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Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs A Critical Vulnerability No.15 A Critical Vulnerability The impact of the submarine threat on Australia’ The impact of the submarine threat The impact of the submarine threat on Australia’s maritime defence 1915-1954 s maritime defence 1915-1954 s maritime defence David Stevens David Stevens SEA POWER CENTRE - AUSTRALIA DPS JUN054/05 A CRITICAL VULNERABILITY The Impact of the Submarine Threat on Australia’s Maritime Defence 1915 –1954 © Copyright Commonwealth of Australia 2005 This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission from the De- partment of Defence. Announcement Statement—may be announced to the public. Secondary release—may be released to the public. All Defence information, whether classified or not, is protected from unauthorised disclosure under the Crimes Act 1914. Defence information may only be released in accordance with the Defence Protective Security Manual (SECMAN 4) and/or Defence Instruction (General) OPS 13-4—Release of Classified Defence Information to Other Coun- tries, as appropriate. Requests and inquiries should be addressed to the Director, Sea Power Centre – Aus- tralia. Department of Defence, Canberra ACT 2600. Stevens, David, 1958-. A critical vulnerability: the impact of the submarine threat on Australia’s maritime defence 1915–1954. ISBN 0 642 29625 1. 1. Anti-submarine warfare. 2. Australia - Military policy. 3. Australia - Defenses. 4. Australia - History, Military. I. Sea Power Centre Australia. II. Title. (Series : Papers in Australian maritime affairs ; no. 15). 359.030994 ii Disclaimer The views expressed are the author’s and not necessarily those of the Depart- ment of Defence. The Commonwealth of Australia will not be legally respon- sible in contract, tort or otherwise for any statement made in this publication. Sea Centre – Australia The Sea Power Centre – Australia (SPC–A—formerly the Maritime Studies Program) was established to undertake activities which would promote the study, discussion and awareness of maritime issues and strategy within the RAN and the defence and civil communities at large. The aims of the SPC–A are: • To promote understanding of Sea Power and its application to the security of Australia’s national interests; • To manage the development of RAN doctrine and facilitate its incorpora- tion into ADF joint doctrine; • To contribute to regional engagement; and • Within the higher Defence organisation, contribute to the development of maritime strategic concepts and strategic and operational level doctrine, and facilitate informed force structure decisions. Internet site: www.navy.gov.au/spc Comment on this paper or any inquiry related to the activities of the Sea Power Centre – Australia should be directed to: Director Sea Power Centre – Australia Department of Defence CANBERRA ACT 2600 Australia Telephone: +61 2 6127 6512 Facsimile: +61 2 6127 6519 Email: [email protected] Sea Power Centre – Australia, Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs The Sea Power Centre- Australia Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs series is designed as a vehicle to foster debate and discussion on maritime issues of relevance to the Royal Australian Navy, the Australian Defence Force, Australia and the region more generally. iii A CRITICAL VULNERABILITY The Impact of the Submarine Threat on Australia’s Maritime Defence 1915 –1954 DAVID STEVENS Sea Power Centre – Australia Royal Australian Navy Sea Power Centre – Australia Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs No. 15 A Critical Vulnerability: the impact of the submarine threat on Australia’s maritime defence 1915–1954 vi The ‘Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs’ series is a vehicle for the distribution of substantial work by members of the Royal Australian Navy as well as members of the Australian and international community undertaking original research into regional maritime issues. Papers will be drawn generally from manuscripts not scheduled for publication elsewhere but that nonetheless merit extensive distribution. Candidates are considered by an editorial board under the auspices of the Director of the Sea Power Centre – Australia. Other volumes in the series are: No. 1 From Empire Defence to the Long Haul: Post-war defence policy and its impact on naval force structure planning 1945-1955 by Hector Donohue. No. 2 No Easy Answers: The Development of the Navies of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka 1945-1996 by James Goldrick. No. 3 Coastal Shipping: The Vital Link by Mary Ganter. No. 4 Australian Carrier Decisions: The Decisions to Procure HMA Ships Albatross, Sydney and Melbourne by Anthony Wright. No. 5 Issues in Regional Maritime Strategy: Papers by Foreign Visiting Military Fellows with the Royal Australian Navy Maritime Studies Program-1998 edited by David Wilson. No. 6 Australia’s Naval Inheritance: Imperial Maritime Strategy and the Australia Station 1880-1909 by Nicholas A. Lambert. No. 7 Maritime Aviation: Prospects for