The European Convention on Human Rights and National Case-Law, 2006

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The European Convention on Human Rights

’information sur les droits de l and national case-law, 2006

La Convention européenne des Droits de l’Homme dans la jurisprudence 100 100 COUNCIL CONSEIL OF EUROPE DE L’EUROPE

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The European Convention on Human Rights and national case-law

Supplement to Human rights information bulletin, No. 71

La Convention européenne des Droits de l’Homme dans la jurisprudence nationale

Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme, no 71

Directorate General of Human Rights and Legal Affairs, Council of Europe Direction générale des droits de l’homme et des affaires juridiques, Conseil de l’Europe

August/Août 2007 Supplement to Human rights information bulletin, No. 71, August 2007, ISSN 1608-9618 Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme, no 71, Août 2007, ISSN 1608-960X

Cover: Belgian Arbitration Court Couverture : Cour d’arbitrage belge

First printing August 2007/Première impression août 2007 Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Preface Préface

This supplement to the Human rights informa- Ce Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur tion bulletin contains a selection of decisions les droits de l’homme présente une sélection de of national courts where the question of décisions de tribunaux nationaux dans les- implementing provisions of the European quelles s’est posée la question de l’applica- Convention on Human Rights arises. tion des dispositions de la Convention européenne des Droits de l’Homme. They are extracted from a wide range of elements of legislation, case-law and publica- Elles sont extraites d’un ensemble plus large tions relating to the Convention within d’éléments de législation, de jurisprudence et de doctrine relatives à la Convention dans certain member states of the Council of Eur- l’ordre interne de certains Etats membres du ope, which appear in the Yearbook of the Euro- Conseil de l’Europe qui figurent dans pean Convention on Human Rights, published l’Annuaire de la Convention européenne des by Martinus Nijhoff Publishers in the Neth- Droits de l’Homme, publié par les Editions erlands. Martinus Nijhoff, aux Pays-Bas.

The following information has been drafted Les informations ci-après ont été rédigées in the member states by contributors of vari- dans les pays membres par des contribu- ous nationalities who are also, in some cases, teurs de différentes nationalités, qui en ont, responsible for the translations into English pour certains, assumé la traduction en fran- or French. Some distinctive linguistic or legal çais ou en anglais. Il peut subsister des parti- features may be encountered. cularismes linguistiques ou juridiques.

Contents Table des matières

Austria/Autriche...... page 5

Belgium/Belgique ...... page 22

Czech Republic/République tchèque ...... page 32

Denmark/Danemark ...... page 36

Finland/Finlande ...... page 43

Iceland/Islande...... page 53

Italy/Italie...... page 56

Luxembourg ...... page 74

Spain/Espagne ...... page 83

Switzerland/Suisse ...... page 98

United Kingdom/Royaume-Uni ...... page 105

Preface Préface 3

Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71 Austria/Autriche

Articles 2, 6, 8 and 13 of the Convention

Concerns: Mobile communications and health hazards

Administrative Court

28 March 2006 Principal facts and complaints respondent authority thus cannot be Ref.: http:// opposed when arguing that the applicant www.ris.bka.gv.at /vwgh/ – 2002/ By ruling of 26 February 2002, the appellate lacked the competence to observe, in con- 06/0165 commission of the Lauterach municipality struction proceedings, the aspect of a poten- (Land Vorarlberg) denied a request of the M. tial endangerment of the health of AG & Co. KG company to give planning per- neighbours living in the vicinity of mobile mission for the construction of a mobile phone base stations, since this very aspect is phone base station. It gave as reasons that it comprised by the provisions of the 1997 Tele- was established technical knowledge that communications Act. certain doses of microwaves had a fatal impact on human beings. As long as there Besides, the argument forwarded by the existed no sufficient legal regulations nor applicant, namely that concerning the pro- value limits fixed by the law nor a common tection of neighbours against electromag- practice under the telecommunication auth- netic pollution the lawmaker had hitherto orities capable of binding the construction authorities, it was bound to prevent every been completely inactive and that the munic- endangerment of neighbours within the ipal organs were entitled by the law to (re)act meaning of para. 6 (10) of the 1972 Vorarl- and intervene immediately for the protection berg Construction Act. In view of the inade- of neighbours (in this connection the appli- quate enforcement of Article 8 of the cant refers to Articles 2, 6, 8 and 13 ECHR), European Convention on Human Rights may not substitute, against the background (ECHR) by Austria, the domestic authorities of the “principle of legality” embodied in were under a duty to act provided that an Article 18 (1) of the Federal Constitutional obligation existed under human rights to Law, the existence of a legal basis for a refusal respond to immediate health hazards. The of the requested planning permission. ruling was subsequently set aside by the Bregenz district authority on the grounds The applicant’s reference to the municipal- that the appellate commission had ignored ity’s “competence of local defence of haz- provisions of constitutional law, laying down ards” is neither capable of constituting a legal the competences of federal and provincial basis for the refusal of planning permission authorities in health matters. Against this (the applicant had alleged that the European decision, the Lauterach municipality (appli- Convention comprised, under certain cir- cant) filed a complaint with the Administra- cumstances, a right to “self-intervention”, tive Court. and that the municipalities in their capacity as territorial authority of the lowest level of Findings of the court state administration stood under a “duty of guarantee” towards its citizens to prevent The Administrative Court has repeatedly them from imminent danger). The responsi- held that with regard to mobile phone base stations the construction authorities are not ble authority set out in detail with the appli- allowed to check health matters as this very cant’s concerns regarding potential health aspect comes within the competence of fed- hazards through electromagnetic radiation eral law laid down in Article 10 (1) No. 9 of emanating from mobile phone stations. the Federal Constitutional Law (cf. judgment There is no evidence that the applicant was of 19 March 2002, No. 2001/05/0031). These required to seek a kind of “emergency compe- observations apply also to para. 6 (10) of the tence”, in order to arrive to its decision. The 1972 Vorarlberg Construction Act. The complaint was therefore rejected.

Articles 2, 6, 8 and 13 of the Convention 5 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Article 3 of the Convention

Concerns: Death of a deportee during a hunger strike

Independent Administrative Panel for Upper Austria

Principal facts and complaints feeding ordered (in case Y.C. refused to 13 February 2006 undergo such a treatment, he could have Ref.: http:// The complaint was filed by the brother of www.ris.bka.gv.at Y.C., who died in Oct. 2005 in the Linz police been provided with information about his /uvs/ – UVS serious medical state) to be able to prevent VwSen-400740/ detention centre in the course of a hunger 38/Gf/Mu/Ga u.a. strike. According to an expert opinion, the the collapse of blood cells. Since precaution- deceased did not show any signs of acute ary measures were taken neither by the law- malnutrition and none of a classic dehydra- maker nor by the administration, the Panel tion nor could there be ascertained a life- comes to the conclusion that Y.C. was vio- threatening situation. A clinical laboratory lated in his constitutionally guaranteed right test showed, however, an inherited distur- to protection against inhuman treatment bance of the blood-forming system (known pursuant to Article 3 of the European Con- as sickle-cell anaemia) which had existed vention on Human Rights. only latently (as is very often the case with In the present case it is undisputed between persons of black skin) while the deceased was the parties that Y.C. had been formally still alive. The only way to discover it would expelled by final decision of 5 July 2005. In have been the performance of a “sickle-cell the case of refusal to leave state territory, he anaemia test”, which had not been done. The should have been aware of the risk of being interplay between pre-disposition towards expelled by coercive means. This does not sickle-cell anaemia and lack of liquid led to a mean, however, that he was in any event permanent disturbance of the electrolytic subject to be taken into detention with a balance which eventually caused the death of view to deportation. The reason is that the Y.C. by acute heart failure. imposition of detention with a view to Findings of the Panel deportation proves to be illegal if the alien authorities could have resorted to more leni- According to the medical expertise, the ent means within the meaning of para. 66 (1) brother of the applicant suffered from a of the 1997 Aliens Act. Furthermore, atten- latent sickle-cell anaemia which remained tion is drawn to the judgment of the Admin- undiscovered until his death. It could have istrative Court of 8 September 2005, No. been revealed by means of a prophylactic 2005/21/0301, where it held that an enforce- test. Such a test, however, is generally not able residence ban or expulsion decree did not applied with respect to persons arrested with suffice as such to justify the imposition of a view to deportation, neither is it provided detention with a view to deportation. On the or required by general or individual provi- contrary, examination should be made in any sions of the domestic law, though it would individual case as to whether there was a not have been very expensive compared with pressing need to apply such a security meas- – for instance – an Aids test. ure. It should be common ground for institutions specially trained in medical matters that The authority responsible, however, seems sickle-cell anaemia represents a hereditary dis- not to have considered in its reasoning ease which occurs almost exclusively among whether the use of more lenient means in black Africans. Detainees belonging to such a respect of Y.C., such as the order to stay at a geographical area are, like persons suffering certain place and to report daily to the police from Aids, to be considered as a specific risk or – otherwise – his expulsion to Italy, would group. This is especially true when such per- have been sufficient to “clarify” the situa- sons face an additional “risk element”, tion. There is some evidence that it was not namely the threat of dehydration as immedi- aware of the judgment of the Administrative ate consequence of a hunger strike. As a Court at the time of the issue of its decision. result, the death of the applicant’s brother Anyway, this cannot alter the fact that the could have been avoided on condition that, authority responsible was bound by law to at the beginning of the hunger strike at the observe this judgment. As a result, the deten- latest, a “sickle-cell anaemia test” had been tion of Y.C., based upon the 1997 Aliens law, carried out and, as a consequence, a force- proves to be illegal as well.

6 Austria/Autriche Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Article 5 of the Convention

Concerns: Proportionality of detention on remand

Supreme Court

13 June 2006 Principal facts and complaints ment) pursues completely different goals Ref.: http:// compared to a detention imposed after final www.ris.bka.gv.at /jus/ – 11 Os 48/ By judgment of 28 March 2006, the Wiener sentence, there is no question of an “antici- 06b Neustadt Regional Court, sitting as a court pated execution of a sentence”, which would of lay assessors, convicted H.K.B. for, inter be, in any case, at variance with the pre- alia, attempted aggravated sexual abuse of sumption of innocence. minors under paras. 15 and 206 (1) of the Criminal Code. The accused filed a plea of The presumption of innocence is no criterion nullity and an appeal against the judgment for carrying out a “proportionality test” in which are both still pending. cases where an urgent suspicion of having committed the offence continues and a law- By ordinance of 27 July 2005, detention on ful reason for arrest exists, respectively. remand was imposed on H.K.B., on the When assessing the reasonableness of deten- grounds of a risk of (repeated) committal of tion on remand in relation to the importance the offence he was accused of (para. 180 (2) of the matter, attention must be paid to the No. 3 (b) of the Code of Criminal Procedure). He has been kept in detention since 26 July “abstract threat of punishment” (by which is 2005. On 7 April 2006 a request for release meant the degree of penalty of a given crimi- from detention was refused by the investi- nal offence) and the concrete legal situation gating judge for the same reasons. The resulting from a certain state of suspicion. In accused filed a “Fundamental Rights Com- view of the sanction prescribed by para. 206 plaint” with the Supreme Court, alleging (1) of the Criminal Code (imprisonment for that the length of the detention on remand between one and ten years) and the serious- in the amount of more than nine months had ness of the criminal conduct ascertained by been excessive. the criminal court of first instance (which convicted the applicant to a partly suspended Findings of the court term of three years’ imprisonment), it may be ruled out that the detention on remand of By contrast to the applicant’s view, the prin- the applicant served until now is excessive, ciple that everyone charged with a criminal compared to the importance of the matter. offence shall be presumed innocent until The length of the detention on remand in the proved guilty according to law does not rule amount of nine months cannot either be con- out a deprivation of liberty in the cases com- sidered as inappropriate, taking into account prised by Article 5 of the European Conven- the amount of punishment to be expected in tion on Human Rights (ECHR). This applies the present case, the crucial “starting point” also in circumstances where a person is kept being the full term of the sentence imposed in lawful detention after conviction by a by the first instance court (imprisonment competent court (Article 5 (1) (a) ECHR – cf. comprising three years), but not the uncondi- judgment of the Supreme Court of tional part of the sentence (imprisonment 23 November 2004, 14 Os 139/04). The comprising one year). applicant’s objection, namely that it contra- dicted the principle of the rule of law and the Since in the present case the length of deten- presumption of innocence to let a person serve a prison sentence not yet imposed by tion on remand, lasting nine months at the final decision in advance, can therefore be time of the contested decision, has not yet regarded as refuted. In view of the fact that reached the unconditional part of the sen- the detention on remand (under which falls tence, the applicant’s objection against the any detention between the verdict at first reason for arrest of risk of committal of the instance and (appellate) decision of last said offence is unfounded. H.K.B. was there- instance, regardless of the requirement of fore not violated in his right to personal free- taking the time passed in prison into account dom. As a result, the “Fundamental Rights in respect of the imposed term of imprison- Complaint” was rejected.

Article 5 of the Convention 7 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Article 6 of the Convention

Concerns: Effective defence by several assigned counsels Administrative Court

Principal facts and complaints dure may have a negative affect on or be at 25 April 2006 variance with the correct fulfilment of a law- Ref.: http:// In criminal proceedings pending against him, www.ris.bka.gv.at the accused (who joined the applicant’s com- yer’s duties when representing a party before /vwgh/ – 2002/06/ plaint as “affected party”) successfully filed the courts, especially when the said counsels 0100 an application under para. 41 (2) of the Code face difficulties with the co-ordination and of Criminal Procedure to appoint his then distribution of their tasks. The reason is that counsel for the defence (the applicant) as the concurrent appointment of several law- assigned counsel. The Austrian bar associa- yers as assigned counsel does not exempt the tion nominated the applicant as defence single lawyer from his duty to represent and counsel, together with two additional barris- defend a party with the same diligence as a ters to assist him in the matter. The applicant lawyer of his/her own choice. filed an appeal against this decision, arguing that – as he was already familiar with the The aim set down in para. 45 of the Law- case – he had consented to deal with it also in yers’ Code, namely to recruit lawyers his capacity as assigned counsel, in order to belonging to the Austrian bar association for prevent a delay of proceedings. The appoint- the “legal aid scheme” by distributing the ment of two additional defence counsels had workload between them as evenly as possi- been neither practicable nor necessary. The ble, is clearly met by the appointment of Austrian bar association dismissed the appeal several lawyers in cases of legal representa- on the grounds that under para. 45 (3) of its tion being particularly exhaustive. In the rules of procedure in cases of extensive length present case, however, the respondent auth- of proceedings several legal advisers could be ority has referred, when dealing with the appointed for joint legal representation. applicant’s appeal, exclusively to a common There was no reason to depart from this practice applied by the Austrian bar associa- practice. Against this decision, the applicant tion. It did not examine the question filed a complaint with the Administrative whether such a procedure was necessary Court. and practicable with a view to an effective representation and defence of the affected Findings of the court party, within the meaning of Article 6 of the Concerning the concurrent appointment of European Convention on Human Rights. By several lawyers as assigned counsel in cases of acting in such a manner, the authority extensive length of proceedings (in order to responsible breached the law. The contested avoid above-average workload), such a proce- ruling was therefore set aside.

Concerns: Right to an oral hearing Constitutional Court

Principal facts and complaints The applicant claims a violation of his consti- 26 September tutionally guaranteed (defence) rights under 2006 Ref.: http:// By criminal judgment of 11 August 2005, Article 6 §1 and §3 (d) of the European Con- www.ris.bka.gv.at the St. Pölten district authority imposed on vention on Human Rights (ECHR) as he /vfgh/ – B 507/06 the applicant an administrative fine, was not legally represented during the amounting to €109, for speeding within a administrative (criminal) proceedings and rural community. The applicant filed a com- had not been instructed by the responsible plaint against this judgment, alleging that he authority about the possibility of filing a had not driven the vehicle at the time at request for carrying out an oral hearing. By issue. Furthermore, there had occurred limi- acting so, the latter had deprived him of the tation of prosecution in respect of the said opportunity to have examined witnesses offence in the meanwhile. The Independent against him or to obtain the attendance and Administrative Panel for Lower Austria examination of witnesses on his behalf who denied his appeal without holding an oral would have been able to confirm that at the hearing, basing its findings as to the evidence time of the committal of the offence he had exclusively on the contents of the file. been abroad.

8 Austria/Autriche Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Findings of the court In the circumstances of the case, the appli- According to the case-law of the European cant’s conduct cannot be interpreted as con- Court of Human Rights, in criminal proceed- clusive (implicit) waiver concerning his right ings before one tribunal as the only instance, to an oral hearing pursuant to Article 6 §1 it follows from the right to a fair trial under ECHR. The latter was not legally represented Article 6 ECHR that a departure from the during the proceedings and had been requirement to hold an oral hearing is instructed neither by the district authority allowed only in exceptional circumstances nor by the authority responsible about the (judgment of 19 Feb. 1998, Allan Jacobsson v. possibility of filing a request for carrying out Sweden (No. 2)). an oral hearing. No additional circumstances In its judgment of 18 June 2003, B 1312/02, are made out which could support the con- the Constitutional Court held with respect clusion that the applicant should have to para. 51 (e) (3) of the Administrative known about the possibility of filing such a (Criminal) Proceedings Act that it would be request (for the question of conclusive inadmissible under the Constitution to con- (implicit) waiver, see also the judgment of clude exclusively from the amount of a fine the European Court of Human Rights of that an oral hearing was not required. This 3 October 2002 in the case of Cetinkaya v. very provision acknowledges discretionary power on the part of the authorities, thereby Austria). These shortcomings lead not only to allowing for an interpretation in conform- the conclusion that the ruling in issue must ance with the Constitution. As far as it is be considered as illegal but speak also for a required by Article 6 ECHR, the Independent violation of Article 6 §1 ECHR since there Administrative Panels are obliged to carry existed no special reasons which could justify out an oral hearing as long as the parties have the non-performance of an oral hearing. The not waived their respective rights. contested ruling was therefore set aside. Concerns: Divergence in the qualification of legal facts between the judgment and the Bill of indictment Supreme Court 14 November Principal facts and complaints alkonkurrenz, but is replaced by “apparent 2006 Idealkonkurrenz” or – in other words – “con- Ref.: http:// In 2006, the Innsbruck Regional Court, sit- www.ris.bka.gv.at ting as a court of lay assessors, found E.D. sumption”. /jus/ – 14 Os 84/ guilty under para. 83 (1) of the Criminal Code 06v Since the first instance court felt itself unable of having committed the offence of actual to subsume the offence under para. 142 of bodily harm, contrary to the initial charge of the Criminal Code (robbery), but saw, on the attempted robbery. Against the judgment the other hand, the causing of intentional bodily accused filed a plea of nullity pursuant to harm as established, the verdict was not para. 281 (1) No. 8 of the Code of Criminal based on a different offence (in a material Procedure, alleging that the Innsbruck sense) in relation to the initial charge. In his Regional Court had failed to hear him on the observations to the plea of nullity, the appli- altered legal facts, as prescribed by para. 262 cant therefore should have specified why the of the Code of Criminal Procedure. fact that he had not been heard to the altered Findings of the court legal facts had deprived him of the opportunity to defend himself in the one or the other In the present case, the prosecution authori- way and to pose questions and file motions ties went out from the assumption that the to the end that in view of the changed legal applicant had attempted to steal the purse of situation his defence strategy would have a certain G.T. by having recourse to consider- been a different one. able violence. However, they cannot be reproached of having not referred to para. 83 The applicant would have been dispensed (1) of the Criminal Code in the Bill of indict- from such a pleading (in order to assert “suc- ment. The reason is that in respect of all cessfully” the above “ground for nullity”) offences which “lead” to a higher degree of only on the condition that the trial court had punishment in cases entailing serious inju- found him guilty of having committed a dif- ries (here: grave robbery), the causing of bod- ferent criminal offence (in a material sense) – ily harm “comprises” not the committing of instead of the one indicated in the Bill of an additional crime under para. 83 (1) of the indictment – and, contrary to the require- Criminal Code in the form of a so-called Ide- ments of a fair trial, had not corresponded to

Article 6 of the Convention 9 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 the “protective goal” underlying para. 262 of Code of Criminal Procedure is required, oth- the Code of Criminal Procedure. The judg- erwise the requirements of Article 6 §3 (a) or ments of the European Court of Human (b) ECHR are not fulfilled. In cases which Rights of 25 March 1999 and 20 April 2006 in concern only divergences of minor relevance, the cases of Pélissier and Sassi v. France and the onus is on the applicant to assert in the I.H. and others v. Austria likewise reveal that plea of nullity, at least to some extent, that special attention is drawn to the “protective the required instruction had not been goal” of Article 6 §3 of the European Conven- afforded him, in order to avoid “superfluous” tion on Human Rights (ECHR), that is to procedures before the courts. Those would prevent any bar to an accused person’s lead, as a rule, to a deterioration of the state defence. of evidence and stand, additionally, in a Since the judgment of the Supreme Court of strained relationship with the right to the 6 June 2000, 14 Os 34/00, divergences in the termination of proceedings within a reasona- legal assessment of the facts underlying a ble time pursuant to Article 6 §1 ECHR. charge may be claimed now under para. 281 The applicant should have been well aware (1) No. 8 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the fact that the Supreme Court automat- as well, namely because of disregard of the ically “draws” nullity from the “ground for provision of para. 262 of the Code of Crimi- nullity” under para. 281 (1) No. 8 of the Code nal Procedure. Given that the facts of the case of Criminal Procedure only in case of diver- underlying the offence of which the accused gence of the criminal elements of the case, was found guilty differ from the one under- the more as the above-mentioned leading lying the Bill of indictment in such a way case has been published and discussed by the that one does not “cover up” the other, one doctrine several times so that the applicant might easily draw the conclusion that an should have acted accordingly. The plea of adequate instruction under para. 262 of the nullity was therefore rejected.

Article 8 of the Convention

Concerns: Protection of persons not known to the public with respect to pictures taken of them Supreme Court Principal facts and complaints related to totally different legal matters. He is 24 January 2006 neither known to the public nor is the picture Ref.: http:// The defendant is the editor of a weekly news www.ris.bka.gv.at magazine. The plaintiff requested the domes- showing him taken in private. Accordingly, /jus/ – 4 Ob 246/ tic courts to order the defendant to refrain, the protection of private and family life pur- 05p without his consent, from publishing and suant to Article 8 of the European Conven- spreading his picture showing him taking part tion on Human Rights, on which the Court in commercial activities. The Vienna Upper based its decision, plays no role in the case in Regional Court allowed his request in part, issue. ordering the defendant to refrain from pub- Nor can it be derived from the case-law of the lishing the said pictures insofar as the accom- European Court of Human Rights that the panying text contained certain remarks about right of persons not known to the public is the plaintiff. protected against any publication of photographs taken of them. According to para. 78 Findings of the court of the Copyright Act, the publication of pic- In his extraordinary appeal before the tures is only permissible if it is capable of Supreme Court, the plaintiff refers to the infringing the legitimate interests of the case-law of the European Court of Human depicted person. This may be the case, inter Rights, according to which pictures of celebri- alia, on condition that he/she would be sub- ties, showing them in private, might not be jected to public exposure in case of publica- published, irrespective of the underlying tion of the picture, that his/her private life accompanying text. By ruling so, the Court would be revealed to the public or his/her had confirmed that even prominent persons picture would be used in a manner giving rise enjoyed “absolute protection” regarding pic- to misinterpretation or would have to be tures taken of them. regarded as degrading or debasing (cf. ruling The plaintiff misapprehends the Court’s case- of the Supreme Court of 7 April 1992, law in the above-mentioned cases which 4 Ob 14/92).

10 Austria/Autriche Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

The legitimate interests of the depicted per- into account (cf. ruling of the Supreme Court son may be infringed by the picture itself – of 29 September 1987, 4 Ob 363/87). for instance by a photomontage associating the face of a certain person (here: the leader The publication of a “harmless” picture, fol- of a political party) with the portrayal of a lowed by an accompanying text – which, as naked body (cf. ruling of the Supreme Court such, does not interfere with the interests of of 17 September 1996, 4 Ob 2249/96f). In the depicted person – is not capable of violat- case the picture gives “no cause for concern”, ing para. 78 of the Copyright Act. The the accompanying text must also to be taken extraordinary appeal was therefore rejected. Concerns: Family life between adults and their grown-up children Administrative Court 26 January 2006 Principal facts and complaints be said that he found himself in a “state of Ref.: http:// dependence” vis-à-vis his family. As a result, www.ris.bka.gv.at On July 2001, the applicant, a Turkish the existence of family life within the mean- /vwgh/ – 2002/20/ national, filed an application for asylum with 0423 ing of Article 8 ECHR had to be answered in the Federal Asylum Office which was denied the negative. as inadmissible under para. 5 (1) of the Asy- lum Act on the grounds that according to Wiederin holds an opposite view (in: Article 6 of the Dublin Convention the Korinek/Holoubek, Constitutional Law examination of the application fell within [5th ed., 2002], Article 8 ECHR, §76). He Italy’s competence. In his appeal against that claims that at least in respect of natural born ruling the applicant claimed that he enjoyed children an existing family life of children family life in Austria within the meaning of with their parents continues beyond reach- Article 8 of the European Convention on ing the age of majority ipso iure – provided Human Rights (ECHR). There existed that the ties between them are still “direct”. between his father and him a special depend- Such an approach could be derived from the ency (in the form of financial support) and judgments of the European Court of Human mutual relationship since his father was Rights of 18 Feb. 1991 and 24 Apr. 1996 in partly unable to work and ill. The appeal was the cases of Moustaquim v. Belgium and rejected by the Independent Asylum Panel, Boughanemi v. France, respectively. Therefore, which found that in respect of the applicant the existence of a “state of dependence” there could not be established a “state of between spouses and their grown-up chil- dependence” going beyond the usual emo- dren would not constitute the crucial point tional ties with his father. Although the as long as the relations between them were applicant lived together with his close rela- “direct”. The Administrative Court cannot tives, he had to be considered as living in a adhere to such an approach, however. “state of independence” from his family. Fur- According to the constant case-law of the thermore, neither the applicant nor his father European Court of Human Rights, the exist- were subject to the support of others. ence of family life within the meaning of Article 8 ECHR beyond the scope of existing Findings of the court family life between spouses and their minor In the present case, the applicant alleges that children ipso iure depends on the particular Article 8 ECHR guarantees him the right to circumstances of each individual case. With lead a family life together with his close rela- regard to whether a relationship is to be con- tives. sidered sufficiently intense and personal, the The responsible authority argued that the duration and intensity of living together is of notion of “family life” in Article 8 ECHR special relevance. required, apart from the existence of family Against this background, the Administrative relations, additional – closer – ties of rele- Court comes to the conclusion that the auth- vance. With respect to relatives already ority responsible should have considered the grown up, there had to be proven that the applicant’s continued stay with his parents relationship showed a certain intensity or and siblings in a common household in Aus- that a “factual state of dependency” existed – tria as well as the financial support through as for instance a person’s need to be sup- his father by carrying out the necessary “bal- ported or be cared for by other relatives. Tak- ancing test” under Article 8 §2 ECHR. These ing into account that the applicant had lived circumstances are not opposed to the latter’s alone in Turkey and had earned his living view, according to which a family life of the there by doing casual labour, there could not type protected by Article 8 ECHR was not in

Article 8 of the Convention 11 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 issue. The ruling was therefore annulled for “illegality of its content”.

Concerns: “Incognito adoption” and right to obtain information about one’s own descent Supreme Court

Principal facts and complaints guardian. Those records contain, even in 10 August 2006 cases of “incognito-adoption”, the particulars Ref.: http:// On Nov. 2005 the local youth welfare office www.ris.bka.gv.at approved the adoption of T.M. The child was of the natural parents or at least the natural /jus/ – 2 Ob 129/ six months old at the time of the decision mother. 06v and had lived, practically from the moment In its judgment of 13 February 2003 in the of birth, with his foster parents who cared case of Odièvre v. France, the European Court for him. Three days after the birth, T.M.’s of Human Rights denied a violation of natural mother had made a declaration giv- Article 8 ECHR in a case concerning an ing approval to a so-called “incognito-adop- anonymous birth being admissible under tion” while refusing to indicate the father’s French law. The decision of the Court was name. The foster parents subsequently subsequently criticised mainly on the declared their wish to disclose to T.M. that he grounds that in cases of anonymous birth was an adoptive child. The district court, foster children had no possibility of enforc- however, denied the motion of the local ing their right to knowledge of their own youth welfare office for approval of the adop- parentage without the consent of the natural tion on the grounds that such a request vio- mother. lated the right of the minor to get knowledge Austrian legislation reacted to these criti- of his/her parents and to be cared for by cisms by granting the child a right to inspect them, as guaranteed by Article 7 of the UN the register of births, deaths and marriages in Convention on the rights of the child. Both person, independently from the consent of the foster parents and the local youth welfare the natural mother; while at the same time office filed an appeal with the Salzburg making the exercise of that right dependent Regional Court which, however, confirmed upon reaching a certain age. The Supreme the decision. It shared the view of the first Court is of the opinion that such a procedure instance court, according to which an “incog- constitutes a reasonable alternative, corre- nito-adoption” was not in the best interests sponding to children’s best interests: on the of the child, in addition it stated doubts one side the interests of the adoptive parents from the point of view of constitutional law, in preventing undesired interventions on the since this “adoption alternative” might vio- part of the natural relatives are preserved, on late a child’s protected right under Article 8 the other side the natural mother’s wish of the European Convention on Human (who, by choosing an “incognito-adoption”, Rights (ECHR) to obtain information about expressed her will not to get into contact his/her own personal identity. Against this with her child) is respected for a certain time. decision, the local youth welfare office filed Provided that child have been informed an appeal with the Supreme Court. about the adoption, they have, on reaching Findings of the court the age of fourteen, several options of obtain- Austrian law contains several provisions ing adequate information. which deal with children’s right to receive The appellate court recognises that the “open information about their own parentage. Para. adoption” and the factual enforcement of the 37 of the Law relating to the civil status of right to information of the foster child persons (Personenstandsgesetz), for instance, depend likewise on the willingness of the provides in cases of “incognito-adoption” adoptive parents to disclose information. To that minor foster children, at the age of four- this extent, one cannot discern a difference teen, are given the possibility of inspecting between an “incognito-adoption” and a “nor- the register of births, deaths and marriages in mal” adoption. The legal opinion of the person (the register includes the names, the appellate according to which an “incognito- places of birth and residence as well as the adoption” endangered the child’s best inter- birthday of the child’s parents). At the same ests cannot therefore be agreed with. As a age, minor foster children are also entitled to result, the adoption was approved and the inspect the court records relating to their decisions of the lower courts altered accord- adoption without the consent of their legal ingly.

12 Austria/Autriche Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Concerns: “Biometric measuring” of employees to survey their coming and going Supreme Court 20 December Findings of the court account of “affecting” human dignity within 2006 the meaning of para. 96 (1) No. 3 of the Con- Ref.: http:// According to the constant jurisprudence of www.ris.bka.gv.at the Supreme Court, employers’ duty to care stitutional Act on industrial relations. /jus/ – 9 ObA 109/ for their employees implies that they are There can be no doubt that the human dig- 06d bound to apply the most lenient means of nity of employees is “affected” by the con- surveillance which is adequate to reach its tested measure, in view of the considerable goals. The defendant party was neither able impact the controlling measure has on the to demonstrate that this is true of the system employees by taking and processing their fin- under review, nor that the “traditional sys- gerprints. The defendant party therefore vio- tems” mentioned could not reach the goals lated the “participation rights” of the work pursued with it. The plaintiff certified, on council under para. 96 (1) No. 3 of the Con- the contrary, that the “biometric measuring” stitutional Act, by introducing and applying, of employees, including the necessary daily without its approval and in a one-sided man- comparison with the biometric patterns ner, a “biometric time registration system”, made possible by the operation of finger- based on “biometric finger-scanning”. Conse- scanners, attains an intensity in relation to quently, the described controlling system the pursued aim (being rather trivial (surveil- must be considered as illegal and inadmissi- lance of the coming and going of the employ- ble. The defendant party’s appeal was there- ees)) which was subject to approval, on fore not followed.

Articles 8 and 14 of the Convention

Concerns: Adoption by a life partner of the same sex Supreme Court 27 September Findings of the court whether the decision of the authorities to 2006 refuse a homosexual the adoption of a child Ref.: http:// Para. 182 (2), 2nd sentence, of the General www.ris.bka.gv.at Civil Code governs the legal consequences in had constituted an unlawful discrimination. /jus/ – 9 Ob 62/06t adoption cases involving only one male According to the Court, the State had to see (female) adoptive parent. Given that the to it that the persons chosen to adopt were adoptive child is adopted by an adoptive those who could offer the child the most father (adoptive mother), the family rela- suitable home in every respect. Not least in tionship is nullified only in respect of the nat- respect of the large differences in the national ural father (the natural mother) and his (her) and international opinion about the possible relatives. The said paragraph thus prohibits consequences of child adoption by one par- generally the adoption by a male person ent or several parents and taking into (excluding cases of homosexual life partners) account that not enough children were “at as long as there exist relations with the natu- disposal to meet the demand”, the states ral father; or adoption by a female person as were provided with a wide discretionary long as there exist relations with the natural power in this area. A violation of Article 8 mother. According to that provision, the sin- ECHR in connection with Article 14 could gle adoptive parent does not replace the par- not be established therefore, provided that ent of its own choice but the one that the refusal of adoption by a homosexual cor- corresponds to his (her) gender. Conse- responded to the legitimate aim of ensuring quently, the adoption of a child by the female the child’s best interest and the principle of life partner of its natural mother is not per- proportionality. mitted under current law. The claimants are not able to demonstrate for By contrast to the claimants’ opinion, the what reasons the regulation of para. 182 (2) of provision in issue is also capable of coping the General Civil Code would be at variance with a test under the angle of the European with the margin of appreciation left to the Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). In states and the principle of proportionality to its judgment of 26 Feb. 2002 in the case of be observed in this special area. Consequently, Fretté v. France, the European Court examined there is no reason for the Supreme Court to

Articles 8 and 14 of the Convention 13 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 question the constitutionality of the said provision. The appeal was therefore not followed.

Concerns: Request for deletion of a conviction from the criminal record

Constitutional Court

Principal facts and complaints to the “criminal registration authority”. The 4 October 2006 applicant fails, however, to conceive the real Ref.: http:// On 29 Aug. 1997 the applicant was sen- www.ris.bka.gv.at purpose of the underlying registration sys- tenced to six months’ imprisonment for /vfgh/ – B 742/06 tem: para. 8 of the Act governing the register homosexual indecency, committed with per- of convictions allows for the determination sons aged under eighteen (§209 of the Crimi- and removal of only such errors which fall nal Code). The conviction is still recorded in within the competence of the “criminal reg- the register of convictions. Subsequently, istration authorities”, especially when details para. 209 of the Criminal Code was removed of a given judgment registered in the register by the 2002 Act amending the criminal law. of conviction do not correspond with the The applicant then filed an application under contents of the decision. The so-called para. 8 (1) of the Act governing the register of “determination proceedings” thus do not convictions with the Home Office, seeking a involve the revision of “data in respect of declaration that the registration of the said judgments” (a competence reserved only to conviction under the “inhumane” provision the courts) upon which the “criminal regis- of para. 209 of the Criminal Code was “inad- tration authorities” may react only in case of missible and should therefore be annulled”. information provided by the courts by way Such a procedure, however, was refused by of a judicial decision. the Home Office on the grounds that it was barred from the arbitrary removal of a con- The applicant’s argumentation amounts to a viction from the register of conviction on form of legal interpretation according to account of the separation of powers between which the Home Office was competent to justice and administration. review, with “substantive effect”, the lawfulness of court decisions “standing behind” the Findings of the court entries into the register of conviction. This The applicant alleges that the denial of his amounts in the end to a breach of the separa- request for deletion of his conviction in the tion of powers between justice and adminis- register of convictions violated his right to tration, laid down in Article 94 of the Federal respect for private life (Article 8 of the Euro- Constitutional Law. pean Convention on Human Rights The later removal of the criminal elements of [ECHR]), to the deletion of personal data an offence, initially decisive of leading to a processed by way of illegal means (para. 1 (3) conviction, may not therefore, in the absence No. 2 of the Data Protection Act), to non- of a decision by the courts or a respective discrimination (Article 14 ECHR) and to Decree of the Federal President, constitute a equality of all citizens before the law reason for deletion on the part of the admin- (Article 7 of the Constitutional Law). In istrative authorities. This is also true of a vio- view of the relevant case-law of the European lation established by the European Court of Court of Human Rights (L. and V., S.L., 9 Jan. Human Rights in a different, but comparable 2003; Wolfmeyer, 26 May 2005; H.G. and G.B, case. Besides, the judgments of the Court 2 June 2005 v. Austria), Austria was under a itself do not have immediate effect (to be duty to remove the adverse effects of funda- understood as being capable of providing mental rights breaches emerging from con- immediately for a claim in respect of victions under para. 209 of the Criminal “affected” state decisions), but are, neverthe- Code. This was also true of cases in which – less, required to be implemented by the as in the present case – the European Court domestic authorities. of Human Rights had not been seized. Since the respondent authority was Applications under para. 8 of the Act govern- obstructed under constitutional law from ing the register of convictions, aimed at interpreting the law in the way desired by checking whether stored data “give no cause the applicant, the alleged violation of consti- for concern”, are restricted to the discovery tutionally guaranteed rights could not be of possible “registration errors”, attributable established.

14 Austria/Autriche Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Concerns: Award of Austrian citizenship

Constitutional Court

13 October 2006 Principal facts and complaints which would demonstrate that he showed Ref.: http:// www.ris.bka.gv.at “manifest integration deficits”. /vfgh/ – B 329/06 By a ruling of 9 February 2006 the (provincial) government of Carinthia denied the On the other hand, the applicant claimed applicant’s application for award of the Aus- that he had forwarded certificates of several trian citizenship and extension to his wife schools and headmasters demonstrating that and three minor children pursuant to paras. he performed his duties as religious (instruc- 10 (1) and 11 of the 1985 Citizenship Act, on tion) teacher in a correct and careful manner the grounds that doubts existed as to his last- and that a good relationship existed between ing personal integration. The applicant had him and his colleagues and the school man- failed to manage, in spite of the fact that he agement. He could also furnish written state- had lived for fifteen years in the Federal terri- ments of the Klagenfurt prison – where he tory, to align in many areas to the customs had been in charge of prison inmates of Mus- and culture of his host country. A special lim faith – and an invitation by the Governor “integration deficit” was seen in the circum- of Carinthia to take part in the event “Dia- stance that the communication with him, logue of cultures and religions” in Apr. 2003. especially in relation to his superiors, col- He was therefore capable of disproving the leagues and women, proved to be very diffi- criticisms directed against him. He showed a cult. Furthermore, he was not even prepared positive attitude towards the Republic of to reply to greetings by shaking hands. The Austria and nobody could accuse him of hav- observance of public interests pointed there- ing an anti-democratic opinion. On the con- fore against the requested naturalisation. trary, he had always abided by the law during The applicant then applied to the Constitu- his stay in Austria. tional Court. In its ruling, the (provincial) government of Findings of the court Carinthia has limited itself to replying the following: “When A. (the applicant) holds According to para. 11 of the 1985 Citizenship the opposite view during the hearing of the Act, the interests of the applicant in a posi- parties by forwarding various statements tive handling of the case are to be weighed underlining his standpoint, this may not against the public interests arguing against it. alter the fact that there exist considerable When assessing this question, the law integration deficits on his part.” Such a rudi- acknowledges a certain margin of apprecia- mentary reasoning is at variance with the tion left to the competent authorities (argu- mentum: “the extent of integration” in demands of constitutional law. The respond- para. 11 of the Citizenship Act), but it is nev- ent authority has failed to consider also the ertheless necessary to carry out a thorough reasons speaking in favour of an award of the “weighing of interests” and to give sufficient Austrian citizenship. and “understandable” reasons for its findings. By acting so, the respondent authority has In the present case, the reasoning of the (pro- failed to weigh the applicant’s interests in vincial) government of Carinthia in its ruling the awarding of Austrian citizenship and the is incapable of delivering a thorough “weigh- public interests conflicting with it against ing of interests” of the kind described above. each other and to decide the issue on the The reason is that the respondent authority basis of the “better” arguments. The errors has limited itself to basing its decision on the on the part of the respondent authority are one-sided selection of statements of head- of such severity that they reveal an arbitrary masters and former colleagues of the appli- conduct. The applicant was therefore vio- cant, according to which he failed to show lated in his constitutionally guaranteed right flexibility regarding common behaviour in to the equal treatment of aliens inter se. The public (by greeting and shaking hands) ruling was set aside.

Articles 8 and 14 of the Convention 15 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Article 10 of the Convention

Concerns: Limits of permissible criticism by journalists

Supreme Court

Principal facts and complaints (judgment of 27 Feb. 2001 in the case of 16 February 2006 Jerusalem v. Austria; cf. judgments of Ref.: http:// www.ris.bka.gv.at The plaintiff is the editor-in-chief of a daily 27 September 2001, 6 Ob 168/01a, and /jus/ – 6 Ob 245/ newspaper. The defendants are the publisher 19 Feb. 2004, 6 Ob 250/03p). 04d of a news magazine and a journalist working there. In Feb. 2004 the first defendant pub- As a result, the present legal issue has already lished an article written by the second been resolved by the Supreme Court. The defendant in which the latter criticised cer- appeal is not capable of revealing a new – rel- tain statements of the plaintiff in his recent evant – legal issue either. The Supreme Court columns. He wrote, inter alia: “Readers of the finds itself unable to share the Upper [plaintiff’s] columns might get the impres- Regional Court’s view, according to which sion that they are written by persons ‘resid- the plaintiff had not entered the political ing’ in the Sigmund-Freud-Klinik” (a stage – since he had not criticised the first psychiatric institution in Graz). By interim defendant but, on the contrary, only the per- injunction of 9 June 2006, the Graz Regional sons responsible acting in the course of a Court ordered the defendants to refrain from political affair. The question of whether one this statement. The Upper Regional Court enters the political stage may not depend on confirmed the decision: the challenged state- whether he utters criticisms against those ment could give the impression that the who criticise him later on. This – incorrect – plaintiff was mentally ill and that he was not view of the appellate court is, however, not capable of settling his own personal matters. decisive in the present dispute, in as much as By agitating in such a manner, the defend- the question of whether a certain statement ants had made ridiculous the plaintiff’s per- must be qualified as “evaluation excess” sonal trait and insulted him. Against this depends on the circumstances of every indi- decision the defendants filed an appeal with vidual case. The Supreme Court notes that the Supreme Court. the second defendant, in his article, does not disclose the facts underlying the challenged Findings of the court statement, however. The defendants must be considered correct According to the case-law of the European in assuming that the challenged statement Court of Human Rights, the requirement to does not represent an allegation of facts, but disclose the facts standing underlying a value a value judgment which may, in its capacity judgment is less stringent in cases where as an insult against honour, infringe para. 1330 of the General Civil Code. Accord- they are known to the public (27 Oct. 2005, ing to the constant case-law of the European Wirtschafts-Trend Zeitschriften-Verlags GmbH Court of Human Rights, the limits of permis- v. Austria). Even assuming that readers were sible criticism are wider in respect of politi- aware that the plaintiff’s columns referred to cians in exercise of their duties than the said political affair, the appellate court’s compared to private individuals. They must view, according to which the challenged show a higher degree of tolerance, especially statement went beyond the limits of permis- when uttering public statements which are, sible criticism, must be considered as argua- as such, capable of giving rise to criticism. ble at least. The courts’ view that the The Supreme Court has adopted the view plaintiff was not obliged to tolerate the held by the European Court, according to implicit statement of suffering from a mental which this principle applies also to private disease because it made him ridiculous in the individuals provided that they have entered public eye and constituted a degradation the “political stage” – which is true especially does not constitute an incorrect assessment of journalists and editors of the mass media of the facts either. The appeal is inadmissible.

