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Open Research Online Oro.Open.Ac.Uk Open Research Online The Open University’s repository of research publications and other research outputs Earth Games: The 1994 Lillehammer Winter Olympic Games, or the Failure of the Ecological Project Thesis How to cite: Popa, Stefan Cristian (2019). Earth Games: The 1994 Lillehammer Winter Olympic Games, or the Failure of the Ecological Project. PhD thesis The Open University. For guidance on citations see FAQs. c 2018 The Author https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Version: Redacted Version of Record Link(s) to article on publisher’s website: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.21954/ou.ro.0000ee89 Copyright and Moral Rights for the articles on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. For more information on Open Research Online’s data policy on reuse of materials please consult the policies page. oro.open.ac.uk Earth Games The 1994 Lillehammer Winter Olympic Games, or the Failure of the Ecological Project (redacted version; images protected by copyright have been removed) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy by: Stefan Cristian Popa MA Architectural Association, BArch Politechnic University of Catalonia Director of Studies: Prof. Marina Lathouri Supervisor: Prof. Anthony Vidler The Open University The Architectural Association – School of Architecture, London, U.K. PhD Program September 2018 Figure 1: The Sports Pictogram on the Ski Jump Slope as Background for the Act of Ski Jumping Source: Elton, L. and Moshus, P. (1995) ‘Norwegian Olympic Design’, Norsk Form and Messel Forlag, Oslo Credits: Jim Bengston on behalf of LOOC. Abstract The 1994 Winter Olympic Games, organised and held in Lillehammer, Norway, are often treated as a reference point for the commitment of the International Olympic Committee to sustainable development. Commentators recognised the embodiment of ecological concerns and aspirations in a unique staging of the Olympic ideal. Through an architectural analysis of Winter Olympic Games, particularly the Lillehammer edition, this thesis argues that the event did not reflect concerns for the environment. It also did not relate to material ecology as defined and debated over previous decades in the United Nations. Instead, the XVII Winter Olympics seem to have employed the environmental rhetoric of a Norwegian affiliation to Nature to affirm and re-establish the moral ideal of the Olympic Movement, which was damaged in 1992 when the Games in Albertville, France, were criticised as an ecological failure. Moreover, the event in Norway served to introduce the 1987 UN Report on sustainable development, Our Common Future, despite the geopolitical role of Norway as a leading agent in the international fossil fuel trade. This research tackles problems associated with natural resource exploitation and how architecture is instrumental in legitimising environmental destruction. It foregrounds the disjunction between action and intention, architecture and politics, which can be read between the lines of political and design agendas. The lack of intersectional points between these categories is symptomatic of the absence of critical engagement of design practices with the fundamental issues associated with sustainable development: exiling architects to the role of spectators, heavily influenced by overwhelming political and economic constraints. Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Prof. Marina Lathouri, for her patience, motivation, and advice. Her support throughout the development of this research was invaluable. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the tutors I became friends with, who I often consulted in moments of doubt. I would like to thank John Palmesino and Simos Yannas for their guidance and example during the past three years. I would also like to thank Tom Weaver for his useful comments on the research method. My sincere gratitude goes to Prof. Anthony Vidler for his insightful observations on the subjects debated here. I would like to extend my gratitude to the staff of the Canadian Centre for Architecture, for their support during my stay as a resident in Montreal during summer 2017. Moreover, this thesis would have been so much poorer without the help of the Architectural Association staff. I would like to thank Ed Bottoms for making the richness of the AA archive available to me. The infrastructure of this thesis was enabled by the responsiveness and availability of the AA Library staff. My gratitude goes to Eleanor Gawne, Aileen Smith, Beatriz Flora and Simine Marine; as well as Byron Blakeley, the keeper of the AA Photo Library. Special recognition goes to architects Tom Wike and Niels Torp; and of course, to Tormod Holdbrekken, who provided access to the vast collections of graphic and written materials related to the Winter Olympic Games in Lillehammer. Their account of the facts preceding the event ensured the cohesion of the arguments presented herein. Their precious support facilitated this research and will certainly inform that which follows. Next, I want to mention the contribution of Sir Norman Foster, whose ideas and example inspired the topic of this thesis. I thank Taba Rasti and Pablo Urango Lillo, as well as Juan Vieira from Foster+Partners, for allowing the dream of pursuing my studies to come true. I thank my colleagues for their input during our presentations. Special appreciation goes to Yana Petrova, Anna Ulrikke Andersen, William Orr and Álvaro Velasco Pérez, for their comments and advice at relevant moments. I would also like to mention Ingrid Dobloug Roede for her valuable guidance during my research trip to the Norwegian capital. My sincerest gratitude goes to my wife, Estela Noboa, who accompanied me in the final stages of this research. I met her in Montreal, a place of great memories. I would also like to thank my brother, Traian A. Popa, and my parents, for all their moral support and generosity over the years. And to my friend Stefan Vianu: I thank him for the valuable observations on the theoretical aspects of this thesis. Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to Clement Chung and Saira Soarez from the Architectural Association, for their administrative support during the development of my research. Table of Contents Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 1 Five Premises ............................................................................................................................................................... 2 Showcasing Sustainable Development.............................................................................................................. 3 The Ecological Project .............................................................................................................................................. 5 The Hidden Agenda ................................................................................................................................................... 7 Visions of Sustainable Development .................................................................................................................. 7 Visions of Environmentalism and Winter Olympic Games .............................................................. 17 WOG as Designed Environments ............................................................................................................................18 Ecology, Conservation, Development, Landscape and the WOG ......................................................... 19 Activism within WOG ..............................................................................................................................................23 Closeness to Nature .................................................................................................................................................24 Density and Locality ................................................................................................................................................26 Legacy ............................................................................................................................................................................28 The Albertville – Lillehammer Complex ..............................................................................................................31 Problematising the Legacy of LWOG .....................................................................................................................43 1998 – Nagano ...........................................................................................................................................................43 2002 – Salt Lake City and Sion ............................................................................................................................44 2006 – Torino .............................................................................................................................................................47 2010 – Vancouver .....................................................................................................................................................48 2014 – Sochi ................................................................................................................................................................49 Conclusions Part 1 ..........................................................................................................................................................51
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