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Environmental Health Criteria 166 METHYL BROMIDE Please note that the layout and pagination of this web version are not identical with the printed version. Methyl Bromide (EHC 166, 1995) INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA 166 METHYL BROMIDE This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, or the World Health Organization. First draft prepared by Dr. R.F. Hertel and Dr. T. Kielhorn. Fraunhofer Institute of Toxicology and Aerosol Research, Hanover, Germany Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization World Health Orgnization Geneva, 1995 The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization. The main objective of the IPCS is to carry out and disseminate evaluations of the effects of chemicals on human health and the quality of the environment. Supporting activities include the development of epidemiological, experimental laboratory, and risk-assessment methods that could produce internationally comparable results, and the development of manpower in the field of toxicology. Other activities carried out by the IPCS include the development of know-how for coping with chemical accidents, coordination of laboratory testing and epidemiological studies, and promotion of research on the mechanisms of the biological action of chemicals. WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Methyl bromide. (Environmental health criteria ; 166) 1.Hydrocarbons, Brominated - standards 2.Environmental exposure Page 1 of 208 Methyl Bromide (EHC 166, 1995) I.Series ISBN 92 4 157166 7 (NLM Classification: WA 240) ISSN 0250-863X The World Health Organization welcomes requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications, in part or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, which will be glad to provide the latest information on any changes made to the text, plans for new editions, and reprints and translations already available. (c) World Health Organization 1995 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. CONTENTS 1. SUMMARY 1.1. Physical and chemical properties, and analytical methods 1.2. Sources of human and environmental exposure 1.3. Environmental transport, distribution, and transformation 1.4. Environmental levels and human exposure 1.5. Kinetics and metabolism 1.6. Effects on organisms in the environment 1.7. Effects on experimental animals 1.8. Effects on humans 2. IDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, AND ANALYTICAL METHODS 2.1. Identity 2.1.1. Primary constituent 2.1.2. Technical product 2.2. Physical and chemical properties 2.2.1. Physical properties 2.2.2. Chemical properties 2.3. Conversion factors 2.4. Analytical methods 2.4.1. Methyl bromide in air 2.4.2. Methyl bromide in water Page 2 of 208 Methyl Bromide (EHC 166, 1995) 2.4.3. Determination of methyl bromide in soil 2.4.4. Methyl bromide in cereal grains and other foods 2.4.5. Methyl bromide in serum, plasma and blood and post-mortem tissue 2.4.6. Determination of inorganic bromide in air 2.4.7. Determination of inorganic bromide in water 2.4.8. Determination of inorganic bromide in soils 2.4.9. Determination of inorganic bromide in plant material/food 2.4.10. Determination of inorganic bromide in urine, blood/serum/plasma 3. SOURCES OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE 3.1. Natural occurrence 3.2. Anthropogenic sources 3.2.1. Production levels and processes 3.2.1.1 Producers and world production figures 3.2.1.2 Production processes 3.2.1.3 Losses to the environment during normal production 3.2.1.4 Methods of transport 3.2.1.5 Accidental release or exposure 3.2.2. Uses 3.2.2.1 Soil fumigation 3.2.2.2 Quarantine and non-quarantine commodity treatments 3.2.2.3 Structural fumigation 3.2.2.4 Industrial uses 3.2.3. Methyl bromide emission from motor car exhausts 4. ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION, AND TRANSFORMATION 4.1. Transport and distribution between media 4.1.1. Transport in air 4.1.2. Transport in water 4.1.3. Transport in soil 4.1.4. Vegetation and wildlife 4.1.5. Entry into the food chain 4.2. Biotransformation 4.2.1. Biodegradation 4.2.1.1 Soil 4.2.1.2 Stored product fumigation 4.2.2. Abiotic degradation 4.2.2.1 Hydrolysis 4.2.2.2 Light-assisted hydrolysis in water 4.2.2.3 Reaction with the hydroxyl radical 4.2.2.4 Photolysis in the atmosphere 4.2.3. Bioaccumulation 4.3. Interaction with other physical, chemical, or biological factors 4.4. Ultimate fate following use 4.4.1. Methyl bromide and the ozone layer 4.4.2. Containment, recovery, recycling and disposal options for methyl bromide 5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE 5.1. Environmental levels 5.1.1. Air Page 3 of 208 Methyl Bromide (EHC 166, 1995) 5.1.1.1 Global abundance 5.1.1.2 Measured oceanic and coastal air levels of methyl bromide 5.1.1.3 Measured continental and urban levels of methyl bromide 5.1.1.4 Vertical profiles of methyl bromide in the atmosphere 5.1.1.5 Release of methyl bromide to outside air from greenhouses 5.1.2. Water 5.1.2.1 Seawater 5.1.2.2 Inland waters 5.1.2.3 Waters around greenhouses 5.1.3. Soil 5.1.4. Food 5.1.4.1 After soil fumigation 5.1.4.2 After post-harvest fumigation 5.1.5. Animal feed 5.1.6. Other products 5.1.7. Terrestrial and aquatic organisms 5.2. General population exposure 5.2.1. Food 5.2.2. Drinking-water 5.2.3. Human breast milk 5.2.4. Sub-populations at special risk 5.3. Occupational exposure during manufacture, formulation, or use 5.3.1. During manufacture 5.3.2. During fumigation 5.3.2.1 Structural fumigation 5.3.2.2 Soil fumigation 6. KINETICS AND METABOLISM 6.1. Absorption 6.1.1. Inhalation 6.1.1.1 Animal studies 6.1.1.2 Human studies 6.1.2. Dermal 6.1.3. Oral 6.1.4. Intraperitoneal injection 6.2. Distribution of methyl bromide and bromide in tissues 6.2.1. Animal studies 6.2.2. Human studies 6.3. Metabolic transformation 6.3.1. Binding to proteins and lipids 6.3.2. Binding to DNA 6.3.3. The role of glutathione in methyl bromide metabolism 6.3.3.1 Mammals 6.3.3.2 Insects 6.4. Elimination and excretion in expired air, faeces, urine 6.5. Retention and turnover 6.6. Reaction with body components 7. EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 7.1. Soil microorganisms 7.2. Aquatic organisms 7.2.1. Effect of methyl bromide 7.2.2. Effect of bromide ion on aquatic organisms Page 4 of 208 Methyl Bromide (EHC 166, 1995) 7.3. Terrestrial organisms 7.3.1. Protozoa 7.3.2. Plants 7.3.2.1 Seed fumigation 7.3.2.2 Fumigation of plants or plant products 7.3.2.3 The effects on plants of soil fumigation 7.3.3. Soil invertebrates 7.3.4. Insects and arachnids 7.3.5. Gastropods 7.3.6. Birds 7.3.7. Other animals 7.4. Population and ecosystem effects 8. EFFECTS ON EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS AND IN VITRO TEST SYSTEMS 8.1. Single exposure 8.1.1. Oral 8.1.2. Inhalation 8.1.2.1 Guinea-pig and rabbit 8.1.2.2 Mouse 8.1.2.3 Rat 8.1.3. Dermal 8.1.4. Subcutaneous administration 8.2. Short-term exposure 8.2.1. Oral 8.2.2. Inhalation studies 8.2.2.1 Guinea-pig, rabbit, monkey 8.2.2.2 Mouse 8.2.2.3 Rat 8.2.3. Dermal 8.3. Skin and eye irritation 8.4. Long-term exposure 8.4.1. Oral 8.4.1.1 Rat 8.4.2. Inhalation studies 8.4.2.1 Mouse 8.4.2.2 Rat 8.5. Reproduction, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity 8.5.1. Reproduction and embryotoxicity 8.5.2. Teratogenicity 8.6. Mutagenicity and related end-points 8.6.1. DNA damage 8.6.2. Mutation 8.6.3. Chromosomal effects 8.6.3.1 In vitro studies 8.6.3.2 In vivo studies 8.6.4. Cell transformation 8.7. Carcinogenicity and related end-points 8.7.1. Gavage studies 8.7.2. Inhalation studies 8.8. Special studies 8.8.1. Target organ effects 8.8.1.1 Inhalation studies 8.8.2. Neurotoxicity 8.8.3. Immunotoxicity 8.9. Factors modifying toxicity; toxicity of metabolites 8.10. Mechanisms of toxicity - mode of action 9.
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