16 Austria/Autriche Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Concerns: Limits of permissible criticism Supreme Court 27 April 2006 Principal facts and complaints cedure may be ruled out in the present case. Ref.: http:// This is also true of the question of whether www.ris.bka.gv.at The defendant is the governor of Carinthia. /jus/ – 6 Ob 81/06i In the course of the so-called “Carinthian interests worth protecting on the part of the town sign conflict”, he described the plain- violated party had been infringed, the ques- tiff’s way of acting, namely to challenge, to tion of who “benefits” from the “weighing of the level of the Constitutional Court, a crim- interests” under para. 1330 (1) of the General inal charge for speeding as the “conduct of a Civil Code and, finally, the question of what maniac”. The appellate court allowed the can still be regarded as permissible criticism plaintiff’s claim for insult against honour as (cf. judgment of the Supreme Court of well as his request for issue of an injunction 23 May 1991, 7 Ob 535/91). and public retraction of the said judgment. It The defendant invokes, inter alia, the deci- gave as reason that the defendant had given sion of the European Court of Human Rights an offensive value judgment about the plain- in the case of Wirtschafts-Trend Zeitschriften- tiff’s conduct which could be equated to an Verlags GmbH v. Austria, which had con- insult. cerned him in person – as did the judgment of Oberschlick v. Austria (No. 2) of 1 July 1997. Findings of the court He overlooks, however, that the European Notwithstanding the plaintiff’s right to free- Court, in the first decision mentioned, dom of opinion and the competing interests stressed that the defendant was a leading coming into play, the challenged conduct politician who was known already for a long was capable of infringing para. 1330 (1) of time for his suggestive remarks concerning the General Civil Code. The defendant’s the regime of the National-Socialists and the statement was not acceptable even in con- Second World War, which implied that he troversial political disputes such as the “Car- had to show a particular high degree of toler- inthian town sign conflict”. ance. In the second decision, the Court did According to the constant jurisprudence of not find his description as “dope” to be inap- the Supreme Court, the question whether a propriate, by taking into account the dis- different assessment of a certain statement pleasure he had provoked by intention. Such would have been arguable and whether it circumstances to the plaintiff’s detriment would have to be qualified as “evaluation are not apparent in the present case, how- excess” depends so much on the special cir- ever. As a consequence, the latter is not cumstances of the case that the existence of obliged to allow the defendant to describe relevant questions of law within the mean- him as a maniac in public. The extraordinary ing of para. 502 (1) of the Code of Civil Pro- appeal was therefore rejected. Concerns: Comparison with Holocaust in an animal protection campaign Supreme Court 12 October 2006 Principal facts and complaints Vienna Upper Regional Court rejected the Ref.: http:// defendant party’s appeal. The defendants www.ris.bka.gv.at In 2004, an association for the protection of /jus/ – 6 Ob 321/ animals ran a travelling exhibition in Vienna filed an appeal with the Supreme Court. 04f under the topic “The holocaust on your Findings of the court plate”. Seven diagrams were shown on which photographs from Nazi concentration camps According to the jurisprudence of the were associated with pictures from large- Supreme Court, the constitutionally guaran- scale animal husbandry and slaughter, fol- teed right to freedom of opinion comprises lowed by an accompanying text. The plain- also (extreme) opinions of “outsiders”, tiffs subsequently filed an action with the unconventional thinkers and even dilet- Vienna Commercial Court for “insult against tantes as long as they do not exceed the lim- honour” and violation of their personality its of admissible criticism. These principles rights. They requested the issue of an interim are quite compatible with the established injunction prohibiting the defendant from case-law of the European Court of Human publishing and/or distributing the said dia- Rights, which applies a generous standard grams. The Vienna Commercial Court issued regarding the right to freedom of opinion and the injunction requested, whereas the the interests of the public in the discussion of

Article 10 of the Convention 17 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 questions of common public interest cerns a “collective insult”. It must be added (26 February 2002, Unabhängige Initiative that the defendant party pursues a legiti- Informationsvielfalt, and Dichand and others v. mate aim, namely to bring the animal protec- Austria). The Supreme Court has already held tion campaign before the public with the that the reference to the holocaust in the help even of drastic means. Consequently, form of a “standard of comparison” is admis- the plaintiffs cannot benefit from a weigh- sible when pursuing the goal of animal pro- ing of the competing interests. tection (here: concerning a statement which The Supreme Court is not unaware that the described the keeping of pigs as a “concentra- challenged campaign may well be considered tion camp for pigs”, cf. judgment of 27 May as irreverent, tasteless, exaggerated and even 1998, 6 Ob 93/98i). The admissibility of such immoral. The existence of an “evaluation a comparison is valid also for the present ani- excess”, comparable to an abuse of law, could mal protection campaign. With respect to possibly be positively affirmed in that the the expression of one’s opinion, there does aim pursued with the campaign was of small not exist a general ban with respect to refer- importance, implying that the means ences to the crimes and atrocities of the Nazi employed for its promotion were far out of era for the purpose of comparison. The ques- proportion or the “standards of comparison tion whether a comparison capable of inter- differed in an unrealistic way. Both aspects fering with one’s honour is justified (after can be ruled out here: the shocking impact of weighing the conflicting interests against the photomontages is “predetermined on a each other) essentially depends on the impor- large scale by the subject” (cruel mistreat- tance of the matter for the interests of the ment and suffering caused by other human public compared to those of the injured beings). The drastic comparison serves a per- party. missible purpose, namely to draw the atten- In the present case, the animal protection tion to a matter within a society saturated campaign brings about the additional – posi- by publicity. There is no doubt that the pro- tive – effect of reminding the public of the tection of animals is of weighty concern and National-Socialist genocide. On the other constitutes a contentious and actual socio- side, the interests of the plaintiffs as injured political issue. For the reasons demonstrated, parties must be given due respect as well. an excessive exercise of the defendant party’s Their personal concern, however, must be freedom of opinion must be denied. The lat- considered as reduced since the matter con- ter’s appeal must therefore be followed. Concerns: Liability for comments in the “visitors’ book” of a Web home page Supreme Court Principal facts and complaints requested the issue of an interim injunction, 21 December namely to order the defendant party to 2006 The defendant party, the L.-Z. Tourism pri- Ref.: http:// vate limited company, operates a visitors’ refrain from publishing, in the visitors’ book, www.ris.bka.gv.at book on its home page. In Feb. 2004, a user the commentary of Chris C. and similar /jus/ – 6 Ob 178/ 04a under the pseudonym Chris C. published a comments violating his honour. The Bludenz comment under the e-mail-address “house- district court refused the request; but the [email protected]” where he warned the Feldkirch Regional court issued the interim readers of Jürgen E., being the “worst host in injunction requested. The defendant party Austria”, and recommended all guests to filed an appeal with the Supreme Court. avoid his house at all events. Subsequently, Findings of the court Jürgen E. requested the defendant party to remove the said commentary from its visi- It would contravene para. 18 (1) of the E- tors’ book within two hours. The latter Commerce-Act if the host-provider stood agreed to the request immediately. On the under a general “supervisory duty” in respect same day, the plaintiff sent the defendant of contributions and messages admitted in party a message in which he requested the the visitors’ book. Such a procedure was removal of the entry of a certain Jürgen G. capable of unduly restricting the free who had sent an approving message under exchange of opinions. This, however, does “[email protected]”. The entry, not mean that the operator of an on-line vis- however, was deleted on 18 March 2004 at itors’ book is not obliged to supervise the the latest. On 11 March 2004, Jürgen E. took contents of a visitors’ book and to delete con- the case before the Bludenz district court and tributions where they might infringe the

18 Austria/Autriche Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

rights of others. The reason is that contribu- plaintiff would have to expect further tions on the Internet, unlike a live transmis- breaches of the law because the contribution sion on the radio or TV, remain accessible to of Chris C. (in which the latter made massive the public. attacks against the plaintiff) invited other In the present case, the defendant party com- users to comment on it. Furthermore, the plied with its obligation under para. 16 (1) defendant was in a situation allowing him to No. 2 of the E-Commerce-Act insofar as it supervise its visitors’ book also in respect of removed the challenged contribution of the selected breaches of the law, this with much user Chris C. immediately after the notifica- less effort than in relation to the compliance tion of the breach of the law and the request with a general supervisory duty. He could be for deletion. Para. 18 (1) of the E-Commerce- well expected to follow such a procedure, Act, however, does not exclude that there regard being had that a considerable breach exists, under special circumstances, a special of the law to the disadvantage of the plaintiff supervisory duty on the part of the operator was ahead. The Supreme Court comes there- of an on-line visitors’ book. Such a duty is fore to the conclusion that the defendant appropriate, provided that the operator has party violated its special supervisory duty by been informed about one breach of the law at not immediately removing the entry of the least so that there exists a risk of materialisa- user Jürgen G. (who confirmed the com- tion of further breaches of the law by individ- ments of Chris C.) in spite of the defendant ual users. party’s request dated 5 March 2003 (it took Such a risk must be answered in the affirma- the latter at least a week to delete the entry). tive here. The author of the challenged com- The plaintiff’s claim for the issue of an ments was neither identifiable nor accessible interim injunction is therefore justified. The since he acted under a pseudonym. The appeal of the defendant party was rejected.

Article 14 of the Convention

Concerns: Right of succession to the lease of the surviving homosexual partner Supreme Court 16 May 2006 Principal facts and complaints negative as no (lifetime) partnership was in Ref.: http:// issue. An appeal against this decision www.ris.bka.gv.at The defendant is the sole heir of W, who died /jus/ – 5 Ob 70/06i in 2003 and was the tenant of a flat owned remained unsuccessful. The defendant then by the plaintiff. He had met W in 1999, the addressed to the Supreme Court. latter being, at the then time, nearly fifty Findings of the court years older than himself. Subsequently, a close relationship developed between the By starting from the wrong assumption that two men. In January or February 2000 the a pressing “housing need” was not in issue, defendant moved into W’s flat and rented a the appellate court failed to discuss the ques- small – unheated – apartment in order to tion whether a life partnership existed deposit his furniture and personal objects between W. and the defendant, comparable there. From October 2001 on W’s state of to the relationship between man and woman health worsened rapidly, which incited the in a marriage. This question should have defendant to give up his job and to care for been attributed to crucial importance for the him until his death. He continued to live in following reasons: Under life partnership, the flat. On April 2004, the plaintiff filed an the jurisprudence understands persons who action against the deceased’s estate with a life in common households similar to that in view to terminating the lease contract on the a marriage, at least when seen from an eco- grounds that following the tenant’s death nomic point of view. In the light of the judg- the flat served no pressing “housing need” of ment of the European Court of Human any person authorised by the law to succeed Rights in the case of Karner v. Austria of in the tenancy. The Vienna Inner City dis- 24 July 2003, an interpretation of para. 14 (3) trict court declared the termination of the of the Tenancy Act requires, in order to be in lease lawful. It found that the right of succes- conformity with the European Convention sion to a lease contract under para. 14 (3) of on Human Rights, the acknowledgment of a the Tenancy Act had to be answered in the right of succession to the lease also with

Article 14 of the Convention 19 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 respect to homosexual partners, provided order to be definitely able to assess whether that the other conditions are fulfilled. the relationship between W. and the defendant might be qualified as lifetime partner- However, a mere “living and economic com- ship, the “objection to evidence” must be munity” (Wohn- und Wirtschaftsgemein- settled. The Supreme Court draws attention schaft) between homosexual persons does not suffice to bring them into the “circle” of to the fact that the existence of a certain persons authorised to succeed to the lease physical-erotic attraction has not been clari- within the meaning of para. 14 (3) of the Ten- fied in a satisfactory manner, however. The ancy Act. Although the existence of sexual allegation that the homosexual relationship relations is not required, there must never- between the two men has not been lived out theless exist personal ties of a kind which does not rule out the existence of a (lifetime) come close to those developed in a partner- partnership similar to a marriage. Not suffi- ship similar to a marriage. cient, however, would be the existence of a mere amicable relationship between W and The appellate court, however, did not tackle the defendant’s “objection to evidence” the defendant. This point needs further clar- (Beweisrüge), according to which between ification so that an annulment of the judg- him and the deceased had existed a homosex- ment of the appellate court is indispensable. ual relationship, not lived out, though. In The appeal is therefore justified.

Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the Convention

Concerns: Different assessment of estate and donation taxes between married and non-married partners

Findings of the court ship are not subjected to such kind of duties 12 October 2006 Ref.: http:// under the current law; they are, above all, not www.ris.bka.gv.at The Constitutional Court has already stated bound to afford each other maintenance con- /vfgh/ – B 771/06 the view (again in connection with the tax tributions and are free to dissolve the com- brackets of estate tax law) that, with regard munity at any time. to the essential differences between life partnerships and marriages, the lawmaker is not With regard to the law relating to the estate required to treat the two communities tax, which governs the tax assessment equally in every respect (Collection of deci- regarding the transfer of (property) assets, sions of the Constitutional Court No. the lawmaker does not act in an improper 10.064/1984). It therefore maintains its then manner when taking as a starting-point the conclusion according to which the lawmaker formal criteria of family law (marriage, rela- (with respect to the fixing of estate tax, by tives, persons related by marriage), thereby enumerating spouses in tax bracket I (the declining to treat the transfer of (property) lowest tax bracket) and classifying partners assets between the partners of “non-formal- of a life companionship to be falling within ised life communities” in an equal manner tax bracket V (since the latter are not explic- compared to married couples, notwithstand- itly mentioned in tax brackets I-IV), takes ing the fact that the former may be attrib- into consideration, in a way deemed to be in uted a far higher importance than in the past. conformity with the Constitution, the vari- Consequently, the Constitutional Court sees ous differences existing between the two no reason to undergo a constitutional review forms of partnership: The conclusion of a of the division into tax brackets laid down in marriage is capable of establishing a “compre- para. 7 (1) of the 1955 Law relating to the hensive marital life community” (entailing a assessment of estate and donation tax or bond of personal legal ties and duties) which even to apply tax bracket I to non-marital life may be dissolved only under certain circum- partnerships. The complaint was therefore stances. Members of a non-marital partner- rejected.

20 Austria/Autriche Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Other case concerning the right to property: Obligation for a building’s proprietor to install pigeonholes accessible to providers of mail services

Constitutional The obligation on the part of all proprietors meet legal requirements is not in the general Court, 25 April to install pigeonholes at their own expense or interest, but, on the contrary, in that of the 2006, Ref.: http:// www.ris.bka.gv.at to replace pre-existing ones which do not competing providers of postal services. /vfgh/ – G 100/05 u.a.

Article 4 of Protocol No. 7 to the Convention

Concerns: Disciplinary measure imposed on a prisoner and principle of ne bis in idem Administrative Court 19 December Principal facts and complaints Act addresses exclusively prisoners and 2006 serves the special aim of maintenance of Ref.: http:// By criminal judgment of 31 January 2003, www.ris.bka.gv.a the director of a certain prison found the order and security in penal institutions. The t/vwgh/ – 2006/ applicant guilty of having breached the gen- elements of both offences are distinct also 06/0037 eral duties of prisoners pursuant to para. 107 with regard to the conduct under sanction: (1) No. 10 in connection with para. 26 (2) of para. 83 (1) of the Criminal Code makes the the Penitentiary Act (here: joint assault – specific offence of causing bodily harm a Raufhandel) and imposed a fine on him of punishable offence whereas para. 107 (1) €30. A presentation of the facts was for- No. 10 in connection with para. 26 (2) of the warded to the Vienna Regional Court for Penitentiary Act, in a way typical of discipli- criminal matters which sentenced the appli- nary regulations, sanctions the endanger- cant to imprisonment of six months for caus- ment of order and security in penal ing bodily harm under para. 83 (1) of the institutions. Furthermore, attention is Criminal Code. By ruling of 21 August 2003, drawn to the fact that the fine against the the “penitentiary chamber” within the applicant had been imposed not for causing Vienna Upper Regional Court rejected the bodily harm, but, actually, for joint assault. applicant’s complaint against the above- The offence of causing bodily harm does not mentioned criminal judgment. It found completely “exhaust” the “content of wrong that the disciplinary measure inflicted was and guilt” of the present breach of law which not at variance with the principle of double is sanctioned by para. 107 (1) No. 10 of the jeopardy under Article 4 of Protocol No. 7 to Penitentiary Act (in the challenged ruling the the European Convention on Human Rights respondent authority accused the applicant (ECHR), since breaches against order in pris- not of having caused bodily harm to a prison ons should, in any case, be punished with a inmate, but of having endangered order and fine, independently from the existence of a security in the prison whereby the events, final criminal sentence. namely joint assault with a prison inmate and its consequences, are indicated in the Findings of the court verdict in a describing manner). The reason In the present case, the applicant was sen- is that the provisions governing the breaches tenced to imprisonment of six months for of the law in penal institutions envisage the causing bodily harm under para. 83 (1) of the realisation of aims pursued with the detain- Criminal Code and punished with a fine of ment of criminals (reintegration of prisoners €30 for having breached the general duties of into society; maintenance of order and secu- prisoners pursuant to para. 07 (1) No. 10 in rity in the prison; general duty on the part of connection with para. 26 (2) of the Peniten- prison inmates to “behave properly” – cf. tiary Act. para. 26 of the Penitentiary Act). Besides, the The essential elements of the offences under imposed penalty of €30 (the maximum sanc- comparison differ strongly in respect of the tion being €145) demonstrates that only the “circle of addressees”. Para. 83 (1) of the “disciplinary surplus” was sanctioned in fact. Criminal Code applies to everyone and in In the present case, the elements of the general whereas para. 107 (1) No. 10 in con- offences in issue and the penalties imposed nection with para. 26 (2) of the Penitentiary on the applicant differ, in their essence, in

Article 4 of Protocol No. 7 to the Convention 21 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 such a way that the applicant has not been and, additionally, a sentence for causing bod- violated in his rights under Article 4 of Proto- ily harm. The complaint was rejected as col No. 7 ECHR by imposing on him a fine unfounded.

Belgium/Belgique

Article 6 of the Convention

Concerns: Translation of the elements of a criminal file

Constitutional Court

Findings of the court Article 6 §3 (a) does not impose any particu- 11 January 2006 lar form of notification of the nature and Ref.: 1/2006 http:// When an accused does not understand the grounds of the accusation (European Court www.arbitrage.be (official) language of a procès-verbal, of a dec- of Human Rights, Pélissier and Sassi v. France, laration by a witness or plaintiff or of an 25 March 1999, §53). expert report, he can under the conditions of Article 22 of the Law of 15 June 1935, Taking into account the nexus between sub- request a free translation of the documents paras (a) and (b) of Article 6 §3, the right to in an (official) language that he understands. be informed about the nature and cause of Yet this provision denies an accused who the accusation should be seen in the light of does not understand the (official) language right of the accused to prepare his defence of the elements of the file the right to free (ibid., §54). translation of other documents in the file. The rights of the defence, listed in non- Article 6 §3 (a) of the European Convention exhaustively in this provision, aim in the first on Human Rights (ECHR) requires that the place at putting the prosecution and the defence as far as possible on an equal footing. notification of the accusation is done with The facilities that have to be granted to the utmost care. accused are limited to those necessary for the preparation of a defence (European Court of The information to which the accused is Human Rights, Mayzit v. Russia, 20 Jan. 2005, entitled on this ground includes on the one §§78-79). hand the material facts of which he is accused and on which the accusation is based The right to free translation of the important (the “cause” of the accusation); and on the elements of the file aims at guaranteeing other hand the legal qualification of these respect of the defence rights of the accused, facts (the “nature” of the accusation). Precise who will be able to understand what they and complete information about the accusa- really need to know. The rights of the defence tion is an essential condition of a fair trial. entail moreover that accused persons can request, at their own expense, an official This information – the more or less detailed translation of all the documents drafted in a character of which depends on the circum- language other than that of the procedure. stances of the case – should in any case con- Moreover, Article 38 (10) of the Law of tain sufficient elements to fully understand 15 June 1935 grants the accused the right to the accusation in order to allow the accused request, at his own expense, a translation of to adequately prepare his defence. In that any procedural document not covered by the respect the adequate character of the infor- contested provision. mation has to be evaluated in the light of Article 6 §3 (b) ECHR (European Court of Finally, a person who does not dispose of suf- Human Rights, Mattoccia v. Italy, 25 July ficient income to cover such expenses can 2000, §§59-60; Sadak and others v. Turkey, apply for legal assistance in order to obtain 17 July 2001, §§48-50). the services of a translator.

22 Belgium/Belgique Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Concerns: Right to defend oneself Court of Cassation 11 January 2006 Findings of the court defence, only on account of the fact that the Ref.: PO51544F accused is in hiding, is a denial of the person’s http:// Accused persons do not renounce their right www.cass.be to defend themselves, by the fact of going right to a defence. RCO61B2_2 into hiding. The rejection of an attorney’s Note: request to postpone the case in order to be This judgment does not refer to Article 6 of the Euro- able to study the file and exercise the right to pean Convention on Human Rights.

Concerns: Right of appeal in case of administrative sanctions on minors Constitutional Court 18 January 2006 Findings of the court sanctions on minors deprive minors of a right Ref.: 6/2006 to appeal against the decision of the juvenile http:// There is a violation of Article 6 of the Euro- www.arbitrage.be pean Convention on Human Rights (in concourt replacing the administrative sanction in nection with Article 10 and 11 of the appeal with other measures, whereas in all Constitution), in that provisions allowing other situations, an appeal is possible against local authorities to impose administrative measures imposed by the juvenile court. Concerns: Judicial control of the regularity of the special investigation methods of observation and infiltration Court of Cassation 24 January 2006 Findings of the court the end of the investigation. Article 6 Ref.: P060082N requires only that the legality of these meas- http:// There is no violation of Article 6 of the Euro- www.cass.be pean Convention on Human Rights in the ures be examined in the course of the proce- RC06103_5 fact that the judicial control of the regularity dure by an independent and impartial judge; of the special investigation methods of obser- it does not require that such control should vation and infiltration is mandatory only at happen whenever the suspect asks for it. Concerns: Lie detector and presumption of innocence Court of Cassation 15 February 2006 Findings of the court accused participates in it without any duress Ref.: P051583F or pressure, after having been adequately http:// The use of the polygraph (“lie detector”) test www.cass.be does not violate the presumption of inno- informed by the investigators. RC062F2_1 cence (Article 14.3 (g) ICCPR), when the Concerns: Simultaneous prosecution before the same judge of all authors of an offence Court of Cassation 5 April 2006 Findings of the court neous prosecution before the same judge of Ref.: P060098F all authors of a same offence or of related http:// The right to a fair trial guaranteed by www.cass.be Article 6 §1 of the European Convention on offences. JC06455_6 Human Rights does not require the simulta- Concerns: Influence of attorney fees and costs on the right to a fair trial Constitutional Court 19 april 2006 Findings of the court ney’s fees and costs of the other party vio- Ref.: 57/2006 lates Article 10 and 11 of the Constitution, in http://www.arbi- The absence of legal provisions allowing a trage.be court to impose on the plaintiff or on the civil connection with Article 6 of the European party in a criminal case who is proved wrong Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). in a civil liability case the payment of attor-

Article 6 of the Convention 23 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Under current law, attorneys’ fees and costs For the victim of a tort or a contractual can be included in the damages to be paid in wrong, it may be necessary to call in a judge a civil liability case. when the person who caused the damage The right of access to a judge, however, contests his or her liability, and to use the includes both the freedom to initiate a proce- services of an attorney in order to defend his dure and the freedom to defend oneself. or her interests. Article 6 §1 ECHR guarantees the right to a When, however, allegedly liable persons fair trial, which may imply the assistance of wish to contest their liability or the scope of counsel in order to appear before a court, the damages with serious arguments, the when it appears from the circumstances that exercise of the right to a defence may also it is very unlikely that the person concerned require assistance of an attorney. is able to adequately defend his own case The potential cost of a judicial procedure (European Court of Human Rights, Airey v. may affect the decision to initiate a proce- Ireland, 9 October 1979). dure as well as the decision to defend oneself The right of access to a court and the princi- against a claim or accusation. The financial ple of equality of arms moreover include the situation of different parties to the trial may obligation to guarantee a balance between be affected in the same manner by the fees the parties in the procedure and to grant each and costs of an attorney. party the opportunity to make its arguments The difference in treatment between the par- in circumstances that do not constitute a ties in the current state of the law is due to manifest disadvantage compared to the other the absence of legal provisions allowing the party (European Court of Human Rights, judge to impose the payment of attorney fees Dombo v. the Netherlands, 22 September 1993; and costs on the losing party. In order to end Öcalan v. Turkey, 12 March 2003; Yvon v. this discrimination, it is the task of the legis- France, 24 April 2003). lator to judge how and to what extent the It is the role of the legislator to give concrete recovery of attorney fees and costs is to be scope to the general principles, such as access organised. Such recovery is the object of legal to court and equality of arms, and to deter- provisions in among others the Netherlands, mine to what extent the possibility to France and Germany. Moreover, according to recover attorney fees and costs can contrib- the Recommendation of the Committee of ute to this. It is the responsibility of the Ministers of the Council of Europe No. R Court to examine whether the parties in the (81) 7, the reasonable costs of the winning trial are being treated in a discriminatory party (including attorney fees) should in manner. principle be compensated by the losing party.

Concerns: Charge of costs of expert assistance in case of expropriation Court of Cassation

Findings of the court court in conditions that do not constitute a 5 May 2006 disadvantage compared to the other party. Ref.: C030068F It is not justifiable under the principle of http:// equality of arms (Article 6 of the European This equality is not mathematical. An imbal- www.cass.be Convention on Human Rights) to impose on ance between parties is unacceptable only JC06551_1 the expropriating authority the payment of when the party invoking it can shows that the costs and fees of expert assistance of the they do not have the possibility of making a expropriated person. This principle requires useful defence of his interests. A financial only that both parties have a reasonable imbalance between the parties does not vio- opportunity to make their cases cause in late the principle of equality of arms.

Other cases relating to Article 6: Absence of appeal against the decision to reclaim unduly paid allowances

Constitutional Court, 15 February 2006. Ref.: 26/2006, http://www.arbitrage.be

24 Belgium/Belgique Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Concerns: House search at the office of an attorney Court of Cassation, 18 May 2006. Ref.: D050015N, http://www.cass.be, RC065I3_1 Concerns: Mentions in a judgment by default Court of Cassation, 21 June 2006. Ref.: P060606F, http://www.cass.be, C066L4_2 Concerns: Initiation of public action

28 June 2006 Court of Cassation Ref.: P060427F http:// Findings of the court claims to be the victim of an offence the right www.cass.be JC066S4_1 Article 6 §1 of the European Convention on to initiate the public action against the Human Rights does not grant a party who alleged perpetrator. Concerns: State liability for insufficient number of judges Court of Cassation 28 June 2006 Findings of the court imposing obligations on the State (in this Ref.: C020570F case Article 6 §1 of the European Convention http:// The Brussels Court of appeal had held the www.cass.be Belgian State liable for the structural viola- on Human Rights) has the power to check JC069S1_6 tion of the right to trial within a reasonable whether the legislative power has made ade- time in Brussels, resulting from the insuffi- quate or sufficient legislation to allow the cient number of francophone judges in the State to respect this obligation, even though Brussels court of first instance. the norm prescribing it leaves the legislator a A court, seized with a claim for reparation of margin of appreciation with respect to the damage caused by wrongful interference means with which this respect is to be with a right enshrined in a higher norm assured. Concerns: Impartiality of judges Court of Cassation 23 November Findings of the court ion as to the guilt of the accused, violates the 2006 presumption of innocence (Article 6 §2 of Ref.: P061367F The refusal to remove a judge from the case http:// who had written to the prosecutor that “the the European Convention on Human www.cass.be presumed author of the offence denies the Rights). JC06BN4_2 facts”, thereby seemingly expressing an opin-

Articles 6 and 8 of the Convention

25 January 2006 Concerns: Restrictions on access to all the elements of a file Ref.: 14/2006 http:// Constitutional Court www.arbitrage.be Findings of the court strictly proportionate to the interest of the Article 5 §3 of the Law of 11 Dec. 1998 creat- goal to be achieved and when it is accompa- ing an appeal body with respect to security nied by a procedure allowing an independent authorisations does not violate Article 6, 8 or and impartial judge to examine the legality of 13 of the European Convention on Human the procedure (European Court of Human Rights by restricting access to certain ele- Rights, Edwards v. the United Kingdom and ments from a declaration of the member of Lewis v. the United Kingdom, 22 July 2003 and the intelligence service in the investigation 27 October 2004). report or file. The legislator has with these Laws of 1998 The right to have access to all the elements of allowed the national security bodies to inter- a file can be restricted when national security fere in the exercise of the right to respect for so requires. Yet the interference in the rights private life, while at the same time offering of the defence can only be justified if it is procedural guarantees to the persons

Articles 6 and 8 of the Convention 25 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 affected. In order to guarantee national secu- that can be considered to be an independent rity, the competent authorities can be auth- and impartial judge. orised to collect personal data in secret files in order to use those when the suitability of Since the interference with the rights of the candidates for posts which are important defence is proportionate to the goal of from a security perspective has to be evalu- national security and accompanied by a pro- ated (European Court of Human Rights, cedure granting supervision over the legality Leander v. Sweden, 26 March 1987, §59). of the procedure to an impartial and inde- In this case the legislator has submitted the pendent judge who has access to all the ele- procedure, including the partially secret char- ments of the procedure, there is no violation acter, to the supervision of the appeal body in this case.

Article 7 of the Convention

Concerns: Definition of “law” for the purpose of the principle of legality of penalties Court of Cassation Findings of the court provision which penalty may be applied to 8 March 2006 them, even if the legislator has only defined Ref.: P051556F The “law” in the sense of Article 7 of the http:// European Convention on Human Rights is penalties for categories of offences, and has www.cass.be not restricted to acts of Parliament. The prin- delegated to the Crown the power to deter- JC06386_1 ciple of legality of the penalty is satisfied mine the qualifications corresponding to the when it is possible for those to whom a penal different categories. provision applies to know on the basis of that

Article 8 of the Convention

Concerns: Mentions to be included in a house search warrant Court of Cassation Findings of the court tion. These mentions should moreover give 11 January 2006 the person at whose premises the search is Ref.: P051371F A house search warrant has to be motivated. http:// This implies that it has to mention the crime being performed sufficient information www.cass.be that is investigated as well as the place and about the accusations at the basis of the RC061B1_1 object of the search. It is not necessary to action to allow him to verify its legality. provide a detailed report of the facts, nor to When the house search warrant only refers describe in detail the elements to be investi- to “the present investigation” and the gated. Yet it is necessary that the officer of number of the file in the cabinet of the mag- the judicial police who performs the house istrate, it is not adequately motivated and search dispose of the necessary elements to hence it is null. allow him to know what crime is under Note: investigation and which useful searches and This judgment has to be situated in the wake of the confiscations he may perform in that respect judgment of the European Court of Human Rights in without exceeding the limits of the investiga- Van Rossem v. Belgium, 9 Dec. 2004.

Concerns: Right for any affected person to intervene in a procedure that may have consequences for his family life Constitutional Court Findings of the court as to oblige a person who contests a decision 1 March 2006 of the juvenile assistance director concerning Ref.: 27/2006 In order to avoid a violation of Article 8 of http:// a minor to include the minor in the proce- the European Convention on Human Rights www.arbitrage.be dure. (ECHR), Article 37 of the French Commu- nity Decree of 4 March 1991 on juvenile Both parents and children enjoy the right to assistance must be interpreted in such a way respect for private and family life. This right

26 Belgium/Belgique Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

includes the right for any affected persons to case concerns a civil right such as the right to intervene in a procedure that may have con- respect for family life. sequences for their family life. This right to The right to respect for private and family intervention is included in the jurisdictional life moreover includes the right of a child to guarantees granted to all citizens and explic- be asked to participate in a procedure con- itly entrenched in Article 6 ECHR, when a cerning the decision of an authority that has consequences for his family life.

Concerns: Obligations imposed on foreigners whose residence has become illegal through their own action Constitutional Court 22 march 2006 Findings of the court The provisions contested do not stand in the Ref.: 46/2006 way of the right to family reunification but http://www.arbi- Article 8 of the European Convention on trage.be Human Rights is not violated by the obliga- rather determine its functioning. tion imposed on a non-EU foreigner, who These provisions do not constitute a dispro- remained in Belgium after the expiry of his portionate interference with the right to passport and married a non-EU foreigner respect for family life. This interference is with legal residence status in Belgium, to based on the law and can entail only a tem- submit the documents required for legal porary removal with a view to obtaining the entry into Belgium or be obliged to return to required authorisation, which does not imply his country of origin in order to obtain those. rupturing the ties between the affected peo- By obliging foreigners whose residence has ple. become illegal through their own action to return to their country of origin in order to It is up to the judges to evaluate whether a apply for the relevant authorisation to be negative decision may violate legal provi- allowed entry into Belgian territory, the leg- sions or whether an unreasonable delay of islator aims to avoid that they might profit an authorisation decision restricts family life from from their violation of the rule. in an unjustified manner.

Concerns: Computer and protection of privacy Brussels Labour Court of Appeal 3 May 2006 Findings of the court the computer which the employer has given JTT 2006, him to use, revealed when the employer has No. 950, 262 Proof of “urgent reason” justifying dismissal – an act of unfair competition – is illegal on searched the computer without informing grounds of violation of Article 8 of the Euro- the employee and does not clarify the cir- pean Convention on Human Rights if it is cumstances nor the goal of his “routine con- obtained by presenting e-mails and personal trol”. documents that the employee has stored in

Concerns: Contestation of paternity by a child Ghent Court of appeal 29 June 2006 Findings of the court Article 8 §1 of the European Convention on NJW 2007, Human Rights. It is a justifiable interference No. 155, 84 A child born within marriage can contest the paternity of his father only within four years with private and family life aimed at the pro- upon reaching the age of majority. This tection of public order and of the interests of restriction in time does not violate the child.

Concerns: Protection of minor aliens Constitutional Court 20 September Findings of the court rejected, and for whom it is absolutely impos- 2006 sible on medical grounds to leave Belgian terri- Ref.: 141/2006 Respect for the right to protection of family http://www.arbi- life requires that an alien who is a minor, tory, can enjoy the presence of his parents as trage.be whose application for regularisation has been long as this absolute impossibility is a fact.

Article 8 of the Convention 27 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Articles 8, 6 and 13 of the Convention

Concerns: Authorities’ discretion concerning data conservation

Constitutional Court

Findings of the court 4 May 2000, §55; Segerstedt-Wiberg v. Sweden, 18 October 2006 6 June 2006, §76.]; Ref.: 151/2006 http://www.arbi- Article 25 (3) of the Law of 11 Dec. 1998, trage.be concerning classification and security – concerning the allegedly too broad dis- authorisations, violates Article 22 of the cretionary powers of administrative author- Constitution, read in the light of Article 8 of ities in the field of security advice. The Court referred to the obligation to motivate the European Convention on Human Rights the decisions, and to the availability of an (ECHR), because the law does not determine appeal procedure. sufficiently clearly the scope of the authorities’ discretion concerning the conservation The fact that the appeal body (composed of of data. [The Court refers to Leander v. three magistrates) is not part of the judiciary Sweden, 26 March 1987, §51, and Amann v. does not compromise its independence and Switzerland, 16 February 2000, §80.] impartiality. Neither does the fact that the members are not appointed for life, since Other challenges under Article 8 were not they cannot be removed from their positions upheld: except for serious reasons.

– concerning the allegedly too broad cri- Article 13 ECHR does not oblige the legislator to give suspensive effect to an appeal teria determining the opportunity of a secu- against an administrative decision except rity verification and the persons that may when this is necessary to avoid the execution be subjected to it [The Court refers to of measures with potentially irreversible Maestri v. Italy, 17 February 2004, §30; effect violating the ECHR (European Court Leander v. Sweden, loc. cit.; Luspa v. Romania, of Human Rights, Čonka v. Belgium, 5 Feb. 8 June 2006, §§33-34; Rotaru v. Romania, 2002, §79).

Articles 9 and 14 of the Convention

Concerns: Limitations on the freedom of expression

Council of State

Principal facts and complaints Findings of the Council 15 June 2006 Ref.: 160.106, The Flemish arbitration board for radio and http:// television has issued an admonition against An “excessive parody” may shock, disturb or www.raadvst- the Flemish Radio and Television (VRT) on hurt a group of listeners, yet this is not suffi- consetat.be account of the broadcasting of a radio pro- cient to consider that part of the programme gramme ridiculing the Catholic religious fes- to constitute an unacceptable form of free tival of Ascension, on the basis of their expression or to find that such a satire on a responsibility to guard the prohibition of dis- religious topic is a discriminatory intrusion crimination. in the freedom of religion. The right to manifest one’s religion and the prohibition against discrimination on the ground of religion do not require that criticism, satire or parody concerning the core of a religion or world view are excluded.

28 Belgium/Belgique Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Articles 10 and 6 of the Convention

Concerns: Restrictions on immunity of members of Parliament Court of Cassation

1 June 2006 Principal facts and complaints trol the actions of Parliament and its mem- Ref.: C050494N bers. Parliamentary immunity has a http:// The Brussels Court of Appeal had held that www.cass.be the Belgian state was liable for damage legitimate purpose: guaranteeing freedom of RC0611_D caused by breaches of the duty of care in the expression in Parliament and enforcing the work of a parliamentary commission of separation of powers between the legislature investigation into illegal practices of sects. and the judiciary. It is not a disproportionate infringement of the right of access to a court Findings of the court to decide that the court cannot judge The Court of Cassation holds that this whether an expression of a member of Parlia- appeal judgment violates Article 10 of the ment or a parliamentary commission gives European Convention on Human Rights. rise to liability. This freedom of expression The rules on immunity of members of Parlia- includes not only oral declarations of individ- ment in the exercise of their functions are ual members of Parliament, but also their subject to restrictions. The Convention, as writings. It furthermore encompasses all par- interpreted by the European Court of liamentary activities, including those of par- Human Rights, establishes the right to con- liamentary commissions of investigation.

Articles 10 and 14 of the Convention

Concerns: Different period of prescription for defamation against public persons/authorities and against private persons Constitutional Court

8 November Findings of the court defamation should be removed as soon as 2006 possible, since it may compromise the Ref.: 168/2006 There is no prohibited discrimination in the http://www.arbi- difference between the period of prescription administration of public affairs for which trage.be of three months for defamation against pub- they are responsible. Furthermore, a longer lic persons or authorities and the period of term would put a threat on those who bring prescription of five years for defamation to light abuses committed by public officials against private persons. that would not be compatible with the concern to allow their actions to be denounced. The authors of the rule could reasonably assume that the former category of legal Note: claims could be submitted to a shorter period The judgment does not refer to the European Con- of prescription. Any doubts about the integ- vention on Human Rights, only to Article 10 and 11 rity of the persons concerned caused by the of the Constitution.

Articles 10 and 8 of the Convention

Concerns: False information in a television programme Court of Cassation

2 June 2006 Findings of the court vate life by the communication of false or Ref.: C030211F non-objective information, does not violate http:// A judicial order prohibiting the broadcasting www.cass.be of a television programme because it risks Article 10 of the European Convention on JC06622_1 damaging somebody’s reputation and pri- Human Rights.

Articles 10 and 6 of the Convention 29 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Articles 10, 8 and 2 of the Convention

Concerns: Protection of journalistic sources

Constitutional Court

Findings of the court The legislator was free to judge that, because 7 June 2006 of the seriousness and often irreparable char- Ref.: 91/2006 http://www.arbi- The right to confidentiality of journalistic acter of crimes constituting a serious threat trage.be sources is to be guaranteed, not so much for to physical integrity, the need to prevent the protection of the interests of journalists these could justify the exception to the con- as a professional group, but rather to enable fidentiality of sources. It was a matter for the the press to play its “watchdog” role and to discretion of the legislator to decide whether inform the public on matters of general inter- this exception has to be extended to the pre- est. vention of crimes interfering with private and family life, which have neither the same As a result, anyone who exercises journalistic seriousness, nor the same irreparable charac- activities can rely, on the basis of the relevant ter. Moreover, the obligation to reveal the provisions of the Constitution and the Euro- source of information concerning an interfer- pean Convention, on a right to confidential- ence with private and family life which has ity of information sources. not yet been committed does not to the same extent prevent this interference as the release Article 4 of the Law of 7 April 2005 allows a of information which allows the identifica- judge to oblige journalists to reveal their tion of those planning a crime threatening sources only if this allows the prevention of physical integrity. crimes constituting a serious threat for the physical integrity of one or several persons. It was also alleged that Article 4 violates the right to life, as the word “prevention” The fact that this does not allow an excep- excludes the obligation to reveal sources in tion for serious crimes against one’s reputa- the context of the investigation into crimes tion or privacy does not violate Article 8 that have already been committed. Accord- ECHR. [The Court refers to Handyside v. the ing to the case-law of the European Court of United Kingdom, 7 December 1976, §49; Human Rights, the States Parties have a pos- Lehideux and Isorni v. France, 23 September itive obligation under Article 1 and 2 to 1998, §55; Öztürk v. Turkey, 28 September 1999, §64; De Haes and Gijsels v. Belgium, 24 investigate the circumstances of a murder or February 1997, §37; Fressoz and Roire v. France, killing, even when the authors are not gov- 21 January 1994, §45; Ernst and others v. ernment officials (see, i.a., Ergi v. Turkey, Belgium, 15 October 2003, §92.] 28 July 1998, §82; Tanrikulu v. Turkey, 8 July 1999, §103; Demiray v. Turkey, 21 November When the freedom of expression threatens to 2000, §48). conflict with the right to respect for private and family life, a fair balance has to be found The legislator was free to judge that, when between those rights and freedoms. In that the interference with the life or physical context it has to be taken into account that integrity happened, the interference with the the right to confidentiality of journalistic fundamental right of free expression, of sources is especially important for press free- which the confidentiality of journalistic dom in a democratic society, and hence an sources is a part, was not justified, since the interference in that right can only be justified judicial authorities dispose of sufficient other by a “weighty concern of general interest”. means to conduct the investigations. [The Court refers to X and Y v. the Netherlands, 26 March 1985, §23; Stubbings and others v. the When the physical integrity of a person has United Kingdom, 22 October 1996, §62; Botta v. not yet been interfered with, the journalist Italy, 24 February 1998, §33; Ignaccolo-Zenide v. who is in possession of information that may Romania, 25 January 2000, §94; Mikulic v. help to prevent this interference has a legal Croatia, 7 February 2002, §57; Craxi (No. 2) v. obligation to help a person in great danger, Italy, 17 July 2003, §§73-75; Surugiu v. which is not the case when the interference Romania, 20 April 2004, §68.] has already taken place.

30 Belgium/Belgique Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Article 12 of the Convention

Concerns: Prohibition of marriage between step-parents and stepchildren Constitutional Court 18 October 2006 Findings of the court quences in that it prohibits in all cases the Ref.: 157/2006 marriage of a step-parent and stepchild after http://www.arbi- Article 12 of the European Convention on trage.be Human Rights is violated (in connection the decease of the spouse who created the with Article 10 and 11 of the Constitution) family relationship. [The Court quotes Euro- by the absolute marriage prohibition pean Court of Human Rights, Rees v. the between a step-parent and a stepchild. This United Kingdom, 17 October 1986, §50.] prohibition has disproportionate conse-

Article 1 of Protocol No. 1

Concerns: Property rights and environment protection Constitutional Court 1 March 2006 Findings of the court use of property in accordance with the gen- Ref.: 31/2006 eral interest” in the sense of the second para. http://www.arbi- Article 33bis of the Flemish Decree of 23 Jan. trage.be 1991 concerning the protection of the envi- of Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the European ronment against pollution by fertilisers has Convention on Human Rights. to be considered as a measure “to control the Other case concerning property rights and environment protection: Constitutional Court, 7 June 2006. Ref.: 92/2006, http://www.arbitrage.be The provisions of the Decree of the Walloon sion rights in the light of the Kyoto goals do Region of 10 Nov. 2004 to introduce a regula- not violate the property rights of steel pro- tion for the commerce of greenhouse emis- ducers on the installations they exploit.

Article 3 of Protocol No. 1

Concerns: Right to be elected Constitutional Court, 28 July 2006. Ref.: 130/2006, http://www.arbitrage.be In the Walloon Region, members of the Fed- liament are not eligible to sit in the Provincial eral Parliament, the European Parliament, the Council. This does not violate the right to be Regional Parliament or the Community Par- elected.

Article 12 of the Convention 31 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 Czech Republic/République tchèque

Article 6 of the Convention

Concerns: Protection of the personal privacy of juveniles during criminal proceedings Constitutional Court

Principal facts and complaints without statutory grounds. The legislature 8 November began with the consideration that the 2005 In June 2004 the Constitutional Court Sbírka zákonů received a petition from the District Court in requirement of protecting the personal pri- České Republiky, Kladno requesting the annulment of §53 vacy of juveniles during the entire proceed- 26 Jan. 2006, ings also arose from the interest in protecting No. 20/2006 para. 1 and §54 of Act No. 218/2003 Coll., on Coll., Liability of Juveniles for Illegal Acts and on them from the damaging effects of the out- Part 10, pp. 224- Juvenile Courts and Amending Certain Acts side environment and publicity. This regula- 230 tion had also found support, in relation to Ref.: http:// (the Act on Juvenile Courts), because, while www.mvcr.cz/ deciding in the criminal matter of the defend- the contested §54 para. 1 of the Act on Juve- sbirka/2006/ ant juvenile L.B. et al., who had been charged nile Courts, in a number of international doc- sb010-06.pdf uments in the field of treatment of juvenile http:// with committing the crime of theft under www.usoud.cz/ §247 para. 1 (b) (d) and para. 3 (b) of the delinquents, e.g. the Convention on the (in English) Criminal Code and other crimes, it con- Rights of the Child of 1989, in the so-called cluded that §54 para. 1 of the Act on Juvenile “Beijing Rules” – UN Resolution 40/33 Courts was inconsistent with Article 96 “Standard Minimum Rules for the Adminis- para. 2 of the Constitution of the Czech tration of Juvenile Justice” of 1989 – and, not Republic and with Article 38 para. 2 of the least, Recommendation Rec (2003) 20 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Committee of Ministers to the member Freedoms (“the Charter”); and that §53 and states of the Council of Europe concerning §54 paras 2 and 3 of the Act on Juvenile new methods of dealing with juvenile delin- Courts were inconsistent with Article 17 quency and the mission of juvenile justice. paras 1, 4 and 5 of the Charter. In the peti- The negative effects of the limitation on free- tioner’s opinion, the Act on Juvenile Courts dom of speech to the benefit of this modifica- did not in the least adhere to “the principles tion of the right to privacy did not appear to of a democratic and law-based state, and be significant, compared to the positive denied and endangered” one of the funda- effects provided by the potential effects of mental constitutional safeguards, consisting the Act in suppressing the criminal careers of of the public exercise of the judicial power. juvenile delinquents. In evaluating the constitutionality of the contested provisions §53 The petition was dismissed, because the pro- para. 1 and §54 paras 2 and 3 of the Act on visions in abstracto were not, according to the Juvenile Courts, the Constitutional Court Constitutional Court, inconsistent with began – as regards the general legal philoso- Article 96 §§1 and 2 of the Constitution, phy view – with the same consideration as Article 38 §2 and Article 17 §§1, 4 and 5 of when evaluating the constitutionality of §54 the Charter. para. 1 of the Act on Juvenile Courts. Findings of the court According to the Constitutional Court, the The Constitutional Court stated that under contested provision of §54 para. 1 of the Act the contested §54 para. 1 of the Act on Juve- on Juvenile Courts was also consistent with nile Courts, it was left to the minor whether Article 6 §1 of the Convention, which per- to choose the alternative provided by the last mits barring the public “during all or part of sentence of §54 para. 1 of the Act on Juvenile the trial […] if required in the interests of Courts, i.e. to propose whether a trial or a minors, or […] if, in view of special circum- public session be held in public, or not. The stances, a public trial could be contrary to the juvenile would be able – given the manda- interests of justice”. tory defence counsel in proceedings against him – to consult his defence counsel. The con- Note: tested regulation did not permit the court to The Constitutional Court referred to the case-law of bar the public from a trial or public session the European Court of Human Rights: T v. the

32 Czech Republic/République tchèque Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

United Kingdom and V v. the United Kingdom, both of 16 Dec. 1999.

