ICTs and Regional Development .............................................................................................................. 35 4. Potential Constraints of ICT as a Development Strategy ......................................................................... 38 5. Conceptual and Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................. 42 C. SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER III: DEVELOPMENT OF ICTS AND THE DIGITAL DIVIDE WITH A
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