THE LONDON 2012 OLYMPIC and PARALYMPIC GAMES By
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View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by CLoK THE INTERSECTIONS BETWEEN ECONOMY, ENVIRONMENT AND LOCALITY: THE LONDON 2012 OLYMPIC AND PARALYMPIC GAMES By SADIE FRANCESCA SUSANNE HOLLINS School of Sport, Tourism and The Outdoors University of Central Lancashire A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire August 2013 DECLARATION I declare that while registered as a candidate for the research degree, I have not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for another award of the University or other academic or professional institution I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award and is solely my own work Signature of Candidate _____________________________________________ Type of Award _____________________________________________ School _____________________________________________ ABSTRACT Despite a growing body of literature concerned with the sustainability of sports mega- events, there is relatively little analysis examining environmental sustainability commitments at the Olympic Games, and the environmental impact of the Olympics on the host communities. Research to date has lacked an explicit theoretical underpinning and in particular, the use of theoretical perspectives from the sociology of the environment literature to analyse the intersections between the economy, the environment and locality at the Olympic Games, and the environmental impact of the Games on the host communities. This thesis develops a theoretical framework that combines elements of a „Critical/Marxist‟ perspective, Næss‟ philosophical conceptualisation of „shallow‟ and „deep‟ ecology, and Ecological Modernisation Theory (EMT) in order to better understand the relationship between the environment, sustainability and the Olympic Games. Adopting a three-phase qualitative approach which utilises interviews, focus groups and an analysis of secondary sources, the thesis investigates three main topic areas pertaining to environmental sustainability and the Olympics: the International Olympic Committee‟s (IOC) recent commitment to the environment; local governmental perceptions of the environmental impact of the London Games; and local residents‟ and businesses‟ perceptions of the environmental impact of the London 2012 Olympic Games. The research critically assesses the „shallow‟ ecology/light green and EMT perspective historically adopted by Olympic Games organisers and the power relations that have helped to shape this. Within the context of London 2012 there was a perceived shift in priorities as the Games drew closer with the prioritisation of economic concerns and corporate interests over those of local people. Most notably, the ambiguity of „sustainability‟ was identified as a key factor which influenced local perceptions of the environmental impact of the Games. This original theoretically and empirically informed study makes a contribution to the i growing body of research on sustainability and the Games, and to our understanding of the environmental impact of the Olympics on host communities. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract i Table of Contents iii List of Figures vi List of Tables vii Acknowledgements viii Dedication ix Glossary of Abbreviations x Chapter One - Introduction 1 Organisation of the Thesis 9 Chapter Two - The Olympic Games - A Sociological Critique 14 An Overview of Olympic Studies 14 Politics, Nationalism and the Olympic Games 16 Media, Identity Formation and the Olympic Games 21 Commercialism, Corruption and the Olympic Games 23 Security and Surveillance at the Olympic Games 25 Legacy, Sustainability, the Environment and the Olympic Games 27 Conclusion 40 Chapter Three - Theoretical Perspectives on the Olympic Games and the Environment 42 Social Science Perspectives and the Olympic Games 42 The Olympic Games through a „Functionalist/Managerialist‟ Lens 46 „Functionalist/Managerialist‟ Perspectives on the Olympics, Sustainability and the Environment 48 The Olympic Games through a „Critical/Feminist‟ Lens 51 „Critical/Feminist‟ Perspectives on the Olympics, Sustainability and the Environment 52 The Olympic Games through a „Critical/Marxist‟ Lens 53 iii „Critical/Marxist‟ Perspectives on the Olympics, Sustainability and the Environment 57 Sociology, Sustainability and the Environment 61 Sustainability, Sustainable Development and the Environment: Origins and Definitions 62 Sociology of the Environment: An Overview 66 Arne Næss‟ „Shallow‟ and „Deep‟ Ecology 69 Ecological Modernisation Theory 73 The Theoretical Framework of the Thesis 76 Conclusion 80 Chapter Four - Research Methodology 83 A Historical Review of the Relationship between the Environment, Sustainability and the Games from 1992-2012 84 Interviews