Articles 6 of the Convention and 1 of Protocol No. 12

Concerns: Unequal position of participants in a trial concerning the burden of proof

Constitutional Court

26 April 2006 Principal facts and complaints status of participants and especially their real Sbírka zákonů position arising from their different chances. České Republiky, The Regional Court in Ústí nad Labem 22 Aug. 2006, Such unequal position might be compen- No. 419/2006 requested in its petition the annulment of sated to a certain extent by additional guar- Coll., §133 (a) para. 2 of Act No. 99/1963 Coll., the antees for the weakest party (so-called favor Part 134, pp. Civil Procedure Code (CPC), as amended by 5763-5775 defensionis), for example by way of modifica- Ref.: http:// later Acts, because, while deciding on an tion of the burden of proof. The principle of www.mvcr.cz/ action for the protection of personal rights, it equality of arms implied that both parties sbirka/2006/ had concluded that the provision in question sb134-06.pdf must be afforded a reasonable opportunity to http:// was inconsistent with the constitutional present their cases under conditions that did www.usoud.cz/ order of the Czech Republic, contravening not place them at a substantial disadvantage (in English) the principle of equality of participants in vis-à-vis their opponent. proceedings. That violated the right of defendants to a fair trial, guaranteed by the The Constitutional Court further stated that Czech constitutional order and Article 6§1 of §133 (a) CPC was an exception to the general the European Convention on Human Rights. principles of giving evidence in the form of a According to §133 (a) CPC, unless proceed- rebuttable legal presumption. The regulation ings prove the contrary: put the sued participant at a certain disadvantage, but not automatically and entirely. – allegations of direct or indirect discrimi- A person claiming to be a victim of discrimination in labour disputes on grounds of sex, nation must prove to be discriminated racial or ethnic origin, religion, faith, world against, and allege that such treatment was outlook, disability, age or sexual orientation motivated by his/her racial or ethnic origin. must be deemed to be proved by the court; Only then is the sued participant obliged to prove the contrary, i.e. that the treatment to – allegations of direct or indirect discrimi- the disadvantage of the claimant was not nation on grounds of racial or ethnic origin motivated by the reasons given. in matters concerning the provision of health and social care, access to education According to the Constitutional Court, this and professional training, access to public regulation was not discriminatory in the tenders, membership of employee or sense of Article 6 and 14 of the Convention. employer organisations and of professional associations or interest groups and those It followed a legitimate aim (the provision concerning the sale of goods in shops or the in question had become part of Czech legis- provision of services, must be deemed to be lation in connection with the duty of the proved by the court. Czech Republic to observe its obligations resulting from international law, in this case Findings of the court an EU Directive) and the relation between the chosen means and the aim was not dis- The Constitutional Court dismissed the peti- proportional. tion. In the reasoning of its decision, it stated that principles of equality of arms and of Note: contradiction were an inherent part of the The Constitutional Court referred to the case-law of concept of fair trial and applied also to bring- the European Court of Human Rights: Blücher v. the ing the evidence. In real life, the equality was Czech Republic, 2005; Tiemann v. France and usually not absolute; it was a relative term as Germany, 2000; De Haes and Gijsels v. Belgium, it was not possible to eliminate the different 1997; Ankerl v. Switzerland, 1996.

Articles 6 of the Convention and 1 of Protocol No. 12 33 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Articles 7 of the Convention and 3 of Protocol No. 4

Concerns: European Arrest Warrant alleged to be in conflict with the guarantee that no citizen can be forced to leave his homeland

Constitutional Court

Principal facts and complaints its second sentence, which provides that no 3 May 2006 citizen may be forced to leave his homeland, Sbírka zákonů České Republiky, A group of Deputies and of a group of Sena- made entirely clear that the Charter pre- 8 September tors proposed the annulment of §21 para. 2 cluded the exclusion of a Czech citizen from 2006, No. 434/ of Act No. 140/1961 Coll., the Criminal the community of citizens of the Czech 2006 Coll., Part 139, pp. Code, as amended by later regulations (here- Republic, a democratic state to which he was 5964-6007 inafter referred to as the “Criminal Code”), bound by the ties of state citizenship. It was Ref.: http:// and the annulment of §403 para. 2, §411 www.mvcr.cz/ not, according to the Court, in harmony sbirka/2006/ para. 6 (e), §411 para. 7, and §412 para. 2 of with the principle of the objective teleologi- sb139-06.pdf Act No. 141/1961 Coll., on the Criminal Pro- cal interpretation, reflecting the contempo- http:// cedure Code, as amended by later regulations. www.usoud.cz/ rary reality of the EU (i.e., that it was (in English) By means of these amendments the “Euro- founded on the high mobility of citizens in pean Arrest Warrant” was implemented into the framework of the entire Union area), for the Czech legal order. According to the con- Article 14 para. 4 to be interpreted such that tested provisions, citizens of the Czech it did not even allow for the surrender of a Republic could be surrendered to a foreign citizen, for a limited time, to another mem- state (that is, to a European Union member ber state for criminal proceedings concerning state) for the purpose of their criminal prose- a criminal act that had been committed by cution. According to the petitioners, the con- this citizen in that state, as long as it was tested provisions conflicted with Article 1 guaranteed that, following the conclusion of and 4 paras 2 and 39 of the Charter of Funda- the criminal proceeding the citizen will, at mental Rights and Basic Freedoms (“the his own request, be returned to the Czech Charter”) and especially with Article 14 para. Republic to serve any sentence imposed (see 4 of the Charter, according to which no citizen may be forced to leave his homeland. The §411 para. 7 of the Criminal Procedure Code). prohibition laid down in this article of the Thus, the surrender of citizens for a limited Charter was, according to the petitioners, time for criminal proceedings being held in clear and unconditional. another EU member state, conditional upon their subsequent return to their homeland, did not constitute forcing them to leave their Findings of the court homeland in the sense of Article 14 para. 4 of the Charter. The Constitutional Court dismissed the petition. In the reasoning, it stated that the peti- The Constitutional Court also did not con- tioners’ assertion, that the adoption into cur with the petitioners’ arguments asserting domestic law of the European Arrest War- rant would disrupt the permanent relation- that §412 para. 2 of the Criminal Procedure ship between citizen and state, was not Code is in conflict with Article 39 of the grounded. A citizen who had been surren- Charter, according to which only a law may dered to an EU member state for criminal designate the acts which constitute a crime prosecution remained, even for the duration and the penalties or other sanctions to rights of these proceedings, under the Czech state’s or property that may be imposed for com- protection. The European Arrest Warrant mitting them. This provision in no way merely permitted a citizen to be surrendered, defined the criminal offences not requiring for a limited time, for prosecution in an EU double criminality. The Constitutional member state for a specifically defined act, Court proceeded from the fact that §412 of and after the proceedings had been com- the Criminal Procedure Code was not a sub- pleted there was nothing preventing him stantive law provision, but a procedural law from returning to Czech territory. The first one. A surrender pursuant to the European sentence of Article 14 para. 4 of the Charter, Arrest Warrant was still not the imposition which provides that every citizen had the of punishment in the sense of Article 39 and right to freely enter the Republic, as well as 40 of the Charter.

34 Czech Republic/République tchèque Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the Convention

Concerns: Balance between tenant and landlord’ positions in lease contract

Constitutional Court

28 February 2006 Principal facts and complaints constitutionally unacceptable inequality, Sbírka zákonů and whose final result is the violation of con- České Republiky, The petitioner, the Municipal Court in 2 June 2006, stitutional principles. No. 252/2006 Prague, requested the annulment of the spe- Coll., cial provisions on lease of an apartment in The Constitutional Court therefore declared, Part 80, pp. 3018- division four, chapter 7, part 8 (i.e. §§685- 3037 that the long-term inactivity of the Parlia- Ref.: http:// 716) of Act No. 40/1964 Coll., the Civil Code, ment, consisting of failure to pass a special www.mvcr.cz/ as amended by later regulations. In the peti- legal regulation defining cases in which a sbirka/2006/ tioner’s opinion the existing legal regulation sb080-06.pdf landlord was entitled to unilaterally increase http:// of lease of an apartment, in the absence of an rent, payment for services relating to use of www.usoud.cz/ implementing regulation for §696 para. 1 of an apartment, and to change other condi- (in English) the Civil Code, was unbalanced and one- tions of a lease agreement (§696 para. 1 of the sidedly gave an advantage to the tenant’s Civil Code) was unconstitutional and vio- position. Therefore, it was inconsistent with lated Article 4 para. 3, Article 4 para. 4, and the principle of equal protection of property Article 11 of the Charter of Fundamental n rights (Article 11 para. 1, 2 d sentence, of the Rights and Freedoms and Article 1 para. 1 of Charter of Fundamental Rights and Protocol No. 1 to the European Convention Freedoms), as well as with the principle that on Human Rights (verdict I). forced limitation of property rights was possible in the public interest, on the basis of The Constitutional Court emphasised that law, and for compensation (Article 11 para. 4 the absence of the envisaged regulation led to of the Charter). The petitioner also empha- a situation where a change in the content of sised that it did not consider unconstitu- a lease (including the amount of rent) was, tional the content of the special provisions during the existence of the lease, a matter for on lease of an apartment, but the gap in leg- agreement by the parties. If such agreement islative activity consisting of the fact that was not reached, there was no legal proce- neither by the deadline set by judgment No. dure available (as a result of the legislature’s 231/2000 Coll. or even in the following more inactivity), through which it would be possi- than three years, the legal framework envis- ble to implement changes by a unilateral aged by §696 para. 1 of the Civil Code had expression of will by the landlord. The gen- not been passed. eral courts, even despite the absence of the envisaged specific regulations, must fulfil Findings of the court their fundamental function, i.e. ensuring The Constitutional Court rejected the peti- proportional protection of subjective rights tion to annul §§685-695, §696, para. 2, and and interests protected by law. They must §§697-716 of the Civil Code, and stated that therefore decide to increase rent, depending only the petition to annul §696 para. 1 of the on local conditions, so as to prevent the Civil Code is related to the decision making above-mentioned discrimination. General activity of the Municipal Court in Prague. courts erred if they refused to provide protec- The petitioner was therefore not authorised tion to the rights of natural persons and legal to file a petition to annul the contested Civil entities who had turned to them with a Code provisions. demand for justice, if they denied their complaints merely with a formalistic reasoning The petition to annul §696 para. 1 of the and reference to the inactivity of the legisla- Civil Code was dismissed. The Constitu- ture (the non-existence of the relevant legal tional Court concluded that the text itself of regulations). §696 para. 1 of the Civil Code, which merely expected the passage of new regulations, was Note: not unconstitutional; what was unconstitu- The Constitutional Court referred to the case-law of tional was the long-term inactivity of the leg- the European Court of Human Rights: Hutten- islature, which had led to the Czapska v. Poland.

Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the Convention 35 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Other case concerning the right to property: Legal norm unfavourable to tenants renting more than one housing

Constitutional Court, 28 March 2006. Sbírka http://www.mvcr.cz/sbirka/2006/sb087-06.pdf, zákonù České Republiky, 9 June 2006 No. www.usoud.cz/ (in English) 280/2006 Coll., Part 87, pp. 3367-3382. Ref.: Denmark/Danemark

Article 3 of the Convention

Concerns: Limited granting of residence permits on humanitarian grounds High Court, 28 April 2006, Ref.: Supreme Court, 19 August 2005, Ref.: U.2006.2095/2H U.2005.3184H Danish Weekly Law Reports, http:// Danish Weekly Law Reports, http:// www.thomson.dk www.thomson.dk

Article 4 of the Convention

Concerns: Notion of forced labour Supreme Court Principal facts and complaints ticipate in the said scheme. K was therefore, 5 December under the Act, legitimately entitled to with- 2005 In March 2000 the municipality K stopped Ref.: paying social welfare benefits to A in accord- hold A’s welfare benefits. U.2006.770H, ance with the Act on active social politics, on The judgment was based on the following Danish Weekly Law Reports the grounds that A did not participate in the conclusions: http:// proposed activation scheme for the unem- – there was no basis for considering the www.thomson.d k ployed. A did not again receive welfare bene- work that was part of the activation scheme fits until August 2000 when he rejoined the as forced work/labour, within the meaning activation scheme. A then instituted proof Article 4 §2 of the European Convention ceedings against the municipality (K) claim- on Human Rights; ing the welfare benefits withheld for June – the concrete application of the Act was and July 2000. not in conflict with the obligation to abolish Findings of the court forced or imposed labour within the According to the Supreme Court, the activa- meaning of Article 1 (1), as stipulated in tion scheme was in compliance with the Act ILO Convention No. 29. on active social politics section 13 (2), and A The court dismissed A’s claims and K was had for no legitimate reason refused to par- acquitted.

Articles 4, 11 and 14 of the Convention

Concerns: Notion of forced labour Supreme Court Findings of the court form grounds for considering the occupa- 26 April 2006 tional work to be forced or compulsory Ref.: The Supreme Court concluded that the fact U.2006.2083H, that A considered himself forced to under- labour in the meaning expressed in Article Danish Weekly take employment in the occupation offered 4 §2 of the European Convention on Human Law Reports http:// in order continue receiving the daily subsist- Rights (ECHR) or the other articles relied www.thomson.d ence allowance for the unemployed did not upon. k

36 Denmark/Danemark Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Article 6 of the Convention

Concerns: Duration of procedure Eastern High Court 2 June 2006 Principal facts and complaints Article 6 of the European Convention on Ref.: Human Rights, which was considered in the U.2006.2766/ In 1997 E1, E2, E3 and E4 were charged with 2Ø, Danish extensive economic fraud committed determining the sentences of E1 and E2. E1- Weekly Law between the years 1988 and 1992. E4 hereafter claimed compensation accord- Reports ing to the Administration of Justice Act, http:// Findings of the court www.thomson.dk chapter 93 (a). The High Court found that a violation of the The public prosecutor rejected the claims of defendants’ right to a fair trial within a rea- E1, while E2, E3 and E4 were offered eco- sonable time had occurred, according to nomic compensation.

Other cases concerning length of procedure:

Western High Court, 5 October 2005. Ref.: Supreme Court, 1 February 2006. Ref.: U.2006.341V, Danish Weekly Law Reports, U.2006.1120H, Danish Weekly Law Reports, http://www.thomson.dk http://www.thomson.dk High Court, 6 June 2005. Ref.: U.2005.3029Ø, Danish Weekly Law Reports, http://www.thomson.dk

Concerns: Lawyers’ rules of professional conduct Supreme Court 1 February 2006 Principal facts and complaints the decision to the High Court, which upheld Ref.: it. U.2006.1396H, A assisted K legally in connection with a real Danish Weekly estate deal in which K withheld part of the Findings of the court Law Reports purchase price in order to secure compensa- http:// www.thomson.d tion claims due to defects in the building. The Supreme Court upheld this decision. k The vendor’s “legal representative” filed a The Supreme Court furthermore found that complaint with the Disciplinary Board of the M’s decision was sufficiently reasoned, and Danish Bar and Law Society (M), who found that M’s total time of seventeen months for that A had acted in conflict with lawyers’ (processing) the procedure had not violated rule of professional conduct, and accordingly A’s rights as stipulated in Article 6 of the imposed a fine of 5 000 DKK on A. A brought European Convention on Human Rights.

Other case concerning lawyers’ rules of professional conduct

Western High Court, 21 February 2006. Ref.: U.2006.1657V, Danish Weekly Law Report, http://www.thomson.dk

Concerns: Tax fraud punishment Eastern High Court 18 November Six defendants were sentenced to five years tion to the amount of the unpaid sum. 2005 in prison, additional fines and deprivation of Article 6 of the European Convention on Ref.: U.2006.725Ø, rights for extensive tax fraud under Human Rights was not found to be violated. Danish Weekly section 50 (2) of the Criminal Code in rela- Law Reports http:// www.thomson.d Concerns: Council of Medical Examiners not obliged to make a k statement in a compensation case

Supreme Court, 18 April 2006, Ref.: Danish Weekly Law Reports, http:// U.2006.2068H www.thomson.dk

Article 6 of the Convention 37 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Concerns: Illegal recordings used as evidence High Court Principal facts and complaints until the High Court had decided on this 31 March 2006 matter, which was crucial to the case. Ref.: During a City Court trial in a criminal case U.2006.1967Ø, Findings of the court Danish Weekly against T, the public prosecutor wished to Law Reports show some video recordings made by the The High Court upheld the decision of the http:// injured party in breach of the Act on the procity court despite the illegal character of the www.thomson.dk hibition of television surveillance, etc. T recordings and remarked that the European appealed the decision and the City Court Convention on Human Rights could not lead decided this should have a delaying effect to any other result. Concerns: Defence counsel refused access to telephone-tapping done by the Danish Security Intelligence Service High Court Principal facts and complaints included in the criminal case against S1-S4; 17 February 2006 e.g. the (Danish) Administration of Justice Ref.: S1-S4 were charged with terrorism under the U.2006.1596Ø, Criminal Code section 114 by Glostrup Act section 729 (a) (3). Danish Weekly Police (P). The ground for charges was tele- Law Reports http:// phone-tapping carried out by the Danish Findings of the court www.thomson.dk Security Intelligence Service (PET), during some of their own investigations, which PET The High Court found that the information had then passed on to P. The council for for could not be considered to be of significance S1-S4, who had received copies of all the for the defence counsel. The counsel for the material which PET had passed on to P, filed defendants could thus not require to gain a motion concerning inspection of docu- access to the material in question, according ments regarding the court orders on which to the Administration of Justice Act section the tappings had been based, and which were 729 (a) (3). Concerns: Telephone inquiry directed by a judge during deliberation High Court Principal facts and complaints not be considered to disqualify himself 10 November according to the Danish Administration of 2005 During deliberation before lay magistrates in Ref.: a City Court case regarding violation of, Justice Act section 61. U.2006.707/2Ø, among other things, the Act on Tax Control, Danish Weekly Findings of the court Law Reports the presiding judge made an inquiry by tele- http:// phone to the public prosecutor and a special No infringement of the Act’s section 214 or www.thomson.dk consultant with Custom Tax in order to con- section 28 (2) was found to have occurred firm which tax percentage should be used for and no new evidence on which the parties the calculation of evaded tax. The defendant were to have made statements had been appealed the judgment, claiming adjourn- brought forward. Since Article 6 of the Euro- ment for re-trial in correspondence with the pean Convention on Human Rights had not (Danish) Administration of Justice Act been violated either, the defendant’s claim section 963, cf. section 943. The judge could for adjournment for retrial was rejected.

38 Denmark/Danemark Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Article 8 of the Convention

Concerns: Rejection of an application for residence permit Supreme Court 30 November Principal facts and complaints Findings of the court 2005 Ref.: Dismissal of the principal claim by A, a Paki- The Supreme Court found that the fact that U.2006.639H, stani citizen holding a Danish residence per- A had lived in Denmark since his adolescence Danish Weekly mit, against a decision by the Ministry of could not in itself lead to abolishment of the Law Reports http:// Integration that A’s wife B should not con- requirement for proof of his means of main- www.thomson.dk tinue to have a Danish residence permit since tenance. A could no longer provide for her. It was con- The Court found no breach of Article 8 of the cluded by the Ministry of Integration that European Convention on Human Rights, A’s unemployment meant that he did not and since no other evidence was found that fulfil the requirements to provide for B. could set aside the Ministry of Integration’s decision, the Supreme Court dismissed the appeal. Concerns: Medical treatment of sexual offenders Supreme Court 2 November Principal facts and complaints order and treatment by the Probation and 2005 Aftercare Service for two years. Ref.: U.2006.427H, From 1976 and onwards, A had several times Findings of the court Danish Weekly been convicted of sexual offences in Green- Law Reports The High Court stated that the period during land. In 1986 he was sentenced to secure http:// which A had been subjected to secure deten- www.thomson.dk detention for aggravated rape. In 1995 he tion from 1986 clearly exceeded the time of was allowed out on probation on condition the imprisonment to which A would other- that he was to be subjected to anti-abuse wise have been sentenced. According to treatment and treatment with medications existing medical information A still posed a to subdue his sexual instincts during the pro- significant danger, if he was not continually bation period. In 2003 A questioned the con- subject to anti-abuse treatment and medica- tinuation of the conditions before the City tion. Upholding of the measures was there- Court, which decided that the requirement fore still necessary and not a violation of of treatment with medications was to be Article 8 of the European Convention on omitted, and the term of anti-abuse treat- Human Rights. The Supreme Court there- ment should be commuted to a supervision fore let the decision of the High Court stand. Concerns: Expulsion of a convicted Iranian citizen Supreme Court, 8 June 2005. Ref.: U.2005.2747H, Danish Weekly Law Reports, http://www.thomson.dk

Article 8 of the Convention 39 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Article 10 of the Convention

Concerns: Decision on possible criminal proceedings in the case of Jyllands-Posten’s article “The Face of Mohammed” Decision by the Director of Public Prosecutions Principal facts tioned, have responded to the invitation and 15 March 2006 that their drawings are published. File No. RA- The article in Jyllands-Posten was published in 2006-41-0151. the newspaper’s Friday issue on Not all of the twelve cartoons depicted the The article can be Prophet Mohammed; the one which was found on the 30 September 2005. The drawing was Web site http:// accompanied by text explaining that the considered most offensive showed the face of www.rigsad- newspaper had invited members of the Dan- a grim-looking bearded man with a turban vokaten.dk/ shaped like an ignited bomb. media/bilag/ ish Newspaper Illustrators’ Union to draw afgorelse_engelsk Mohammed as they see him; that twelve of An extended discussion on the topic of free- .pdf. about forty had responded to the invitation; dom of speech vis-à-vis the protection of reli- and that the drawings are published under gious feelings and the protection of the illustrators’ names. The article was enti- minorities has been a central part of the pub- tled “The Face of Mohammed” and sur- lic debate in Denmark in 2006, especially rounded by twelve drawings. The after the torching of several Danish embas- introduction to the article was headed “Free- sies in the Middle East and consumer boycott dom of expression”. The article cited several and mass demonstrations. The publication examples of what the culture editor per- of the drawings caused a number of private ceived as self-censorship e.g. “An illustrator associations to file a report with the police who is to portray the Prophet Mohammed in claiming that Jyllands-Posten had committed a children’s book wishes to do so anony- an offence under sections 140 (prohibition mously, as do the western European transla- against blasphemy) and 266 (b) (prohibition tors of a collection of essays critical of Islam. against hate speech) of the Danish Criminal A leading art museum has removed a work of Code. art for fear of reactions of Muslims.” The Regional Public Prosecutor, referring to section 749 subsection2 of the Administra- The following section, appearing under the tion of Justice Act, decided to discontinue the heading “Ridicule”, is an extract from the investigation. According to this provision it article: may be decided to discontinue an investiga- “Some Muslims reject modern, secular soci- tion, if there is no reasonable suspicion that a ety. They demand a special position, insisting criminal offence indictable by the state has on special consideration of their own reli- been committed. Furthermore it was noted: gious feelings. It is incompatible with secular “In his decision, the Regional Public Prosecu- democracy and freedom of expression, where tor also states that, when assessing what on has to be ready to put up with scorn, constitutes an offence under sections 140 mockery and ridicule. and 266 (b), the right to freedom of speech must be taken into consideration; and that It is therefore no coincidence that people liv- the right to freedom of speech must be exer- ing in totalitarian societies are sent off to jail cised with the necessary respect for other for telling jokes or for critical depictions of human rights, including the right to protec- dictators. As a rule, this is done with refer- tion against discrimination, insult and degra- ence to the fact that it offends people’s feel- dation. Based on an overall assessment of the ings. In Denmark, we have not yet reached article in Jyllands-Posten, including the twelve this stage, but the cited examples show that cartoons, the Regional Public Prosecutor does we are on a slippery slope to a place where no not find that there is a reasonable suspicion one can predict what self-censorship will lead that a criminal offence indictable by the state to.” has been committed. In the last column of the article under the In his decision the Regional Public Prosecutor heading “Twelve illustrators”, it says: “That states that he attaches importance to the fact is why Morgenavisen Jyllands-Posten has that the article in question concerns a subject invited members of the Danish Newspaper of public interest, which means that there is Illustrators’ Union to draw Mohammed as an extended access to make statements with- they see him.” Furthermore, it says that out these statements constituting a criminal twelve illustrators, whose names are men- offence. Furthermore, according to Danish

40 Denmark/Danemark Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71 case-law, journalists enjoy extended editorial right to freedom of expression and protection freedom when it comes to subjects of public of other rights guaranteed by the European interest. For these reasons the Regional Pub- Convention on Human Rights, the freedom lic Prosecutor finds no basis for concluding of expression of the press in particular carries that the content of the article constitutes an great weight if it concerns a subject of gen- offence under section 140 or 266 (b) of the eral interest, inasmuch as the press fulfils a Criminal Code. A possible complaint against central function in a democratic society. the decision can be lodged with the office of Consequently, the Court attaches decisive the Director of Public Prosecutions.” importance to the regard for the freedom of A complaint against the decision of the expression when assessing the justification Regional Public Prosecutor was lodged with of interference with expressions that may the Office of the Director of Public Prosecu- offend religious feelings. However, at the tions, who came to a decision on 15 March same time, the Court has stated that there is 2006. a duty as far as possible to avoid expressions Findings of the Director that are gratuitously offensive to others and thus an infringement of their rights, and In his conclusion the Director of Public Pros- which therefore do not contribute to any ecutions did not find any basis for changing form of public debate capable of furthering the decision made by the Regional Public progress in human affairs. Prosecutor and agreed to discontinue the investigation with regard to section 140 of In cases concerning the balance between the the Danish Criminal Code as well as right of freedom of expression and the pro- section 266 (b). The Director of Public Prose- tection of religious feelings, the Court, cutions underlined that: according to its practice, leaves a wider margin of appreciation to the individual state, “The Danish Criminal Code – and also other because in this area the national authorities criminal provisions, e.g. about defamation of also act to safeguard freedom of religion, character – contain a restriction on the free- another fundamental principle of the Con- dom of expression. Section 140 of the Danish vention, cf. Article 9. Criminal Code protects religious feelings against mockery and scorn, and section 266 On the other hand, the Court has also stated (b) protects groups of persons against scorn that persons who exercise the freedom to and degradation on account of their religion manifest their religion, irrespective of and other reasons. To the extent that expres- whether they do so as members of a religious sions made publicly fall within the scope of majority or minority, cannot reasonably these rules there is, therefore, no free and expect to be exempt from all criticism. They unrestricted right to express opinions about must tolerate and accept the denial by others religious subjects.” of their religious beliefs and even the propa- In relation to the application of the European gation by others of doctrines hostile to their Convention on Human Rights, the Director faith. of Public Prosecutions stated: As the Court’s assessment is always made “Article 10 of the European Convention on relative to the a state’s specific interference Human Rights (ECHR) does, however, pro- with the right to freedom of expression, and tect formal as well as substantive freedom of in the light of the contents of the expressions expression. According to Article 10 §1 every- and the context in which they have been one has the right to freedom of expression. made, it is not possible from the case-law of Article 10 §1 also covers forms of expression the Court to infer a certain state of law that may shock, offend or disturb. As the regarding how the Court would weigh the exercise of the freedom of expression carries regard for freedom of expression in relation duties and responsibilities, under Article to expressions that can offend religious feel- 10 §2 it may be subject to restrictions and ings.” penalties as prescribed by law and which are Since no interference in the freedom of necessary in a democratic society, as long as expression was made, the Director of Public they are proportionate to the legitimate aim Prosecutions, while referring to Article 10 pursued. ECHR, did not find any reason for assessing The European Court of Human Rights (the whether a potential interference was neces- Court) has held several times that freedom of sary in a democratic society, i.e. whether the expression is the foundation of a democratic interference pursued a proportionate legiti- society. In cases of conflicts between the mate aim (Article 10 §2 ECHR).

Article 10 of the Convention 41 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Note: Preminger-Institut v. Austria, 20 September 1994; In an appendix to the decision an analysis of the Wingrove v. the United Kingdom, 25 November jurisprudence of European Court of Human Rights is 1996, I.A. v. Turkey, 13 September 2005. found referring to the following judgments: Otto

Concerns: Jyllands-Posten’s article “The Face of Mohammed” Aarhus City Court

Principal facts and complaints Findings of the court 26 October 2006 Ref.: BS 5-851/ Under the prohibition against slander in the The City Court concluded that the cartoons 2006 Criminal Code section 267, the newspaper could not be considered to lower the esteem The article can be Jyllands-Posten was sued by various Islamic of Muslims in the eyes of fellow-citizens. found on the Web site: http:// organisations for the publication of twelve Also, the court assessed, the cartoons could www.rigsadvokat cartoons. not be considered to be suitable for slander. en.dk/media/bilag/ afgorelse_engelsk. pdf Concerns: Injury to reputation Eastern High Court

Principal facts and complaints convicted of slander, was convicted to fifteen 7 April 2006 “day-fines” of 500 DKK for having violated Ref.: U.2006.217 A, who was the responsible editor of a Fae- 8Ø, Danish roese newspaper, had in the newspaper section 267 of the Criminal Code. Weekly Law printed accusations from B against a Faeroese Reports Findings of the court http:// lawyer, L, claiming that L had stolen the pro- www.thomson.d ceeds from collected debts. L sued A for defa- The defamatory charges were declared null k mation under sections 268 and 267 of the and void and L was awarded DKK 30 000 in Criminal Code. A, who had previously been compensation for injury to reputation.

Concerns: Breach of confidentiality by an agent of the Danish Defence Intelligence Service Eastern High Court

Principal facts and complaints tial participation in military operations in 23 September Iraq. 2005 Ref.: U.2006.217 T was found guilty of violating section 152 Findings of the court 8Ø, Danish (2) of the Criminal Code in connection with Weekly Law T’s actions were not found to be justified on Reports his employment with the Danish Defence grounds of the public good according to http:// www.thomson.dk Intelligence Service, by having copied three section 152 No. 2 (dissenting opinion) of the risk assessment reports that were all classi- Criminal Code. He was sentenced to four fied confidential regarding Denmark’s poten- months’ imprisonment.

Article 14 of the Convention

Concerns: Pension benefits of former UN employee not exempted from Danish taxation

Supreme Court, 8 February 2006. Ref.: U.2006.1439H, Danish Weekly Law Reports, http://www.thomson.dk

Other case relating to Article 14 Social welfare child benefits for a child adopted by a single adopter

Supreme Court, 2 November 2006. Ref.: U.2007.341H, Danish Weekly Law Reports, http://www.thomson.dk

42 Denmark/Danemark Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71 Finland/Finlande

Articles 5, 6 and 8 of the Convention

Concerns: Supervision of health-care professionals Supreme Administrative Court 5 July 2006 Principal facts and complaints Findings of the court Ref: Report No. 1717, 288/3/ The Supreme Administrative Court ruled 05, KHO The National Authority for Medico-legal that the decision was appealable, because the 2006:43 Affairs, responsible for the supervision of possibility of appeal was not specifically http:// www.finlex.fi health-care professionals, found that it had restricted in the Act on Health-Care Profes- good reason to presume that A, who was a sionals. Moreover, the decision affected A’s foreign national and a physician licensed to rights, obligations and interests to such an practise his profession in Finland, was no extent that he was entitled to submit the longer capable of practising his profession, matter to the consideration of a court. owing to reduced functional capacity and Regarding the merits, the Court held, i.a., possible drug addiction. Based on the Act on that the National Authority for Medico-legal Health-Care Professionals, the National Affairs had previously issued several similar Authority for Medico-legal Affairs ordered A orders in cases where a physician had been to submit a medical report concerning his suspected of drug addiction, and therefore health and his ability to work and imposed the decision concerning A did not amount to on A a temporary prohibition on practising discrimination on the basis of nationality. his profession. It also held that appeal against Also, the National Authority for Medico- legal Affairs has a right, based on the law, to the decision was not possible, because this use the assistance of experts and to submit to was a preparatory measure and not a final the experts information necessary for the decision by which the issue would have been performance of their task, confidentiality resolved or dismissed. provisions notwithstanding. It could thus attach to its decision A’s medical records and Nevertheless, A appealed against the deci- other information for the use of the expert sion, to the Supreme Administrative Court, who would assess A’s health and ability to claiming that this was an administrative work. The decision was also not in violation decision directly concerning his rights and of A’s right to personal liberty, because it had obligations. He argued that he had a right to a legitimate aim to guarantee patient secu- appeal on the basis of the Act on Health-Care rity and because it was A’s own choice Professionals as well as on the basis of whether he would undergo a medical exami- section 21 of the Constitution Act (protec- nation or not. The decision did not mean tion under the law and access to court) and that A would have been ordered to submit to Article 6 of the European Convention on involuntary treatment. Human Rights. He also claimed that the The Supreme Administrative Court con- decision amounted to discrimination and cluded that the National Authority for violated his right to privacy and personal lib- Medico-legal Affairs had acted in accordance erty, protected under the Constitution Act with its powers under the Act on Health- and the Convention. Care Professionals. A’s appeal was dismissed.

Articles 5, 6 and 8 of the Convention 43 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Article 6 of the Convention

Concerns: Right of appeal against a city council’s decision concerning a local master plan Supreme Administrative Court Principal facts and complaints The decision was therefore of particular sig- 22 March 2006 nificance to the estate owners A and B, Ref: Report A city council had approved a local master No. 638, 2777/1/ plan drawn up to define land-use in a speci- whose views had not been heard by the court 05, KHO fied area. In the master plan, an area in the and who were not entitled to appeal against 2006:12 the court’s decision considering the provi- http:// estate owned by A and B had been indicated www.finlex.fi as a residential area of single-family houses. sions of the Land-Use and Building Act. The On the appeal by certain other landowners, Supreme Administrative Court referred to the Administrative Court revoked the city the Administrative Judicial Procedure Act council’s decision as far as the residential area and the duty of the appellate authority to of single-family houses in A’s and B’s estate review a matter and to obtain evidence on its was concerned. own initiative in so far as the impartiality and fairness of the procedure and the nature Findings of the court of the case so require. It also referred to the A and B appealed against the decision to the preparatory works of the Act in which it is Supreme Administrative Court which dis- held, among other things, that in obtaining missed the appeal on the ground that, evidence the appellate authority should pay according to the Land Use and Building Act, particular attention to a fair administration only local authorities are entitled to appeal of justice, using Article 6 ECHR and the case- against a decision of the Administrative law under that article as guidelines to what is Court revoking the local authority’s decision meant by a fair procedure. to approve a land-use plan. It is held that With reference to the Administrative Judicial land-use planning is at the discretion of the Procedure Act the Court concluded that, by local authorities, and a private landowner has revoking a part of the local master plan with- no right to request a local plan with a specific out giving the estate owners A and B the content. opportunity to be heard, the Administrative Having dismissed the appeal, the Supreme Court had committed a procedural error Administrative Court considered the claim as which may have had a relevant effect on the an extraordinary appeal and an application decision. for the annulment of a decision due to a pro- The Supreme Administrative Court annulled cedural error. The Court held that the possi- the decision of the Administrative Court as bilities for using the land in the estate owned far as it concerned the land area in the estate by A and B for building had been changed owned by A and B and referred the matter substantially by the decision of the Adminis- back to the lower court for a new considera- trative Court. tion.

Concerns: Length of proceedings Supreme Court Principal facts and complaints had been committed in 1997. The defend- 1 February 2006 ants were questioned in 1998 and 1999, the Ref: Report Three tax administration officials had been No. 211, R2004/ sentenced to a fine for having acted contrary proceedings before the first instance court 281, KKO to their official duty. They had used in a tax started in 2000 and the court gave its decision 2006:11, Deci- in 2001. sions of the audit report information which had been Supreme Court, 2006, vol. I, pp. obtained by the police from the authorities of Findings of the court a foreign country in the form of mutual 80-92 assistance in criminal matters and which had The decision of the appeal court was issued been given on condition that it would not be in 2004. The Supreme Court held that, con- used for fiscal purposes. The Supreme Court sidering the complexity of the case, the pro- agreed with the lower courts’ judgment. ceedings as a whole were not excessive to However, in assessing the punishment the such an extent that the delay as such would Court also considered the length of the pro- have constituted a violation of the defend- ceedings against the defendants. The offence ants’ rights.

44 Finland/Finlande Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

However, the Court noted that the act that right to have their case dealt with by a court led to charges against the defendants was within a reasonable time, as prescribed in committed while the defendants were car- section 21 of the Constitution Act and rying out a task incumbent on them as offi- Article 6 of the European Convention on cials responsible for tax supervision. In the Human Rights. The Court also referred to Court’s view, the lengthy proceedings were the decisions of the European Court of likely to cause insecurity and inconvenience Human Rights in the cases of Kangasluoma to the defendants in carrying out their v. Finland (20 January 2004) and Lehtinen v. duties. This could have been avoided had the Finland (13 September 2005). With reference proceedings been conducted more speedily. to the length of proceedings and to the Penal For this reason, the Court held that the Code, the Court decided to waive the pun- delay was in violation of the defendants’ ishment.

Concerns: Length of proceedings Supreme Court 18 April 2006 Principal facts and complaints and nature of the case, the proceedings as a Ref: Report whole were not excessive to such an extent No. 855, R2004/ A court of appeal had sentenced X to condi- 449, KKO tional imprisonment and dismissal for aggra- that the delay would necessarily have consti- 2006:33, Deci- vated abuse of public office. In addition, both tuted a violation of the defendants’ rights. sions of the Supreme Court, X and Y were sentenced to a fine for negli- However, in the Court’s opinion, it must be 2006, vol. I, pp. gence of official duties. taken into account that the defendants had 222-232 lost their jobs because of the offences. Con- Findings of the court sidering this, the excessive proceedings have Both defendants appealed to the Supreme been likely to create feelings of uncertainty Court, which upheld the appeal court’s deci- about the future as well as inconvenience sion in part, but dismissed some of the which could have been avoided, had the pro- charges because of the statute of limitations. ceedings been carried out more speedily. When assessing the punishment the Court For this reason the Supreme Court found also took into account the length of the pro- that the delay in the proceedings was in vio- ceedings against the defendants. The lation of the defendants’ right to have their offences had been committed in 1996 and case dealt with by a court within a reasonable 1997. The investigation was initiated in 1997 time, as prescribed in section 21 of the Consti- and the defendants were questioned for the tution Act and Article 6 of the European first time as suspects in 1999. Proceedings Convention on Human Rights. The Court before the court of first instance started in also referred to the decisions of the European 2002, and the court gave its decision in 2003. Court of Human Rights in the cases of The appeal court’s decision followed in 2004. Kangasluoma v. Finland, (20 January 2004) X was suspended from office from 1997 until and Lehtinen v. Finland, (13 September 2005). he was given notice in 2002. He found a new With reference to the length of proceedings job but lost it because of the charges against and to the Penal Code, the Court decided to him. Y was suspended in 1999 and he waive the fine imposed on the defendants. resigned in 2003. In its decision, the Supreme The sentence of conditional imprisonment Court held that, considering the complexity and dismissal imposed on X was upheld.

Concerns: Length of proceedings Supreme Court 31 January 2006 Principal facts and complaints Human Rights do not say explicitly what the Ref: Report consequences before a national court should No. 229, R03/ In a case concerning aggravated tax fraud, the 3864, He1H0 court of first instance considered, as a prelimi- be in cases where the length of the proceed- 2006:5 nary question, the defendant’s claim that the ings has been excessive. The court held that http:// the issue of excessive length of proceedings is www.finlex.fi charges against him should be dismissed without considering the merits because of the not comparable to a situation where charges excessive length of the proceedings. are dismissed because of non-compliance with substantial procedural requirements. Findings of the court Moreover, in the court’s view, it could not be The court found that Finnish legislation or deduced from the provisions concerning the the case-law of the European Court of statute of limitations that charges should be

Article 6 of the Convention 45 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 dismissed once the reasonable length of pro- individual concerned has been afforded ceedings had been exceeded. The court redress at the domestic level. rejected the defendant’s claim. The court of appeal upheld the decision of However, when considering the merits, the the first instance court, both regarding the court took into account the length of the pro- preliminary question and the merits. In its ceedings in assessing the punishment. At decision, the appeal court also noted that that time (2003) the case had been pending while there were no explicit domestic provisions, the dismissal of charges on account of for almost nine years and, in the court’s opin- the excessive length of proceedings might be ion, the pre-trial phase especially had taken possible on the basis of the European Con- an unnecessarily long time. The court vention on Human Rights in some excep- referred to the case of Eckle (15 July 1982), in tional cases, for example in a situation which the European Court of Human Rights where the defendant’s rights of defence had held that the mitigation of a sentence on have been completely ruined because of the the ground of the excessive length of pro- length of the proceedings. However, that ceedings might lead to a conclusion that the had not happened in this particular case.

Concerns: Assessing of “reasonable legal costs”

Supreme Court

Principal facts and complaints Procedure concerning liability for legal costs 29 November in a civil case. 2006 Ref: Report X was one of the defendants in a criminal No. 2907, case but was acquitted. Chapter 9, section 1 One partly dissenting justice of the R2005/312, KKO 2006:9 (a) of the Criminal Procedure Act prescribes Supreme Court argued that neither the http:// that if the charge of the prosecutor is Decree nor the Code of Judicial Procedure www.finlex.fi rejected, the state is liable for the reasonable were applicable as a basis for assessment of legal costs of the defendant. However, legal costs in this case. In his opinion, both section 1 (a) does not provide any methods the wording and the preparatory works of for assessing “reasonable legal costs”, and this section 1 (a) show that it is a special provi- was the issue before the Supreme Court in sion, only concerning state liability in this case. In assessing the defendant’s legal charges brought by the public prosecutor. costs, the lower court instances had relied on The assessment of reasonable legal costs is the Decree on legal aid fee criteria. then made on a case-by-case basis, taking into account not only the amount and Findings of the court nature of the work carried out by the acquitted defendant’s counsel but also the In the Supreme Court’s view, however, the nature of the charges and the reasons for the Decree was not applicable in this case, criminal trial. The justice pointed out that because the fees and reimbursements for there can be many reasons for acquittal, attorneys within the state-funded legal aid including the fact that, in a criminal proce- system are much smaller than the regular dure, the threshold for prosecution is differ- fees that courts may order to be reimbursed ent from the threshold for sentencing. in cases that fall outside the legal aid system. Taking this feature into account when In the Court’s opinion, the considerations assessing liability for legal costs is, in the that make it possible to reimburse lower fees justice’s view, not contrary to the presump- within the legal aid system are not applicable tion of innocence as prescribed in Article 6 to reimbursement of legal costs under chap- of the European Convention on Human ter 9, section 1 (a) of the Criminal Procedure Rights concerning fair trial. In the justice’s Act. The Supreme Court argued instead, on assessment of reasonable legal costs in this the basis of chapter 9, section 8, that the case the reimbursement sum was higher assessment of legal costs should be based on than the sum ordered by the lower courts the principle of full compensation as pre- but did not quite amount to full compensa- scribed in chapter 21 of the Code of Judicial tion.

46 Finland/Finlande Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Concerns: Case decided in the defendant’s absence Supreme Court 1 June 2006 Principal facts and complaints mainly because X had denied the charges and Ref: Report because in the main hearing the court had No. 1294, X was charged with negligence of official R2005/88, KKO duties. In the pre-trial investigation, X denied heard several witnesses and received plenty 2006:50, Deci- the charges. The court of first instance had of written evidence, including expert opin- sions of the ions. The charges were expressly concerning Supreme Court, ordered a date for the main hearing and had 2006, vol. I, pp. informed X of the fact that the case may be X’s actions and possible negligence and the 342-347 heard and decided in his absence, in accord- matter could not be decided without hearing ance with chapter 8, section 11 of the Crimi- the defendant personally. The case was nal Procedure Act. X was not able to attend returned to the first instance court for a the hearing at that date and asked the court rehearing. Both the Appeal court and the to set another date. The court held that X’s Supreme Court decided the case on the basis excuse for non-attendance (namely, partici- of the Criminal Procedure Act only. pation in a course) was not valid. The case However, one concurring justice of the was decided in X’s absence, and he was sen- Supreme Court also held that the procedure tenced to a fine. before the first instance court did not honour X’s right to a fair trial as secured by Findings of the court section 21 of the Constitution Act as well as Both the Appeal court and the Supreme his right to examine or have examined wit- Court found that the case should not have nesses as prescribed in Article 6 §3 of the been decided in the defendant’s absence, European Convention on Human Rights. Concerns: Impartiality of judges Supreme Administrative Court 19 October 2006 Principal facts and complaints porary measure, preceding that decision and Ref: Report providing legal protection while an appeal is No. 2728, 2839/ The Directorate of Immigration had rejected 3/05, KHO as manifestly unfounded A’s application for pending. In its decision on prohibition of 2006:77 asylum and residence permit and decided enforcement in A’s case, the Administrative http:// Court does not comment on the decision on www.finlex.fi that A should be refused entry and sent back to his home country. asylum and residence permit by the Directo- rate of Immigration or the grounds for that Findings of the court decision. Also, in the Supreme Administra- The Administrative Court rejected A’s tive Court’s view, it had not been shown that appeal. In his appeal to the Supreme Admin- judge B, because of his earlier decision on pro- istrative Court, A claimed, among other hibition of enforcement or for any other rea- things, that in making its decision on A’s asy- son, would have had a preconception of A’s lum application, the Administrative Court case when participating in the decision on had not been impartial, because one of the the main issue, the asylum application. judges, B, had at an earlier stage of the proc- In its decision, the Supreme Administrative ess decided on rejecting A’s request for prohi- Court refers to the provisions on the disqual- bition of enforcement of the decision on ification of judges in the Code of Judicial Pro- refusal of entry. The Supreme Administrative cedure as well as section 21 of the Court noted that prohibition of enforcement Constitution Act and Article 6 of the Euro- is not a decision on the main issue but a tem- pean Convention on Human Rights. Concerns: Impartiality of judges Supreme Administrative Court 29 December Principal facts and complaints the lower court’s decision concerning the 2006 compensation of his legal costs. In this latter Ref: Report A, who had received his academic education No. 3617, 671/3/ in Sweden, appealed to the Administrative appeal, A claimed that there was cause to 05, KHO doubt the impartiality of two of the Admin- 2006:103, http:// Court against a decision by the Finnish www.finlex.fi National Board of Education concerning the istrative Court judges, B and C, who had recognition of his professional qualifications allegedly had preconceptions which had in Finland. He then appealed to the Supreme affected their decision. B had previously, as a Administrative Court, mainly on account of member of the court of first instance, twice

Article 6 of the Convention 47 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 inquired A about his qualifications to serve as Court was concerning the compensation of counsel. As a judge of the same first instance A’s legal costs in the above proceedings, court, C had twice denied A the right to whereas the previous occurrences before the appear in a case before the court. A also first instance court were concerning A’s right pointed out that B had in a newspaper inter- to serve as counsel. B and C had thus not view commented on a Supreme Court decision concerning the qualifications of counsel. been hearing the same matter before both Moreover, A claimed that the fact that the courts and could not be regarded as disquali- same judges can serve both in the first fied on the basis of the relevant provisions of instance court and the Administrative Court the Code of Judicial Procedure. The Court was in violation of the European Convention also found that there were no justifiable on Human Rights (ECHR). grounds to doubt B’s impartiality because of the newspaper interview. Finally, the Court Findings of the court stated briefly that the decision of the admin- The Supreme Administrative Court pointed istrative court was also not in violation of out that the case before the Administrative Article 6 ECHR.

