Alternative Coca Reduction Strategies in the Andean Region
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Alternative Coca Reduction Strategies in the Andean Region July 1993 OTA-F-556 NTIS order #PB93-218899 GPO stock #052-003-01329-1 Recommended Citation: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Alternative Coca Reduction Strategies in the Andean Region, OTA-F-556 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, July 1993). Foreword ocaine trafficking and abuse are formidable problems that disrupt social, economic, and political systems. Stopping the flow of cocaine through international black markets has proven impossible despite national commitments and international treaties. Strong demand continues to promote cocac production and cocaine processing in supplying nations. This Report identifies opportunities for and constraints to reducing Andean coca production through: 1) improving U.S. alternative development efforts and 2) applying biological control technology (biocontrol) to eradicate illegally produced coca. Coca has been important in South America for nearly 4,000 years and remains a critical element in traditional Andean culture. Today, coca dominates Andean economies, in part due to long-term social inequities and political and economic unrest. The ecological and cultural complexity of the Andean region precludes simple alternative development or coca eradication approaches. In this unsettled milieu, development assistance activities have promoted alternative agricultural systems incorporating high-value or multipurpose crops. Other interests have proposed that coca eradication is a necessary precursor to successful development. Although biocontrol may yield an undefined level of coca reduction, the technology is unlikely to result in coca eradication. Several study conclusions have clear policy implications. First, development- oriented strategies for supply reduction have promise, but are unlikely to solve the cocaine problem without concomitant demand reduction efforts. Second, the extent and importance of the coca economy mean that single-sector development alone is insufficient to unseat Andean economic dependence on coca. Finally, the impact of a single organization on coca reduction is likely to be small, thus, coordination of the numerous bilateral and multilateral groups is a critical need. The following congressional committees requested the Office of Technology Assessment to undertake a study of the potential for improving U.S. efforts to reduce coca production through development activities and biological control methods: the Senate Committee on the Judiciary and the House Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control; Senator Orrin G. Hatch requested OTA to examine coca eradication by biocontrol. In addition, the House Committee on Agriculture endorsed the study. OTA greatly appreciates the contributions of the workshop participants and authors of commissioned papers. We are especially grateful for the time and effort donated by numerous contributors who served as reviewers and as liaisons with the many groups and organizations involved in this issue. The information and assistance provided by those individuals proved invaluable to the completion of the assessment. As with all OTA studies, the content of the Report is the sole responsibility of OTA. Roger C. Herdman, Director iii Project Staff Walter E. Parham Patricia J. Durana Thomas Adamczyk Program Manager Project Director Detailee4 Food and Renewable Resources Program Elizabeth Turner Karen Marston Analystl Interns Catherine M. Torres Susan J. Wunder Research Analyst2 Contract Editor Jessica Wolin Research Assistant3 ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF N. Ellis Lewis Office Administrator Nellie Hammond Administrative Secretary Carolyn Swarm PC Specialist I From Feb~ 1991 through September 1991. 2From J~e 1!)91 to present. 3Fmm J~e 1990 ~ou@ August 1990 and from June 1991 ~ugh JUIY 1992. 4Fmm J~y 1991 to September IW1 5Fmm J~n~ 1!)91 to WY 1991. iv c ontents 1 Summary, Issues, and Congressional Policy Options, 1 Introduction, 1 Creating National Incentives for Coca Reduction, 10 Information Needed to Support Alternative Development Projects, 13 Donor Coordination, 16 Integrated National Development, 17 Improving Crop Substitution Efforts, 18 Biological Control of Coca, 28 References, 32 2 Factors Influencing Coca Reduction Initiatives, 35 Geoecology of the Northern and Central Andes, 35 Traditional Roles and Uses of Coca Leaf, 44 Social, Economic, and Political Aspects of Coca Cultivation, 50 The Coca Economy, 68 Conclusion, 71 References, 72 3 History of Selected Narcotics Supply-Reduction Efforts, 81 Introduction, 81 Opium-Reduction Activities, 83 Coca Reduction Efforts: The Andean Strategy, 84 Concision, 96 References, 97 .