the 21st Century edited by David Stevens. No. 8 Maritime War in the 21st Century: The Medium and Small Navy Perspective edited by David Wilson. No. 9 HMAS Sydney II: The cruiser and the controversy in the archives of the United Kingdom edited by Captain Peter Hore, RN. No. 10 The Strategic Importance of Seaborne Trade and Shipping: A Common Interest of Asia Pacific edited by Andrew Forbes. No. 11 Protecting Maritime Resources: Boundary Delimitation, Resource Conflicts and Constabulary Responsibilities edited by Rachael Heath and Barry Snushall. No. 12 Maritime Issues 2004: SPC-A Annual edited by Glenn Kerr. No. 13 Future Environmental Policy Trends to 2020: Impact on Ship Design and Operation edited by Glenn Kerr and Barry Snushall. No. 14 Peter Mitchell Essays 2003 edited by Greg Kerr. vii Notes on Author David Stevens is an officer in the RANR and has been the Director of Strategic and Historical Studies within the Sea Power Centre - Australia since 1994. He is the author or editor of a number of publications on maritime strategy and naval history: The Royal Australian Navy in World War II (1996, 2nd Edition 2005); In Search of a Maritime Strategy: the maritime element in Australian defence planning since 1901 (1997); U-Boat Far From Home (1997); Maritime Power in the 20th Century: the Australian experience (1998); Prospects for Maritime Aviation in the 21st Century (1999); Southern Trident: Strategy, History and the Rise of Australian Naval Power (with John Reeve, 2001); the third volume in the Australian Centenary History of Defence: The Royal Australian Navy (2001); The Face of Naval Battle (with John Reeve, 2003); and The Navy and the Nation (with John Reeve, 2005). viii Abstract This monograph examines the impact of the submarine threat on Australia’s maritime defence from 1915 to 1954 and seeks to assess the RAN’s effectiveness in dealing with the trade defence problem over this period. It deals with the way the threat was perceived; the way it was used to influence the military and political decision-making process; and how realistic that perception was. It also looks at the practical measures taken by Australian authorities in response to the threat. These cover various aspects of tactical and operational thinking, command and control, and equipment procurement decisions. Arising without warning during the First World War, the threat posed to Australian shipping by submarines marked the first time the RAN had to seriously consider the relative proportion of assets devoted to local defence as opposed to out-of-area operations. Australia’s naval administrators, however, proved incapable of providing an adequate response. In the postwar period, the Australian Navy faced the additional problems experienced by a small navy in coming to terms with rapidly evolving technology in times of severe financial constraint. Nevertheless, by 1939 the RAN had a core anti-submarine capability available and this provided the foundation for wartime expansion. Because of imperial commitments and obligations, the outbreak of the Second World War again raised the problem of where the RAN could dispose its assets for best effect, and this remained an issue until the start of the Pacific War determined the priority for local defence. Thereafter both Japanese and German submarines operated in Australian waters with a broad spectrum of effects that have never been adequately analysed or understood. Looked upon as alternative maritime strategies, both these efforts brought to the fore significant weaknesses in Australia’s existing maritime defence doctrine. Until the end of 1945, anti-submarine warfare had been a secondary naval capability, and a responsibility usually delegated to reserve forces. But during the postwar period, the threat posed by Soviet submarines became the basis for the RAN’s force structure and, more fundamentally, the rationale for the continued maintenance of a navy in an era of strategic nuclear deterrence. This understanding had far-reaching effects that would colour the RAN’s view of its role and responsibilities until at least the 1980s. ix x Contents Notes on Author viii Abstract ix Abbreviations xiv Chapters 1. Introduction 1 2. The First World War – 1915–1918 8 3. Frustrations and Failures – 1919–1930 41 4. Preparations for War – 1930–39 77 5. Training and Manpower Issues – 1937–39 113 6. Responses to the Submarine Threat – 1939–42 144 7. The First Japanese Campaign – 1942 179 8. The ASW Crisis – 1943 216 9. The German Campaign – 1944–45 257 10. ANZUM, ANZUS and ASW – 1946–54 287 11. Conclusions 326 Appendices I. ‘Japanese Submarines and Trade Operations’, 9 August 1928 338 II. ‘Future Enemy Submarine Strength’, 4 May 1943 340 III. ‘Possible Landing of Enemy Agents from Submarines or Communication with Them’, c. August 1943 342 IV. ‘Probable Form and Scale of Attack’, November 1951 344 V. Enemy Submarine Operations in the Waters Surrounding Australia, 1942–45 349 VI. Monthly Review of Shipping Operating Within South-West Pacific Sea Frontiers, May 1943 361 VII. Australian Convoys Statistics and Designations 363 VIII.