Concerns: Powers of a shareholder of a deceased person’s estate

Supreme Court

Principal facts and complaints derived from a person’s right to have his/her 5 April 2006 case dealt with by a court of law under Ref: Report No. 765, S2005/ The main issue in this case was whether a section 21 of the Constitution Act and 211, KKO shareholder of a deceased person’s estate has Article 6 of the European Convention on 2006:29, Deci- a right to bring an action against a third party sions of the Human Rights (ECHR). What was at issue in Supreme Court, to the benefit of the estate in a situation this case was a shareholder’s right to bring an 2006, vol. I, pp. where the estate has been surrendered to an 203-208 estate administrator and the administrator action to the benefit of the estate, not his/her has assessed the matter and decided not to right to have his/her own case dealt with by sue. a court. In the Court’s opinion, it could not be argued that section 21 of the Constitution Findings of the court Act and Article 6 ECHR would prevent an arrangement by which the right to sue on The Supreme Court held that surrendering behalf of the estate belongs to the estate the administration and settlement of an estate to an estate administrator aims at an administrator alone until the settlement has efficient and prompt settlement without been carried out and the administrator’s task unreasonably infringing on the shareholders’ has been finished. due process safeguards. As soon as the settlement of the estate has been carried out by the Two dissenting justices of the Supreme estate administrator, a shareholder is entitled Court held that although a shareholder to bring an action against a third party and brings an action on behalf of the estate, he or may also claim damages from the adminis- she does not represent the estate in the same trator on account of the fact that the admin- way as an estate administrator does. Also, a istrator has refused to sue, provided there shareholder sues at his/her own risk or cost, exist sufficient grounds for liability for dam- not those of the estate. Therefore, the person age. can be regarded as protecting his/her own The Supreme Court also found that a share- legitimate interests as a shareholder of the holder’s right to bring an action could not be estate.

Concerns: Right of appeal against a bailiff’s decision concerning the amount of a salary

Supreme Court, 6 April 2006, Ref.: Report of the Supreme Court, 2006, vol. I, pp. 208- No. 767, S2005/411, KKO 2006:30, Decisions 212

48 Finland/Finlande Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Articles 6 and 8 of the Convention

Concerns: Confidentiality obligation of advocates Supreme Court 14 August 2006 Principal facts and complaints In this case, C had in the pre-trial investiga- Ref: Report tion said things that threw suspicion on B’s No. 1760, A and B were advocates and worked in the R2005/31, KKO same law firm. They had both carried out involvement in C’s offence. Because A and B 2006:61, http:// tasks commissioned by the law firm’s client, had together undertaken commissions for C, www.finlex.fi C. Later, C was suspected of an economic A had, in the Supreme Court’s opinion, justi- offence and B of aiding and abetting C. A was fied grounds to suspect that the information heard in the pre-trial investigation concern- C had given might also incriminate A. There- ing B’s alleged involvement in C’s offence. At fore, A had good cause to think that the con- the investigation, A disclosed issues he had fidentiality obligation no longer applied learned while undertaking commissions for because his own legal position was at risk. C. C claimed that A had thus breached the Having studied the pre-trial investigation obligation of confidentiality between an report, the Supreme Court noted that A had advocate and a client. not disclosed confidential information more Findings of the court than was necessary in order to avert the risk he was exposed to. Finally, the Supreme Under the Advocates Act, an advocate shall Court also considered the matter in the light not without due permission disclose the of Article 8 of the European Convention on secrets of an individual or family or business Human Rights (ECHR) and the case-law of or professional secrets which have come to his knowledge in the course of his profes- the European Court of Human Rights, giving sional activity. The Supreme Court recalled the case of Foxley v. the United Kingdom that this confidentiality obligation secures a (20 June 2000) as an example. In the client’s right to privacy and is also a prerequi- Supreme Court’s view, waiving the confiden- site for a fair trial, as found by the European tiality obligation in this case was “necessary” Court of Human Rights in the case of Niemi- under Article 8 §2 ECHR because of A’s need etz v. Germany (16 Dec. 1992). However, the to defend himself against the actions of C Supreme Court pointed out that the client which had put A’s legal position at risk. may choose to waive the confidentiality obligation. Moreover, in the Court’s view the The Supreme Court concluded that A had obligation is waived in cases where the client not disclosed confidential information in a by his/her own actions endangers the advo- way which would have constituted a secrecy cate’s legal position. offence under the Penal Code.

Articles 6, 8 and 10 of the Convention

Concerns: Limits to freedom of expression Helsinki Court of Appeal 11 October 2005 Principal facts and complaints first instance sentenced the defendants to a Ref: Report fine for defamation and ordered them to pay No. 3242, R03/ X had told a small group of people, including 1733 Y, that she had been raped during a party at a damages. hotel where a local sports team had been cel- Decision of the court ebrating their national championships title. X also signed a written statement which she The Court of appeal upheld the decision. It withdrew, however, the following day. She discussed at length freedom of expression as said repeatedly that she did not want to prescribed in the Constitution Act and the notify the police. Several months later, Y told European Convention on Human Rights. It journalist Z about the case which was then also referred to several decisions of the Euro- reported in a national weekly magazine. The pean Court of Human Rights, i.a. the cases report referred to the team in general with- of Bladet Tromsø and Stensaas v. Norway out naming the alleged offender or offenders. (20 May 1999); Bergens Tidende and others v. The twelve players of the team sued Y, Z, the Norway); Karhuvaara and Iltalehti v. Finland magazine and its editor-in-chief. The court of (16 November 2004); Pedersen and

Articles 6 and 8 of the Convention 49 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Baadsgaard v. Denmark (17 December 2004); before it was reported in the magazine with Wirtschafts-Trend Zeitschriften- a nation-wide circulation. In the Court’s Verlagsgesellschaft mbH v. Austria (14 Novem- view, the nature and seriousness of the ber 2002). alleged offence required specific accuracy in Findings of the court reporting the issue. However, Z and the editor-in-chief had not verified the accusations The court of appeal held that the report published in the magazine had incriminated all in order for the report to rely on a reliable fac- the players in the team and had violated tual basis. their right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty by a court of law. The Court concluded that in this case restricting the defendants’ freedom of In the court’s view, the role of the media as a expression was necessary in order to protect public watchdog was not at issue in this case, the players’ honour and their right to be pre- despite the fact that the police had started to investigate the alleged rape only after the sumed innocent. In assessing the damages, report had been published. It had not been the Court referred to the principle of propor- shown that the police would have tried to tionality and the decision of the European keep the matter secret, as claimed by the Court of Human Rights in the case of To l s t o y defendants, or that the police would even Miloslavsky v. the United Kingdom (13 July have been notified. The alleged rape was not 1995). It found that the damages ordered by generally known among the local public the first instance court were reasonable.

Articles 6 and 10 of the Convention

Concerns: Limits to freedom of expression Vaasa Court of Appeal Principal facts and complaints powers and that legal safeguards in taxation 25 April 2006 issues had for a long time been a subject of Ref: Report A former tax administration officer X had No. 571, R04/ published a book in which she claimed that public debate. The Court saw X’s book as a 1366 tax inspector Y had, in a trial which was con- contribution to this debate. However, the cerning tax fraud and in which X had acted Court pointed out that freedom of expres- as a witness for the defence, committed per- sion must not overstep certain bounds with jury by swearing to the correctness of a tax respect to the rights and reputation of others, audit report which in X’s opinion was based and that it carries with it duties and respon- on false calculations. X also claimed that sibilities which also apply to the media even there was no risk that Y herself would face in matters of great public concern. trial, because her husband was a district pros- In this case, criticism had been directed at an ecutor working at the Office of the Prosecu- ordinary tax inspector, who was not in a tor General. The court of first instance leading position, and it was claimed that she convicted X for aggravated defamation and had committed a serious offence. No grounds ordered that the book be forfeited and the had been presented in support of the allega- trial documentation kept secret for a period tions, which had decreased Y’s public credi- of fifteen years. bility and violated her right to be presumed innocent. The Court agreed that, as a civil Decision of the court servant using public authority, Y was subject X appealed to the court of appeal, which in to wider limits of acceptable criticism than a its decision discussed at length freedom of private individual. However, it found that expression as secured in Article 10 of the X’s allegations exceeded the bounds for European Convention on Human Rights and acceptable criticism, and that interference the decisions of the European Court of with X’s freedom of expression was under Human Rights in the cases of Selistö v. Finland the circumstances necessary and in accord- (16 November 2004); Nikula v. Finland ance with the principle of proportionality. (21 March 2002); Lešník v. Slovakia The Court also ruled that there was no need (11 March 2003); Pedersen and Baadsgaard v. to forfeit the book. Instead, the author and Denmark (17 December 2004). the printing house were ordered to remove The court of appeal noted that the tax from the book the lines which had caused X’s administration exercises significant public conviction. The court also quashed the lower

50 Finland/Finlande Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

court’s decision regarding the secrecy of the It found that, though the proceedings had trial documentation. been excessive, the delay had not caused X Finally, the court considered the length of the harm to the extent that her punishment proceedings (6 years) in the light of the case- should be reduced on account of the length of law of the European Court of Human Rights. proceedings.

Articles 8 and 10 of the Convention

Concerns: Limits to freedom of expression Supreme Court 16 March 2006 Principal facts and complaints pointed out that A was in a public position. Ref: Report As a district prosecutor specialising in eco- No. 608, R2004/ A journalist had written a newspaper report 852, KKO in which it was told that district prosecutor nomic offences, he had, among other things, 2006:20, Deci- A’s wife was suspected of tax fraud. The brought charges and prosecuted for tax fraud sions of the offences. The news about his wife being sus- Supreme Court, names of the persons concerned were not 2006, vol. I, pp. mentioned. A claimed that the newspaper pected of tax fraud gave cause to pay atten- 150-156 report violated his right to private life. The tion to A’s activities and to evaluate his court of first instance dismissed the charges. possibilities to act impartially in matters con- It held, among other things, that A’s position cerning tax fraud. The Supreme Court fur- as a leading prosecutor specialising in eco- ther stated that in the news report, the nomic offences makes the suspicions of tax persons concerned were not described in fraud against his wife an issue of public con- such detail so that it would have been possi- cern. The court, however, found that the ble to recognise them without previous freedom of the press could be restricted in knowledge or further inquiries. The Court this case, on the grounds that the criminal held that because of the issues raised by the proceedings against A’s wife were still at a suspicions of tax fraud and pertaining to A’s pre-trial phase at the time the newspaper performance in his public position, it was report was published. The Court referred to justified to give information which made A the presumption of innocence and to the recognisable to some readers, namely persons decision of the European Court of Human close to him or persons working for the police Rights in the case of Wirtschafts-Trend or the prosecution in A’s district. Zeitschriften-Verlagsgesellschaft mbH v. Austria The Supreme Court concluded that the (No. 2) of 14 Nov. 2002 (Reports of Judg- newspaper report was not in violation of A’s ments and Decisions 2002-X). right to private life. In its decision, it discussed, among other provisions, the protec- Findings of the court tion of privacy under section 10 of the The Supreme Court agreed with the first Constitution Act and Article 8 of the Euro- instance court. It noted that the information pean Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) given in the report was as such correct. It was as well as freedom of expression as prescribed clear from the text that this was concerning in section 12 of the Constitution Act and a suspicion of a crime, not a conviction. In Article 10 ECHR, referring also to the deci- addition, it was especially mentioned that A sion of the European Court of Human Rights himself was not suspected. The Court also in the case of Selistö v. Finland (16 Nov. 2004).

Concerns: Notion of “false insinuation” Supreme Court 30 August 2006 Principal facts and complaints impeding the progress of Soviet troops, and Ref: Report that this was “a heroic deed which we shall No. 1913, A newspaper had published A’s survey of the R2005/406 events in the year 2000. In one section A dis- never forget”. When this quotation was cussed the holocaust and the new rise of the taken out of its original context, the reader Extreme Right ideology. In this context, A could get the impression that by “a heroic quoted a statement by B in which the latter deed” B actually meant the holocaust. B raised the fact that during the Second World therefore claimed, among other things, that War German SS-troops had participated in A was guilty of defamation for having spread the battle on the eastern front, successfully a false insinuation.

Articles 8 and 10 of the Convention 51 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Findings of the court the history of the SS-troops, but it was not The Court pointed out that the notion of possible to assess his opinion on the activities “false insinuation” in the Penal Code is open of the SS-troops during the Second World to interpretation and therefore problematic War in general on the basis of the press with regard to limitation of constitutional release or the report. A’s comprehensive sur- rights. This being the case, constitutional vey combined and compared various, very rights, human rights obligations and the different events and quotes. It did not con- case-law of the European Court of Human tain exact arguments but was a collection of Rights must be taken into account when the author’s personal views on society and interpreting that provision. The Supreme events in the year 2000. Court referred, in particular, to the cases of The Court continued that views, especially Jersild v. Denmark (23 September 1994); provocative, concerning the holocaust and Prager and Oberschlick v. Austria (26 April SS-troops tend to raise public interest. Con- 1995); De Haes and Gijsels v. Belgium (24 Feb- sidering this, and considering also the style in ruary 1997); Bladet Tromsø and Stensaas v. A’s survey and the contents in B’s press Norway (20 May 1999); Radio France and release, the Supreme Court concluded that it others v. France (30 March 2004). could not be regarded that A’s text would The Supreme Court noted that an exchange contain a false insinuation and that she of views in matters of public interest lies at would thus have committed defamation. the core of freedom of expression. In carrying Two concurring justices of the Supreme out its task, the media has a right to publish Court decided the case in A’s favour on the even biased and provocative views, and it ground that both A’s survey and B’s state- must also be possible to criticise, even ment, as originally published in the press strongly, views presented in public. The release and the newspaper report, were open Court found that both A’s survey and the to interpretation. One partly dissenting jus- newspaper report written on the basis of B’s tice found that A had deliberately used B’s press release were inaccurate and confusing statement in a misleading manner and had to the reader. B’s statement reflected under- thus spread a false insinuation. The character standing and appreciation for some phases in and style of A’s text did not justify the deed. Concerns: Right of correspondence of prisoners Riihimäki Court of First Instance Principal facts and complaints which the prison governor had also been 18 May 2006 present. The court then agreed that, accord- Ref: Report Prison governor B had stopped three letters No. 06/350, R06/ sent by prisoner X. In B’s view it was not ing to law, a prison governor may stop a pris- 84 appropriate to send the letters further, oner’s letters if there is reason to suspect that because while the letters were directed to var- the right of correspondence has been mis- ious authorities supervising prisons, the enve- used. Because both inviolability of corre- lopes were in fact addressed to the media. In spondence and freedom of expression are addition, B held that X had no right to sign protected by the Bill of Rights in the Consti- and send the letters on behalf of all the prison- tution Act, the court held that the provisions ers, because the prisoners had not officially concerning misuse of correspondence must formed a prisoners’ union with rules and be given a narrow interpretation. In this case elected president. the right of correspondence had not been misused and the governor had no right to Findings of the court stop the letters. The court found that X had a right to sign The court referred to the decisions of the and send the letters. Although the prisoners European Court of Human Rights in the had not formed a union, X had been elected cases of Silver and others (25 March 1983) and the prisoners’ representative in a meeting in McCallum (30 Aug. 1990).

Articles 9, 10 and 14 of the Convention

Concerns: Refusal to hire space for advertising in city buses Supreme Administrative Court, 2823/1/05, KHO 2006:98, http://www.fin- 20 December 2006, Ref: Report No. 3494, lex.fi

52 Finland/Finlande Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 to the Convention

Concerns: School providing education based on Christian convictions under certain conditions Supreme Administrative Court 29 December Principal facts and complaints gion and right to education as prescribed in 2006 the Constitution Act and in the human Ref: Report The government had authorised a Christian No. 3670, 1511/ school association to provide education rights conventions binding Finland, consider- 3/05 based on Christian convictions, on condition ing that, in accordance with the Decree on that the association would also adopt a cur- national objectives of education and distribu- riculum for education covering the general tion of lesson hours, when providing educa- national objectives of education as defined tion according to a particular ideology, in by the National Board of Education in addition to the national objectives of educa- accordance with the Basic Education Act. In tion, the pupils are also provided with the opinion of the association, the condition knowledge and skills based on that ideology. contained an obligation to provide basic edu- The Supreme Administrative Court also cation which was non-denominational. found that the Basic Education Act respects The association appealed to the Supreme the right of the parents to ensure the reli- Administrative Court, claiming, i.a., that the gious education of their children in conform- condition was in violation of freedom of reli- ity with their own convictions, considering gion and conviction. that the parents have a right to decide that Findings of the court their children receive religious education at home or that such education is provided by The Supreme Administrative Court noted some other education provider than those that, according to the Basic Education Act, defined in the Basic Education Act so that the basic education shall be governed by a unified children do not attend education referred to national core curriculum as determined by in the Act. the government and the National Board of Education. Within its competence under the The Court concluded that the government’s Act, the government may grant an authorisa- decision was not in violation of the right of tion on condition that the statutory-based the association to provide basic education national objectives are fulfilled. Such a condi- according to a particular ideology and was tion is not in breach of the Basic Education also not in violation of constitutional rights Act, nor is it in violation of freedom of reli- or human rights. The appeal was dismissed.

Concerns: Refusal to a Christian school association to provide basic education

Supreme Administrative Court, 29 December 2006, Ref.: Report No. 3671, 1557/3/05

Iceland/Islande

Article 6 of the Convention

8 June 2006, Concerns: Investigation into an alleged tax fraud. Competence of the Judgment No 248/2006 National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police http:// www.haestirettur Supreme Court .is/domar? nr=3972 Principal facts and complaints alleged tax fraud, based on Law No.75/1981 X appealed the decision of the District Court o n I n c o m e Ta x a n d P r o p e r t y Ta x , c f. L a w N o . allowing the continued investigation into his 90/2003, Law No. 4/1995 on Municipal

Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 to the Convention 53 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Taxes and Article 262 of Law No. 31/1990, result in an interference with X’s right to be the General Penal Code. presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law. The Minister of Justice’s His alternative claim was that the National statements, although unsparing, could not Commissioner of the Icelandic Police be lead to the National Commissioner being made to withdraw from the investigation. X incompetent to lead an official investigation based his main claim on the right to a fair into the tax returns of X as Article 5 of the trial as set out in the European Convention Police Act, read in conjunction with the pro- on Human Rights, cf. Law No. 62/1994. visions of Chapter IX of Law No. 19/1991 on Firstly, X claimed that particular public Procedure in Criminal Cases, entails that the statements made by the Icelandic Prime Commissioner does not fall under the Minister, on the one hand, and the Minister domain of the Minister of Justice when he of Justice, on the other, had violated the prin- carries out the investigation. ciple of his right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law. Sec- On these grounds the Court also rejected X’s ondly, X claimed that the investigation had claim that the statement of the Minister of been unduly prolonged in violation of the Justice had resulted in an infringement of his principle of reasonable time and, thirdly, the right to be presumed innocent until proved investigation concerned an issue he had guilty according to law. already been charged with and which had already been adjudicated, in violation of the As regards the alleged violation of ne bis in ne bis in idem principle set out in Article 4 §1 idem the Court found that Article 4 of Proto- of Protocol No. 7 to the European Conven- col No. 7 to the European Convention on tion on Human Rights. X based his alterna- Human Rights calls for a final decision tive claim on the fact that the statements of regarding punishment. The decision on pun- two former Ministers implied that the ishment in question was not final and there- National Commissioner of the Icelandic fore the current investigation was in Police, as a subordinate of the Minister of Jus- accordance with the article. tice, could not be considered competent to lead the investigation and should therefore The Court found that although parts of the withdraw. investigation may have been unduly prolonged the Court should not rule on whether Findings of the court the delay should affect the fate of the investigation since a substantive determination The Court found that as police matters do on the consequences of the delay would be not fall under the domain of the Prime Min- made in the decision on the case if a formal ister his statements about X could not lead to charge is laid against the defendant. Thus the disqualification of the National Commis- Court confirmed the decision appealed sioner. The Minister’s statements did not against.

Concerns: Right to defence through legal assistance

Supreme Court

Principal facts and complaints (ECHR), cf. Law No. 62/1994, and Article 7- 23 November 3 of Regulation No. 395/1997. 2006 Judgment X appealed the decision of a District Court Findings of the court No. 596/2006, not to appoint him defence counsel during a http:// The Supreme Court found that, despite www.haestirettur criminal investigation. He asked that the Article 6 §3 (c) ECHR, the nature of the .is/domar? nr=4213 decision of the District Court be rescinded alleged crime, investigation and other factors and that the District Court appoint him did not justify a court-appointed defence defence counsel during the investigation. He counsel. based his claim on Article 6 §3 (c) of the The Court confirmed the decision appealed European Convention on Human Rights against.

54 Iceland/Islande Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Article 8 of the Convention

Concerns: Privacy of phone calls

Supreme Court

29 December Principal facts and complaints the information requested was so extensive 2006 as to infringe the right to respect for privacy Judgment S demanded that O and S be made to disclose as set out in Article 71 of the Icelandic Con- No. 670/2006, information on all phone numbers using a http:// stitution. www.haestirettur particular GSM transmitter during a certain .is/domar? ten-hour period as part of a criminal investi- nr=4293 gation into the causes of a fire at a fish-fac- Findings of the court tory. O and S claimed that the demand did not fulfil criteria set out in Article 86 and 87 The Court ruled in their favour finding that of Law No. 19/1991 as there was no evidence the demand for disclosure went beyond the to support the claim that a particular phone authorisation provided in Article 86 and 87 or transmitter had been used for criminal of Law No. 19/1991 and the claim was there- purposes. In addition, O and S claimed that fore denied.

Concerns: Limits to freedom of expression

Supreme Court

1 June 2006 Principal facts and complaints Court dismissed the claim under Article 228- Judgment 8 since a description of a punishable act No. 541/2005, J asked that an injunction she had been under the article was lacking. The Court http:// granted to prevent P publishing, in the news- www.haestirettur found that F’s writing regarded F’s private .is/domar? paper F or other media, information she matters as set out in Article 229-2 but ruled nr=3949 claimed had been unlawfully obtained from her e-mail account be upheld. She also asked that the subject matter was of public inter- that the sheriff’s decision to seize certain est and related to an issue much debated in documents that P had in his possession be public fora. Although F had revealed infor- upheld. She did however not make any claim mation on J’s financial matters it was con- regarding the rights to be protected with the sidered so intricately linked with the news injunction nor that the aforementioned story that it was impossible to omit. The materials be handed over to her. Therefore J’s Court found in favour of P, ruling that the claim was considered contrary to Article 36- breach of J’s privacy had not been more oner- 2 of Law No. 31/1990 on Internment and ous than necessary in a public debate on an Injunction. issue of public interest. The Court found that reporting based on the materials had Findings of the court been normal, in accordance with the stand- The Court found it could only rule on ards of professional journalism, and the whether formal and material requirements newspaper had a positive right to publish the were satisfied for the injunction to be materials protected by Article 73 of the Ice- upheld. The Court found that the claim was landic Constitution and Article 10 ECHR. In too vague and broad to be upheld and that J’s any case, if e-mails are considered private claim regarding the sheriff’s decision could property, irrespective of whether they con- not be considered as the court could not rule cern private matters or not, then letters J had on that claim standing alone. sent should be considered the property of the J also asked that K, the editor of F, be found person receiving them not hers, and the right guilty of defamation and violation of her to bring an action before the courts belonged right to respect for privacy in accordance to the recipient and not the sender. with Article 228-2 and 229-2 of Law No. 19/ 1940, the General Penal Code, the Constitu- Therefore there had been sufficient reasons tion of the Republic of Iceland and Article 8 to justify the publication of K’s writing, in of the European Convention on Human accordance with Article 228-2, and K was Rights (ECHR), cf. Law No. 62/1994. The thus acquitted.

Article 8 of the Convention 55 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Articles 14 of the Convention and 1 of Protocol No. 1

Concerns: Compensation for disability due to a car accident

Findings of the court Supreme Court, 15 June 2006, The Court found that damages for disability Judgment No. 19/ of drivers could not be calculated differently 2006 from the other physical injuries. http:// www.haestirettur .is/domar? nr=3993

Italy/Italie

Article 1 de la Convention

Concerne : Force exécutoire de la Convention européenne des Droits de l’Homme Cour de Cassation, Assemblée plénière des chambres civiles Conclusions de la cour procès équitable trouve sa source à la fois 23 décembre o dans les normes de la Convention et dans la 2005 La Loi n 848 du 4 août 1955, qui a ratifié et arrêt no 28507 donné force exécutoire à la Convention euro- loi nationale Giurisprudenza péenne des Droits de l’Homme, a introduit italiana 2006 dans le système normatif de l’Etat une série Note : (octobre), p. de droits fondamentaux d’application La décision de l’assemblée plénière de la Cour de 1902 Cassation réaffirme sans équivoque la pré-éminence Il Foro italiano, immédiate. 2006, no 9, 1ère des normes de la Convention à l’égard du système Les normes de la Convention créent des partie, p. 2314 juridique interne. Quelques auteurs ont déjà fait droits subjectifs des citoyens, en tant que Famiglia Diritto, observer que le principe énoncé par l’Assemblée, 2006, no 5, p. 46 destinataires directs. Par conséquent le juge pour la première fois d’une façon claire, ne man- Famiglia, 2006, interne doit s’abstenir d’appliquer la norme os quera pas de produire des effets directs sur toute la n 4-6, p. 931 interne prévoyant un comportement non gamme des droits garantis par la Convention dans conforme. ses divers aspects. La Convention a une incidence sur le droit interne en termes, également, d’interpréta- En même temps la Convention aura une fonction tion des lois précédentes et successives « d’aiguillon » (selon un auteur), stimulant la recon- Le droit à une satisfaction équitable due au naissance de certaines positions personnelles et col- citoyen pour violation des principes du lectives ayant une valeur sociale prééminente.

Articles 1 de la Convention et 1 du Protocole no 12

Concerne : Principe de l’égalité dans le bénéfice des services 2 décembre 2005 d’assistance sociale et sanitaire arrêt no 432 I diritti Cour Constitutionnelle dell’uomo, 2006, no 1, pp. Conclusions de la cour personnelles et sociales et que la santé est 69 et 109 En réservant la gratuité des transports col- protégée en tant que droit fondamental de Giurisprudenza o lectifs aux personnes invalides de nationa- tout individu. Le décret législatif n 28 du 25 costituzionale, 2005, no 6, o juillet 1998, selon lequel les étrangers titu- lité italienne, l’Article 8 de la loi n 1 du 1ère partie, p. 12 janvier 2002 de la région de Lombardie laires d’un permis de séjour sont assimilés 617 viole les Article 3, 32 et 117 de la Constitu- aux citoyens pour ce qui concerne l’assis- Giurisprudenza tion, qui disposent que tous les citoyens tance sociale accordée aux invalides, a été italiana, 2006, o sont égaux, sans distinction de conditions violé. n 12, p. 2252

56 Italy/Italie Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

L’exclusion de l’étranger est arbitraire et sociale, d’un « noyau dur » intangible, qui s’étend contraire à la logique de la solidarité sociale. aux personnes n’ayant pas la nationalité du pays. Le Le droit d’une personne atteinte d’invalidité terme « noyau dur », forgé par la doctrine, est désor- de bénéficier d’un service sanitaire doit être mais devenu courant dans le monde judiciaire. Par reconnu aux étrangers, même si leur pré- conséquent, il est interdit au législateur régional, sence sur le territoire de l’Etat est illégitime. tout comme aux autorités étatiques d’appliquer une Note : différence de traitement fondée sur l’origine natio- L’importance de l’arrêt réside dans l’affirmation que le principe de l’égalité de tous les citoyens, sans dis- nale ou le droit de cité lorsqu’il s’agit de régler tinction de conditions personnelles et sociales, fait l’exercice d’un droit fondamental tel que le service partie, pour ce qui concerne le service d’assistance d’assistance sociale.

Articles 2 et 8 de la Convention

Concerne : Changement du nom d’un enfant auquel a déjà été attribué celui de sa mère naturelle Cour de Cassation 26 mai 2006 Conclusions de la cour éléments distinctifs de la personnalité et o arrêt n 12641 auxquels on ne peut renoncer – et qui font Giustizia civile, L’attribution tardive à un mineur du nom de 2006, no 9, p. son père naturel en substitution à celui de la l’objet d’un droit autonome, protégé par les 1698 mère, attribué par l’état-civil au moment de Article 2 et 22 de la Constitution. Il foro italiano, sa naissance, refuse tout automatisme, Le point de départ doit être la prise en consi- o 2006 n 9, cause parfois des discriminations et la dération de la volonté exprimée par les deux 1ère partie, p. 2314 méconnaissance de valeurs ayant une parents, en position d’égalité, même s’ils ne Famiglia diritto, importance fondamentale pour le futur de sont pas mariés. o 2006, n 5, p. 46 l’enfant. Note : Famiglia, 2006, nos 4-6, p. 931 Le juge saisi par le père naturel d’une L’arrêt de la Cour de Cassation constitue une expres- demande d’attribution de son nom doit sion typique du changement de la jurisprudence qui, tenir compte de l’identité personnelle du depuis plusieurs années, a abandonné la conception mineur dans le milieu où il vit, prévoir les patriarcale de la famille, ancrée dans la tradition, effets positifs ou négatifs du changement – d’après laquelle l’enfant prend le nom de son père. d’ordre moral, économique et physique – en L’Article 262 du Code civil affirme que dans l’hypo- ayant recours à une évaluation des perspec- thèse d’un mineur, c’est au juge de décider sur la tives futures de l’enfant, sur la base de la requête de son père. La Cour complète l’interpréta- situation présente. En revanche, l’enfant tion en réaffirmant l’application des valeurs constitu- légitime prend le nom de son père. La loi tionnelles de l’égalité morale et juridique et d’égale adopte un automatisme auquel il ne peut dignité des parents, même s’ils ne sont pas mariés. être dérogé. La Cour met aussi l’accent sur la considération que Le nom ne revêt pas seulement une fonction la protection du mineur est prédominante pour le d’identification de la personne, mais cons- juge, au-dessus des buts des parents, ce qui com- titue aussi l’expression de l’identité person- porte le devoir d’éviter de créer des situations diffi- nelle, l’appartenance à une famille – ciles, nuisibles au développement de l’enfant.

Article 5 de la Convention

Concerne : Libération conditionnelle Cour Constitutionnelle 4 Juillet 2006 Conclusions de la cour sursis conditionnel du reste de la peine, pour o arrêt n 254 une période de deux ans. Cette mesure est Diritto penale e L’Article l de la loi du 4 avril 2003 sur le béné- processo, 2006, fice de la libération conditionnelle prévoit applicable à toutes les personnes condam- no 10, p. 1231 que le juge chargé de surveiller l’exécution nées, sans tenir compte de leur comporte- des peines de détention doit concéder au ment. Si la personne condamnée a été détenu qui a purgé la moitié de la peine le admise à bénéficier d’une mesure alternative

Articles 2 et 8 de la Convention 57 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

à la détention, le bénéfice du sursis n’est pas Note : applicable. La jurisprudence de la Cour Constitutionnelle ne s’est jamais opposée à reconnaître le droit de la per- L’automatisme viole les Article 3 et 27 de la sonne condamnée à l’octroi d’un bénéfice prévu par Constitution étant donné que le même trai- la loi, mais elle attire l’attention du législateur sur la tement est réservé à des situation diffé- fonction rééducative de la peine, énoncée par l’Article 27 de la Constitution. Ce but doit être pour- rentes et méconnaît le pouvoir suivi par le juge de l’application des peines, auquel discrétionnaire que la loi confie au juge de la loi confie une tâche délicate, exigeant expérience l’application des peines, ayant la tâche – en et capacité d’évaluer les différentes situations. vertu d’un principe général auquel il ne peut Lorsqu’il s’agit d’octroyer un bénéfice, l’égalité de être dérogé – de moduler l’application de la traitement risque de favoriser ceux qui ne sont pas sanction en fonction de critères punitifs susceptibles d’être rééduqués, donc de créer des iné- mais aussi de resocialisation et de reclasse- galités de traitement. On dit couramment que la ment, les deux étant applicables suivant un peine a une double fonction afflictive et répressive critère de proportionnalité et d’individuali- mais aussi rééducative et devant favoriser l’exigence sation. de vivre dans le respect des autres citoyens.

Concerne : Durée de détention préventive supérieure à celle de la peine infligée Cour de Cassation, Assemblée plénière des chambres pénales Conclusions de la cour internationaux relatifs aux droits de 19 juillet 2006 o er e l’homme, aux termes desquels une répara- arrêt n 25084 L’Article 314, 1 et 3 alinéas, du Code de pro- Diritto penale e cédure pénale exclut le droit au dédommage- tion est due sans limitations en cas de déten- processo, 2006, ment des personnes qui ont été soumises à tion ou arrestation illégitime. no 10, p. 1212 une période de détention préventive pour une Note : durée supérieure à la peine infligée par l’arrêt Article 3 de la Constitution : Il appartient à la Répu- prononcé à la conclusion du procès. Le droit blique d’éliminer les obstacles limitant la liberté et au dédommagement est reconnu seulement l’épanouissement de la personne. si l’inculpé est acquitté ou relaxé ou l’affaire classée. Article 24 de la Constitution : La loi détermine les conditions et les modalités relatives à la réparation La norme viole le principe de la rétribution des erreurs judiciaires. et de l’individualisation de la peine, en vertu duquel la privation de la liberté personnelle La décision de l’assemblée plénière de la Cour revêt doit être proportionnée à la gravité des vio- une importance remarquable. La doctrine avait déjà lations constatées. relevé, plus d’une fois, le problème des peines pro- Le surplus est illégitime, quelle que soit la noncées d’une durée inférieure à la période passée décision du juge à la clôture du procès, et en détention préventive. viole les Article 3 et 24 de la Constitution, La détention peut souvent influer négativement sur les engagements pris par l’adhésion aux con- la personne sur le plan moral ou physique, ou rendre ventions internationales, telles que la difficile la réinsertion dans la société. Il revient à la Convention européenne des Droits de sagesse du juge d’en évaluer les conséquences et d’y l’Homme (Article 5) et l’Article 9 des Pactes remédier de façon adéquate.

58 Italy/Italie Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Articles 5 et 6 de la Convention

Concerne : Protection des droits de la personne inculpée faisant l’objet d’une demande d’extradition

Cour de Cassation

26 septembre Conclusions de la cour Il n’est pas nécessaire que les garanties en 2005 vigueur dans l’Etat requérant soient les arrêt no 34355 Giurisprudenza Le juge italien, lorsqu’il est saisi par les auto- mêmes qu’en Italie. Il suffit que le système italiana, 2006, rités belges d’une demande de remise de juridique, dans son ensemble, assure une no 1, p. 12 l’auteur d’une infraction déjà frappé d’un protection effective des droits de la per- Cassazione mandat d’arrêt, doit vérifier non seulement penale, 2006, la portée des accords qui lient l’Etat italien à sonne inculpée, au même degré que celui no 10, p. 3145 la Belgique en vertu de la Convention euro- prévu par la Convention. péenne d’extradition et des accords de coo- Note : pération intervenus dans le domaine de la Communauté européenne, mais également La Cour de Cassation aborde pour la première fois, les indices de culpabilité qui justifient la pri- ex professo, le problème de l’application de la vation de la liberté personnelle et la déten- Convention européenne en matière d’extradition. tion préventive à la lumière des principes L’arrêt a attiré l’attention d’un bon nombre énoncés par la Convention européenne des d’auteurs, qui, au cours de l’année 2006, ont publié Droits de l’Homme, et particulièrement par des articles sur le même sujet. L’arrêt de la Cour son Article 5. marque une nouvelle étape dans l’attention accrue portée par les juges, de fait et de droit, à la Conven- Il s’agit d’une évaluation « autonome », faisant abstraction des liens contractuels de tion chaque fois qu’il s’agit de vérifier l’incidence l’Etat, en vertu desquels il faut tenir compte d’un droit énoncé par celle-ci sur une situation du contenu du dossier transmis par l’auto- réglée par le droit interne ou sur les relations entre la rité requérante et de l’acte d’accusation for- Convention et les obligations internationales con- mulé. tractées par l’Etat.

Concerne : Coexistence d’un arrêt de la Cour européenne des Droits de l’Homme et d’un arrêt interne ayant acquis l’autorité de la chose jugée

Cour de Cassation

22 septembre Conclusions de la cour Note : 2005 La Cour de Cassation aborde ex professo, pour la arrêt no 17208 La Giustizia Une fois que la Cour européenne des Droits première fois, le problème de la coexistence d’un penale, 2006, de l’Homme a décidé que le juge national a arrêt de la Cour européenne et d’un arrêt du juge no 4, p. 210 violé l’Article 6 de la Convention – en l’espèce national ayant acquis l’autorité de la chose jugée. Cassazione Désormais, il est incontestable que les normes de la penale, 2006, pour avoir condamné l’accusé après avoir no 10, p. 3145 estimé par erreur que son absence aux débats Convention, introduites dans le système national, était injustifiée – l’accusé a le droit de saisir le aient force de loi, en vertu de l’Article 696 du Code juge compétent et de faire décider, aux de procédure pénale, non susceptibles d’abrogation ou de modifications. termes de l’Article 5 de la Convention euro-

péenne des Droits de l’Homme, par un procé- La Cour a reconnu le droit de l’accusé de faire valoir, dure en chambre de conseil, si l’exécution en droit interne, la violation de son droit à la défense doit être confirmée ou suspendue, même si en faisant recours à un incident d’exécution au l’arrêt du juge national est devenu irrévoca- moment de recevoir le mandat d’arrêt décerné par le ble. Ministère public.

Articles 5 et 6 de la Convention 59 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Concerne : Critère de la double proportionnalité en matière de détention provisoire Cour Constitutionnelle Conclusions de la cour justice et de respect de la personnalité de 5 juin 2006 o l’accusé, mais également le droit de ne pas arrêt n 223 Aux termes de l’Article 303 du Code de pro- Diritto e Giu- cédure pénale, la durée de la détention pré- subir une détention dépassant les limites stizia, 2006, ventive est proportionnelle à la gravité de la conseillées par la gravité des faits imputés, no 30, p. 51 violation imputée. En revanche, si le calcul éléments indispensables pour un procès de la durée est fait lors du déroulement de la équitable, ancien Article 111 de la Constitu- procédure, le critère abstrait doit être rem- tion. Il faut, par conséquent, exclure une placé par le calcul de la peine que le juge du violation des Article 3 et 13 de la Constitu- premier ou second degré ont appliquée tion, aux termes desquels, selon l’interpréta- lorsque les débats ont permis d’obtenir une tion de la jurisprudence, la durée doit être preuve plus sûre, sinon définitive, de la vio- déterminée par l’exigence d’éviter, suivant lation commise. les circonstances, que le laps de temps néces- Le critère de la double proportionnalité saire à la définition de la procédure (i) puisse s’inspire de l’exigence d’adapter la durée de entraver le constat des faits imputés (ii) ou la détention, autant que possible, à l’entité que les conséquences de la violation soient des faits constatés. Il s’agit d’une évaluation aggravées (iii) ou que l’accusé puisse com- raisonnable, qui ne viole pas les principes de mettre d’autres violations.

Articles 5 et 46 de la Convention

Concerne : Conséquences d’un arrêt de la Cour européenne des Droits de l’Homme reconnaissant une violation sur une décision interne ayant acquis l’autorité de la chose jugée Cour de Cassation Conclusions de la cour principe énoncé par la Cour de Strasbourg 3 octobre 2005 o pouvait empêcher la continuation de la arrêt n 35616 La Cour européenne a déclaré que le juge ita- Giurisprudenza lien avait violé l’Article6 de la Convention détention, comme requis par l’intéressé. penale, octobre européenne des Droits de l’Homme pour Note : 2006, p. 1935 avoir méconnu le droit à la défense lors la L’arrêt de la Cour de Cassation reconnaît que les Cassazione phase d’appel. décisions de la Cour européenne affirmant la viola- penale, 2006, no 10, p. 3171 L’accusé, détenu en vertu d’un mandat tion d’un droit fondamental doivent avoir une inci- d’arrêt émis à la suite du rejet de l’appel et du dence directe sur le système interne de l’Etat partie à pourvoi, a soulevé un incident d’exécution à la Convention, comme il est expressément dit à la Cour d’appel de M., avançant l’illégitimité l’Article 46 de la Convention, lorsqu’il affirme que de la détention. Toutefois, la Cour a déclaré les Etats « s’engagent à se conformer aux arrêts défi- inadmissible le recours par une ordonnance nitifs de la Cour ». adoptée de plano, en chambre de conseil, sans L’attribution d’une somme à titre de satisfaction avoir convoqué l’intéressé, en considérant équitable est souvent un remède tout-à-fait subsi- que l’arrêt par lequel il avait été condamné diaire pour une personne qui purge une longue avait acquis l’autorité de la chose jugée. peine restrictive de la liberté. La Cour casse l’ordonnance de rejet, étant La Recommandation du Comité des Ministres donné que la détention était devenue illégi- adoptée en 2000 donne aux Etats parties la liberté de time à la suite de l’arrêt de la Cour choisir les méthodes plus opportunes, en même européenne ; par conséquent, il avait le droit temps qu’elle affirme que la réouverture de la procé- d’être convoqué et entendu avec la garantie dure constitue parfois la meilleure manière d’assurer de la contradiction. La violation des règles du la restitutio in integrum. En l’état, en cas de décision procès équitable a une incidence directe sur le irrévocable, la loi ne prévoit aucun recours qui déci- système interne, même si la décision qui a derait si l’exécution doit être interrompue ou si l’on infligé la peine de détention a acquis l’auto- peut rouvrir la procédure. rité de la chose jugée. La Cour d’appel devait, Un projet présenté au Sénat prévoit la réouverture de par conséquent, décider en contradiction si le la procédure si la satisfaction se révèle insuffisante.