- 4 Renewable Resource-Based Alternatives to Coca Production, 99 Introduction, 99 Agricultural Resources, 101 Forest Resources, 115 Wildlife and Wildland Resources, 122 Aquatic Resources, 128 Strategies to Enhance Coca Substitution Efforts, 133 References, 142 v 5 Technologies to Support Alternative Crop Production, 149 Introduction, 149 Andean Agricultural Research and Extension Systems, 150 Infrastructure to Support Agricultural Production and Marketing, 180 Agricultural Trade Policies, 171 Strategies to Support Renewable Resource-Based Alternatives to Coca, 177 References, 180 6 Coca Biological Control Issues, 183 Introduction, 183 Manual Coca Control, 184 Chemical Coca Control, 184 Biological Control, 188 Development Needs for Biocontrol of Coca 199 Summary and Conclusions, 199 References, 201 APPENDIXES A Workshop Participants, 205 B List of Acronyms, 207 C List of Contractor Reports, 209 INDEX, 211 vi Summary, Issues, and Congressional Policy Options 1 or at least 80 years, control and abuse of imported narcotic substances, in general, have been public policy concerns. International treaties have been largely inef- fective in controlling production and trafficking of illegalF drugs. The human “search for the high” fuels demand, and supply control has been nearly impossible. Cocaine abuse and its social and economic consequences have followed this legacy and reached disturbing proportions in the last decade. INTRODUCTION Narcotics control strategies commonly are divided into demand- and supply-reduction programs. Although controversy exists over which of the two is the most critical, a comprehensive narcotics control strategy includes education, treatment and rehabilitation, development assistance, interdiction, and enforce- ment components (figure l-l). No single approach wilI solve the international narcotics problem, yet the proper mix of supply-and demand-control programs has yet to be identified. Although most coca currently is produced in the Andean region of Peru and Bolivia (87 percent) and Colombia (13 percent) (59), it also has been produced in other South American countries (e.g., Ecuador, Brazil) and Central America. If coca production is reduced in the Andean region, new production areas would likely arise as long as cocaine and its derivatives remain attractive narcotics. Nonetheless, supply reduction could have a valuable role in an overall narcotics control strategy. The temporary disruption of supply could increase street prices and reduce accessibility. The time investment to re-establish a production and cartel system is likely to be large and could have a debilitating effect on the overall industry (10). 1 2 I Alternative Coca Reduction Strategies in the Andean Region Figure l-l—Components of a Comprehensive International Drug Control Strategy International Drug Control Policy Education Enforcement 1 1 Treatment) Rehabilitatlon Development Aid SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1993. One potential strategy for reducing the flow of I Cultural Context cocaine into the United States is to identify and Coca is a traditional Andean crop, with evi- support the development of alternative economic dence of cultural significance dating from 2100 options for Andean producers of coca leaves and B.C. (11). Different coca-leaf varieties and asso- illegal coca-leaf products. This development- ciated chewing paraphernalia from succeeding oriented strategy for supply reduction shows centuries have been excavated in such varied promise, but is unlikely to solve the cocaine areas as northern Chile and Costa Rica (40). Coca problem without concomitant efforts in other leaves are a critical element in the traditional areas such as drug law enforcement, interdiction, Andean patterns of production and exchange and education and rehabilitation of drug users. between highlands and lowlands. Community Methods for coca eradication also are of and political solidarity were long maintained interest in supply reduction strategies. Although through these exchanges. eradication technologies focus on herbicide use, Chewing coca leaves has been practiced for there is increasing interest in applying biological thousands of years in the Andes and is still a control methods to narcotic crop control. Some pervasive cultural activity. Coca leaves are used experts believe eradication must precede alterna- to relieve fatigue, hunger, and a variety of human tive development in the Andean nations. Others ailments (e.g., 87 percent of Bolivia’s small town view coca eradication as futile and a threat to the and rural population use coca leaf for health culture and traditions of native Andean popula- reasons (28)). Coca leaves figure symbolically in tions. Although key requirements, host country cultural and religious rituals and are an integral consent and cooperation currently are unlikely part of many daily social routines. (57,58). Today,