with Olympic Borough Council Representatives 89 Interviews/Focus Group with Local Residents and Businesses 102 Data Analysis 110 Conclusion 113 Chapter Five - The Olympic Games and Environmental Sustainability - A Twenty Year Critical Overview 116 The International Olympic Committee and the Environment 116 A „Growing Respect for Nature‟ - 1992-1996 119 Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics: The „Regeneration Games‟ 120 Albertville 1992 Winter Olympics 122 Lillehammer 1994 Winter Olympics: The „White-Green‟ Games 123 The „Race to be a „Green‟ Games‟ - 1996-2002 126 Atlanta 1996 Summer Olympics 126 Nagano 1998 Winter Olympics 128 Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics: The „Green‟ Games 131 The Build-up to the „First Sustainable Olympic and Paralympic Games‟ - 2002- 2012 134 Salt Lake City 2002 Winter Olympics 135 Athens 2004 Summer Olympics 137 Turin 2006 Winter Olympics 140 Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics 142 Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics 146 London 2012 Summer Olympics: The „First Sustainable Olympic and Paralympic Games?‟ 148 iv Conclusion 163 Chapter Six - A Socio-Demographic Profile of the Six Olympic Boroughs 167 The Development and Location of the Six Olympic Boroughs 167 A Demographic Profile of the Six Olympic Boroughs 172 Chapter Seven - London 2012, Environmental Sustainability and Olympic Borough Council Representatives 177 The Negative Impact of the Economic Climate 182 The Importance of Location 192 The True Impact of the Games 197 The Definition of „Sustainability‟ 204 Conclusion 208 Chapter Eight - London 2012, Environmental Sustainability and the Local Response 211 The Importance of Location 213 Shifting Priorities 220 Corporate versus Local 225 Lack of Community Consultation 232 The Definition of „Sustainability‟ 236 Conclusion 245 Chapter Nine - Conclusion 248 Intersections between Economy, Environment and Locality at the London 2012 Games 263 An Update on the „Greening‟ of the London Games 267 References 270 Appendices Appendix One - Research Advertisement 329 Appendix Two - Research Participant Consent Form 330 v LIST OF FIGURES (Numeration of figures represents sequence in relevant Chapter) 5.1 ‘Shallow’ and ‘Deep’ Ecology Continuum: The Environmental Position of each Olympic Games between 1992 and 2012 162 6.1 Map of London 2012 Olympic Borough Councils 169 6.2 Map of London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Venues 170 6.3 Map of London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Park 171 7.1 ‘Shallow’ and ‘Deep’ Ecology Continuum 181 9.1 The Intersections between Economy, the Environment and Locality: Olympic-Style 266 vi LIST OF TABLES (Numeration of tables represents sequence in relevant Chapter) 2.1 50-Year Timeline of Events at the Olympic Games 17 2.2 Overview of Key Research Themes 19 3.1 ‘Functionalist/Managerialist’, ‘Critical/Feminist’, and ‘Critical/Marxist’ Perspectives on the Olympics, Sustainability and the Environment 56 3.2 A 60-Year Timeline of the Environmental Movement 71 3.3 Overview of Theoretical Perspectives Adopted 80 4.1 Interviews with Olympic Borough Council Representatives 92 4.2 Interview Guide for Olympic Borough Council Representatives, and Local Residents and Businesses: Themes and Questions 95 4.3 Interviews/Focus Group with Olympic Borough Residents and Businesses 107 4.4 Sample Theme and Evidence from Thematic Analysis 114 5.1 Historical Landmarks: Environment, Sustainability and the Olympic Games 118 5.2 Environmental Milestones and the London 2012 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games 152 6.1 Population, Age and Ethnicity in the Six Olympic Boroughs 2001-2010 173 6.2 Percentages of Ethnic Groups in the UK and London 174 6.3 Index of Multiple Deprivation and the Olympic Boroughs 2010 175 6.4 Unemployment Rates in the Six Olympic Boroughs (Oct 2008 – Sept 2009) 175 vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the support and guidance of a number of people. In particular I would like to thank my supervisors Professor John Horne, Dr. Jessica Macbeth, and Dr. Donna Wong (University of Central Lancashire) for their unwavering guidance, support and patience. My thanks go to all the participants who gave up their time to take part in my study to share their experiences with me, you are all part of the real London Olympic story and it has been a pleasure trying to capture that. On a personal level, the last three years would have been not been possible without the support of Sundeep, Giselle, Rick and Hayley. I would also like to extend an extra special thanks to Laura and Sally for always believing in me and providing much needed „pep talks‟ on a regular basis. I am extremely grateful to have you all in my life. Last, but by no means least, I have been extremely lucky to have the