60 Italy/Italie Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Article 6 de la Convention

Concerne : Suppression de la phase préliminaire de l’action en recherche et reconnaissance de filiation naturelle Cour Constitutionnelle 10 février 2006, Conclusions de la cour toires visant à faire gagner du temps à ceux o arrêt n 50 qui s’opposent à la demande, en violation du Giurisprudenza Selon l’Article 274 du Code civil, l’action en civile, 2006, recherche et reconnaissance de maternité ou principe du délai raisonnable. o n 4-5, p. 763 de paternité naturelle ne peut être intentée La suppression de la phase préliminaire Il Foro italiano, sans qu’ait été obtenu, au préalable, un décret o ère n’empêche pas le tribunal de procéder à une 2006, n 4, 1 motivé d’admissibilité de l’action par le tribu- partie, p. 966 enquête approfondie, assortie de toutes les Giurisprudenza nal qui rendra, par la suite, la décision défini- garanties prévues par la défense. costituzionale, tive. Une telle disposition viole les Article 3, 2006, no 1, p. 24 et 111 de la Constitution, lesquels affir- Note : 446 ment le droit de tout citoyen d’obtenir une La procédure préliminaire est un résidu des préven- Il diritto di fami- décision judiciaire à l’issue d’une procédure tions à l’égard de la filiation hors mariage, une glia e delle per- époque révolue, « une branche desséchée ». sone, 2006, contradictoire menée dans des conditions no 2, p. 449 d’égalité et dans le respect du délai raisonna- L’expression employée par l’arrêt de la Cour Consti- ble, devant un juge impartial. La norme pré- tutionnelle suffit à rappeler qu’aux termes de voit une procédure préliminaire ayant pour l’Article 274 l’enquête préliminaire se déroule sans but d’obtenir l’acquisition des éléments de aucune publicité et le tribunal doit « garder le preuve favorables au demandeur – un fumus secret ». Le scrupule moral qui avait guidé le législa- boni iuris – un commencement de preuve teur du vingtième siècle a imposé une série de propre à justifier le passage à la deuxième mesures de prudence, ancrées dans la tradition. Le phase, laquelle aboutit à un arrêt. Il s’agit Code civil édicté en 1942 avait conservé les vieilles d’une duplication injustifiée, étant donné caractéristiques, qui rendaient la procédure longue que les progrès de la science permettent et complexe, alors que rien n’empêche que le tri- d’acquérir les éléments de preuve de la filia- bunal qui sera compétent également pour la phase tion naturelle dans un délai très bref. définitive ait recours à toutes les mesures à même de De par son caractère sommaire, la phase pré- donner des certitudes du fait de l’évolution de la liminaire se prête à des manœuvres dila- science. 6 juillet 2006 Concerne : Action en désaveu de paternité et preuve de l’adultère arrêt no 266 Giustizia civile, Cour Constitutionnelle 2006, no 9, p. 1672 Conclusions de la cour noncé de désaveu ; la recherche préventive de Il Foro italiano, la preuve de l’adultère constitue seulement o ère Aux termes de l’Article 235, al. 1, du Code 2006, n 7, 1 un empêchement ou un délai au droit de sai- partie, civil, l’action en désaveu de paternité est sir la justice pour faire déclarer un déni de « Nouveautés » admise uniquement après que la preuve de paternité, sanctionnés par l’Article 24 de la Famiglia Diritto, l’adultère de la femme ait été acquise. 2006, no 5, p. Constitution. 461 L’action peut également être intentée par Note : Corriere giuri- l’enfant qui a atteint la majorité. dico, 2006, La Cour Constitutionnelle, une nouvelle fois, annule no 10, p. 1367 Par conséquent, même si une enquête géné- un norme qui appartient au passé; lorsque la science tique ou hématologique accomplie a ne disposait pas des moyens techniques à même de démontré le bien fondé de la demande de donner des certitudes sur la filiation. La Cour de Cas- l’auteur de la demande, le juge ne peut sation, il y a vingt ans, sans doute consciente de la passer à l’examen de l’action en désaveu. situation, avait affirmé que le résultat d’un expertise La norme viole les Article 3, 24 et 111 de la constituait « un élément de conviction ». Constitution (justiciabilité de l’égalité des Plus d’un auteur, déjà avant la fin des années 90, droits, charge pour l’Etat d’éliminer les obsta- avaient souligné l’opportunité d’abandonner une cles limitant l’égalité) étant donné qu’en règle qui n’était plus adaptée à notre époque, mais la vertu des progrès de la médecine les deux classe politique n’avait pris aucune initiative. La pre- enquêtes sont à même, à elles seules, de don- mière section civile de la Cour de Cassation a enfin ner des certitudes qui rendent inutile la soulevé la question de la légitimité de l’Article 235 preuve de l’adultère. La norme n’indique du Code civil, défini comme une « hérédité déraison- aucune autre solution pour obtenir un pro- nable de la tradition ».

Article 6 de la Convention 61 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Concerne : Evaluation du dommage dû aux proches d’une personne tuée à la suite d’un acte criminel

Cour de Cassation

Conclusions de la cour de cet ensemble d’éléments est confiée à la 15 juillet 2006 o prudence et à la perspicacité du juge saisi, arrêt n 15022 La mort d’une personne tuée par un acte cri- Il Foro italiano, qui fait nécessairement usage de son pou- o ère minel pose depuis longtemps des problèmes 2006, n 5, 1 voir discrétionnaire. d’évaluation du dédommagement dû aux partie, p. 1344 parents proches. La jurisprudence a évolué, Note : prenant en compte l’importance progressive Un certain nombre d’articles de la Constitution ita- attribuée aux valeurs « morales » de la per- lienne, de la Convention européenne des Droits de sonne humaine, dans la société moderne. l’Homme et des Pactes internationaux relatifs aux Le dommage subi peut causer un préjudice droits de l’homme ont mis l’accent sur l’importance patrimonial, mais très souvent il touche les des valeurs morales des personnes ayant fortement liens affectifs découlant de la solidarité fami- influencé la jurisprudence nationale. Ainsi, est liale et de l’activité déployée au sein du reconnue l’existence du dommage existentiel, qui, groupe social dans lequel vivait la victime. faisant abstraction de la perte patrimoniale, tient compte des souffrances causées par des événements L’évaluation du montant du dommage com- qui touchent la sphère affective dans ses différents porte également un examen des perspectives aspects, la possibilité de cultiver des relations, de d’avenir de la partie lésée, perturbée par la poursuivre un train de vie auquel on était habitué, perte du parent proche, éléments qui font parfois d’entretenir et faire instruire ses enfants, de souvent abstraction des considérations jouir d’une parité morale et juridique dans les patrimoniales et rentrent dans la catégorie sphères sociales où s’exerce la personnalité. des dommages « existentiels », avec des conséquences sur les différents aspects de la L’arrêt de la Cour de Cassation confirme la tendance personne comme les habitudes quoti- à valoriser la perte de certaines valeurs qui ont une diennes, les exigences de vie, les chances de grande importance pour pouvoir mener une vie nor- succès dans le milieu où elle vit. L’évaluation male dans la société moderne.

Concerne : Droit de la partie civile d’attaquer les décisions au seul 4 juillet 2006 arrêt no 22924 effet de la responsabilité civile Diritto e Giu- stizia, 2006, Cour de Cassation no 33, p. 61

Conclusions de la cour reconnu à chacun le droit d’ester en justice Aux termes de l’Article 576 du Code de pro- pour faire valoir ses droits, donc de présenter cédure pénale, édicté en 1988, la partie civile un recours contre les décisions qui causent a le droit d’attaquer les jugements dans le un préjudice. but de voir affirmé son droit au dédomma- gement refusé pour ce qui concerne l’action L’absence de mention du droit de la partie civile. civile de faire appel ou de se pourvoir, non accompagnée de l’interprétation extensive La loi no 46/2006, qui a apporté une série de de l’Article 176, méconnaîtrait une garantie modifications, confirme le droit du prévenu fondamentale, sans justification raison- et du ministère public d’attaquer le juge- nable. ment sans se référer à la partie civile. Le vide législatif ne rend pas inapplicable le principe Note : énoncé par l’Article 576 (non modifié par la Plus d’un auteur avait remarqué le vide laissé par le nouvelle loi) qui, sans se référer explicite- législateur. La Cour de Cassation, gardienne de la ment au moyen de recours, affirme le droit légalité, a eu recours à une interprétation qui sera de la partie civile d’attaquer les décisions certainement appréciée dans le monde des juristes. « au seul, effet de la responsabilité civile », en Un principe fondamental pour les droits de la partie ayant recours aux mêmes moyens que ceux civile, qui concourt à réaliser un procès équitable a mis à la disposition du Ministère public. été rétabli. L’interprétation des principes énoncés En vertu du principe général énoncé par les par la Constitution peut remplir un vide laissé par le Article 24 et 111 de la Constitution, il est législateur.

62 Italy/Italie Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Concerne : Prorogation de la phase de l’enquête préliminaire en cas de coupables non identifiés Cour de Cassation, Assemblée plénière des chambres pénales 12 avril 2006 Conclusions de la cour pouvoir de contrôler le déroulement des o arrêt n 13040 poursuites jusqu’à la phase du jugement. Diritto penale e Le juge des enquêtes préliminaires a le pou- processo, 2006, voir d’autoriser, aux termes de l’Article 406 Note : no 10, 1ère partie, du Code de procédure pénale, une proroga- L’interprétation de l’assemblée plénière de la Cour p. 1240 tion de la phase des recherches préliminaires revêt une importance pratique remarquable pour Cassazione quand le coupable a été identifié. l’accélération de la marche de la justice pénale. penale, 2006, no 7-8, p. 2357 Rien n’est prévu pour les coupables non Jusqu’à présent, en raison du silence de la loi, les identifiés, mais la même règle doit être con- prorogations étaient autorisées pour une période sidérée comme applicable étant donné que indéfinie et restaient sans contrôle. Conséquence l’Article 415 du Code de procédure régissant inévitable : des milliers d’affaires pendantes pour des les recherches à l’égard des coupables longues périodes, des délais excessifs, un encombre- inconnus énonce le principe général d’après ment des bureaux judiciaires, l’impossibilité pour les lequel les règles dictées pour les coupables juges des enquêtes préliminaires d’exercer un sont applicables « autant que possible » à contrôle effectif. toutes le procédures. On peut en déduire Les bénéfices concrets devraient apparaître dans un que les recherches préliminaires, quelle que proche futur. Certains juges ont déjà exprimé une soit la situation, peuvent être prorogées par opinion concordante lors d’un colloque qui s’est le juge des enquêtes préliminaires qui aura le tenu au mois d’octobre 2006 à Bologne. 21 avril 2006 Concerne : Transfert des actes de la procédure à un autre juge arrêt no 168 La Giustizia Cour Constitutionnelle penale, 2006, no 7, 1ère partie, Conclusions de la cour principe général énoncé par l’Article 25 de la p. 211 Aux termes de l’Article 45 du Code de procé- Constitution – « nul ne peut être soustrait Cassazione au juge désigné par la loi » – compte tenu de penale, 2006, dure pénale, la Cour de Cassation, sur no 2, p. 3190 requête du Procureur général, peut décider, à la position différente des acteurs de la procé- Giurisprudenza titre exceptionnel, le transfert d’un procès dure. costituzionale, au juge d’un autre ressort s’il y a un danger Note : 2006, vol. 2, p. La Cour affirme la légitimité de l’Article 45 du Code 1489 de trouble à la sécurité publique à cause d’une situation perturbée ou d’une menace à de procédure pénale, après avoir considéré le rôle la liberté d’expression de ceux qui partici- joué par la partie civile en tant que partie « non pent aux débats. nécessaire » du procès. Sans doute le législateur a-t- La partie civile n’est pas autorisée à pré- il le pouvoir d’établir une mise en balance des situa- senter une telle demande, en raison de sa tions et de donner priorité au juge dans le but de le position marginale dans le procès. rendre libre de toute influence négative. Cependant, selon l’avis d’une partie de la doctrine, il semble La norme ne viole pas les Articles 3 et 24 de indéniable que la personne qui a subi un préjudice la Constitution, aux termes desquels tous corporel, financier ou moral, a un intérêt direct et les citoyens sont égaux devant la loi et il est actuel à profiter du déclenchement de l’action reconnu à tous le droit d’ester en justice pénale. Souvent la mise en mouvement de l’action pour la défense de ses droits. publique peut revêtir une importance remarquable Le législateur a justifié la « translatio même sur le plan social. La partie civile ne joue pas judicii » à titre d’exception dérogeant au toujours un rôle secondaire.

Concerne : Droit du défenseur de collecter des éléments de preuve en faveur de son client Cour de Cassation, Assemblée plénière des chambres pénales 27 juin 2006 Conclusions de la cour toire que les actes du Ministère public. Une o arrêt n 32009 fois dressé et signé par le défenseur, le procès Diritto e Giu- Pendant la phase des enquêtes préliminaires, stizia, 2006, le défenseur est autorisé à interroger un verbal devient un « acte public », qui fait foi no 37, p. 44 témoin et verbaliser ses déclarations, ce qui de son contenu. Dans la rédaction du docu- lui permet de collecter des éléments de ment, le défenseur exerce la fonction preuve qui acquièrent la même valeur proba- d’« officier public »

Article 6 de la Convention 63 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Les déclarations collectées peuvent être utili- Note : sées dans la phase préliminaire de la pour- L’assemblée plénière de la Cour de Cassation suite ou lors des débats contradictoires pour aborde, pour la première fois, ex professo, dans un compléter la preuve, contester la déposition langage concis et efficace, les problèmes posés par d’un témoin ou le contenu des pièces à con- le droit du défenseur de collecter des éléments de viction jointes aux actes de la procédure. preuve en faveur de son client, comme cela est prévu dans les systèmes anglo-saxons. Le défenseur n’est pas obligé de faire usage du document, mais s’il décide de s’en servir, La délicatesse et l’importance de la fonction imposent il pourra être accusé de faux intellectuel au une garantie absolue de véracité. La motivation de la cas où le document ne reproduirait pas fidè- Cour est, clairement, de mettre en évidence trois lement les déclarations faites. points essentiels pour que soient menées correcte- ment les activités de défenseur : (i) la gravité des L’exigence de protéger tous les acteurs de la conséquences d’un faux pour les parties au procès, procédure impose une garantie d’authenti- qui doivent être protégées ; (ii) la mise en danger du cité et d’impartialité. Une violation quel- caractère équitable du procès, auquel on ne peut conque de la véridicité de la verbalisation déroger ; (iii) la possibilité d’une incrimination pour peut mettre en danger le caractère équitable, le défenseur. Ces trois éclaircissements sur la bonne élément essentiel de tout procès pénal. application de la loi constituent trois avertissements.

Concerne : Limitation des droits de la défense devant la chambre du conseil de la Cour de Cassation Cour de Cassation Conclusions de la cour Note: 27 mai 2005 Dans cet arrêt, la Cour limite le droit à la contradic- ordonnance L’Article 375 du Code de procédure civile o tion et à la défense orale, amplement admis par la n 11315 exclut le droit des défenseurs d’être Il Foro italiano, entendus à l’audience qui a lieu en chambre jurisprudence, sans aucune exception. 2006, no 2, 1ère partie, p. 504 du conseil devant la Cour de Cassation pour Une partie de la doctrine a manifesté son approba- la détermination du juge qui sera compétent tion, mais une autre partie, en revanche, a objecté pour décider sur une controverse. que la défense a le droit d’être entendue jusqu’au La norme ne viole pas les droits de la défense moment de la décision, car de nouveaux éléments compris dans le principe du procès équitable peuvent résulter de la contradiction jusqu’au énoncé par les Article 111 de la Constitution moment de la décision. et 6 de la Convention européenne des Droits de l’Homme étant donné que les défenseurs, Il a été fait observé que la partie pourra, en tout cas, après avoir été informés de la date de attaquer la décision lorsqu’elle lui sera notifiée, mais l’audience et des requêtes du ministère il semble indéniable que la possibilité de décider en public, ont toujours un laps de temps suffi- chambre du conseil peut éviter un prolongement de sant pour échanger leurs mémoires respec- la procédure, donc son alourdissement, toujours tifs et répliquer avant l’audience. source de frais et dépens ultérieurs et d’un état d’incertitude contraire au principe du délai raison- Le législateur poursuit le but de favoriser la nable. rapidité de la procédure et la possibilité de présenter des mémoires et de répliquer, sau- Tôt ou tard la Cour sera à nouveau saisie de la ques- vegardant ainsi le respect du droit de la tion et un débat plus approfondi sur le sujet défense à la contradiction. reprendra certainement.

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Concerne : Exception d’incompétence ratione loci soulevée par un litisconsort en désaccord avec les autres litis Cour Constitutionnelle 8 février 2006 Conclusions de la cour conventionnel, il peut être dérogé au for o arrêt n 41 prévu in abstracto par la loi si toutes les par- Giurisprudenza Aux termes des Articles 38 et 102 du Code costituzionale, de procédure civile, le défenseur litisconsort ties intervenant dans la procédure se 2006, no 1, p. dans un litige qui a pour objet que la procé- mettent d’accord ; sinon, on doit recon- 333 dure soit transférée ratione loci à un autre naître le droit de la partie de faire vérifier si Rivista di diritto juge indiqué in abstracto par la loi comme la compétence établie par la loi est fondée. processuale, 2006, no 3, p. compétent a le droit d’obtenir une décision Note : 1083 sur le fondement de son exception déclina- L’arrêt de la Cour sanctionne indirectement des toire de la compétence du juge saisi, même si hypothèses qui peuvent donner lieu à des abus, par les autres parties ne sont pas d’accord avec la exemple lorsque les parties se sont mises d’accord requête. pour saisir un juge d’une ville plus proche ou C’est ainsi qu’il faut interpréter la loi. Au d’accès plus facile, raisons qui ne sont pas toujours cours du XXe siècle, l’exigence d’éviter deux de simple opportunité. décisions sur la même question a prévalu La règle générale du simultaneous processus pour la afin d’éviter le risque d’une pluralité de déci- même question impose sans doute le sacrifice des sions. Par conséquent, les Codes de procé- intérêts de certaines parties au procès, mais il est dure qui se sont succédés ont prévu la non- aussi indéniable que suivant un principe fonda- recevabilité de l’exception du litisconsort mental affirmé par l’Article 25 de la Constitution une fois qu’un juge a été saisi, avec pour « nul ne peut être soustrait au juge naturel désigné conséquence le sacrifice de l’intérêt de la par la loi ». partie qui est seule à soulever l’exception, contre l’avis des autres. Ceci entraîne une La compétence ratione loci, quand on ne peut y violation des droits de la défense et du droit renoncer, peut souffrir des dérogations, mais il de ne pas être soustrait au juge naturel relève de la prudence et de la sagesse du juge saisi désigné par la loi in abstracto, énoncés, res- de décider sur les déclinatoires et de vérifier l’oppor- pectivement, par les Article 24 et 25 de la tunité de se conformer ou de déroger à la règle du Constitution. simultaneous processus. Dans les litiges de nature civile, sauf si la loi Le simple refus d’évaluer la requête de la partie qui impose exceptionnellement une compé- soulève l’exception constitue, aux yeux de la Cour, tence indérogeable d’ordre public, au for une violation de la Constitution.

Concerne : Reconnaissance des arrêts étrangers de divorce Cour de Cassation 25 juillet 2006 Conclusions de la cour Dans l’hypothèse d’un divorce par consente- ordonnance ment mutuel, il faut avoir la preuve que les no 16978 Il Foro italiano, La contestation sur la possibilité de recon- époux ont exprimé leur libre volonté de la 2006, no 10, p. naître un arrêt étranger de divorce, déféré à dissolution du lien. Ceci exclut la violation 2699 la Cour d’appel compétente ratione loci du principe du respect de l’ordre public Il Corriere giuri- après son inscription dans les registres de interne – condition essentielle pour accorder dico, 2006, l’exequatur. De même, l’ordre public n’est no 10, p. 1349 l’état-civil, comprend un examen des conditions de légitimité de la décision, énoncées pas violé si la décision de divorce a été précé- dée par une séparation de corps, comme la par l’Article 64 de la Loi no 218 315/-1995 loi l’a prévu dans certains Etats américains, sur le système de droit international privé. ou si ont été respectés les principes du procès L’arrêt étranger ne peut être considéré équitable, en particulier la contradiction, le contraire à l’ordre public dans le cas où les caractère irrémédiable de la rupture du lien modalités de notification ou de communica- conjugal et le constat que la décision n’est tion de l’acte introductif d’instance ne sont pas le fruit d’une collusion. pas conformes aux modalités prévues par la Note : loi italienne, à condition que les règles en L’arrêt étranger de divorce, en vertu de la Conven- vigueur dans le lieu où la procédure s’est tion de Bruxelles I, modifiée par la suite, prévoit que déroulée et les règles concernant la contra- la décision doit être enregistrée dans les actes de diction aient été respectées. l’état-civil compétent ratione loci, sic et simpliciter.

Article 6 de la Convention 65 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Toutefois s’il y a contestation de la part de l’une des « respect des droits essentiels de la défense » à la parties intéressées, le juge saisi, aux termes de la lumière des principes énoncés par la Convention loi no 218 du 18 mai 1995, doit vérifier la réunion européenne des Droits de l’Homme : des conditions énoncées par la loi et rejeter l’oppo- « contradiction », « procès équitable », « ordre public sition ou ordonner l’apposition de la formule exécu- interne ». toire sur l’arrêt étranger. D’autre part, une fois saisi, le juge italien ne pourra La Cour ne méconnaît pas l’automatisme imposé par renoncer à appliquer les principes en vigueur dans la convention internationale, mais si elle est saisie son système juridique. La Convention de Bruxelles pour une divergence entre les parties intéressées, ne dit rien sur la procédure qui se déroule à la suite elle interprète l’expression de la loi italienne d’une opposition.

Concerne : Principe de légalité dans l’application des mesures de contrôle Cour de Cassation, Assemblée plénière des chambres pénales Conclusions de la cour En particulier, l’Article 275 du Code donne 30 mai 2006 o au juge la possibilité de choisir la mesure la arrêt n 29907 L’application des mesures de contrôle judi- Diritto e Giu- ciaire est soumise au principe de la légalité, plus adaptée parmi les hypothèses prévues stizia, 2006, en vertu duquel le juge ne peut ordonner que par la loi, en tenant compte de la gravité de no 36, p. 51 des mesures figurant dans l’énumération infractions commises ou de l’exigence de contenue dans la loi. maintenir sous contrôle le comportement de l’inculpé, ou encore d’éviter qu’il se rende Par conséquent, au-delà des hypothèses responsable d’autres violations, ou qu’il exceptionnelles qui prévoient le cumul de prenne la fuite. deux mesures pour l’inculpé qui a violé les obligations imposées par le juge, la loi Note : n’admet que la substitution d’une mesure Une partie de la jurisprudence avait estimé que le par une autre moins grave, ou l’inverse, mais juge pouvait appliquer en même temps plus d’une jamais l’application d’une mesure non mesure, mais la Cour de Cassation a réagi à cette ten- expressément prévue par la loi, même si elle dance par une motivation qui réaffirme une interpré- est compatible avec la situation sur le plan tation restrictive, considérant que le pouvoir conceptuel. La discrétion du juge est limitée, d’initiative du juge d’adopter une mesure non comme il est de rigueur dans la justice prévue par la loi, ou un cumul, entraîne la violation pénale, au choix des mesures prévues par les du principe de légalité, le seul applicable au pénal. Article 275-276 et 307 du Code de procédure Ceci signifie que la liberté d’adopter une mesure pénale. non prévue par la loi n’est pas admise.

Articles 6, 8 et 18 de la Convention et 2 du Protocole no 1

Concerne : Expulsion d’un étranger ayant des enfants mineurs Cour de Cassation Conclusions de la cour nité de prolonger sa résidence. La possibilité 11 janvier 2006 o d’achever un cycle de cours revêt, elle aussi, arrêt n 396 Immigrazione e Une personne, provenant d’un pays de une importance décisive pourvu qu’elle soit l’Europe de l’Est, dépourvue de permis de Cittadinanza, limitée à une période strictement nécessaire, 2006, no 2, p. séjour, demande de prolonger sa résidence étant donné que la loi n’admet un prolonge- 155 dans le territoire de l’Etat pour un temps ment de séjour que dans des situations déterminé dans le but de permettre à ses « graves et exceptionnelles », que le juge doit deux enfants de suivre leur scolarité et de leur « apprécier prudemment » (Article 31 du éviter le traumatisme de l’éloignement d’un Décret législatif no 286/1998 sur l’immigra- milieu où ils ont leurs intérêts culturels. tion). Le juge doit peser les intérêts des mineurs et Note : les liens affectifs qui les lient aux parents. En Ce cas n’est qu’un exemple des nombreuses affaires particulier, pour ce qui concerne le mineur, il que les tribunaux pour enfants et les sections pour faut prendre en considération son développe- les mineurs des cours d’appel sont appelés à tran- ment psychique et physique par rapport à cher chaque année concernant la difficile situation son âge, ses conditions de santé et l’opportu- des familles originaires de l’Afrique ou de l’Europe

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de l’Est. Le juge doit procéder à un mise en balance, que possible, de l’unité familiale, situations que la souvent délicate, entre le respect de la loi, l’exigence loi mentionne (Article 31). d’éviter à un mineur un éloignement traumatique, Les décisions évoquent souvent la Convention de l’assistance des proches parents, le respect, autant l’ONU du 20 novembre 1989 sur les droits des enfants, ratifiée par l’Italie.

Articles 6 de la Convention et 1 du Protocole no 1

Concerne : Indemnisation en cas d’expropriation pour cause d’utilité publique Cour de Cassation 20 mai 2006 Conclusions de la cour à la Convention européenne des Droits de ordonnance l’Homme (CEDH), interprété à la lumière no 11887/2006 Aux termes de la loi sur l’expropriation pour I Diritti cause d’utilité publique, le citoyen qui a été du principe du procès équitable garanti par dell’Uomo, contraint à céder à l’Administration un fonds l’Article 6 de ladite Convention. 2006, vol. 2, pp. a droit à une indemnité équivalente à 30 % de Le tout se fonde également sur la considéra- 69 et 96 la valeur courante du bien exproprié, réduite Diritto e Giu- tion qu’aux termes de l’Article 6 CEDH, les stizia, 2006, no du montant de l’impôt. Hautes Parties contractantes se sont engagés 40, p. 82 Le sacrifice économique peut sembler rai- à se conformer aux arrêts de la Cour euro- sonnable s’il ne dépasse pas une certaine péenne. limite et si l’Administration satisfait à un intérêt public. Dans une telle situation, un Par conséquent, la procédure est suspendue juste équilibre entre intérêts opposés semble et les actes renvoyés à la Cour Constitution- légitime. Le droit de propriété peut être nelle pour examen de la légitimité de la subordonné à l’intérêt primaire de l’utilité norme (Article 3 de la Loi du 23 décembre o publique. En revanche, si l’Administration 1996, n 662, sur l’expropriation). prend possession du bien sans une décision Note : préventive qui déclare l’utilité publique, elle La Cour de Cassation aborde le problème des rela- commet un acte illégitime, en violation du tions entre le droit interne et la jurisprudence de la principe de la légalité et du juste dédomma- Cour européenne des Droits de l’Homme. La posi- gement à la suite duquel le citoyen acquiert tion de la Convention européenne des Droits de le droit à une indemnisation équivalente à la l’Homme dans la hiérarchie des sources du droit valeur courante du bien. interne n’a été jamais explicitée et l’arrêt de la Cour Il semble indéniable que la violation du prin- Constitutionnelle devra sans doute éliminer des cipe de l’égalité de tous les citoyens devant doutes sur l’hypothèse de conflit avec les arrêts de la la loi, énoncé par les Articles 3 et 111 de la Cour, qui s’inspirent d’une conception libérale du Constitution et l’Article 1 du Protocole no 1 droit de propriété.

Articles 6 de la Convention et 4 du Protocole no 7

Concerne : Principe ne bis in idem Cour de Cassation, Assemblée plénière des chambres civiles 28 septembre Conclusions de la cour ment être appliquée dans le cas où la pre- 2005, arrêt mière poursuite n’a pas été conclue par un no 34655 Si deux poursuites pénales ont été entamées arrêt irrévocable, à condition que la poursuite L’Indice penale, contre une personne pour le même fait, la 2006, no 2, p. poursuite intentée en second doit être con- ait été déclenchée par le même parquet, 735 clue par une ordonnance de non-lieu au cas devant les juges du même ressort. Ceci Diritto e Giu- découle du principe général ne bis in idem, o où la première ne l’aurait pas été par une déci- stizia, 2006, n d’application immédiate dans le système de 40, p. 82 sion irrévocable. L’Article 649 du Code de procédure pénale prévoit la conclusion par un la justice pénale. non lieu pour la seule hypothèse où l’accusé Des exigences incontestables d’ordre logique a été acquitté ou relaxé par une décision amènent à affirmer que le même Parquet ne devenue irrévocable, mais la règle peut égale- peut mettre en mouvement les rouages de la

Articles 6 de la Convention et 1 du Protocole no 1 67 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 justice une deuxième fois contre la même idem est « pleinement opérationnel » en vertu de personne pour le même fait. l’Article 4 du Protocole no 7 à la Convention euro- Par l’expression « même fait », il faut péenne des Droits de l’Homme (CEDH) et appli- entendre la même identité « historique- cable directement en droit interne. Le principe est naturaliste de la violation » (sic l’arrêt), expressément énoncé dans plus d’une convention identifiée par ses éléments constitutifs, sur la validité internationale des jugements répressifs conditions de la répression, c’est-à-dire le (par ex. la Convention sur les stupéfiants) et par comportement incriminé, son résultat, l’élé- l’Accord de Schengen, qui consacre quatre articles à ment intentionnel. ce sujet. L’interprétation de la Cour vise aussi à Note : éviter des longues attentes pour la définition de la Ayant pris acte de la limitation posée par l’Article 649 du Code de procédure pénale, la Cour première poursuite, lesquelles entraînent souvent la a estimé que la norme justifie l’application de la violation du délai raisonnable, sanctionnée par la même règle aux décisions non irrévocables, se fon- CEDH et par l’Article 111 de la Constitution ita- dant sur la considération que le principe ne bis in lienne.

Article 8 de la Convention

Concerne : Droit de reconnaître un enfant naturel Cour de Cassation, 11 janvier 2006 Conclusions de la cour mineur est expressément prévue par la loi, Arrêt no 395 éventuellement en contradiction avec la par- Il Foro italiano, To u t e p e r s o n n e a l e d r oit de reconnaître son 2006, no 9, 1ère enfant naturel, même en ayant recours à une tie qui s’oppose. partie, p. 2156 action en justice en cas d’opposition de Note : l’autre parent ou d’un tiers. Ce droit peut être méconnu seulement en présence d’une situa- L’arrêt rappelle, dans un style incisif, les normes du tion propre à compromettre gravement le Code civil – remaniées après la guerre – consacrées développement psychique ou physique de à la reconnaissance d’un enfant naturel ou issu d’un l’enfant. Il est garanti par l’Article 30 de la inceste et met l’accent sur la portée de l’Article 30 de Constitution, aux termes duquel les parents la Constitution. La séparation de corps et les divorces ont le devoir et le droit d’entretenir, instruire tendent à augmenter dans la société moderne et l’exi- et élever leurs enfants, même s’ils sont nés gence d’éviter autant que possible que les enfants hors du mariage. soient privés d’une ambiance familiale impose le respect du droit à assurer un lien affectif. Par consé- L’intérêt à créer un lien familial même sans la quent, ils doivent être interrogés, même en participation ou avec l’opposition de l’autre contradiction avec le parent qui s’oppose. parent, constitue l’expression d’un sentiment qui mérite respect et protection. Le rejet En l’espèce, il était question des droits des parents d’une demande de reconnaissance doit être énoncés par l’Article 8 de la Convention euro- dûment motivé par le juge, lequel, loin de péenne des Droits de l’Homme, mais la jurispru- limiter l’enquête aux simples avantages éco- dence a plus d’une fois examiné les controverses à nomiques, doit évaluer les exigences et les la lumière du principe de l’interdiction de toute dis- perspectives de vie de l’enfant et les consé- crimination énoncé par l’Article 14 de ladite quences de la reconnaissance. L’audition du Convention.

Concerne : Garde des enfants – critère de la résidence habituelle du mineur Cour de Cassation, 31 janvier 2006 Conclusions de la cour tuées dans les actes de l’état-civil n’ont pas Arrêt no 2171 une valeur probatoire décisive. Le lieu où Diritto e Giu- La compétence de décider des différends stizia, 2006, l’enfant fréquente l’école maternelle ou pri- o concernant l’exercice de l’autorité parentale n 9, p. 20 sur le mineur et sa garde appartient au tribu- maire est souvent décisif pour déterminer la nal pour enfants du lieu de résidence effective compétence territoriale. et habituelle, tandis que les déplacements Il s’agit d’une compétence à laquelle il ne temporaires ou les enregistrements effec- peut être dérogé, excluant toute autre règle,

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y compris le critère général de la résidence de l’enfant en considération de la spécialité de la du défendeur (ex-art. 18 du Code de procé- matière et de l’opportunité de donner au Tribunal dure pénale). pour enfants la possibilité d’enquêter dans un lieu Le tribunal doit prendre en considération où le mineur vit, si nécessaire aussi parmi les per- exclusivement l’intérêt du mineur, prioritaire sonnes avec lesquelles il a des relations. Ceci permet par rapport à celui de ses parents. d’acquérir plus facilement les éléments de preuve utiles pour décider et assurer une efficace protection Note : cognita causa. Le Code de procédure civile énonce comme critère général de compétence territoriale le lieu où le La tendance actuelle, un peu partout en Europe, est défendeur réside habituellement. d’accroître la protection des mineurs et les efforts A son tour la Loi no 184/1983, réglant la garde des pour assurer un milieu familial et un lien affectif. La mineurs et l’adoption, n’énonce aucun critère pour Cour se montre sensible à une telle tendance. De déterminer la compétence territoriale en matière temps en temps, certains tribunaux ont des positions d’adoption et de garde des mineurs. En l’absence divergentes, mais si la Cour réaffirme son interpréta- d’une règle spécifique, la Cour a plus d’une fois réaf- tion, ayant comme point de départ la spécialité de la firmé la compétence du lieu de résidence habituelle matière.

Concerne : Droit de la personne adoptée de connaître l’identité de sa mère naturelle Cour Constitutionnelle 25 novembre Conclusions de la cour Note : 2005 L’adoption a toujours comporté l’exigence de o o arrêt n 425 Aux termes de l’Article 28 de la Loi n 184 du garantir le secret sur l’identité des parents par le Famiglia, 2006, no 1, p. 155 4 mars 1983, modifié par l’Article 177 du sang, en particulier le secret sur la partie de l’acte de Diritto della Code en matière de données personnelles, la l’état-civil qui mentionne l’identité de la mère natu- famiglia, 2006 personne adoptée, une fois sa majorité relle. no 2, 1ère partie, atteinte, acquiert le droit de connaître ses L’adoption d’un mineur représente souvent un évé- p. 441 origines, sauf si la mère naturelle a fait Giurisprudenza nement traumatique pour les protagonistes, source costituzionale, insérer dans les actes de l’état-civil, au de conflits. C’est pour cela qu’on a cherché à éviter 2006, vol. 6, p. moment de la naissance, sa volonté de ne les rapprochements et les contacts entre adopté et 4585 pas être identifiée. famille d’origine. La norme ne viole pas les Article 2 et 32 de la Une fois qu’il a atteint sa majorité, l’enfant adopté Constitution, étant donné que le législateur aspire souvent à entamer des recherches sur son ori- s’est efforcé de mettre en balance les intérêts. gine. Il a estimé opportun de protéger la femme La Cour, bien loin de méconnaître la valeur morale enceinte, qui peut se trouver dans une situa- d’un sentiment souvent irrépressible, inhérent à la tion personnelle difficile sur le plan moral, nature humaine, choisit la mise en balance, sou- économique et social, lui donnant la possibi- haitée même par la jurisprudence de la Cour euro- lité de se faire hospitaliser et de garder, en péenne. Sociologues et psychologues ont même temps, l’anonymat. Ceci peut la dis- récemment mis l’accent sur la possibilité pour le suader de prendre une décision grave et irré- juge de demander à la mère si elle veut garder le parable pour l’enfant à naître. secret aussi longtemps après l’accouchement, mais la proposition a été repoussée en considération de la La norme constitue l’expression d’une appré- possibilité que l’accomplissement des formalités ciation comparative des droits inviolables de nécessaires puisse permettre à l’intéressé de décou- la personne. vrir l’identité de sa mère.

Article 8 de la Convention 69 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Concerne : Expulsion d’un étranger ayant un lien affectif avec une citoyenne nationale Cour Constitutionnelle Conclusions de la cour La norme ne viole pas la Constitution étant 11 mai 2006 o donné que l’expulsion est seulement différée arrêt n 192 Le juge de paix de Gênes a douté de la légiti- Immigrazione e o mité de l’Article 19 du Décret législatif n 86 jusqu’à six mois après la naissance de Cittadinanza, du 25 juillet 1998 régissant l’immigration et l’enfant, en faveur d’un mari cohabitant 2006, no 2, ère le traitement de l’immigré, en ce qu’il prévoit avec sa femme enceinte. Le délai est fondé 1 partie, p. 142 l’expulsion de l’étranger extra-communau- sur la certitude acquise que l’étranger vit en taire, auquel le permis de séjour a été refusé, communauté de ménage à la suite d’un ayant un lien affectif avec une citoyenne ita- mariage. En revanche, s’il s’agit d’un simple lienne enceinte, situation qui peut priver la lien affectif, l’intérêt du requérant ne peut femme et l’enfant à naître d’une assistance morale et matérielle, en violation des prévaloir sur les limitations en vigueur. Le Article 2, 30 et 32 de la Constitution (La décret législatif a été édicté dans le but République garantit les droits fondamentaux d’assurer la sûreté publique, l’ordre et la pré- de l’homme et protège la santé de tout indi- vention des infractions, pénales, intérêts vidu). d’importance fondamentale.

Concerne : Limites à la liberté d’expression Cour de Cassation

Conclusions de la cour liberté d’expression, la protection du droit à la vie 11 août 2005, arrêt no 30879 Les personnes qui décident de décrire un évé- privée, les limitations à la diffusion des informations, le contrôle exercé par l’autorité garante de la radio- Diritto e Giu- nement de leur vie au cours d’une transmis- stizia, 2005, sion télévisée doivent admettre que les diffusion, la défense de bonnes mœurs, l’interpréta- no 42, p. 52 informations données et leur comportement tion du droit d’expression des chroniqueurs énoncé pendant la transmission peuvent faire l’objet par l’Article 21 de la Constitution. Des opinions non de commentaires et critiques, les deux fruits concordantes ont été exprimées, souvent à la suite de la liberté d’expression octroyée à toute de vifs débats. personne, dans la limite de la modération. Les journaux et la presse spécialisée ont signalé Note : quelques dizaines de décisions de juges du fond et L’arrêt a été rendu par la Cour de Cassation dans une de la Cour de Cassation qui s’efforcent d’indiquer les affaire qui a intéressé le grand public et à laquelle la bornes de la légitimité, des opinions parfois sévères, presse a consacré de longs commentaires. Un bon parfois plutôt libérales. L’arrêt en constitue un nombre de lois ont été édictées récemment sur la exemple typique.

Concerne : Prises de vue par la télévision dans un espace privé Cour de Cassation, Assemblée plénière des chambres pénales Conclusions de la cour Si la prise de vue est effectuée sans aucune 28 mars 2006 o autorisation dans un lieu privé, elle est illé- arrêt n 26795 Les prises de vue par une chaîne de télévision Diritto e Giu- gitime et ne peut pas être utilisée dans le sont, en principe, légitimes si elles sont effec- stizia, 2006, procès comme élément de preuve. o tuées dans un lieu auquel quiconque peut n 34, p. 46 accéder librement. En revanche, s’il s’agit La question des prises de vue n’est pas réglée d’un domicile privé ou d’un lieu auquel par la loi ; en particulier, aucune norme l’accès est interdit, pour des raisons de confi- n’explique si, et dans quelle mesure, la protec- dentialité ou d’intimité, sans le consente- tion d’un lieu peut être sacrifiée. ment de ceux qui ont le droit à la protection L’Article 188 du Code de procédure pénale se de l’inviolabilité du domicile, la prise de vue limite à prévoir que le juge requis est légitime sous réserve d’une autorisation d’ordonner l’acquisition d’un élément de du juge des enquêtes préliminaires ou du preuve peut l’autoriser si la liberté de la per- Ministère public justifiant les raisons du sonne qui bénéficie de la protection n’est sacrifice fait à la limitation de la liberté du pas préjugé. Rien n’est expliqué sur les pos- domicile, garantie par les Article 13 et 14 de la sibilités de sacrifier l’inviolabilité du domi- Constitution. cile.

70 Italy/Italie Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Toutefois, en vertu des principes énoncés souvent le seul moyen pour découvrir la preuve d’un par la Constitution et par l’Article 8 § 2 de la délit. Convention européenne des Droits de L’assemblée plénière, dans son long arrêt, cite un l’Homme, on peut conclure que le respect dû certain nombre de décisions qui s’inspirent des dif- à la vie privée peut être sacrifié par une férents principes. mesure dûment motivée, nécessaire à la Le recours aux principes énoncés par la Constitution découverte d’une infraction pénale. et la Convention européenne des Droits de l’Homme a, enfin, indiqué la voie à suivre qui soit à Note : même de satisfaire à une exigence à laquelle la jus- Ces dernières années, les tribunaux et cours d’appel tice ne peut renoncer, même dans un système démo- se sont trouvés en difficulté, à plusieurs reprises, en cratique. La doctrine souhaitait que la matière soit raison de l’absence de réglementation spécifique, réglée par une loi à même de « défaire le nœud » des jugée nécessaire en considération du fait qu’une prises de vue et des interceptions par les chaînes de prise de vue par une chaîne de télévision constitue télévision.

Articles 8 et 14 de la Convention

Concerne : Attribution du nom de famille Cour Constitutionnelle 16 février 2006 Conclusions de la cour leurs enfants. Cependant, une décision sur la o arrêt n 61 légitimité irait au-delà des pouvoirs de la Famiglia, 2006, Le Code civil prescrit que l’enfant, après sa no 4-5, p. 931 naissance, acquiert le nom de son père, Cour, étant donné qu’aucune autre norme ne Studium Juris, même si les parents ont manifesté, d’un règle l’attribution du nom et un vide législatif 2006, no 9, p. commun accord, une volonté contraire. s’en suivrait, avec pour conséquence inévita- 1075 ble un impact négatif sur la possibilité de ren- L’attribution du nom de la mère n’est pas dre justice en cas de controverse entre époux. autorisée. La Cour estime que l’évolution de la sensibilité sociale et la nécessité de respec- Note : ter les conventions internationales ratifiées La Cour dit explicitement que la limitation imposée par l’Italie imposerait de reconsidérer la par la loi appartient au passé et évoque la tradition, matière à la lumière, également, des les Recommandations 1271 (1995) et 1362 (1998) Article 2, 3 et 29 de la Constitution, en vertu du Conseil de l’Europe mais aussi la Résolution 37 desquels les principes de la parité morale et (1998) concernant la pleine réalisation de l’égalité juridique des époux et de leur égale dignité entre mère et père dans l’attribution du nom à leur sociale justifierait la possibilité d’attribuer à enfant. En outre, une série de trois décisions de la l’enfant le nom de sa mère. Il s’agit d’une Cour européenne des Droits de l’Homme affirme la norme ancrée dans la tradition, qui réalise nécessité d’éliminer toute forme de discrimination une discrimination contraire aux principes entre époux fondée sur le sexe. énoncés par les Article 143 et 147 du Code Trois projets de loi ont été présentés, mais n’ont pas civil, aux termes desquels les époux acquiè- encore été pris en considération, en l’état, par les rent les mêmes droits et devoirs à l’égard de commissions législatives du Parlement.

Articles 8 de la Convention et 2 du Protocole no 1

Concerne : Devoir d’enquête du juge pour déclarer un enfant en état d’abandon Cour de Cassation 10 août 2006 Conclusions de la cour soins nécessaires, mais aussi lorsque les liens o arrêt n 18113 affectifs manquent totalement, portant Diritto e Giu- Le mineur a le droit d’être éduqué dans la stizia, 2006, famille par le sang, sauf si celle-ci n’est pas à atteinte au développement de la personnalité no 40, p. 33 même de lui apporter les soins nécessaires et de l’enfant. de l’entretenir. Les liens affectifs constituent l’un des élé- L’état d’abandon doit être déclaré non seule- ments essentiels pour un enfant et la loi ment quand les parents n’assurent pas les confie au juge la délicate tâche d’apprécier la

Articles 8 et 14 de la Convention 71 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 situation en prenant en compte le milieu où matière d’adoption, en progressive augmentation il vit, son caractère, son développement depuis quelques années, engagent les tribunaux mental et psycho-physique. pour enfants à des longues et délicates enquêtes, L’enquête doit être poussée, s’il est nécessaire, soumises souvent à l’examen de la Cour de Cassa- jusqu’à la vérification des relations qui lient tion, qui réaffirme la tâche délicate qui incombe au ses parents, devoir auquel le juge ne peut se juge et son devoir de veiller efficacement sur les soustraire. Un éventuel climat conflictuel perspectives de vie des enfants. entre eux peut exercer une influence prépon- dérante sur la vie de l’enfant tandis qu’une La jurisprudence qui s’est formée sur l’Article 8 de la ambiance familiale tranquille favorisera un Convention européenne des Droits de l’Homme et développement équilibré. sur certains aspects de l’Article 2 du Protocole, grâce Note : aux décisions de la Cour européenne des droits de L’arrêt n’apporte pas d’éléments nouveaux mais il l’Homme, constitue un guide pour l’application cor- est utile de faire remarquer que les controverses en recte des principes.

Article 10 de la Convention

Concerne : Interception de communications téléphoniques Cour de Cassation, assemblée plénière des chambres pénales Conclusions de la cour Note: 24 janvier 2006 o e L’arrêt de l’Assemblée plénière de la Cour repré- arrêt n 2737 Aux termes de l’Article 268, 3 alinéa, du Archivio della Code de procédure pénale, les interceptions sente un aspect de la lutte de l’Etat contre la crimina- nuova proce- de conversations ou communications sont lité organisée. dura penale, autorisées pour une série de violations 2006, 2e vol., p. expressément prévues par l’Article 266 du Pendant longtemps, les interceptions de conversa- 152 Il Corriere del Code. Normalement réalisées dans les sièges tions ou communications pouvaient avoir lieu sur merito, 2006, no des Parquets, elles peuvent, exceptionnelle- simple autorisation du juge des enquêtes prélimi- 3, p. 361 ment, être autorisées en ayant recours à naires. La Cour, prenant acte de l’importance d’une d’autres installations, sur autorisation du activité limitant gravement la liberté personnelle, a Procureur de la République, qui décide par interprété la loi dans le sens que les Parquets ont une décret motivé sur la dérogation et sur compétence exclusive à autoriser l’interception, soit l’urgence de procéder à l’interception sans dans leurs sièges, soit dans d’autres lieux. De plus, avoir recours aux équipements des Parquets. les décisions doivent toujours être préventives et L’autorisation doit être conforme au principe dûment motivées de façon à permettre un contrôle énoncé à l’Article 15 de la Constitution, aux termes duquel les limitations de liberté ne sur leur légitimité et sur les recours à des modalités sont admises que par des actes motivés du techniques correctes. La doctrine a remarqué un Procureur de la République, dans le respect changement radical, qui donne un caractère de sévé- des garanties fixées par la loi et en excluant rité aux interceptions et poursuit le but de parvenir à toute possibilité d’intervention du juge des une lutte plus efficace contre la délinquance orga- enquêtes préliminaires. nisée, notamment le commerce de stupéfiants.

Concerne : Secret de la correspondance des détenus Cour de Cassation Conclusions de la cour prudence de la Cour européenne. Un décret 13 juin 2006 o de saisie de la correspondance d’un détenu, arrêt n 20228 Le versement de la correspondance épisto- Diritto e Giu- laire d’un détenu aux actes d’un procès dans le but d’acquérir des éléments de stizia, 2006, pénal, en exécution d’un décret non motivé preuve, doit être dûment motivé par l’auto- no 33, p. 38 du Procureur de la République, viole soit rité en charge de l’affaire – juge des enquêtes l’Article 15 de la Constitution (aux termes préliminaires, tribunal, juge chargé de sur- duquel le droit à la liberté et au secret de la correspondance et à toute formes de com- veiller l’exécution de la peine de détention – munication est inviolable) soit l’Article 8 de , quelle que soit la phase de la procédure, la Convention européenne des Droits de même à l’occasion de l’application d’une l’Homme, tel qu’il est interprété par la juris- mesure de sûreté.

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La motivation du décret constitue une collecter des éléments de preuve utiles à la décision. garantie à laquelle on ne peut déroger : la Le régime ordinaire de contrôle de la correspon- violation d’un telle règle rend inutilisable la dance des détenus est contenu dans la loi sur l’orga- correspondance et cette nullité doit être pro- nisation pénitentiaire. L’Article 15 de la Constitution noncée d’office par le juge saisi. affirme que la limitation à la liberté et au secret de la Note : correspondance « ne peut se produire que par des L’arrêt prend en considération le versement de la actes motivés de l’autorité judiciaire, avec les garan- correspondance aux actes du dossier dans le but de ties énoncés par la loi ».

Article 14 de la Convention

Concerne : Relations patrimoniales entre époux de nationalités différentes Cour Constitutionnelle 4 juillet 2006 Conclusions de la cour tinction de sexe, le mariage reposant sur la o arrêt n 254 parité morale et juridique des époux. Il Foro italiano, L’Article 19 des dispositions préliminaires du 2006, no 7-8, p. Code civil prévoit que les relations patrimo- Note : 4, partie niales entre époux de nationalités différentes 1.La norme soumise à l’examen de la Cour constitu- « Nouveautés » sont régies par la loi applicable au mari en tionnelle par la Cour de Cassation ne prévoit aucune vigueur au moment de la célébration du possibilité de dérogation. mariage. La norme poursuit le but d’éliminer 2. Le but poursuivi est de couper court à toute possi- toute possibilité de conflit entre lois qui bilité de contestation, mais la discrimination semble appliquent des principes non concordants. évidente. La norme constitue une discrimination à 3.Depuis longtemps la doctrine mettait en évidence l’égard de la femme, fondée exclusivement la discrimination à l’encontre de la femme, même si sur le sexe, en violation des Article 3, le législateur poursuivait le but pratique d’éliminer 1er alinéa, et 29, 2e alinéa, de la Constitution, des doutes et controverses. aux termes desquels, respectivement, tous les 4.La norme, insérée dans le Code civil en 1942, était citoyens sont égaux devant la loi, sans dis- restée ancrée à une tradition remontant au 19e siècle.

Article 1 du Protocole no 12 à la Convention

Concerne : Exclusion des citoyens extra-communautaires d’emplois dans une administration publique Cour de Cassation 13 novembre Conclusions de la cour lois réglant l’accès aux services de l’adminis- 2006 tration confirment, à leur tour, que la natio- arrêt no 24170 Aux termes de l’Article 70 du Décret légis- o Guida al Diritto, latif n 165 du 30 mars 2001 sur l’accès au nalité italienne est « requise ». Les structures 2006, no 46, p. travail, les personnes n’ayant pas la qualité spécifiquement créées pour favoriser 40 de citoyens italiens ne peuvent pas accéder à l’acceptation des travailleurs étrangers ne se un emploi dans l’administration publique réfèrent pas aux emplois dans les adminis- centrale ou territoriale, sauf s’il s’agit de trations. citoyens provenant d’un Etat de la Commu- La Convention de New York sur les droits de nauté européenne. Par conséquent, un extra- l’homme ne prévoit pas non plus une égalité communautaire, même s’il est inscrit sur la de traitement en matière d’accès aux liste des personnes inaptes aux travaux « emplois publics ». manuels, ne peut être admis dans une administration publique, en l’espèce la province de On peut déduire de l’ensemble des normes en Sienne. L’Article 4 de la Constitution recon- matière d’emploi que le droit au travail peut naît le droit au travail « à tous les citoyens » trouver des limites en présence d’un intérêt et crée les conditions qui le rend effectif ; public prioritaire général. La limitation ins- l’Article 51 ajoute que tous « les citoyens taurée par le Décret n’est donc pas illégi- peuvent accéder aux emplois publics ». Les time.

Article 14 de la Convention 73 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Note : Les opinions contraires à la solution de la Cour n’ont La Cour de Cassation examine pour la première fois pas manqué et le problème fera sans doute l’objet de la possibilité d’embaucher un citoyen extracommu- discussions et d’interprétations non concordantes nautaire pour un emploi dans l’administration dans un futur proche. publique.

Luxembourg

Article 6 de la Convention

Concerne : Droits de la défense Cour d’appel Principaux faits et griefs dès lors que le prévenu reçoit la notification 4 janvier 2006 Réf : 1/06 X L’un des prévenus, se rapportant aux plaidoi- de l’ordonnance de renvoi ou de la citation à ries présentées en première instance, fait plai- prévenu ainsi que la communication du dos- der que l’Article 190-1, alinéa 3, du Code sier répressif et est, ainsi, à même de connaî- d’instruction criminelle serait contraire aux tre les faits dont il a à répondre devant la dispositions de l’Article 6 §§ 2 et 3 de la juridiction répressive. Convention européenne des Droits de Les plaidoiries de la défense développant la l’Homme (CEDH) en ce que le procureur position du prévenu donnent ensuite au d’Etat requerrait après la présentation des ministère public la possibilité de prendre ses éléments et moyens de défense du prévenu. réquisitions à bon escient, dans l’intérêt L’un des autres prévenus relève encore que, d’une bonne administration de la justice et plus spécialement en l’espèce, en raison de la d’une juste application de la loi, réquisitions pluralité des prévenus, il aurait été impossible par rapport auxquelles le prévenu ou son de déterminer quels faits et quelles infrac- défenseur peuvent répliquer. tions le ministère public reproche à chacun L’ordre dans lequel il y a lieu d’accomplir des prévenus, ce qui léserait leurs droits de la diverses formalités prévues à l’Article 190-1 défense. du Code d’instruction criminelle n’est pas Le représentant du ministère public requiert prescrit à peine de nullité, du moment qu’il la confirmation du jugement attaqué en fai- n’est pas porté atteinte aux droits de la sant valoir que le droit à un procès équitable défense. et le respect des droits de la défense doivent L’Article 6 §§2 et 3 CEDH exige, quant au être considérés globalement, et non sur une déroulement de la procédure à l’audience, période restreinte du déroulement du procès. que les principes de la présomption d’inno- La place des réquisitions du ministère public, cence, du contradictoire et de l’égalité des déterminée par l’Article 190-1, alinéa 3, armes soient respectés. s’expliquerait par le fait que le prévenu serait Tant la présomption d’innocence que le prin- informé des faits et infractions qui lui sont cipe du contradictoire et d’égalité des armes imputés par l’ordonnance de renvoi de la sont assurés à l’audience par la possibilité de chambre du conseil ou la citation du minis- faire citer des témoins, de recourir au minis- tère public. Tout prévenu ayant, en vertu tère d’un avocat, le cas échéant d’être assisté dudit article, le droit de prendre la parole en d’un interprète et par le droit de réfuter tous dernier, et donc de répliquer à tout ce qui a les moyens et éléments présentés par le été débattu à l’audience, les droits de la ministère public, droit qui est respecté par défense seraient garantis. l’obligation de donner la parole en dernier au Conclusions de la cour prévenu ou à son représentant. L’Article 190-1, alinéa 3, du Code d’instruc- Dans la mesure où l’Article 190-1, alinéa 3, tion criminelle organise l’ordre de parole des dispose qu’après le résumé de l’affaire et les acteurs au procès et le fait que le ministère conclusions du procureur d’Etat, le prévenu public requière après la présentation des élé- et les personnes civilement responsables ments et moyens de défense s’inscrit dans le peuvent répliquer, et doivent donc avoir la cadre du déroulement de la procédure pénale, parole en dernier, il n’est pas contraire à

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l’Article 6 §§ 2 et 3 CEDH, dès lors qu’il raux des droits de la défense qui dominent garantit le droit à un procès équitable, s’ins- tout procès pénal. crivant, par ailleurs, dans les principes géné- Autre affaire concernant les droits de la défense : Tribunal d’arrondissement de Luxembourg, 10 janvier 2006. Réf. : 7/06 Résumé d’une violation des droits de la défense et Le fait, à lui seul, qu’une partie dispose de n’équivaut pas automatiquement à une rup- témoins et l’autre non n’est pas constitutive ture de l’égalité des armes au procès. Concerne : Indépendance et impartialité des Conseils disciplinaires Conseil de Discipline du Collège Médical 17 mai 2006 Principaux faits et griefs cal qu’il instaure ne constitue pas un tribunal La personne citée demande au Conseil de Dis- au sens des Article 84 et 86 de la Constitu- cipline de dire que l’Article 17 de la Loi du tion. 8 juin 1999 relative au Collège Médical et ins- tituant un Conseil de Discipline viole Conclusions du Conseil de Discipline l’Article 6 de la Convention européenne des Les procédures disciplinaires, et a fortiori les Droits de l’Homme (CEDH). Conseils de Discipline appelés à sanctionner Selon l’intéressé, l’Article 17 de la Loi, en les membres d’une profession déterminée, créant un organisme susceptible de prendre doivent présenter pour les justiciables les des décisions ayant autorité de chose jugée mêmes garanties d’indépendance et d’impar- sur les personnes déférées à sa juridiction, tialité que les juridictions de l’ordre judiciaire. sans que cet organisme présente, par sa struc- Outre ces critères, les Conseils de Discipline ture organisationnelle même, les garanties des juridictions disciplinaires doivent être d’indépendance et l’impartialité requises, vio- institués par la loi et assurer la publicité des lerait l’Article 6 § 1 CEDH, alors que le sim- débats. ple doute, aussi peu justifié soit-il, suffit à altérer l’impartialité du tribunal. En effet, En ce qui concerne la qualification de ledit article, en stipulant que le Conseil de « tribunal » au sens de l’Article 6 CEDH, la o Discipline se compose, pour chaque affaire Cour Supérieure de Justice (arrêt n 2 du qui lui est soumise à l’égard d’un médecin- 11 juillet 1985, et 3 du 4 décembre 1986), dentiste, du président du tribunal d’arrondis- tout comme la Cour européenne des Droits sement et de deux médecins-dentistes n’assu- de l’Homme, a admis que pour qu’un tribu- rerait pas le caractère d’indépendance et nal puisse être admis comme tel, il n’est pas l’impartialité auquel la personne citée aurait nécessaire qu’il possède une nature juridic- droit. Cette dernière fait valoir que l’organi- tionnelle stricto sensu, mais qu’il ait pour sation du Conseil de Discipline est en contra- fonction de se prononcer sur les points liti- diction avec le critère objectif déterminé par gieux, en se basant sur des règles de droit qui la Cour européenne des Droits de l’Homme, peuvent atteindre les justiciables dans leur qui vise à vérifier si le juge offre des garanties sphère juridique (Jean-Claude Wiwinius, suffisantes pour exclure tout doute légitime à L’application de l’Article 6 § 1 de la Conven- son égard. tion européenne des Droits de l’Homme et des libertés fondamentales par les juridic- Tel serait le cas en l’espèce, les structures de la tions luxembourgeoises; Pas. : 31, p. 215). présente juridiction n’offrant aucune garantie d’indépendance et d’impartialité, alors Le Conseil de Discipline du Collège Médical qu’elle est composée d’un magistrat et de remplit le critère de juridiction, alors qu’il a deux médecins-dentistes, membres de la été créé par la Loi du 8 juin 1999 précitée, de même profession que celle exercée par la per- même que le critère d’indépendance, les sonne citée, et leur seule présence en tant que assesseurs médecins-dentistes n’étant pas membres du Conseil de Discipline ne permet membres de la partie poursuivante. Le critère pas d’exclure un doute légitime de partialité. d’impartialité, qui, d’après la personne citée, Subsidiairement, la personne citée fait plai- ne serait pas objectivement rempli par les der que l’Article 17 sus-cité viole les assesseurs non magistrats, alors qu’ils Article 84 et 86 de la Constitution, dès lors seraient membres de la même profession que que le Conseil de Discipline du Collège Médi- ce dernier, ne saurait être retenu.

Article 6 de la Convention 75 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

La personne citée reste, par ailleurs, en défaut dent du Conseil de Discipline et l’autre par de préciser en quoi la présence de membres l’association la plus représentative des inté- exerçant la même profession que lui pourrait rêts de la profession. Le moyen n’est, partant, lui être préjudiciable et justifierait son opi- pas fondé. nion que l’instance diligentée à son encontre pourrait éventuellement constituer un pro- Quant au moyen soulevé à titre subsidiaire, cès non équitable. La présence d’assesseurs le Conseil de Discipline relève qu’est qualifié exerçant la même profession constitue une de tribunal tout organe dont la fonction juri- garantie supplémentaire pour la personne dictionnelle consiste à trancher, sur les bases citée afin que son cas soit examiné en tenant de normes de droit, à l’issue d’une procédure compte des particularités et difficultés de la organisée, toute question relevant de sa com- profession. pétence (Cour européenne des Droits de La jurisprudence citée par l’intéressé l’Homme, Srameck c. Autriche, 22 octobre (Langborger c. Suède) ne s’applique pas au 1984). Or, comme cela vient d’être spécifié Conseil de Discipline : dans cette affaire, les relativement à la conformité du Conseil de assesseurs avaient été recommandés par des Discipline à l’Article 6 CEDH, ledit Conseil associations avec lesquelles ils entretenaient constitue un tribunal au sens large du terme des liens étroits et opposés aux intérêts du et exerce les mêmes fonctions inhérentes à un requérant. Tel n’est pas le cas en l’espèce, les tel organe, dans le respect de ses obligations assesseurs n’ayant pas de lien avec le Collège d’impartialité et d’indépendance tant objecti- Médical et étant proposés l’un par le prési- ves que subjectives. Concerne : Impartialité du commissaire du gouvernement dans une procédure disciplinaire Tribunal administratif Principaux faits et griefs ministre en ce que malgré le caractère perti- 29 juin 2006 o nent de ses propres arguments développés Réf. : n 19199 Le demandeur conclut à une violation de du rôle l’Article 6 de la Convention européenne des devant le premier des deux personnes sus- Droits de l’Homme (CEDH) dans le cadre citées et les éléments objectifs du dossier pro- d’un recours en réformation d’une décision duits à sa décharge, les décisions de suspen- du Commissaire du Gouvernement chargé de sion déférées auraient été prises pendant les l’instruction disciplinaire et de la décision vacances scolaires de Noël. confirmative du ministre de l’Education nationale portant suspension de l’exercice de Conclusions du tribunal ses fonctions de professeur de lycée pendant tout le cours de la procédure disciplinaire Les décisions de suspension déférées ne cons- ordonnée contre lui jusqu’à la décision défini- tituent pas une sanction, de sorte que ni les tive. principes avancés par l’Article 6 CEDH, dont Il existerait dans le chef du Commissaire du notamment l’exigence d’un juge impartial, Gouvernement une partialité objective, en ce pût-elle être invoquée à l’encontre du Com- qu’en suspendant le fonctionnaire concerné missaire du Gouvernement, ni ceux ressor- il aurait préjugé nécessairement de sa déci- tant de la jurisprudence de la Cour sion future quant au fond, ayant dû le sus- européenne des Droits de l’Homme ne sont pecter d’avoir commis une faute susceptible applicables en l’espèce (cf. trib. adm. 12 juillet d’entraîner une sanction disciplinaire grave. 1999, confirmé par Cour adm. 21 décembre Il conclut à une partialité subjective dans le 1999. Pas. adm. 2004, V Fonction publique, chef des Commissaire de Gouvernement et no 152, p. 325). Concerne : Autonomie du droit disciplinaire Tribunal administratif Principaux faits et griefs demandeur allègue que la question de sa par- 4 octobre 2006 o ticipation intentionnelle à l’incendie n’est Réf. : n 21217 Dans le cadre d’un recours en annulation du rôle d’une décision relative à la durée du place- pas encore tranchée par les magistrats du ment en régime cellulaire strict, du fait de son siège et que cette façon de procéder viole le rôle primordial lors d’un incendie volontaire principe de la présomption d’innocence. au Centre pénitentiaire de Luxembourg, le

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Conclusions du tribunal une faute disciplinaire, entraînant les deux En relation avec la prétendue violation du formes de poursuites, ce qui revient à dire que principe de la présomption d’innocence, tel la règle « non bis in idem » ne s’applique pas que consacré par l’Article6 de la Convention dans les rapports du droit pénal et du droit o européenne des Droits de l’Homme, c’est à disciplinaire (cf. trib. adm., 11 juin 2001, n juste titre que le délégué du gouvernement a 12473 du rôle, confirmé par Cour adm. o relevé qu’une action disciplinaire et une 11 décembre 2001, n 13705C du rôle, Pas o action pénale peuvent se dérouler parallèle- adm. 2005, V Fonction publique, n 105). ment sur base des mêmes faits répréhensi- En l’espèce, la sanction disciplinaire pronon- bles, sans interférence du pénal sur le cée à l’encontre de Mr X l’a été dans l’intérêt disciplinaire. En effet, l’autonomie du droit du respect des règles de sécurité interne au disciplinaire et les caractères propres à la Centre pénitentiaire, tandis que la répression faute disciplinaire font que celle-ci est déter- pénale vise exclusivement l’intérêt de la minée selon des critères qui sont différents de société. Il s’ensuit que c’est à tort que le ceux qui permettent de définir l’infraction demandeur soutient que la sanction discipli- pénale. Cette indépendance se manifeste, naire prononcée à son encontre serait consti- notamment, en ce qu’un même fait peut tutive d’une « punition anticipative s’analyser à la fois en une faute pénale et en déguisée ».

Article 8 de la Convention

Concerne : Droit au respect de la vie familiale Cour administrative

7 novembre Principaux faits et griefs il y a lieu de retenir que X et Y étaient mariés 2006 et parents de trois enfants issus de leur union. Réf. : no 21680 La partie appelante reproche aux juges de pre- C mière instance une appréciation erronée des Suite à leur divorce, Y s’est remariée au éléments de la cause : leur décision porterait Luxembourg, au mois de janvier 1998, avec un atteinte à son droit au respect de sa vie privée dénommé Z, qui est décédé le 31 décembre et familiale et le fait qu’il vivrait avec sa 1999. Y affirme avoir rejoint son ex-épouse et famille – son ex-épouse et leurs trois enfants ses trois enfants en 2001 à Esch-sur-Alzette et communs – emporterait le droit à l’octroi a déposé six certificats de témoignages desti- d’une autorisation de séjour pour regroupe- nés à attester d’une vie familiale effective ment familial. depuis cette date. La Cour constate, au vu de ces certificats, que Conclusions de la cour X et Y ont mené – et mènent toujours, au S’il est de principe, en droit international, que moins depuis l’année 2001 – une vie familiale les Etats ont le pouvoir souverain de contrô- effective au Grand-Duché de Luxembourg. Il ler l’entrée, le séjour et l’éloignement des s’ensuit que X possède des attaches impor- étrangers, il n’en reste pas moins que ceux qui tantes et effectives au Grand-Duché de ont ratifié la Convention européenne des Luxembourg depuis plusieurs années. La Droits de l’Homme (CEDH) ont accepté de décision du ministre de la Justice de lui refu- limiter le libre exercice de cette prérogative ser l’entrée et le séjour dans le pays constitue dans la mesure des dispositions de la Conven- une ingérence dans sa vie familiale, ayant tion. pour conséquence une séparation des deux Il y a, dès lors, lieu d’examiner en l’espèce s’il concubins et de leurs trois enfants communs. existe une vie privée et familiale entre X et S’il est vrai, par ailleurs, qu’il ne ressort son ex-épouse Y ainsi que ses trois enfants, au d’aucun élément du dossier que X ait insisté sens de l’Article 8 § 1 CEDH, de nature à leur sur sa situation familiale par rapport à Y et attribuer un droit à en exiger la protection par rapport à ses enfants communs et qu’on par le biais dudit article – qui constitue une ne saurait que difficilement reprocher au disposition de droit international de nature à ministre de la Justice de ne pas avoir pris cet tenir en échec la législation nationale – et si la élément en considération, il n’en reste pas décision contestée constitue une ingérence moins que le juge administratif apprécie la illégale dans l’exercice de ce droit. légalité d’une décision administrative en con- En ce qui concerne l’existence d’une vie fami- sidération de la situation de droit et de fait au liale effective entre les personnes concernées, jour où elle a été prise.

Article 8 de la Convention 77 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Dans le cadre de ce contrôle de légalité, la date à laquelle la décision a été prise, de sorte Cour tiendra compte des faits non communi- qu’il y a lieu de la prendre en considération. qués expressément au ministre de la Justice mais ayant existé au moment où celui-ci a C’est donc à tort que le ministre des Affaires pris la décision incriminée. En l’espèce, la étrangères et de l’Immigration a refusé à X situation de fait a manifestement existé à la l’entrée et le séjour dans le pays. Concerne : Droit au respect de la vie familiale Cour administrative Principaux faits et griefs Ceci étant, la garantie du respect de la vie pri- 9 novembre vée et familiale comporte des limites et elle ne 2006 Les appelants estiment que le refus d’autori- Réf. : no 21632 sation de séjour constitue une ingérence comporte pas le droit de choisir l’implanta- C injustifiée et disproportionnée dans leur vie tion géographique de la vie familiale, de sorte familiale, laquelle serait certaine et ininter- que le choix délibéré d’un ou de plusieurs rompue. Ils n’auraient pas d’expectatives membres d’une famille de quitter leur pays dans leur pays d’origine, ne constitueraient d’origine et d’immigrer dans un autre pays ne pas un poids financier pour l’Etat luxembour- saurait, à lui seul, obliger l’Etat d’accueil à geois dès lors que les membres de leur famille laisser accéder l’ensemble de la famille dudit régulièrement établis au Luxembourg étranger sur son territoire. Il se dégage, en auraient signé des déclarations de prise en effet, de la jurisprudence de la Cour euro- charge à leur bénéfice et se seraient engagés à péenne des Droits de l’Homme que concer- leur fournir un logement ; de même, Mr X., nant le cas de figure de personnes adultes maçon de formation, pourrait rapidement désireuses de venir rejoindre des membres de s’adonner à une activité salariée, et aucune leur famille dans leur pays d’accueil, elles ne autre raison ne justifierait leur éloignement sauraient être admises au bénéfice de la pro- du Luxembourg. tection de l’Article 8 que lorsqu’il existe des éléments supplémentaires de dépendance, Conclusions de la cour autres que les liens affectifs normaux. Il est établi que la ratification de la Conven- tion européenne des Droits de l’Homme Or, en l’espèce, si l’existence de liens affectifs (CEDH) implique l’acceptation des Etats de entre les époux X et leurs enfants A, B et C, limiter le libre exercice de leur pouvoir souve- d’une part, et avec leurs proches parents éta- rain de contrôler l’entrée, le séjour et l’éloi- blis au Luxembourg, de l’autre, sont indénia- gnement des étrangers, dans la mesure des bles, il n’en reste pas moins que ces liens dispositions qu’elle prévoit. s’analysent en des liens affectifs normaux et Il s’ensuit que dans chaque cas d’espèce il ne se dégage pas des éléments d’informa- l’autorité publique est appelée, sous le tion produits qu’en cas de retour dans leur contrôle du juge, à examiner si la vie privée et pays d’origine – l’Etat de Serbie et Monténé- familiale dont les intéressés font état pour gro – les conditions d’existence des époux X conclure à l’existence d’un droit à la protec- et de leurs enfants A, B et C seraient inaccep- tion d’une vie familiale rentre effectivement tables. De même, une vie familiale avec les dans les prévisions de ladite disposition de membres de la famille s’étant, de leur plein droit international, laquelle est, le cas gré, installés au Luxembourg reste possible. échéant, de nature à tenir en échec la législa- En outre, il n’apparaît pas que l’ensemble de tion nationale. la famille X ne pourrait, en principe, pas exer- En l’espèce, comme les premiers juges l’ont cer pleinement son droit à une vie privée et retenu à juste titre, l’existence d’une vie familiale dans son pays d’origine. familiale effective avant l’immigration au Luxembourg des époux X avec leurs enfants, Dans ces conditions, les liens affectifs nor- ainsi que la continuation de rapports fami- maux existant entre les époux X et leurs liaux, tant après le départ de la fille A et son enfants A, B et C, d’une part, et avec leurs installation au Luxembourg, qu’après les proches parents établis au Luxembourg, mariages et installations des filles B et C au d’autre part, apparaissent être insuffisants Luxembourg et le départ pour les Pays-Bas pour justifier l’admission au bénéfice de la des époux X et de leurs trois autres enfants protection prévue par l’Article 8 CEDH. Le sont patentes. La volonté des grands-parents refus de délivrer une autorisation de séjour ne d’avoir des contacts réguliers avec leurs petits constitue pas une ingérence dans leur droit enfants est, en outre, des plus légitimes. au respect de leur vie privée et familiale.

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Concerne : Droit au respect de la vie familiale Tribunal administratif 21 novembre Principaux faits et griefs vie familiale perdurant sans discontinuité 2006 depuis 2000 ou 2001, les demandeurs ne ver- Réf. : nos 21211 Dans le cadre d’un recours en annulation sent aucune pièce ou document attestant et 21214 du rôle d’une décision ministérielle refusant à la demanderesse une autorisation de séjour à non seulement de la durée de la vie familiale son profit et à celui de ses enfants mineurs, alléguée, mais encore de l’existence effective l’intéressée invoque une violation de d’une telle vie familiale, de sorte que celle-ci l’Article 8 de la Convention européenne des doit être considérée comme n’étant pas éta- Droits de l’Homme (CEDH). blie en l’état actuel du dossier. Par ailleurs, même à supposer qu’une telle vie Conclusions du tribunal familiale aurait débuté en 2000, il importe de Il y a lieu d’examiner si la vie privée et fami- relever que l’Article 8 CEDH ne confère pas liale dont font état les demandeurs pour directement aux étrangers un droit de séjour conclure dans leur chef à l’existence d’un dans un pays précis et que les consorts X, droit à la protection d’une vie familiale par le lorsqu’ils ont noué leur relation amoureuse biais des dispositions de l’Article 8 CEDH alléguée, n’étaient pas sans ignorer la préca- rentre, effectivement, dans les prévisions de rité de la situation de la demanderesse en tant ladite disposition de droit international, qui qu’étrangère n’étant pas admise à séjourner est de nature à tenir en échec la législation sur le territoire luxembourgeois. Il importe, nationale. en effet, de relever que le caractère précaire de me Le tribunal constate, cependant, que le minis- la présence de M X sur le territoire n’est pas tre a accepté, dans le cadre du présent recours, sans pertinence dans l’analyse de la confor- de compléter ses décisions et de porter son mité de la mesure restrictive avec, notam- examen sur la question de l’applicabilité de ment, la condition de proportionnalité l’Article 8 CEDH, en contestant toute vie inscrite au second paragraphe de l’Article 8. familiale, de façon à permettre au tribunal La Cour européenne des Droits de l’Homme une analyse de cette question sur la base des n’accorde, en effet, qu’une faible importance arguments échangés de part et d’autre, consis- aux événements de la vie d’immigrants qui se tant à vérifier si le refus du ministre violerait produisent durant une période où leur pré- ledit article en ce qu’il aurait pour effet que sence sur le territoire est contraire à la loi l’Etat s’immiscie d’une manière dispropor- nationale, voire couverte par un statut de tionnée dans la vie privée et familiale des séjour précaire (Revue trimestrielle des droits demandeurs et qu’il causerait un déséquilibre de l’homme, 60/2004, p. 926). manifeste entre les intérêts en cause. En l’espèce, compte tenu du caractère non établi de la relation des consorts X ainsi que La notion de vie familiale au sens de la CEDH me ne présuppose pas nécessairement l’exis- du fait que M X a uniquement séjourné à tence d’un mariage, étant donné qu’aucun titre précaire, voire illégal dans le pays, un traitement différencié n’est concevable entre non-respect du principe de proportionnalité famille légitime et famille naturelle en ce qui entre la mesure de refus de délivrance d’une concerne le droit fondamental de cohabiter autorisation de séjour et la situation familiale dont bénéficient indubitablement tant les des demandeurs ne peut être déduit des élé- relations et familles nées du mariage que cel- ments de fait soumis au tribunal. les issues d’un simple concubinage (voir trib. En outre, eu égard à la situation personnelle adm. 24 janvier 2005, no 18063, http:// et familiale des demandeurs, les éléments en www.ja.etat.lu/), de manière à couvrir, le cas cause ne dénotent pas un usage par le minis- échéant, également la situation familiale des tre du pouvoir d’appréciation que lui confère concubins X. Néanmoins, il y a lieu de vérifier la Loi du 28 mars 1972 qui ne serait pas en d’abord si les demandeurs peuvent se préva- conformité avec les finalités de celle-ci. loir d’une vie familiale préexistante et effec- Cette conclusion n’est pas tempérée par les tive, caractérisée par des relations réelles et moyens relatifs à l’intégration des enfants de suffisamment étroites, et, dans l’affirmative, Mme X, cet élément n’étant pas de nature à si la décision de refus de délivrance d’une faire naître un droit au séjour dans leur chef. autorisation de séjour a porté une atteinte Par ailleurs, force est de constater que ces injustifiée à cette vie familiale. enfants vivaient encore en août 2001 – date Le tribunal est, cependant, amené à constater d’établissement de leurs passeports – en à ce sujet qu’au-delà de l’affirmation d’une Equateur, de sorte qu’il faut considérer, con-

Article 8 de la Convention 79 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 trairement à ce qui est allégué par les deman- 1990 et 1992) en-dehors du Luxembourg et deurs, qu’ils ont passé la majeure partie de qu’un retour en Equateur ne devrait pas cons- leur jeune vie (étant nés, respectivement, en tituer un déracinement insurmontable. Concerne : Droit au respect de la vie familiale Tribunal administratif Principaux faits et griefs N’ayant pas d’autres enfants ou proches 21 décembre parents dans leur pays d’origine qui pour- 2006 Dans le cadre d’une demande en annulation Réf. : no 21482 raient s’occuper d’eux, les époux B. font à du rôle d’une décision portant refus, dans le chef des bon droit valoir leur droit à obtenir leur époux B,. de la délivrance d’une autorisation regroupement familial avec celui de leurs de séjour, les intéressés invoquent, à l’appui enfants le plus apte à les prendre en charge. A de leur demande, une violation de l’Article 8 défaut d’éléments concrets soumis par l’Etat de la Convention européenne des Droits de permettant de conclure qu’ils auraient l’Homme (CEDH). davantage intérêt à être pris en charge par leur fils résidant en France et à défaut de tout Conclusions du tribunal autre élément soumis en cause quant aux Sans remettre en cause la compétence de capacités par leurs fils de les prendre en principe de chaque Etat de prendre des charge, il appartient aux époux B, avec leurs mesures en matière d’entrée, de séjour et fils, de décider auprès duquel d’entre eux ils d’éloignement des étrangers, l’Article 8 souhaitent vivre. Il convient encore de cons- CEDH implique que l’autorité étatique nan- tater que les époux B ont choisi d’habiter tie du pouvoir de décision en la matière n’est auprès de l’un de leurs fils résidant au Grand- pas investie d’un pouvoir discrétionnaire, Duché, où résident, par ailleurs, deux autres mais qu’en exerçant ledit pouvoir, elle doit de leurs fils, partant dans une localité dans tenir compte du droit au respect de la vie pri- laquelle la majeure partie de leur plus proche vée et familiale des personnes concernées. famille est domiciliée légalement. L’Etat est donc particulièrement malvenu d’estimer, Il y a, dès lors, lieu d’examiner en l’espèce si la d’une manière absolument arbitraire, que les vie privée et familiale dont font état les époux B. auraient le choix d’habiter auprès de demandeurs pour conclure dans leur chef à leur fils résidant en France, aucun élément du l’existence d’un droit à la protection d’une vie dossier ne permettant de conclure qu’ils familiale par le biais des dispositions de l’Arti- seraient mieux pris en charge par ledit fils. cle 8 CEDH rentre effectivement dans les Cette argumentation présentée par l’Etat prévisions de ladite disposition de droit inter- doit être rejetée comme étant non fondée. national, qui est de nature à tenir en échec la Il convient encore de rappeler que des parents législation nationale. qui, en raison de leur âge, ne peuvent plus A cet égard, il ressort des pièces et éléments du s’adonner à un travail rémunéré leur permet- dossier, et plus particulièrement d’une attestant de subvenir à leurs propres besoins, ont tation émise par le bureau d’aides sociales de le droit d’être pris en charge et, le cas échéant, Sjenica, que M. B. et son épouse, nés respec- d’habiter auprès de l’un de leurs descendants, tivement en 1933 et en 1937, ont vécu seuls sur la base, notamment, de l’Article 8 CEDH. dans la localité de Trijebine au cours des dix Toutefois, ce droit ne leur permet de s’instal- années précédant l’émission de ladite attesta- ler auprès de l’un de leurs descendants rési- tion et qu’il s’agit de personnes « âgées et dant dans un autre Etat que celui dont ils impuissantes », qui « ont besoin d’un soin sont originaires qu’à partir du moment où, permanent de leurs fils ». Les demandeurs ne dans leur pays d’origine, il n’existe aucun des- sont, par ailleurs, pas contredits dans leur cendant ou proche parent qui soit en mesure présentation des faits, suivant laquelle M. et de les prendre en charge en leur fournissant, Mme B ne possèdent plus aucune proche notamment, un logement approprié. famille dans leur pays d’origine et que tous Sur base de l’attestation de l’office social de leurs fils habitent à l’étranger, à savoir pour Sjenica, dont l’authenticité n’est pas contes- trois d’entre eux au Grand-Duché de Luxem- tée, il faut constater que les époux B ne bourg et pour le quatrième en France, dans peuvent pas exercer dans leur pays d’origine une région frontalière du Grand-Duché (avec leur droit à une vie privée et familiale telle des durées de validité de leurs cartes d’iden- que protégée par l’Article 8 CEDH. Dans ces tité d’étranger expirant, respectivement, en conditions, le refus de leur délivrer une auto- 2009, 2006, 2009 et 2012). risation de séjour constitue une ingérence

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illégale dans leur droit au respect de leur vie Affaires étrangères et de l’Immigration ayant privée et familiale, qui ne saurait, par ailleurs, commis une erreur manifeste d’appréciation être justifiée par l’une des hypothèses visées des faits, il y a lieu d’annuler la décision de au § 2 de l’Article 8 CEDH. Le Ministre des refus d’autorisations de séjour.

Articles 8 et 6 de la Convention

Concerne : Droit au respect du domicile. Droits de la défense Cour d’appel 10 octobre 2006 Principaux faits et griefs bâtis ou non, pour autant qu’ils ne servent Réf : 462/06 V Le prévenu fait valoir qu’une visite domici- pas à l’habitation humaine. Les infractions à liaire du médecin vétérinaire, assisté par des la Loi de 1983, et plus particulièrement celles policiers du commissariat de proximité, a été reprochées en l’espèce, constituant des effectuée en violation des Article 8 – garantis- infractions continues, peuvent toujours, dès sant la protection du domicile – et 6 § 1 – lors qu’elles sont caractérisées, faire l’objet garantissant les droits de la défense – de la d’une enquête de flagrance, conformément Convention européenne des Droits de aux dispositions du Code d’instruction crimi- l’Homme (CEDH), de sorte que l’instruction nelle dont il est question ci-après. L’agent de préliminaire ainsi que toute la procédure l’Administration des services vétérinaires, ayant suivi cette visite domiciliaire serait à porteur d’un ordre de mission, ainsi que les annuler. agents de la police, étaient donc habilités, conformément aux dispositions de Il résulte du procès-verbal du commissariat l’Article 23 de la Loi de 1983, à procéder à la de police que les agents de police avaient été visite domiciliaire dans les étables du pré- priés, le jour en question, par le médecin vété- venu. Il faut préciser que l’on s’accorde à con- rinaire-inspecteur voulant procéder à la visite sidérer le lieu de travail, et par conséquent des installations du prévenu et trouvant les également les étables exploitées par le pré- lieux fermés de lui prêter main-forte. Arrivés venu, comme domicile au sens de l’Article 8 sur les lieux et devant le refus du prévenu de CEDH (voir, entre autres : Trav.parl. 46.476, leur ouvrir, les agents du commissariat ont avis du Conseil d’Etat). requis deux ouvriers communaux pour forcer l’ouverture des étables. Le prévenu ayant La Loi de 1983 ne précisant pas les conditions refusé l’entrée aux personnes présentes, les concomitantes à l’exécution de la mission des agents s’étaient alors saisis de lui, l’avaient agents habilités à procéder à une visite domi- menotté et attaché à un engin agricole à ciliaire, et plus particulièrement le forma- l’extérieur des étables, puis avaient procédé à lisme d’authentification destiné à conférer à la visite des lieux avec le médecin vétérinaire, la recherche et à la découverte d’indices une pris des photos et dressé leur procès verbal authenticité indiscutable, il convient de se ensemble avec ce dernier. conformer plus spécialement aux formalités Conclusions de la cour énoncées aux Article 30 ss. du Code d’instruction criminelle et, d’une façon plus géné- En ce qui concerne le reproche basé sur une rale, aux principes concernant les droits de la prétendue violation de l’Article 8 CEDH, il défense inscrits à l’Article 6 CEDH. convient d’emblée de remarquer que la Convention admet, en son alinéa 2, que Pareille visite, qui constitue une mesure coer- l’inviolabilité du domicile n’est pas absolue et citive dès lors qu’elle est opérée générale- que la loi peut prévoir l’ingérence de l’auto- ment, comme en l’espèce d’ailleurs, sans le rité publique du moment qu'elle s’avère consentement de la personne au domicile de nécessaire, notamment pour prévenir des laquelle elle a lieu, doit, cependant, s’opérer infractions pénales. en la présence de cette dernière ou, en cas Ainsi l’Article 23 de la Loi du 15 mars 1983 d’impossibilité de celle-ci, de son représen- ayant pour objet d’assurer la protection de la tant, ou, à défaut, de deux témoins requis par vie et du bien-être des animaux (ci-après : la l’officier de police judiciaire, qui les choisira Loi de 1983) autorise les agents habilités à en-dehors des personnes soumises à son auto- constater les infractions à cette Loi à accéder, rité. L’impossibilité pour la personne concer- même non munis d’un mandat de perquisi- née d’assister elle-même à la perquisition est tion établi par un juge d’instruction, entre le à apprécier strictement (Cass. crim. fr. lever et le coucher du soleil, à tous les fonds 27 sept. 1984; Bull crim. no 275; 23 février

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1988, Bull. crim no 91 ; 5 mars 1998, Bull. l’absence d’un représentant. Ne peuvent, crim no 89). d’ailleurs, être témoins ni d’autres policiers, Il est établi que les agents avaient procédé à la ni des personnes requises par l’officier de visite des étables en-dehors de la présence du police judiciaire comme aides, telles que les prévenu. Celui-ci n’avait été libéré des serruriers (JCP, Procédure pénale, crimes et menottes qu’après l’inspection des lieux, non délits flagrants, Articles 53-73 fasc. 20 o sans avoir fait savoir, à sa manière, que celle- n 172). Enfin, le procès-verbal de la visite ci avait eu lieu sans son approbation. Le fait, domiciliaire n’a pas été signé par le prévenu et sans autres explications circonstanciées, que ne contient pas non plus la mention que le prévenu s’était opposé à l’entrée des celui-ci avait été, pour le moins, invité à le agents, ne constitue pas, faute d’autres élé- signer (Article 33 (5) du Code d’instruction ments, une impossibilité d’assister à la visite criminelle). de ses étables. Le procès-verbal pour rébellion La Cour estime, dans ces conditions, que la dressé contre le prévenu le même jour a été visite domiciliaire a été exécutée en violation classé sans suites par le représentant du pro- des droits de la défense du prévenu et doit cureur d’Etat. donc être annulée. Toute méconnaissance des S’il est vrai – et la Cour a pu s’en rendre prescriptions de fond ou de forme des perqui- compte à l’occasion d’une visite des lieux – sitions est susceptible d’en entraîner la nullité que le prévenu, pour le moins en présence de et celle des actes subséquents, dans la mesure représentants de l’autorité publique, n’est où ils constituent une suite nécessaire de pas d’une amabilité exemplaire et que l’idée l’acte annulé. Tel est le cas en l’espèce dès lors d’« être de bonne composition » ne l’effleure que sa condamnation prononcée en première même pas, il ne résulte pas des éléments aux- instance est basée sur les constatations faites quels la Cour peut avoir égard si, après par les agents et le médecin-vétérinaire à l’ouverture des portes, et pour le cas où l’occasion de la visite de contrôle. l’intervention « musclée » des agents s’était avérée indispensable, le prévenu avait été L’annulation du procès-verbal entraîne invité, par la suite, à désigner un représentant l’annulation des poursuites engagées sur base pour assister à la visite de ses étables et si, à de cet acte à l’encontre du prévenu, de sorte défaut, deux témoins avaient été requis par qu’il doit être acquitté des infractions libel- l’officier de police judiciaire pour suppléer lées contre lui.

Article 12 de la Convention

Concerne : Droit au mariage Tribunal administratif Principaux faits et griefs Conclusions du tribunal 21 décembre 2006 Dans le cadre d’un recours en annulation Si l’exécution de la décision litigieuse Réf : 21987 du d’une décision de refus d’entrée et de séjour, entraîne, en fait, l’impossibilité pour le rôle le demandeur allègue une violation de demandeur de se marier au Luxembourg, elle l’Article 12 de la Convention européenne des ne met cependant pas en cause son droit de se Droits de l’Homme. marier tel que consacré par l’Article 12 de la Convention, le demandeur restant libre de contracter mariage, le cas échéant, dans son pays d’origine.

82 Luxembourg Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71 Spain/Espagne

Article 1 of the Convention

Concerns: European Convention on Human Rights and the guarantee of protection of the constitutional rights of citizens Constitutional Court 5 June 2006 Findings of the court its authorities of the duty of protection of Judgment No. 177/2006 The Constitutional Court points out that the constitutional rights of its citizens, given Rec. amparo the non-execution of the requirement of reci- the specific commitment to that undertaken No. 5933/2005 procity may only be considered as cause to http:// by the States participating in the Conven- www.tribunalcons refuse the extradition in the event that by tion, together with their voluntary submis- titucional.es doing so it harms the fundamental rights of sion to the jurisdiction of the European the citizen to be handed over. To that one Court of Human Rights, ultimate guarantor adds that extradition in the environment of the signatory countries of the European Con- of the fundamental rights of all, regardless of vention on Human Rights cannot raise the different legal cultures of the signatory generic suspicions of breaches on the part of countries. Concerns: Right to effective judicial protection Constitutional Court 16 January and Findings of the court included or the answer is omitted regarding 27 March 2006 the other considerations. That is to say, that Judgments Nos. 4 The Constitutional Court relies on the juris- and 85/2006, prudence of the European Court of Human when the question contains the facts or basic Rec. amparo Nos. Rights to affirm that the right to effective arguments that support the claim, it should 6196 and 2938/ 2001 judicial protection is not only harmed when be treated specifically or, in turn, considered http://www.tribu- a claim does not obtain an answer but also at least implicit by the judgment, because nalconstituci- when the judicial organ fails to consider a otherwise the defence is disregarded leading onal.es fundamental allegation raised in due form by to a failure of justice. the parties (9 Dec. 1994, Hiro Balani v. Spain and Ruiz Torija v. Spain). Lastly, the Court points out that the omitted In that sense it is indicated that although incongruity will have constitutional rele- that right cannot be understood to have been vance if the question left unanswered has harmed by the mere fact that the judge does been outlined precisely before the judge at not give an explicit answer despite detailed the correct procedural moment and if the allegations being made, Article 24.1 of the omission refers to questions that, having Constitution requires the consideration at been considered in the decision, it would least from those that support the reasoning have been able to determine a failure differ- of the parties, even where a generic answer is ent from the indicated one.

Article 3 of the Convention

Concerns: Expulsion submitting to a risk of torture or degrading treatment Supreme Court 24 July 2006 Findings of the court the Constitution and in the international Judgment treaties signed by Spain. According to No. 832/2006, The Supreme Court recalls that its doctrine Rec. No. 653/ concerning the interpretation of Article 89 of Article 10.2 of the Constitution, these trea- 2005 the Criminal Code has a constitutional con- ties are not only integrated in domestic law, text. The possibility exists that this article but also constitute an interpretive approach affects the person’s fundamental rights, in the matter. In that sense it attaches great whether immigrant or not, included both in importance to the interpretation that the

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European Court of Human Rights makes of the risks they might face, either to life or of the European Convention on Human Rights, being exposed to torture or degrading treat- which is considered as the most important ment contrary to Article 3 of the European jurisprudential reference as regards human Convention on Human Rights. These were rights for all the European courts. elements to bear in mind when considering In short, the Supreme Court recalls that, expulsion. already in connection with the Organic Law Everything leads to the Supreme Court con- of Reform of the Criminal Code, the General cluding that the safeguard of fundamental Council of the Judicial Power indicated the superior rights, in principle, for public order omission of the reference to the specific cir- or for a certain political criminal, requires cumstances of convicted persons when that the expulsion exception be widened, deciding whether or not to proceed with including an hearing process for convicted their expulsion. It was noted how the Euro- individuals in connection with the examina- pean Court valued circumstances like the ori- tion of their specific circumstances – roots, gins of convicted persons, which could be family situation, etc. In addition, the expul- extended to the protection of the family, or sion decision should be motivated.

Article 6 of the Convention

Concerns: Right to interrogate prosecution witness Constitutional Court Findings of the court giving evidence against him to undermine 3 July 2006 their credibility and testimony, but does not Judgment The Constitutional Court rules in this case No. 198/2006 regarding the right to interrogate or to have include necessarily obtaining an answer if Rec. amparo No. interrogated witnesses for the prosecution, the person invokes their constitutional right 6672/2002 not to answer, as in this case. http:// included in Article 6 §3 (d) of the European www.tribunalcons Convention on Human Rights. This article The Court points out that the refusal of titucional.es concerns the adversarial principle, giving the some of the co-defendants to respond to the accused the possibility of objecting to the tes- questions of the defence would not have pre- timonies against him. In that sense one vented the establishing of sufficient proof to remembers that what is protected in connec- weaken the presumption of innocence tion with the adversarial principle is not that (Article 24.2 of the Constitution). To that is this should take place in an effective way, but added that the exercise of the right to silence rather that it should be possible, including by the co-defendants does not bear the lack of the requirement that all the parties that can validity of their declarations, leaving it to the be affected by the co-defendant’s declara- judge to definitively rule on the demonstrations be summoned to the interrogation. For ble effectiveness of those declarations regard- that reason the adversarial principle is not ing the presumption of innocence, valuing violated if the reasons for that not occurring the evidence freely. On the other hand the are not related to a judicial performance con- doctrine of the Constitutional Court has stitutionally impeachable. As a consequence, been establishing a series of preventions so the refusal of the co-defendants to respond, that the co-defendant’s declaration acquires regarding what is not attributable to the demonstrable effectiveness, among which judge, does not harm the adversarial princi- the demand for a consistent demonstrable ple, which in an essential way implies the bonus is included in the need for a minimum possibility of the accused interrogating those corroboration of the same. Concerns: Right to legal aid Constitutional Court Findings of the court included in Article 24.2 of the Constitution, 30 January 2006 cannot be alleged as having been harmed by Judgments Nos. The Constitutional Court relies on the case- 18 and 20/2006 law of the European Court of Human Rights those who have caused that situation due to Rec. amparo their lack of diligence. In addition, this lack of Nos. 455 and (cases Airey, 9 October 1979, and Pakelli, 6436/2002 25 April 1983), to point out that the right to protection should be real, and the situation http:// legal aid, considered as one of the guarantees generated by the lack of technical defence www.tribunalcons titucional.es that constitute the right to a fair trial should not turn out to be a direct conse-

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quence of the party’s conduct. And the liti- tection of his rights and legitimate interests gant’s self-defence should also have been in the process. In short, it is true that real and revealed as insufficient and harmful, prevent- effective damage of his right to defence has ing him from articulating an appropriate pro- taken place. Concerns: Right not to self-incriminate Constitutional Court 13 March 2006 Findings of the court France, 20 Oct. 1997; Heaney and McGuinness Judgment No. 68/ v. Ireland, 21 Dec. 2000; Quinn v. Ireland, 2006 The Constitutional Court cites the case-law Rec. amparo of the European Court of Human Rights, 3 May 2001; Weh v. Austria, 8 April 2004). No. 5786/2001 which warns that, although it is not http:// Nevertheless, the Constitutional Court www.tribunalcons expressly included in Article 6 of the Euro- titucional.es pean Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), recalls that, contrary to the European Con- the right to keep silent and the protection vention on Human Rights, Article 24.2 of the against self-incrimination are international Constitution specifically includes the right norms that are generally recognised as form- not to incriminate oneself and not to admit ing an intrinsic part of the notion of a fair one’s guilt, which, like the Constitutional trial. Court itself has indicated, are guarantees or The Constitutional Court recalls the state- instrumental rights of the right to a defence, ment of the European Court, according to which exist also as a passive manifestation, which the right not to incriminate oneself that is, that exercised in the form of inactiv- provides the accused with protection against ity on the part of the accused, who can opt to undue coercion on the part of the authorities, use in the trial the most convenient form of so helping to avoid judicial errors and to defence for his interests. To that is added that achieve the aims of Article 6; to which is the rights mentioned are linked to the right added the presumption of innocence to the presumption of innocence, which lays included in Article 6 §2 ECHR (J.B. v. on the prosecution the burden of proof. The Switzerland, 3 May 2001; John Murray v. the accused should not be obliged to furnish ele- United Kingdom, 8 Feb. 1996; Saunders v. the ments of proof that represent self-incrimina- United Kingdom, 17 Dec. 1996; Serves v. tion. Concerns: Guarantees of publicity and contradiction Constitutional Court 13 March 2006 Findings of the court The Court has considered in this way the Judgment No. 74/ right to a fair trial violated when a not-guilty 2006 Rec. amparo The Constitutional Court recalls that in its verdict in the first instance is substituted by No. 1474/2003, judgment 167/2002 it adapted the specified another condemnatory one in the appeal, http:// guarantees of publicity and contradiction in after a new valuation of the credibility of the www.tribunalcons titucional.es the valuation of the tests in the second penal testimonies in which the condemnatory con- instance to the requirements of Article 6 §1 clusion was based, means that, for their per- of the European Convention on Human sonal character, could not be valued again Rights interpreted by the European Court of without immediacy, contradiction and pub- Human Rights. In that judgment it laid licity, this is, without the direct and personal down that the full jurisdiction that exam of the accused or the witness, in a pub- Article 795 of the Law of Criminal Prosecu- lic debate in which the possibility of contra- tion attributes to the judge ad quem in the diction is respected. appeal, including the revision and correction However, the Court has also expressly of the valuation of the test for the judge ad affirmed that, regarding the documental test quo or the modification of proven facts, that it is possible to hold the valuation in the should respect the guarantees of Article 24.2 second instance without the need of repro- of the Constitution: publicity, immediacy duction of the procedural debate, because, and contradiction being required in the new given its nature, it does not specify immedi- valuation of the test in the second instance, acy. The Constitutional Court recalls that which does not necessarily imply new tests the doctrine for STC 167/2002 is not applica- or public hearings in all the cases, but ble when the nucleus of the discrepancy depends on the circumstances of the case and between the not-guilty verdict and the con- the nature of the questions to judge. demnatory one is a strictly artificial ques-

Article 6 of the Convention 85 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 tion, on the basis of some facts that the with immediacy in the appeal in the supposi- judgment also considered credited for whose tions in that it does not consider any ques- resolution it is not necessary to hear the tion in fact or of right that cannot be solved accused in a public trial, but rather the Court appropriately on the basis of the orders can decide appropriately on the basis of that (European Court of Human Rights, Jan-Åke acted. In this respect one is reminded that it has not done anything except follow the Andersson v. Sweden and Fedje v. Sweden, judgment of the European Court, that no 29 October 1991, specifying their doctrine in violation exists of the right to a fair trial connection with the judgment in the case when it does not reproduce the public debate Ekbatani v. Sweden, 26 May 1988). Concerns: Guarantee of contradiction Constitutional Court Findings of the court demand of publicity, immediacy and contra- 16 January 2006 diction. However, the verification of the Judgment No. 1/ The Constitutional Court points out that 2006 the linking of the criminal judicial organs summary diligences in the trial should be Rec. amparo only to the tests practised during the oral made under conditions to allow the accused’s No. 1888/2000 defence to subject the summary perform- http:// trial (Article 741 of the Law of Criminal Pros- www.tribunalcons ecution), since only in that case do the tests ances at once to an effective contradiction of titucional.es undergo the adversarial procedure before the the view. judge, they cannot lead to denying all the demonstrable effectiveness of the judicial The transcendency of the contradiction prin- and summary diligences practised with the ciple for the guarantee of the right to defence formalities that the Constitution and the has been shown in connection with the tests procedural classification lay down, whenever that testify them during the instruction they can be verified under conditions that phase and incorporated later on in the oral allow the accused’s defence to subject them opinion, counting on the support of the to contradiction. This statement is especially international instruments, especially of the useful in cases in which, for the volatility of European Convention on Human Rights and the sources of the tests or for their difficult or the jurisprudence of the European Court of impossible reproduction in the oral trial, it Human Rights which, according to should be endowed to the act of summary Article 10.2 of the Constitution, serves as an investigation practised with all the guaran- interpretive approach in the application of tees the value of premature test or pre-consti- the relative constitutional precepts to repre- tuted, being able for the judge to form his sentation of the fundamental rights. In that conviction in such acts without the need for sense the European Court points out that the them to be reproduced in the oral trial. incorporation in the process of declarations The Constitutional Court admits that possi- carried out during the instruction phase does bility whenever the content of the test prac- not harm the rights included in Article 6 §§1 tised in the summary reproduces well in the and 3d of the Convention, if a legitimate oral trial by means of the reading of the cause that impedes the declaration in the oral records in which it was documented or with trial exists and the rights of the accused’s the introduction of its content in the interro- defence have been respected, giving him gations, so that before the rectification or appropriate and sufficient opportunity to retraction of the testimony at once of the answer those testimonies and interrogate oral trial or in the face of the material impos- their author, either when they are presented sibility of its reproduction, the test satisfies or later on (Kostovski, 20 November 1989; the public procedural debate before the Lüdi, 15 June 1992; Va n M e c h e l e n a n d o t h e r s , Court, completing the triple constitutional 23 April 1997; Lucà, 27 Feb. 2001).

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Concerns: Principle of equality Constitutional Court 13 February 2006 Findings of the court exam of the normative, which, according to Judgment No. 41/ Article 10.2 of the Constitution, should serve 2006 The Constitutional Court recalls that Rec. amparo Article 14 of the Constitution includes both as an interpretive source for Article 14. No. 5038/2003 a general relative clause at the beginning of In this sense one mentions the interpretation http:// www.tribunalcons equality like a list, not closed, of specifically given by the European Court of Human titucional.es mentioned discrimination reasons that refer Rights to Article 14 of the European Conven- to very ingrained historical differences and tion on Human Rights, including in it the sex- that they have been established, both for the ual orientation when considering the list action of the public powers and for the social included in that article as merely indicative practice, for sectors of the population in posi- and not limitative (Salgueiro da Silva Mouta v. tions, not only unfavourable, but contrary to Portugal, 21 December 1999). To which the a person’s dignity that Article 10.1 of the European Court adds that regarding the con- Constitution recognises. In that sense one cept covered in Article 14 of the Convention, notes that homosexuality, although not spe- the differences based on the sexual orienta- cifically mentioned in Article 14, is unques- tion, and those based on sex, demand special tionably included in the residual clause reasons to be justified (L and V v. Austria and referring to any other condition or personal S.L. v. Austria, 9 Jan. 2003; Karner v. Austria, or social circumstance. Both the notorious 24 July 2003; B.B. v. the United Kingdom, inequality and the social marginalisation 10 February 2004; Woditschka and Wilfing v. that historically those people have suffered Austria, 21 October 2004; Ladner v. Austria, have placed them in unfavourable positions 3 February 2005; Wolfmeyer v. Austria, 26 May and contrary to a person’s dignity, like an 2005; H.G. and G.B. v. Austria, 2 June 2005) Concerns: Guarantee of adversarial procedure Supreme Court 6 July 2006 Findings of the court ness against him, either when he makes his Judgment statements or at a later stage” (A.M. v. Italy, No. 756/2006 The Supreme Court notes that the adversar- Rec. No. 1819/ ial process is one in which the right to speak 14 December 1999; Saïdi v. France, 2005 is recognised for the parties in conditions of 20 September 1993; Delta v. France, equality on the matters which are object of 19 December 1990). the decision. The aim is to ensure that a real On the other hand, the Supreme Court possibility is offered to make an objective recalls the doctrine of the Constitutional examination of the statements subject to Court and his own in which it stresses the proof, for those who can be affected by effectiveness of the right to interrogate the them. It also adds that the adversarial princi- witness as “essence of the right to contradic- ple is part of the right to a defence, experi- tion whose exercise is forced when the ence having shown that the adversarial and accused does not have [that] opportunity”; dialogue method is that which is most so that “not even incriminating statements appropriate to decide about the truth of any made by the witness before the instruction assertion; because, to put it colloquially, it is judge can be awarded demonstrable effec- well-known and generally accepted that tiveness when they are brought to the ple- “out of the discussion, comes the light”. nary by means of their reading (as provided To reinforce their conclusion, it makes use of for by Article 730 of the Law of Criminal the interpretation given by the European Prosecution), if in that judicial diligence the Court of Human Rights to Article 6 §3 (d) of accused’s defence has not had the occasion to the European Convention on Human Rights contradict those manifestations by interro- in the sense of recognising for every accused gating the witness”. person the right “to examine or to have The Supreme Court concludes that the right examined witnesses against him”, recalling to reference is clearly only satisfied by means that Article 14.3.e of the International Cove- of the recognition of the real possibility of nant on Civil and Political rights is couched the accused’s direct examination (usually in similar terms. In that sense the European through his defence) of the prosecution wit- Court points out that it is necessary “that the nesses at the points in the procedure when defendant be given an adequate and proper they were interrogated: essentially, during opportunity to challenge and question a wit- the trial. But, as it is reasonable to admit that

Article 6 of the Convention 87 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 the observance of this rule is subject to cumstances, it would be necessary, at least review, the generality of the legislations, and for the accused’s defence to have been able to among them ours, they understand that interrogate directly the source of the accusa- when this cannot be arranged in ideal cir- tion, at least once in the course of the case. Concerns: Limitations on the right to access to a court Supreme Court Findings of the court sentation before the judicial organs, in 11 October 2006 accordance with Article 10.2 of the Consti- Rec. No. 10099/ The Supreme Court recalls that the interpre- 2003 tation given by the European Court of tution. Human Rights to the right to a fair trial With the support of the European Court in (Article 6 of the European Convention on that doctrine, the Supreme Court affirms Human Rights) in the sense of requiring that the modification in a restrictive sense of that the judicial organs examine the causes Article 86.2.b of Law 29/1988, regulating the of being inadmissible respecting the propor- contentious-administrative jurisdiction of tionality principle among the limitations the Contentious-Administrative Chamber of imposed to the right to access a Court to the Supreme Court warns in the Orders of examine in depth the appeal and the conse- the First Section of 10 Feb. 2005 and 3 March quences of their application (European 2005 in connection with the sanctions Court of Human Rights, Saenz Maeso v. imposed by the Court of Defence of Compe- Spain, 9 Nov. 2004). To that one adds the tition, does not cause, however, their applica- condition of the Agreement and the case- tion with retroactive character to the present law of the European Court as a prevailing performances to examine in depth the appeal source of the right to effective judicial repre- and consequences of their application. Concerns: Place and term of presentation of appeals Supreme Court Findings of the court time) of presentation of the writing; (b) the 7 March and 24 distance between the headquarters of the October 2006 The Supreme Court points out that the Rec. Nos. 6245/ interpretation and application of the norms judicial organ where the appeal should be 2003, 98/2004 regarding the place and the term of presenta- presented and the home of the person mak- and 3300/2003 tion of the appeals is a question of ordinary ing the appeal; (c) the extension of the term legality that alone acquires constitutional for the interference of the appeal in connec- dimension if the inadmissibility is based on a tion with the degree of technical complexity patent error, in an apparent irrational act or for its foundation; and (d) the performance in an arbitrary act. In this way it counts on or otherwise in the context of legal represen- the European Court to point out that, in con- tation. nection with Article 6 §1 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), the In judging whether the appeal is conducted judicial decision of inadmissibility of the in accordance with the right to effective judi- appeals does not reach that constitutional cial representation (Article 24.1 of the Con- dimension if, even presented in places differ- stitution), the Supreme Court bases its ent to those foreseen and outside of term, decision on the fact that the essential con- exceptional circumstances converge and neg- tent of this right is to obtain from the judicial ligence does not exist, the exceptional nature organs a reasoned resolution based on law should be determined and the diligence case- regarding the claims appropriately deduced by-case depending on the circumstances by the parties, imposing on the judge a rea- (European Court of Human Rights, Pérez de sonable and non-arbitrary interpretation of Rada Cavanilles v. Spain, 28 October 1998, the procedural clauses that do not require a Rodríguez Valín v. Spain, 11 October 2001). rigorous application, excessively formal, or The Court identifies different criteria that disproportionate in connection with the should not be considered in any way as ends that the process has. In that way the appraised, including: (a) to interpose the inadmissibility can only be founded, like in appeal within the term but in a different reg- this supposition, on the concurrence of an istration public to the competent judicial obstacle based on an expressed precept of the organ (like the post) that allows one to be Law that in turn is respectful of the essential able to check the date (and, on occasions, content of the fundamental right, adopted in

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the observance of these constitutional examining the inadmissible causes, respect hermeneutic foundations. the proportionality principle among the lim- Finally the Supreme Court points out that itations imposed on the right to access a the right to an fair trial guaranteed by Court so that it examines the appeal in depth Article 6 §1 ECHR, which constitutes a pre- and the consequences of its application vailing interpretive source of the right to (European Court of Human Rights, Geouffre effective judicial representation, in accord- de la Pradelle v. France, 16 December 1992, ance with Article 10.2 of the Constitution, Sáez Maeso v. Spain, 9 November 2004). demands that the judicial organs, when Concerns: Right of appeal Supreme Court 23 June 2006 Findings of the court court examining the correct nature of the Judgment trial carried out in first instance, reviewing No. 679/2006 The Supreme Court relies on the recent case- Rec. No. 1544/ law of the Constitutional Court which con- the correct application of the rules that led 2005 cludes that the right to appeal against con- to a guilty verdict and the imposition of a victions, which forms part of the right to a punishment in the specific case. And the trial with all the guarantees of Article 24.2 of freedom of configuration on the part of the the Constitution, should be interpreted, internal legislator which this superior Court according to Article 14.5 of the International is a part of and how it submits him to the Covenant of Civil and Political Rights condemnatory failure and the harm specifi- together with the case-law on Article 6 §1 of cally recognised by the aforementioned Arti- the European Convention on Human Rights cle 14.5, which allows one to conclude that and 2 of its Protocol No. 7 (Krombach v. inside the classification, and for the crimes France, 13 Feb. 2001; Papo n v. Fran ce , 25 July for whose prosecution the legislator has been 2002), not as constituting the right to a sec- foreseen this way, it is the criminal cassation ond procedure with the repetition of the the appeal that provides the convict in this entire trial, but as the right to a superior instance with access to a superior Court. Concerns: Right to defend oneself Supreme Court 14 June 2006 Findings of the court personally, guaranteed by the European Con- Judgment vention on Human Rights and in the Inter- No. 669/2006, The Supreme Court establishes the content Rec. No. 1682/ of the right to defend oneself (Article 24.2 of national Pact on Civil and Political Rights, in 2005 the Constitution) counting on the interpreta- the measure regulated by the procedural laws tion that the European Court of Human of each country regulators of the law. For all Rights makes of Article 6 §3 (c) of the Euro- that it concludes that the right to defend pean Convention on Human Rights, by oneself is not limited to an alternative right which three rights are guaranteed for the to the right to technical defence but rather accused: to defend oneself, to be defended by has a relatively autonomous content, regard- means of legal representation of his choice and, under certain conditions, to receive free ing the expression of character, in certain legal representation (European Court of ways, dual of the penal defence, usually inte- Human Rights, case of Pakelli, 25 Apr. 1983). grated by the concurrence of two procedural On the other hand the Supreme Court recalls subjects, the imputed and his defending law- that its recent mention of that right to yer, regardless of the unequal protagonism of defence includes the right to defend oneself both. Concerns: Right to a process without undue delay Constitutional Court 13 March 2006 Findings of the court delays (Article 24.2 of the Constitution) has Judgment No. 82/ no relationship to the global length of the 2006 In this judgment the Constitutional Court, Rec. amparo relying on the International Covenant on case with the non-fulfilment of the proce- No. 5634/2004 dural terms, but rather it implies that the http:// Civil and Political Rights and the European www.tribunalcons Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), system of the procedures before the courts titucional.es states that the right to a trial without undue should be moved forward in a reasonable

Article 6 of the Convention 89 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 time. The lack of accuracy that results from Article 24.2 of the Constitution, to conclude that conception requires one to bear in mind that determining the undue character of the the circumstances of each specific case to delay in a certain case consists in applying check if a delay has existed and, in turn, if certain objective approaches specified this is justified. throughout its jurisprudence, including: the To do so the Constitutional Court follows complexity of the litigation, the ordinary the interpretation given by the European margins of duration of the litigations of the Court to Article 6 §1 of the European Con- same type, the interest that the plaintiff vention on Human Rights, considered as the takes in that risk, his procedural behaviour minimum standard guaranteed in and the behaviour of the authorities.

Concerns: Right to a trial without undue delay Supreme Court

Findings of the court its procedural behaviour and that of the juris- 3 July 2006 dictional organs in connection with the avail- Judgment The Supreme Court recalls that the right to a No. 702/2006 trial without undue delays (Article 24.2 of able means (Dorian González Durán de Rec. No. 1784/ the Constitution), according to the interpre- Quiroga v. Spain, López Sole y Martin de Vargas 2005 tation of the European Court of Human v. Spain, 28 October 2003). Rights of Article 6 of the European Conven- Also it recalls that the European Court has tion on Human Rights, supposes that every- indicated, in the second of the judgments body is entitled to have their case heard in a mentioned, that the period to be taken into reasonable time. The factors that must be consideration under Article 6 §1 of the Con- borne in mind for their estimation in each vention begins from the moment in which a specific case are the following: the complex- person is formally accused or when the suspi- ity of the process, the ordinary margins of cions of those that are an object have impor- duration of the processes of the same nature tant repercussions in their situation, because in the same time period, the interest that of the measures adopted by the authorities in anyone risks who invokes the undue delay, charge of pursuing the crimes.

Concerns: Judge’s impartiality Constitutional Court

Findings of the court In that sense one mentions some identified 24 January 2006 causes as susceptible to challenge in the Order No. 18/ The Constitutional Court recalls that those 2006, Rec. who promote the challenge of a judge must jurisprudence of the European Court of amparo base their reasons for doing so in some of the Human Rights, such as: membership of the No. 7703/2005, http:// legally foreseen cases besides expressing the members of the jury of a political party of an www.tribunalcons specific facts on which it is founded and that ideology contrary to that of the accused titucional.es the same constitute those that configure the (case of Holm, 25 Nov. 1993); membership of invoked cause. To that one adds that, to sep- the chamber that should judge a critical jour- arate a judge from the knowledge of a specific nalistic article against certain of its members matter, objectively justified suspicion should that make up the judicial organ (case of exist, that is to say external and supported by Demicoli, 27 August 1991); or previously held objective data that justify the claim that the racist ideas (cases of Remli, 23 April 1996, judge is not independent of the case when and Gregory, 25 February 1997). carrying out, or having carried out, work that corresponds to the parties or to having Nevertheless, the presumption of the judge’s expressed in advance taking one side or personal impartiality unless demonstrated against the parties in litigation, or that they allow one to fear that, for any artificial rela- to the contrary also means that the exist- tionship or in fact with the specific case, he ence of doubts or suspicion in the mind of he will not use as criteria for the trial that fore- who impeaches is not enough, but rather the seen by the law, but other considerations same must reach such a consistency that independent of the legal classification that allows one to affirm that they are objective can influence him when ruling on the matter and rightfully justified (case of De Cubber, in hand. 26 Oct. 1984, and those cited above).

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Concerns: Judge’s impartiality Constitutional Cour 8 May 2006 Findings of the court The Constitutional Court applies that doc- Judgment trine in relation to the instruction and prose- No. 143/2006 The Constitutional Court points out that Rec. amparo the judge’s impartiality, besides being stated cution abilities, taking as a basis that which No. 5697/2003 expressly in Article 6 §1 of the European allows us in each case to consider objectively http:// justified the doubts about the judge’s impar- www.tribunalcons Convention on Human Rights, is implicit in titucional.es the right to a trial with all the guarantees tiality. It is not so much the type of his per- (Article 24.2 of the Constitution), constitut- formances that could be derived from the ing the first of all them, up to the point that same but the confirmation that the judge’s without an impartial judge there is not, prop- previous intervention has supposed the erly, a judicial process. The impartiality sup- adoption of a decision regarding questions poses the judge’s condition as a third party, substantially identical or very similar to remaining distant from the interests in litiga- those that should be the object of pronounce- tion and only submitting to the juridical clas- ment in the prosecution in question, show- sification as the criteria of the trial. In this ing therefore a premature pronouncement in way, the evident dimension related to the this respect. absence of the judge’s relationship with the parties that can raise a previous interest in The Constitutional Court reminds on this favouring them or harming them, an objec- point that same position has been assumed tive angle is added that consists of that the by the European Court in the judgment of judge coming closer to the cause without 2 March 2000, in the case of Garrido Guerrero prejudice that could have been formed by v. Spain that completed their pronounce- some previous contact with the object of the ment in the matter Castillo Algar in the sense process, such as: the carrying out of instruc- of considering that violation of the Conven- tion acts, the adoption of previous decisions tion had not taken place since the Court had that represent a preconceived notion of guilt, specified the limits of the prosecution so that an intervention in a previous instance of the it did not prejudice the result of the litiga- same proceedings or, rather in general, a pro- tion, the qualification of the facts nor the nouncement on the facts debated in a previ- guilt of the accused. ous case. Each case must be analysed according to the specific circumstances and In conclusion, although the previous realisa- leaving aside the presumption of the judge’s tion of the functions of investigation, super- impartiality, should prove the data that can vision or inspection of the investigation can objectively put in question his suitability. So justify the fear about the impartiality of the that this does not take place by the mere fact judge that should solve the matter, this parti- that the judge has had a previous participa- ality could only be appreciated if the question in the prosecution in question, but tioned activity represented assuming part or rather it is necessary to analyse the circum- auxiliary positions to the parts in the exercise stances of the specific case. of his functions.

Concerns: Right to a fair trial Supreme Court 21 February 2006 Findings of the court with all the guarantees (Article 24 of the Rec Nos. 3754/ Constitution), of the subjective right that 2003 and 5695/ The Supreme Court specifies the meaning, nobody can be sanctioned except where pre- 2003 content and scope from the right to a sanc- scribed by the law and by the administrative tion procedure with all the guarantees authorities that have the sanctioning power according to the doctrine of the European attributed by law and through a procedure in Court of Human Rights, of the Constitu- which the right to defence, to being tional Court and of the Supreme Court itself. informed of the accusation and to the pre- In that sense it points out that the sanction- sumption of innocence are fully respected. ing power of the Administration is limited in its exercise by the respect of the principle of The right to a sanctioning procedure with all legality of the infractions and administrative the defence guarantees, fundamental right of sanctions that is projected in the recogni- the citizen to a fair and equal trial in front of tion, linked to the right to effective judicial the coercive powers of the Administration in representation, and of the right to a process which the defence rights are respected with

Article 6 of the Convention 91 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 interdiction not being protected, in a system- of the accusation, so that the imputed facts atic interpretation of Article 24 and 25 of the are known without restriction which Constitution and of Article 6 §1 of the Euro- imposes that correlation exists between pean Convention on Human Rights, these facts and the sanctioning resolution, includes, as stated in the doctrine of the Con- the right to use the pertinent test means for stitutional Court and of the European Court, the defence that excludes the admissibility among other guarantees, the right not to be and appreciation of illicit tests, and the right punished without being heard and to exercise to the presumption of innocence that wel- the allegation abilities with contradiction in comes the right to not being sanctioned all the phases of the procedure, the right to without a legitimate and valid test that sus- public proceedings, the right to be informed tains the sanctioning resolution. Concerns: Presumption of innocence Supreme Court Findings of the court from the coexistence of sufficiently consist- 1 February 2006 ent, clear and concordant inferences or of Judgment The Supreme Court rejects the violation No. 192/2006 claim from the right to the presumption of similar presumptions in fact not rebutted Rec. No. 1087/ innocence counting on the indirect test (Ireland v. the United Kingdom, 2004 when the direct one was viable in the calcu- 18 January 1978; Salman v. Turkey, lation of expenses for the effects of Income 27 June 2000; Ta n l i v. Tu r k e y, 10 April 2001; Tax. In that sense we are reminded that the Ta h s i n v. Tu r k e y, 8 April 2004). indirect test or by indications does not only Based on everything the Supreme Court con- have an accessory or subsidiary value, but cludes that the indirect test probably rather in fact is the only one with the one includes more guarantees than the direct that is used in the suppositions of crediting test, since the motivation bonus that seeks to of subjective facts, as relevant as the test of clarify and to motivate the inference trial deceit in its double meaning as test of knowl- reached to get to the credited fact-base, to the edge and test of intention. In conclusion it is fact-consequence, acts in fact as a guarantee affirmed that the test of circumstantial proof bonus that allows a better control of the rea- is able to guarantee the right to the presump- soning from the Court a quo when the Supe- tion of innocence and justify the dictation of rior Court knows of the item via appeal, with a condemnatory sentence. which there is a better and complete control The Supreme Court supports its conclusion, of the interdiction of the arbitrary nature among other bases, on the case-law of the than in relation to the direct test that European Court of Human Rights that, becomes a test of impossible inspection for when valuing the test, it has applied the cri- anybody who had not attended the trial due teria of the test beyond any reasonable to the immediacy or even in an excuse or alibi doubt. However, the European Court to be exempted from the duty of motivating reminds us that such a test can be obtained it or reducing it to a purely formal entity.

Article 8 of the Convention

Concerns: Secrecy of communications Constitutional Court Findings of the court Article 10.2 of the Constitution, by agree- 30 January 2006 ment with Article 8 §§1 and 2 of the Euro- Judgment No. 26/ The Constitutional Court recalls that its doc- 2006 pean Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). trine, inspired by the case-law of the Euro- Rec. amparo Nos. 1311, 623 and pean Court (Valenzuela v. Spain, 30 July 1998, Nevertheless, in this case the Constitutional 958/2004 and Prado Bugallo v. Spain, 18 February 2003), Court notes that, contrary to the previous http:// about the inadequacy of Article 579 of the ones, the performances took place once both www.tribunalcons Law of Criminal Prosecution, both in its pre- in the Supreme Court, and in the Order of titucional.es vious writing and in that of the effective 18 June 1992 and in the Constitutional Organic Law 4/1988 for the protection of the Court itself, in judgment 49/1999, they had right to the secrecy of communications just integrated their pronouncements in the as is included in Article 18.3 of the Constitu- resulting demands of the ECHR. The conclu- tion, interpreted, as established in sion is that at this time the Spanish Law

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respects the demands of Article 8 of the Con- the same until the legislator’s intervention vention, obliging the Constitutional Court takes place. itself to replace the possible inadequacies of Concerns: Secrecy of communications Constitutional Court 30 January 2006 Findings of the court Prosecution that demands the concurrence of Judgment No. 26/ indications from obtaining by these means 2006 The Constitutional Court affirms that so Rec. amparo that it can be understood that an order of the discovery or the confirmation of some No. 1311, 623 phone intervention is founded, suspicion fact or important circumstance of the cause and 958/2004 or of indications of criminal responsibility. In http:// cannot be based merely on psychological www.tribunalcons grounds, but rather must be supported by conclusion it is indicated that the secrecy of titucional.es objective data. So that it takes place, that the communications cannot be revealed to data must be accessible to a third, without give satisfaction to a generic necessity of pre- which it would not be susceptible to control, venting or discovering crimes or clearing the and must provide a real basis from which it suspicions without an objective base that can be inferred that a crime has been com- arises from those in charge of the investiga- mitted or will be, without it consisting of tion. To that one adds that, although it is personal judgments about the person. advisable that the judicial resolution states The Constitutional Court points out that it expressly the existence of objective indica- is the criteria followed by the European Court tions that justify the intervention, this reso- when requiring the existence of “good lution can be sufficient motivation, even reasons or strong presumptions” that the jointly taken with the police application, con- infractions are about to be made (Klass, taining the necessary elements to satisfy the 6 September 1978; Lüdi, 15 June 1992). Those requirements to be able to later deliberate the requirements are incorporated in Spanish restriction of the fundamental rights that the Law in Article 579 of the Law of Criminal proportionality of the measure bears. Concerns: Conflict between transparency of the judicial processes and the right to privacy Constitutional Court 5 April 2006 Findings of the court ble with the specific demand of maximum Judgment diffusion of the jurisdictional resolutions of No. 114/2006 The possible exceptions to the constitutional Rec. amparo this Court. In this respect one notes that the No. 24/2002 demand of maximum diffusion and publicity decision on the restriction of the publicity of http:// of the entire content of its resolutions are the intervening parts in the constitutional www.tribunalcons analysed in this case, which may be either of titucional.es process should be reached after an individual the possibility included in Article 120.1 of the reflection of the constitutional interests with Constitution when enunciating the principle those that the principle of publicity could of publicity of judicial proceedings, or the enter in conflict with, particularly the right prevalence of other fundamental rights with to the privacy, the rights of those who which that principle enters into conflict. require special protection, the guarantee of anonymity, when it proceeds, of the victims An exception possibility was included and harmed, and the guarantee that this data recently in Article 266.1 of the Organic Law cannot be used with ends contrary to the of the Judicial Power in connection with the law. right to the privacy, to the rights of people that require special guidance or to the guar- The Constitutional Court recalls that this antee of the anonymity of the victims or practice is habitual also in other superior harmed person, when it proceeds, as well as, courts, both national and international, such of a general character, to avoid that the judg- as the European Court of Human Rights, ments can be used with ends contrary to the pointing out in this respect both Article 47.3 law. Although the Constitutional Court is of its Regulation procedure that came into only subjected to the Constitution and its effect in December 2005, and the judgment own Organic Law, Article 266.1, taken of 25 February 1997 in the case of Z v. together with Article 80 of the Organic Law Finland, in which the existence of a general of the Constitutional Court, is applicable in a interest in guaranteeing the transparency of subsidiary and indirect way to be compati- the judicial processes was declared to pre-

Article 8 of the Convention 93 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 serve the public trust in the justice whose rel- with the right to privacy, even in connection evance implies that it should not necessarily with such a sensitive aspect as the protection give in the event of entering into conflict of the confidentiality of medical data. Other case concerning the right to privacy: Concerns: Principle of proportionality between telephone surveillance and the gravity of the investigated facts

Phone interventions are proportional when does not only have more than enough the Constitutional the objective is to investigate a serious pun- financial interests of the public tax system Court, 3 April 2006, judgment ishable infraction. The smuggling of tobacco but also for the sanitary costs that it gener- No. 104/2006. can be qualified as such given its incidence ates, to be a harmful product for health. Rec. amparo No. 7224/2002, http:// www.tribunalcons titucional.es

Article 10 of the Convention

Concerns: Limits to freedom of expression Constitutional Court Findings of the court speech and of the right to inform (cases of 3 July 2006 Lingens, 8 July 1986; Barfod, 22 February Judgment The Constitutional Court clarifies the possi- No. 216/2006 ble interaction between the right to honour 1989; Castells, 23 April 1992; Thorgeir Rec. amparo and freedom of speech (Article 18.1 and 20.1 Thorgeirson, 25 June 1992; Schwabe, No. 7131/2003 28 August 1992; Bladet Tromsø and Stensaas, http:// of the Constitution). To that end it reiterates www.tribunalcons that although the right to honour, as any 20 May 1999). titucional.es other constitutional right, also has limits – Everything leads the Constitutional Court to especially the aspect that supposes the right conclude that the condition of the right to to inform and to express oneself freely – that honour as an unavoidable limit imposed by does not mean that Article 20.1 includes a the Constitution (Article 20.4) to freedom of right to insult. For that it goes to the consid- speech when prohibiting that nobody refers eration that the European Court makes of to a person in an insulting or injurious way, other people’s reputation, summarised in or attempting to do so unjustifiably against Article 10 §2 of the European Convention on their reputation undeservedly before other Human Rights, as a limit on freedom of people’s opinion. Concerns: Freedom of speech in the Army Supreme Court Findings of the court forces and the execution of their missions, 17 July 2006 Rec. No. 26/2006 The Supreme Court points out that the right just as it is included in Article 8.1 of the Con- to freedom of speech, whose essence is the stitution, 15.1 of the Organic Law of free manifestation and by any means of the National Defence and 10 of the Real Ordi- thoughts, ideas and opinions, also applies to nances for the Armed Forces. However, those the military although it finds in this case cer- limits are not able, in any case, to reduce the tain limits, arising as a consequence of the members of the armed forces to pure and characteristic functions of the military that simple silence. add to the limitations of that right with a The Supreme Court points out that that doc- general character, derived from that prepared trine is also enunciated by the European in Article 20.4 of the Constitution. Court of Human Rights when it interprets The Court states that those specific limits are Article 10 §2 of the European Convention on essential to preserve the values and essential Human Rights in the sense of allowing that principles of the military organisation, that is freedom of speech may be subjected to cer- to say, the discipline, the hierarchical rela- tain restrictions that constitute necessary tionship, the unit and the internal cohesion measures in a democratic society for national that in turn are necessary to safeguard to security, territorial integrity or public secu- guarantee the functionality of the armed rity.

94 Spain/Espagne Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

In short, in reference to the application of preventing the undermining of military dis- that right to the military, the European cipline, in particular by means of writing Court, after affirming the application of free- (cases of Engel, 8 June 1976; Barthold, 25 dom of speech to service personnel, reminds March 1985; Grigoriades, 25 November 1997, us that the effective operation of an army is among others). scarcely possible without rules dedicated to Concerns: Right to honour and freedom of expression Constitutional Court 18 Jan. and 27 Findings of the court not only does it protect an individual inter- Feb. 2006 est but rather its guarantee, and conse- Order No. 16/ The Constitutional Court recalls that its 2006 and Judg- widespread jurisprudence in connection quently the existence of a free public ment No. 53/ with the conflict among the right to the opinion, is indissolubly together with the 2006 political pluralism characteristic of the dem- Rec. amparo honour and the right to the freedom of infor- Nos. 5795/2003 mation (Article 18.1 and 20.1 (d) of the Con- ocratic state. That does not, however, imply and 2760/2000 stitution) is coincident with that of the its pre-eminence over other fundamental http:// www.tribunalcons European Court when interpreting rights, by which the constitutional protec- titucional.es Article 10 §1 of the European Convention on tion of freedom of information is condi- Human Rights. This doctrine points out tioned so that the information refers to facts that freedom of information occupies a spe- with public relevance, in the noticeable cial place in the Spanish classification, since sense, and that this information is truthful. Concerns: Submitting television broadcasting companies to previous authorisation Supreme Court 18 July 2006 Findings of the court ideas do not prevent states from subjecting Rec. No. 1374/ television broadcasting companies to a 2004 The Supreme Court reiterates the doctrine laid down by the Constitutional Court in regime of previous authorisation. relation to the regime of previous authorisation to which broadcasting activities are sub- Therefore the technique of the concession jected in Spain is perfectly compatible in for the indirect administration of the public respect of that included in Article 10 §1 of service of sound broadcasting is a variant of the European Convention on Human Rights, previous authorisation that is not forbidden which points out that freedom of speech, either by the Constitution or by the Euro- opinion and reception of information or pean Convention.

Articles 10 and 46 of the Convention

Concerns: Right to effective judicial protection in connection with freedom of speech Constitutional Court 3 July 2006 Findings of the court The Constitutional Court points out that Judgment the failure by the appellant to present a rein- No. 197/2006 Rec. amparo In this case is considered the infringement of statement appeal against the decision of the No. 119/2002 the right to effective judicial protection, in lower court before the revision resource does http:// connection with freedom of speech not mean that all the judicial resources have www.tribunalcons titucional.es (Articles 24.1 and 20.1 of the Constitution), not been exhausted. In that sense it points as a consequence of the rejection by the out that the objective of making the arrange- Supreme Court of an appeal for a revision of ment possible by judicial means, respecting a judgment of a lower court that declared the the subsidiary character of the application dismissal of the appellant reasonable, basing for the protection of basic liberties, would that revision appeal on the existence of a have been completed by the opportunity for judgment of the European Court of Human resolution before the Supreme Court; never- Rights that declared this dismissal as a viola- theless, the notorious uncertainty of the tion of freedom of speech. actionable favoured by a judgment of the

Articles 10 and 46 of the Convention 95 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

European Court regarding the procedural of the European Court cannot be considered route to make the internal effects of this a new document to these effects, reminding worthwhile in the event of the violation of that it is a reason that contemplates the case his rights persisting is added. of the obtaining or recovery of decisive documents for the case that already existed On the other hand the Constitutional Court when the judgment was being dictated that reminds that the considerations included in it wants to revise. To that one adds the rejec- its judgment 245/1991 have not been tion of an extensive interpretation of the rea- affected by the reform operated by Protocol sons of the revision appeal since the No. 11 to the European Convention on European Court itself has already granted Human rights (ECHR). By which it reiterates the appellant the protection requested again, the declarative character of the resolutions of when granting an economic solution for the the European Court whose execution is the infringement of freedom of speech. responsibility of the Committee of Minis- ters, as well as that not introduced in the All things considered, the Constitutional internal order any supranational control Court concludes that the refuted judgment mechanism of the national judicial or admin- fully satisfies the right to effective judicial istrative decisions, nor does it impose on protection according to Article 24.1 of the states any specific measure of annulment to Constitution being a motivated resolution guarantee the repair of the violation of the that includes the elements that make it Agreement indicated by the Court. Never- possible to recognise the juridical founda- theless, the Constitutional Court remembers tions of the same, and founded in Law, that the indirect executability of the resolu- since it is not groundless or arbitrary nor tions of the European Court does not imply does it incur in patent error. an absolute lack of internal juridical effects, Also, one notes the non-applicable nature of so that the integration of the ECHR in the judgment 240/2005 of the Constitutional Spanish Law (Article 96.1 of the Constitu- Court itself that considered that the inadmis- tion) and the condition of interpretive norm sibility of a revision appeal based on a judg- of the rights and freedoms included in the ment of the European Court could not be Constitution, attribute to the Constitutional qualified as a new fact demonstrating the Court the obligation of prosecuting if the accused’s innocence (Article 954.4 of the Law violation declared by the European Court of Criminal Prosecution), and violates Article also constitutes a current violation of a right 24.1 of the Constitution due to the dispropor- included in the Constitution. tion between the end of the juridical security In this case the Constitutional Court consid- characteristic of the inadmissibility causes ers that the current character of the violation and the sacrificed interest, which in that case of the freedom of speech indicated by the was the right to the presumption of inno- European Court cannot be sustained, since cence (Article 24.2 of the Constitution). That on the one hand the violation which took reasoning is not valid now since the Supreme place as a consequence of the dismissal does Court does not declare inadmissible the revi- not continue at present, without the derived sion appeal but rather rejects it when consid- effects of the loss of the work position, as a ering that a judgment of the European Court consequence of the dismissal, mean the of 29 Feb. 2000, cannot be considered as a maintenance of the infringement of the recovered document. To everything, the Con- referred fundamental right, and on the other stitutional Court adds that the consideration because the damages of this infringement of a judgment of the European Court as a were already resolved by the European Court cause of a revision appeal would only be pos- by means of the satisfaction for the eco- sible through a legislative reform that intro- nomic and moral damage caused. Also, the duces a new reason ad hoc. Constitutional Court recalls that the The judgment is accompanied by the per- Supreme Court has not refused access to the sonal vote of one of the judges that points revision resource but rather it has rejected out that the simple fact that the judgment of this resource when not fitting any of the rea- the European Court was totally executed to sons of the same according to Article 1796 of the satisfaction of the compensation the Law of Civil Prosecution of 1881, the cur- included should have implied the rejection of rent Article 510 of the Law of Civil Prosecu- the appeal, regardless of any other consider- tion of 2000. ation. One also notes the existence of a cer- The Constitutional Court confirms the pos- tain contradiction when pointing out that ture of the Supreme Court that a judgment while on the one hand the lack of legal or

96 Spain/Espagne Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

constitutional responsibility is recognised to but not as a base of responsibilities for the execute the judgments of the European execution of the judgments of the European Court, on the other the Constitutional Court that require an expressed attribution Court notes that the non-existence of mech- of responsibility for the legislator that has anisms of direct execution of the decisions of not taken place, in spite of the favourable any international body for guaranteeing judgment of the Constitutional Court itself. rights, excluding the European Union, is To that is added that the execution of a judg- complementary with the obligation of the ment of the European Court would almost Court knowing of the violation of rights always be similar to ignoring the value of the included in the Constitution verified by the judged thing of the decisions of the Consti- European Court. That contradiction is good tutional Court itself that would have solved to point out that the mention of Article 10.2 the matter to which the judgment of the of the Constitution only serves to underline Court of Strasbourg refers rejecting it in the value of the European Convention on most cases and to counteract that effect of Human Rights as an interpretive approach judged thing a legal base would also be nec- of the rights included in the Constitution, essary which is nonexistent today.

Article 14 of the Convention

Concerns: Admissible difference of treatment Constitutional Court 22 May 2006 Findings of the court orities and social practice, on sectors of the Judgment population in positions, not only unfavoura- No. 197/2006 The principle of equality of all Spaniards Rec. amparo before the law (Article 14 of the Constitu- ble, but contrary to the person’s dignity rec- No. 119/2002 tion) does not imply, following the interpreta- ognised by Article 10.1 of the Constitution. http:// www.tribunalcons tion of the European Court of that same In that sense, the Constitutional Court itself titucional.es principle, that any unequal treatment regard- has been framing, inside the non-discrimina- ing the regulation in a certain matter sup- tion for reasons of birth, equality of the dif- poses violation of this principle, that ferent member classes that you should infringement not existing when it offers an understand each other absolutely equipped. objective and reasonable justification of the For that reason it is indicated that any legis- reason. Neither is the difference in treatment lative option that does not take into account unconstitutional when its consequences are the obligation of the public authorities to provided for the pursued purpose, of luck that excessively grievous or limitless results are assure the complete protection of the chil- avoided. dren regardless of their membership, and that of the parents of providing assistance of The Constitutional Court adds that the list of discrimination reasons included in the all types to the children there are inside or constitutional text is not a closed enumera- outside of the marriage, incurs from birth a tion of the same, but is an expressed prohibi- discrimination for reason specifically forbid- tion of a series of ingrained historical den by Article 14 of the Constitution, since differences and that they have been estab- the membership does not admit intermedi- lished, both by the action of the public auth- ate juridical categories. Concerns: Non-discrimination between adopted and biological children Supreme Court 29 September Findings of the court stitution. In this way the judgment of that 2006 Court of 14 July 2004 that considered Judgment The Supreme Court recalls the value of the No. 902/2006 case-law of the European Court of Human included in the non-discrimination principle Rec. No. 4317/ Rights, not only for the ratification by Spain the concept of adoptive children that are in 1999 of the European Convention on Human the same artificial situation as biological chil- Rights, but also of the condition of the inter- dren to all effects, relationships and conse- national instruments in the matter as rules quences linked with their family life and to guide the interpretation of the fundamen- derived patrimonial rights. For all that, tal rights collected in Article 10 of the Con- declares that the probate clause should be

Article 14 of the Convention 97 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 interpreted and applied many years after the these new realities and should confer to the death of the testator after deep changes both probate disposition the sense most appropri- in the social context and economic and jurid- ate with the internal right and with the Con- ical, of such luck that the judge cannot ignore vention.

Article 46 of the Convention

Concerns: Internal execution of the judgments of the European Court of Human Rights Constitutional Court Findings of the court sense it recalls that although the verdicts of 24 April 2006 the Committee are not comparable with the Judgment The Constitutional Court recalls its lack of No. 116/2006 power to rule on the internal execution of the judgments of the European Court, for not Rec. amparo resolutions of the competent international being judicial resolutions and lacking internal No. 73/2002 http:// organisms as regards human rights, espe- force, it does not imply that they do not have www.tribunalcons cially of the judgments of the European any effectiveness in the internal stage, since titucional.es Court and of the verdicts of the Committee they declare the infraction of a right recog- of the United Nations. For that reason its nised in the International Covenant of civil function must be checked if the refuted judi- and political rights that not only form part of cial resolutions have harmed fundamental rights recognised in the Constitution. Spanish law, according to Article 96.1 of the Constitution, but rather serve as an interpre- That does not prevent it from pointing out, as it has done from its first judgments, the tive rule of the fundamental rights and of the important interpretive function of the inter- public freedoms collected in the constitu- national texts in the matter to determine the tional text, according to Article 10 §2 of the content of the fundamental rights. In that Constitution. Switzerland/Suisse

Article 5 de la Convention

Concerne : Motifs à la base de la détention Tribunal fédéral Conclusions du tribunal est insuffisant. Indices parlant en faveur 23 février 2005 d’un danger de collusion concret. Réf. : Pra. 1/ 2006, p. 1, Die Soupçon important de culpabilité comme Maintien de la détention préventive malgré Praxis des Bun- motif de détention : exposé insuffisant, par le un exposé insuffisant des motifs de la déten- desgerichts, juge de la détention, de l’état de fait préten- tion. Le juge de la détention n’apparaît pas 2006, pp. 1-8 dument délictuel. déjà partial du seul fait que, dans la même affaire, il s’est déjà prononcé sur l’existence Danger de collusion comme motif de déten- de motifs de détention par rapport à des co- tion. Un simple danger d’obscurcissement accusés.

98 Switzerland/Suisse Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Concerne : Délais durant lesquels il ne peut être fait de demandes de libération Tribunal fédéral 10 octobre 2005 Conclusions du tribunal Réf. : Pra. 5/ 2006, p. 355, L’Article 31 al. 4 de la Constitution fédérale l’Homme, la question de savoir quel inter- Die Praxis des (Cst. féd.) et l’Article 5 § 4 de la Convention valle entre deux contrôles judiciaire est rai- Bundesgerichts, 2006, pp. 355- européenne des Droits de l’Homme donnent sonnable est résolue d’après les circonstances 361 au détenu des droits procéduraux, notam- du cas d’espèce. La jurisprudence admet que ment celui de faire appel en tout temps à un la mise en place d’une durée d’exclusion des juge pour que celui-ci examine la légalité de la demandes de libération d’un mois est admis- détention. sible. Des durées de un à trois mois ne sont, Des limitations aux droits garantis par ces en revanche, admises qu’exceptionnellement. dispositions sont admissibles si elles sont La durée pendant laquelle les demandes de fondées sur une base légale, si elle visent un libération sont exclues doit être prévisible intérêt public et si elles sont proportionnées. pour le détenu. Dans le cas d’espèce, une limi- Le Tribunal fédéral examine avec pleine tation d’une durée indéterminée (liée à la cognition si les droits procéduraux du détenu remise d’un rapport d’expertise psychiatrique ont été violés par l’application de la procé- dont le délai est indéterminé) s’avère dure pénale cantonale. contraire à la Constitution, puisqu’elle limite Selon la jurisprudence du Tribunal fédéral et la voie de droit qu’offre l’Article 31 al. 4 Cst. de la Cour européenne des Droits de féd. au détenu pour une durée indéterminée. Concerne : Notion de privation de liberté Tribunal fédéral 30 novembre Conclusions du tribunal L’interrogatoire consensuel, les mesures 2005 d’identification officielles et l’attente au Réf. : Pra. 8/ 2006, p.615, Ne constitue pas encore une privation de poste de police qui s’ensuit de la décision du Die Praxis des liberté la seule arrestation ou détention tem- juge d’instruction sur la suite de la procédure Bundesgerichts, poraire ou la limitation de la liberté. Pour qu’il (l’ensemble de ces mesures n’ayant duré que 2006, pp. 615- y ait privation de liberté, il faut une atteinte de 8 h 28 à 14 h 55) ne constituent pas une 619 d’une certaine intensité. privation de liberté.

Article 6 de la Convention

Concerne : Renonciation au droit de répliquer sur une détermination d’une instance inférieure Tribunal fédéral 22 novembre Conclusions du tribunal appartient à la partie concernée d’évaluer si 2005 une détermination contient de nouveaux Réf. : ATF 132 I La jurisprudence, tant du Tribunal fédéral arguments et exige une prise de position. La 142 que des organes de la Convention euro- Recueil des péenne des Droits de l’Homme (CEDH), partie concernée doit avoir la possibilité de se arrêts du Tri- reconnaît qu’il est possible de renoncer à une prononcer sur la nécessité d’une telle déter- bunal fédéral, procédure publique. De même, la jurispru- mination. Ces exigences sont violées si le tri- 132/2006, pp. bunal communique la détermination mais 42-48 dence de la Cour européenne des Droits de l’Homme admet qu’il est possible, en prin- rejette, par une décision incidente, une cipe, de renoncer au droit à une procédure demande de répliquer. Il est également inad- contradictoire. Il doit en aller de même du missible d’écarter la détermination sponta- droit de répliquer sur une détermination née du recourant dans le cadre de la décision d’une instance inférieure. Pour que la renon- finale. ciation soit valide, il faut qu’elle soit univo- Analyse de la jurisprudence de la Cour euro- que et que les garanties minimales soient péenne des Droits de l’Homme à ce sujet. respectées. D’après la jurisprudence de la Mise en oeuvre de l’Article 6 § 1 CEDH en Cour européenne sur l’Article 6 § 1 CEDH, il cas de communication de la réponse au

Article 6 de la Convention 99 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 recourant pour information : renonciation la position de l’autorité inférieure, n’a pas uti- effective dans le cas d’espèce puisque le lisé le temps écoulé pour faire parvenir au tri- recourant, alors même qu’il savait qu’il pou- bunal une détermination. vait, de manière spontanée, se déterminer sur

Concerne : Procès équitable

Cour de cassation du canton de Zurich

Conclusions de la cour d’espèce. Il n’y a aucune obligation d’orienter 13 janvier 2006 les parties ou leurs représentants au sujet de Blätter für sürcherische 1. Dans les cas de défense nécessaire, la la date de cette occupation. défense suffisante (efficace) ne doit pas Rechtspre- chung, 2006, échouer en raison d’une panne informatique 3. L’indication du droit général de l’accusé pp. 150-153 subie par le défenseur peu de temps avant de refuser de déposer doit avoir lieu une seule l’échéance d’un délai (en l’espèce le délai pour fois pendant la procédure. Cette indication déposer la motivation d’un recours). Dans un rend superflue l’indication complémentaire tel cas, afin de sauvegarder le droit à une d’un éventuel droit de refuser de témoigner défense suffisante, il convient de restituer le au sens de l’Article 129 du Code de procédure délai. pénale du canton de Zurich. Du point de vue 2. La loi prévoit, dans plusieurs cas, le juge- des déclarations informelles et spontanées de ment par un jury constitué. L’assermentation l’accusé, il n’y a aucune obligation d’indica- des jurés constitue une partie de cette consti- tion, même si le destinataire utilise par la tution et non de la procédure dans le cas suite cette déclaration dans la procédure.

Concerne : Témoignages anonymes

Tribunal fédéral

Conclusions du tribunal ger le témoin, ne serait-ce que par le biais 25 avril 2006 d’une confrontation indirecte. Réf. : ATF 132 I L’admissibilité de témoignages anonymes 127 implique d’évaluer l’ensemble des circon- Recueil des En l’espèce, le tribunal s’est fondé en partie arrêts du Tri- stances pour déterminer si la restriction des sur le témoignage d’un témoin anonyme qui bunal fédéral, droits de la défense qu’elle constitue est légi- n’a pas pu être interrogé par la défense. Un tel 132/2006, pp. timée par un intérêt digne de protection et, 127-134 témoignage n’étant pas admissible, l’arrêt du dans l’affirmative, si l’inculpé n’a, malgré Tribunal cantonal doit être cassé et la cause cela, pas été privé d’un procès équitable. renvoyée à cette autorité pour nouveau juge- En l’espèce, l’atteinte aux droits de la défense ment, dans le cadre duquel le tribunal devra a été insuffisamment compensée, ni l’inculpé examiner si une condamnation est possible ni le défenseur n’ayant eu l’occasion d’interro- sur la base du seul témoignage admissible.

Concerne : Sûretés exigées de la partie demanderesse en garantie des dépens de l’autre partie

Tribunal fédéral

Conclusions du tribunal En l’espèce, le fait d’exiger des sûretés à hau- 4 mai 2006 teur de CHF 400.000 ne viole pas le droit Réf. : ATF 132 I La garantie du droit d’accès aux tribunaux 134 d’accéder au tribunaux, puisqu’il se révèle n’exclut pas d’exiger des sûretés destinées à Recueil des couvrir indistinctement les frais futurs de la proportionné non seulement à la valeur liti- arrêts du tri- gieuse, mais également aux difficultés inhé- bunal fédéral, partie défenderesse et ceux que cette partie a 132/2006, pp. déjà subis dans le procès. Les sûretés peuvent rentes à un débat judiciaire portant sur des 134-140 aussi couvrir les frais résultant de l’exception question de droit étranger et aux moyens de compensation de la partie défenderesse. juridiques invoqués par les parties.

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Concerne : Charge des frais de la procédure dans le cas d’un classement de la procédure Tribunal fédéral 14 juillet 2005 Conclusions du tribunal Le Tribunal fédéral peut, lorsque la motiva- Réf. : Pra 3/ tion de l’instance cantonale est déficiente, la 2006, p. 177, Die Praxis des Il faut se prévaloir du droit à une procédure compléter si nécessaire. En l’espèce, l’ins- Bundesgerichts, judiciaire déjà au stade de la procédure canto- tance cantonale a mis les frais à la charge de 2006, pp. 177- nale. Dans le cas contraire, il est admis que le l’accusé non condamné, sans démontrer en 183 recourant a renoncé à se prévaloir de cet argu- quoi il avait, par son comportement, porté atteinte à l’ordre juridique. Or, le Tribunal ment. Il en va de même des motifs de récusa- fédéral considère que par son comportement, tion du juge, qui doivent être soulevés au plus l’accusé non condamné a, en l’espèce, violé le vite. En l’espèce, le recourant n’a pas, au stade principe de « neminem laedere », consacré de la procédure cantonale, argué de la viola- comme principe de l’ordre juridique. tion de l’Article 30, al. 1, de la Constitution. Dès lors, il se justifiait de mettre à sa charge Son droit de se prévaloir de cette disposition les frais de la procédure, bien qu’il n’ait pas est donc périmé. été condamné. Concerne : Assistance judiciaire Tribunal fédéral 28 mars 2005 Conclusions du tribunal sorte que l’accusé, disposant d’une forma- Réf. : Pra 1/2006 tion scolaire adéquate, ne peut pas répondre p. 9, Die Praxis La question juridique de savoir si un com- des Bundesge- portement doit être qualifié de violation par lui-même. En outre, le principe de l’éga- richts, 2006, pp. simple ou grave des règles de la circulation – lité des armes exige que lorsque la partie 9-13 ici en relation avec l’accusation d’homicide lésée, qui peut – et va probablement – involontaire et avec le risque d’une peine s’exprimer au sujet de la culpabilité est privative de liberté de plus de six mois – pré- représentée d’office, l’accusé bénéficie égale- sente des difficultés extraordinaires, de telle ment de la défense d’un avocat. Concerne : Durée de la procédure Tribunal fédéral 21 septembre Conclusions du tribunal une raison pour une atténuation importante 2005 de la peine. Réf. : Pra 5/2006 Une inactivité des autorités de poursuites p. 353, Die pénales pendant plusieurs années constitue Praxis des Bun- desgerichts, Concerne : Indépendance du juge 2006, pp. 353- 354 Tribunal fédéral 5 novembre Conclusions du tribunal ces importants que le résultat de la procédure 2005 ne puisse plus être considéré comme ouvert, Réf. : Pra 7/2006 Si le tribunal, dans le cadre d’une apprécia- p. 525, Die tion anticipée des preuves, est parti de l’idée dans la mesure où, par la suite, la cause est Praxis des Bun- que l’administration de preuves supplémen- renvoyée aux mêmes juges que ceux qui ont desgerichts, taires est inutile et si cette manière de voir est traité de l’affaire à l’instance inférieure et qui 2006, pp. 525- considérée comme arbitraire dans la procé- ont affirmé être convaincus de la culpabilité 529 dure de recours qui s’ensuit, il existe des indi- de l’accusé. Concerne : Droit d’être entendu en procédure de récusation Tribunal administratif du canton de Berne 10 août 2006 Conclusions du tribunal donne aux parties le droit d’être informées de Die neue Steuer- l’ensemble des déclarations et détermina- praxis, De l’Article 29, al. 2, de la Constitution fédé- 5 + 6/2006, pp. rale découle le droit des parties de s’exprimer tions adressées au Tribunal et de s’exprimer à 70-78 sur tous les faits pertinents pour la prise ce sujet, si celles-ci portent sur des points d’une décision. L’Article 6 § 1 de la Conven- importants. tion européenne des Droits de l’Homme

Article 6 de la Convention 101 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Concerne : Droit d’être entendu par le juge même en charge d’un affaire. Faute intentionnelle

Tribunal fédéral

Conclusions du tribunal conséquences de ses actes ou n’en a pas tenu 24 mars 2006 compte. Les informations des formulaires de Réf. : Pra 7/2006 1. La Convention européenne des Droits 871, Die Praxis de l’Homme ne permet pas de conclure déclaration de revenus et du guide qui s’y rap- des Bundesge- qu’un juge en charge d’une affaire est tenu porte sont supposées connues. Quiconque richts, 2006, pp. 871-873 de procéder personnellement à une audition s’occupe d’affaires boursières depuis des du prévenu dans le cadre de la procédure années et est abonné à divers journaux éco- d’administration des preuves. En l’espèce, la nomiques à cet effet ne peut pas sincèrement délégation de l’audition de l’intéressé à un prétendre qu’il ne savait pas qu’il devait secrétaire juridique était fondée sur déclarer ses titres dans sa déclaration l’Article 13, al. 2, de la Loi bernoise sur les d’impôt, ni comment il devait les déclarer. La commissions de recours en matière fiscale et peine varie en fonction du degré de culpabi- admissible juridiquement. lité, compte tenu des circonstances particu- 2. L’intention est réputée établie lorsqu’il lières à chaque cas. apparaît avec suffisamment de certitude que le contribuable avait conscience que les ren- L’absence de regret et de discernement n’est seignements fournis étaient inexacts ou pas un facteur aggravant. Par contre, une pré- incomplets. On parle de négligence cédente condamnation pour soustraction lorsqu’une personne n’a pas réfléchi aux d’impôt en est un.

Concerne : Autorité judiciaire en matière fiscale

Tribunal fédéral

Conclusions du tribunal tractantes puisse se prononcer sur sa portée 8 mai 2006 de façon contraignante en tant que pouvoir Réf. : ATF 132 I Les Articles 6 § 1 de la Convention euro- 140, Recueil des péenne des Droits de l’Homme et 30 de la public, sans que l’autre partie dispose d’une arrêts du Tri- Constitution fédérale n’imposent pas l’exis- voie de droit autre que le recours de droit bunal fédéral, tence d’une autorité judiciaire en matière fis- public au Tribunal fédéral. 132/2006, pp. cale. Si l’obligation fiscale est réglée par un 140-152 contrat de droit administratif, il est néan- Transmission du dossier aux autorités canto- moins arbitraire que l’une des parties con- nales afin qu’elles comblent la lacune.

Concerne : Base légale pour la restriction de libertés fondamentales

Tribunal fédéral

Conclusions du tribunal en force, une décision ne viole pas le droit à 26 avril 2006 un tribunal indépendant ni le principe de la Réf. : ATF 132 I Une prise de position d’un département fédé- 229, Recueil des ral rendant opposable aux avoirs d’une per- séparation des pouvoirs. arrêts du Tri- sonne un blocage ordonné par le Conseil bunal fédéral, Lorsqu’elle satisfait aux conditions de fédéral sur la base de l’Article 184, al. 3, de la 132/2006, pp. l’Article 184, al. 3, Cst. féd., une mesure fon- Constitution fédérale (Cst. féd.) constitue 229-248 dée sur cette disposition constitue une base une décision au sens de l’Article 5 de la Loi légale suffisante pour la restriction des liber- fédérale sur la procédure administrative, por- tés fondamentales, pour autant que ces restant sur des droits et obligations de caractère trictions soient, par ailleurs, justifiées par un civil au sens de l’Article 6 § 1 de la Conven- intérêt public et proportionnées au but visé. tion européenne des Droits de l’Homme, attaquable par un recours de droit adminis- En l’espèce, le blocage contesté, en tant qu’il tratif. s’applique à des avoirs revendiqués sur la base Du fait qu’elle paralyse l’exécution par l’auto- d’un jugement entré en force, ne serait-ce que rité compétente à cet effet – en l’occurrence par sa durée excessive, viole le principe de la l’Office des poursuites – d’un jugement entré proportionnalité.

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Concerne : Exigences relatives au contenu de l’arrêt de renvoi Tribunal cantonal valaisan 31 mai 2006 Conclusions du tribunal des dispositions pénales du droit des assu- Revue valai- rances sociales. sanne de juris- Distinction entre le simple mensonge écrit et prudence, 2006, sa forme qualifiée. Principe accusatoire. Exigences concernant le pp. 332-337 contenu de l’arrêt de renvoi ainsi que la modi- Des décomptes de salaires incomplets trans- fication ou l’extension des charges selon le mis aux assurances sociales ne constituent principe accusatoire. Mesure dans laquelle pas des faux dans les titres ; la punissabilité l’instance d’appel est liée par l’accusation, de tels comportements relève exclusivement lorsque seul l’accusé a fait appel. Concerne : Champ d’application de l’Article 6 de la Convention européenne des Droits de l’Homme Tribunal fédéral des assurances 28 décembre Résumé d’inclure un hôpital dans la liste des hôpitaux 2005. Réf. : ATF cantonaux n’entre pas dans le champ d’appli- 132 V 6 Le recours de droit administratif n’est pas Recueil des ouvert contre une décision négative du Conseil cation de l’Article 6 § 1 de la Convention euro- arrêts du Tri- fédéral en matière de liste des hôpitaux. Le refus péenne des Droits de l’Homme. bunal fédéral des assurances, 132/2006, pp. 6- Autres affaires concernant le champ d’application de l’Article 6 18 Tribunal fédéral des assurances 6 mars 2006. Réf. : ATF 132 V 299, Recueil Recours contre la fixation des tarifs hospita- des arrêts du Tribunal fédéral des assu- liers. rances, 132/2006, pp. 299-302. Concerne : Tribunal fédéral des assurances 11 août 2005. Réf. :ZBGR 87, 2006, p. 221, 225. Concerne : Contestations relatives aux Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Beurkun- prétentions en dédommagement des dungs- und Grundbuchrecht, 2006, pp. 221- notaires patentés du canton des Grisons. Tribunal cantonal de l’Etat de Fribourg 22 mars 2006. Revue fribourgeoise de juris- débours de l’avocat portant sur des affaires prudence, 2006, pp. 185-187. Concerne : pénales qui, jusqu’au terme du mandat de ce Organe compétent pour trancher des dernier, ont été traitées uniquement par le contestations relatives aux honoraires et juge d’instruction. Tribunal administratif du canton de Berne 3 octobre 2005 Résumé l’Homme s’ils invoquent la violation des nor- Jurisprudence mes visant (aussi) la protection du voisinage. administrative Les propriétaires d’immeubles voisins qui ne bernoise, 2006, sont pas directement touchés par un plan de En font également partie les prescriptions sur pp. 218-223 quartier peuvent se prévaloir de l’Article 6 § 1 la protection des monuments historiques. de la Convention européenne des Droits de

Article 8 de la Convention

Concerne : Choix du nom de famille Tribunal fédéral 24 mai 2005 Conclusions du tribunal nal privé (LDIP), elle supprime l’effet de sa Réf. : JdT première demande. 2006I67 Lorsqu’une personne réclame l’application de Journal des Tri- l’Article 30 du Code civil (CC) après avoir bunaux, 2006, demandé que son nom soit soumis à son La requête de changement de nom de pp. 67-74 droit national, conformément à l’Article 37, l’Article 30, al. 2, CC par laquelle les fiancés al. 3, de la Loi fédérale sur le droit internatio- indiquent vouloir porter le nom de la femme

Article 8 de la Convention 103 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 comme nom de famille doit être soumise à Le principe d’unité de la famille consacré par l’Article 38 LDIP, donc au Droit suisse. les Article 160, al. 1, CC et 30,al. 2, CC ne Même s’il a déjà été admis que la réglementa- semble pas contraire à la Convention euro- tion du nom des époux pouvait être contraire péenne des Droits de l’Homme. Il implique au principe d’égalité tel que voulu par la que seul puisse être porté comme nom de Constitution, le Tribunal fédéral se doit de famille le nom d’un des époux. respecter la volonté claire du législateur.

Concerne : Regroupement familial Tribunal administratif du canton de Vaud

Conclusions du tribunal l’Article 17, al. 2, 3e phrase, de la Loi fédérale 22 février 2006 sur le séjour et l’établissement des étrangers Revue de droit Dans le cas d’une demande de regroupement administratif et familial en faveur de l’enfant d’une Equato- (la mère ne disposant que d’une autorisation de droit fiscal, rienne mariée à un ressortissant italien titu- de séjour) ne sont applicables en l’espèce. 2006, pp. 184- laire du permis C, l’Article 8 de la 191 Convention européenne des Droits de L’enfant, âgée de dix-sept ans et huit mois, a l’Homme est applicable car la mère bénéficie, vécu la plus grande partie de sa vie avec sa en tant qu’épouse d’un titulaire d’un permis mère, qui a présenté la demande quelques d’établissement, d’un droit de présence jours après avoir elle-même obtenu une auto- assuré en Suisse. En revanche, ni l’Article 3, risation de séjour. Le seul fait que celle-ci sou- Annexe I, de l’Accord sur la libre circulation haite que l’enfant poursuive des études ne des personnes (faute pour l’enfant de séjour- signifie pas qu’un tel désir, en soi légitime, ner légalement dans un Etat CE/AELE), ni constitue le but premier de la requête.

Article 9 de la Convention

Concerne : Refus d’une naturalisation en raison de l’appartenance religieuse Tribunal fédéral

Conclusions du tribunal pour des motifs discriminatoires liés à 10 mai 2006 l’appartenance religieuse. Réf. : ATF 132 I Les Article 15 de la Constitution fédérale 167 (Cst. féd.) et 9 de la Convention européenne Recueil des des Droits de l’Homme n’ont pas de portée En raison de l’intégration insuffisante de la arrêts du Tri- indépendante par rapport au grief selon requérante, le refus de naturalisation ne viole bunal fédéral, lequel la naturalisation aurait été refusée pas l’Article 8, al. 2, Cst. féd. 132/2006, pp. 167-174

Article 10 de la Convention

Concerne : Protection dessources des journalistes dans une procédure pénale Tribunal fédéral

Conclusions du tribunal Ce droit n’est pas absolu, mais il doit exister 11 mai 2006 un intérêt prépondérant pour qu’il soit Réf. : ATF 132 I Le droit de protéger ses sources est un droit du 181 journaliste découlant des Article 10 de la limité. Recueil des Convention européenne des Droits de En l’espèce, l’intérêt d’élucider l’homicide arrêts du Tri- l’Homme et 17, al. 3, de la Constitution qui était en question n’était pas suffisam- bunal fédéral, fédérale. ment prépondérant pour permettre de 132/2006, pp. 181-195 contraindre le journaliste à révéler ses sources d’informations.

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Article 11 de la Convention

Concerne : Refus d’autoriser une manifestation Tribunal fédéral 4 septembre Conclusions du tribunal L’affaire concerne les mesures de protection 2006 prises par les autorités pour prévenir les Réf. : ATF 132 I Concernant la liberté d’opinion et de réunion 256, Recueil des en matière de manifestation sur le domaine risques liés à une contre-manifestation : au vu arrêts du Tri- public, les droits garantis par les Article 10 et des circonstances du cas d’espèce, le refus bunal fédéral, 11 de la Convention européenne des Droits d’autoriser la manifestation est conforme à la 132/2006, pp. de l’Homme ne vont pas au-delà des droits Constitution. 256-269 garantis par les Article 16 et 22 de la Consti- tution fédérale.

Article 13 de la Convention

Concerne : Droit à un recours contre un ordre d’intervention de la police lors d’une manifestation non autorisée Tribunal administratif du canton de Berne 24 juillet 2006 Conclusions du tribunal l’Homme (CEDH), doit être donnée. Le Jurisprudence recours prévu à l’Article 13 CEDH n’est pas administrative La requête du Conseil communal de Thoune bernoise, 2006, demandant le soutien de la police cantonale forcément un recours à une autorité pp. 481-490 lors d’une manifestation non autorisée cons- judiciaire : un recours administratif à une titue un ordre d’intervention. Il ne s’adresse autorité indépendante peut être suffisant, s’il pas aux citoyens et aux citoyennes, ne décrit, garantit les droits fondamentaux du recou- notamment, pas leurs droits individuels et ne rant. En l’espèce, le recours en matière com- peut, dès lors, être considéré comme une décision soumise à un recours administratif. munale répond aux critères d’un recours L’ordre d’intervention constitue un acte con- effectif au sens de l’Article 13 CEDH. La déci- cret, contre lequel une possibilité de recours sion attaquée s’avère donc contraire au Droit, effectif, conformément à l’Article 13 de la dans la mesure où elle refuse d’entrer en Convention européenne des Droits de matière sur le recours en matière communale. United Kingdom/Royaume-Uni

Article 5 of the Convention

Concerns: Trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial House of Lords 26 July 2006 Findings of the court granted bail … only if the court … consider- R. v.Crown Court ing the grant of bail is satisfied that there are at Harrow, Re O This case concerned the compatibility of (habeas corpus), exceptional circumstances which justify it”. [2006] UKHL 42 national statutory provisions on custody and The Prosecution of Offences Act 1985 pro- bail of accused persons and the requirements vides for custody time limits which could be of Article 5 §3 of the European Convention extended by a court but was not to do so on Human Rights for trial within a reasona- unless satisfied that the prosecution had ble time or to be released pending trial. acted “with all due diligence and expedition”. Section 25 of the Criminal Justice and Public The facts leading to this case were that origi- Order Act 1994 stipulates that a person nally the defendant had been refused bail charged with certain offences who had been under section 25 of the 1994 Act. After previously convicted of such offence “shall be delays in the trial taking place, the prosecu-

Article 11 de la Convention 105 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 tion applied for an extension to the defend- should not be equated with violation of the ant being held in custody under the 1985 Act “reasonable time” guarantee in Article 5 §3. but this was refused on the ground that the prosecution had not acted with all due dili- As regards evidential burdens or presump- gence and expedition. The defendant then re- tions pointing to bail being refused, the applied for bail but this was again refused court stated that the two key requirements under the terms of the 1994 Act. The defend- of Article 5 §3 were first that the prosecu- ant applied for judicial review and a writ of tion must bear the overall burden of justify- habeas corpus on the ground that the cus- ing a remand in custody, and second that tody extension was unlawful and that in the the judge in a case must be entitled to take circumstances bail could not be refused with- account of all relevant considerations. The out violating Article 5 §3 of the Convention court emphasised that the operation of which guaranteed trial within a reasonable section 25 of the 1994 Act involved a judge time or release pending trial. exercising a judgment or evaluation. Where The court found no incompatibility any uncertainty exists in the operation of between domestic law and the Convention, that provision, a presumption in favour of and dismissed the appeal. In reaching its release existed. As Lord Brown stated (at conclusion, the court was able “to apply the para. 35), “Just occasionally the court will be technique of reading down” the domestic left unsure as to whether the defendant provisions, so far as it is possible to do so, as should be released on bail – the only situa- provided for in section 3 of the Human tion in which the burden of proof assumes Rights Act 1998, in order to avoid a breach any relevance – and in my judgment bail of the accused’s Convention rights (see would then have to be granted. That must paras 12 and 30). A failure in meeting the be the default position. Section 25 should be “due diligence” provision in the 1985 Act read down to make that plain.”

Articles 5 and 8 of the Convention

Concerns: Statutory police powers of stop and search House of Lords Findings of the court (3) and 44 (4)). It must be stated to apply to 8 March 2006 a specified area; and it will lapse at the end of R v.Metropolitan The two claimants in this case, R (on the Police commis- twenty-eight days of coming into force. A application of Gillan and another) v. sioner and police constable is thereby authorised “to another, [2006] Metropolitan Police Commissioner and another, stop a vehicle … and to search (a) the vehicle; UKHL 12 asked the court to declare the statutory (b) the driver of the vehicle; (c) a passenger in police powers of stop and search under the vehicle; (d) anything in or on the vehicle section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 incom- or carried by the driver or a passenger” patible with the European Convention on (section 44 (1)). The Metropolitan Police Human Rights. The court is empowered to commissioner had given repeated authorisa- make such declarations of incompatibility tions for this power to be exercised in Lon- under section 4 of the Human Rights don, confirmed by the Home Secretary. Act 1998. Under section 45, the power of stop and The claimants argued they had been victims search may be exercised “only for the purpose of human rights violations when they were of searching for articles of a kind which could separately detained and searched on 9 Sep- be used in connection with terrorism”, but tember 2003 while on their way to a public “may be exercised whether or not the consta- protest being held in east London against an ble has grounds for suspecting the presence arms fair. In both cases, nothing incriminat- of articles of that kind”. To enable the search, ing was found as a result of the searches. the Act empowers a police constable to “detain the person or vehicle for such time as The stop and search power judicially it reasonably required to permit the search to reviewed by the court arises whenever an be carried out at or near the place where the authorisation is given by a senior police person or vehicle is stopped” (section 45 (4)). officer under the Terrorism Act 2000. This authorisation may only be given “if the per- The claimants argued that the authorisations son giving it considers it expedient for the were unlawful and in violation of the guaran- prevention of acts of terrorism” (sections 44 tee of personal liberty of Article 5 of the

106 United Kingdom/Royaume-Uni Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

European Convention on Human Rights ers, and considered and informed evaluations since the decision-maker did not have reason- of terrorist threat available to the police. able grounds for believing the powers of stop The degree of detention involved in a person and search across the whole of central Lon- being stopped and searched was insuffi- don were necessary for the prevention of ter- ciently significant to constitute a depriva- rorism. They argued their right to private tion of personal liberty within the meaning life, and their freedom of expression and of Article 5 of the Convention, the court assembly, had been violated by the stop and stated (see para. 25). Similarly, a superficial search power, since it was insufficiently jus- search under the Act could not be viewed as tified and failed to meet the Convention’s a violation of a person’s private life under requirements of lawfulness. Article 8 of the Convention, any more than the security checks to which a passenger The court rejected the claimants’ arguments, uncomplainingly submits at an airport (para. upholding the lawfulness of the authorisa- 28). In the court’s view, there were effective tions and powers. The pre-condition of an constraints in the Terrorism Act to ensure authorisation being “expedient” in the Ter- the powers in dispute would not be utilised rorism Act did not mean it had to be “neces- in an arbitrary manner. These included the sary”. The authorisation could be given if the requirements for a senior police offer to give decision-maker considered it likely that the the authorisation, for the Home Secretary to power would be of “significant practical confirm an authorisation, for an authorisa- value and utility” in seeking to achieve the tion to expire after twenty-eight days, and prevention of acts of terrorism (per Lord for reports on the working of the Act to be Bingham, para. 15). The geographical cover- reported to Parliament every year. The levels age of the authorisation was justified on the of interference arising from the powers in bases of it being impracticable to differenti- the Terrorism Act were proportionate and in ate between some parts of London and oth- accordance with law, the court held.

Article 6 of the Convention

Concerns: Jurisdiction of English courts to hear civil legal proceedings against a foreign state for torture House of Lords 14 June 2006 Findings of the court law precludes the grant of immunity to Jones v. Ministry states or individuals from being sued for acts of Interior of the This case raised the issue whether an English Kingdom of Saudi of torture, and torture cannot constitute Arabia and court had jurisdiction to hear civil legal pro- governmental acts of exercises of state auth- another, Mitchell ceedings against a foreign state and its offi- ority. and others v. Al- cials for torture. Dali and others In rejecting the claimant’s case, the House of [2006] UKHL 26 The claimants sought compensation by way Lords accepted that Article 6 was engaged by of aggravated damages for systematic tor- the grant of immunity to the Kingdom of ture and other acts alleged to have been Saudi Arabia and its officials, relying on the inflicted on them by officials in the King- decision of the European Court of Human dom of Saudi Arabia. However, their appli- Rights in Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom cations to serve proceedings were refused by (2001) 12 BHRC 88. Nonetheless, some diffi- the court on grounds of state immunity culty was expressed in accepting this point, under the State Immunity Act 1978. In its with Lord Bingham expressing the view, “I do appeal to the House of Lords, the claimants not understand how a state can be said to argued that the Act was incompatible with deny access to its court if it has no access to their fundamental right of access to the give” (para. 14). The reasons given by the court guaranteed by the right to a fair trial in House of Lords included that a civil legal Article 6 of the European Convention on action such as this raised categorically differ- Human Rights. It was argued that the ent legal issues to those involved in criminal restriction which state immunity imposed proceedings. The United Nations Conven- upon their right of access to a court was not tion against Torture and other Cruel, Inhu- directed to a legitimate objective and was man or Degrading Treatment or Punishment disproportionate. It was further argued that 1984, to which both the United Kingdom the proscription of torture by international and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia were par-

Article 6 of the Convention 107 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71 ties, did not provide for a universal civil legal ham, para. 26). Since this was so, and the rule jurisdiction. No exception currently existed on immunity was well understood and in the case of alleged torture: “it may very established, in the court’s view the 1978 Act well be that the claimants’ contention will on state immunity was not disproportionate come to represent the law of nations, but it and did not infringe the applicants’ Conven- cannot be said to do so now” (per Lord Bing- tion rights.

Articles 9 of the Convention and 2 of Protocol No. 1

Concerns: Religious dress and right to education

House of Lords

Findings of the court staff and the Imams of the three local 22 March 2006 mosques, and this was explained in advance R v. Head Teacher and Gov- This case concerned a young Muslim girl’s to prospective parents of the school. These ernors of Den- belief on religious grounds in wearing a par- uniform rules had been designed towards, bigh High School [2006] UKHL 14 ticular form of dress which did not conform and were acceptable in, mainstream Moslem to her school’s uniform dress code. She opinion. Three uniform options were offered claimed the school’s refusal to allow her to to pupils, one of which was the shalwr attend school unless she changed her cloth- kameeze which the claimant wore at the ing so as to comply with its uniform code school for two years until she and her family was a breach of her freedom to manifest her decided a different garment known as a religious belief under Article 9 of the Euro- jilbab was appropriate now she was older. pean Convention on Human Rights and her The school believed “a school uniform right to education under Article 2 of Protocol played an integral part in securing high No. 1. standards, serving the needs of a diverse In deciding the case, the House of Lords community, promoting a positive sense of expressed the view that Article 9 of the Con- communal identity and avoiding manifest vention did not require that one should be disparities of wealth and style” (para. 6). In allowed to manifest one’s religion at any these circumstances, the court held that time and place of one’s choosing (see dicta of there had been no violation of Article 6, and Lord Hoffman, para. 50). Whether or not a the school’s interference with the claimant’s violation of Article 9 takes place depends on freedom to manifest her religious beliefs had the facts of each case. Any limitation or inter- been proportionate. The court held that the ference under Article 9 §2 will be justified if school had been fully justified in requiring it is prescribed by law and necessary in a compliance with the school’s uniform dress democratic society, meaning “it must be code as a condition of the claimant’s attend- directed to a legitimate purpose and propor- ance at the school. tionate in scope and effect” (per Lord Bing- ham, para. 26). The court stressed that this The court also held that the school had not case concerned a particular pupil and a par- violated the claimant’s human right of access ticular school in a particular place at a partic- to an education; it had simply insisted she ular time. In other words, the court was not wear a school uniform which it was entitled ruling on the appropriateness of any form of to do. Furthermore, the school in question religious dress in general. As Lord Bingham was outside the catchment area for where put it, the court “is not, and could not be, the claimant lived, and there were other invited to rule whether Islamic dress, or any feature of Islamic dress, should or should not schools the claimant could have attended be permitted in the schools of this country” where the jilbab dress her particular religious (para. 2). beliefs required was allowed. Article 2 of Pro- tocol No. 1 did not confer a right to go to any At the school in question, around 80% of particular school of a person’s choosing; “it is schoolchildren were Muslim. A school policy infringed only if the claimant is unable to on uniform had been formulated after care- obtain education from the system as a ful consultation with parents, students, whole” (per Lord Hoffman, para. 69).

108 United Kingdom/Royaume-Uni Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71

Article 10 of the Convention

Concerns: Libel in relation to the press

House of Lords

11 October 2006 Findings of the court sion in Derbyshire CC v. Times Newspapers Ltd Jameel and [1993] AC 534 local and central government another v. Wall Street Journal The case required the House of Lords to authorities could not sue in defamation. It Europe [2006] review the national law of libel in relation to also noted that the Faulks Committee’s UKHL 44 the press. This involved its consideration of Report of the Committee on Defamation in the defence of qualified privilege and the 1975 had recommended that trading compa- scope and application of the ruling in the ear- nies should only be entitled to bring defama- lier leading case of Reynolds v. Times tion proceedings if they could establish Newspapers Ltd [2001] 2 AC 12. The issues special damage or likelihood of pecuniary involved were of importance to the working loss. However, although two of the judges of the press and freedom of expression under heading the appeal (Lord Hoffman and Bar- Article 10 of the Convention. As Lord Bing- oness Hale) believed the earlier judicial deci- ham said, “Freedom to publish free of unjus- sion putting companies on the same footing tifiable restraint must indeed be recognised as individuals in the law of libel should be as a distinguishing feature of the sort of soci- overruled, a majority of three judges held a ety which the Convention seeks to promote” (para. 18). company could continue to bring proceedings. The case arose out of a newspaper article published five months after the 2001 terror- The second issue addressed by the court was ist attacks on America, as a result of which clarification of the defence of qualified privi- serious attempts were being made by the US lege available to the press. The court held government and United Nations Security that there were essentially two stages in Council to cut off sources of funding to ter- approaching this matter. First, it must be rorist organisations. The article suggested determined whether the subject matter of that the two Saudi Arabian claimants, a the article was a matter of public interest. As commercial company and its president/gen- Baroness Hale said, “There must be a real eral manager, were involved in the monitor- public interest in communicating and receiving of bank accounts associated with ing the information. This is, as we all know, prominent businessmen to prevent them very different from saying that it is informa- being used, wittingly or unwittingly, for the tion which interests the public.” (para. 147). funnelling of funds to terrorist organisa- This is a question in each case to be deter- tions. The claimants brought libel proceed- mined by the judge. On the particular facts ings against the publisher of the newspaper, of this case, the court believed the subject objecting to the suggestions that they were matter to be of considerable public interest. involved or might be under suspicion of The House of Lords said that it was then to involvement. At the original trial of the case, determine whether publication was justifia- the judge pointed out that the defendant had ble. The essential test for this was whether offered no plea of justification, and the jury the journalist and publisher had conducted found the article to have been defamatory. themselves in a “responsible and fair” man- However, the House of Lords allowed the ner in collecting and publishing the informa- appeal of the defendant publisher and dismissed the action. tion. The court emphasised that the ten matters listed in the judgment of There were two central issues to be decided Lord Nicholls in the Reynolds case were not by the court. The first was the procedural tests or hurdles to pass but a non-exhaustive question whether a company could bring an set of factors a court may wish to take into action for libel without pleading or showing account in determining whether a publisher special damage, as had been settled law for had acted responsibly or not. In this particu- over a century since South Hetton Coal Co. Ltd lar case, the court held that the article pub- v. North-Eastern News Association Ltd [1894] 1 lished bore all the hallmarks of responsible QB 133. The court noted that since the deci- journalism.

Article 10 of the Convention 109 Supplement to Human rights information Bulletin No. 71

Articles 10 and 11 of the Convention

Concerns: Political protest House of Lords Findings of the court tion on Human Rights, as incorporated into 13 December national law by the Human Rights Act 1998 2006 This leading case before the Appellate Com- R v. Chief Con- mittee of the House of Lords concerned the (see especially paras 55 and 90). stable of Glouces- fundamental right and freedom of political In reaching its decision, the court emphasised tershire [2006] UKHL 55 protest. the fundamental importance of political pro- The events out of which the case arose test. It viewed freedom of assembly under involved an anti-war demonstration in Article 11 of the Convention as an important early 2003 at the Royal Air Force base in Fair- means of an individual’s freedom of expres- ford, from which operational sorties by sion under Article 10. It referred to the American B52 bombers were to take place description given by the European Court of against Iraq. On 22 March three coaches Human Rights in Steel v. the United Kingdom with one-hundred and twenty passengers on (1998) 28 EHRR 603 of the right to freedom board were travelling from London to Fair- of expression as “an essential foundation of ford to join in the demonstration. The pas- democratic society and one of the basic con- sengers comprised a diverse group of people ditions for its progress and for each individ- of varying ages and affiliations. Five kilome- ual’s self-fulfilment”. tres outside Fairford, the coaches were It was recognised that the claimant’s human stopped and its passengers searched by rights were not absolute and were qualified police, acting under a statutory stop and in the terms set out in Article 10 §2 and search authorisation under section 60 of the 11 §2. Any legitimate restrictions imposed Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 on these rights must be strictly “in accord- issued in respect of the whole area around ance with law” and “necessary in a demo- Fairford. The search revealed eight of the pas- cratic society”, such as in this case for the sengers to be members of a hard core activist protection of public order. However, the anarchist group, together with a number of court stated that, “any prior restraint on free- articles that were then confiscated including dom of expression calls for the most careful masks, crash helmets, hoods, spray paint, scrutiny” (per Lord Bingham, para. 37), and scissors, and a safety flare. The passengers re- “prior restraint (pre-emptive action) needs boarded the coaches, thinking they were to the fullest justification” (per Lord Brown, proceed to Fairford, but instead the coaches para. 114). and its passengers were directed by the police The court considered at length the English to return to London. The passengers were concept of breach of the peace and the ambit forcibly prevented from disembarking, and of police powers to take action to prevent police motorcycle outriders escorted the any such breach (see especially paras 27-33 coaches back to London where no stops for and 110-111). In this case, “no breach of the refreshments or toilet facilities were permit- peace was or could reasonably be appre- ted. The police explained these measures as hended to be ‘imminent’” (per Lord Mance, authorised under their common law powers para. 142). There was no disorder among the to prevent a breach of the peace. passengers, nothing to suggest the claimant Judicial review proceedings were brought by would be other than peaceful in her political one of the coaches’ passengers, Jane Laporte, protest, and those among the coaches’ pas- challenging the lawfulness of the police deci- sengers who might prove disruptive at the sions and actions that prevented her from demonstration at Fairford could have been travelling to the demonstration at Fairford, dealt with by the extensive police surveil- compelling her to leave the area, forcibly lance and presence there (see ibid.). Even if a returning her to London, and keeping her on breach of the peace had been imminent, the the coach and preventing her from leaving it court held, the actions taken by the police until she had reached London. The court failed to satisfy the test of proportionality in upheld these complaints, holding the Chief balancing the rights of the claimant against Constable’s actions to have been unlawful what were the exigencies of the situation. and a violation of her right to freedom of Indeed, “it was wholly disproportionate to expression and freedom of association under restrict her exercise of her rights under Article 10 and 11 of the European Conven- Articles 10 and 11 because she was in the

110 United Kingdom/Royaume-Uni Supplément au Bulletin d’information sur les droits de l’homme no 71 company of others some of whom might, at the restrictions on the claimant had neither some time in the future, breach the peace” been “in accordance with law” nor had they (per Lord Bingham, para. 55). Consequently, been “necessary in a democratic society.”

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