Schools in the rainforest Innovative indigenous edueducation in the Amazon

Rainforest Foundation Norway 2009 Eva Marion Johannessen

Schools in the Rainforest 1 Contents

Foreword by Rainforest Foundation Norway (RFN) 4 Foreword by Operation Day’s Work (ODW) 6 Preface by the author 7

1. Introduction 8

2. Brief presentation of the projects 10

3. Global challenges and local initiatives 12

4. Indigenous education in Brazil: 15 history and recent developments By Marta Azevedo

5. indigenous schools in the rainforest 21

6. A multicultural classroom 23

7. teaching, learning and evaluation 28

Introbilde?????? 8. teacher education and the teacher’s role 35

9. the school and the community 38

10. Conclusions and lessons learned 41

About the author 45

Front cover photo: Studying traditional indigenous handicraft in a class of ethno-mathematics in the Tuyuka school in Rio Negro. Photo: Beto Ricardo / ISA

Class room in the Ngowêrê school in Xingu. The young pupils in the front row study numbers while the older in the back study vocabulary related to fishing. Photo: Camila Gauditano / ISA

2 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 3 Rainforest Foundation Norway and educa tion projects: Why?

Reading, writing and having access to formal education are al- years), was to develop an educational system which would most universally seen as unquestionably good. Illiteracy and not combine respect for the knowledge, culture, language and social having access to schools are equated with lack of development. values of each indigenous group with the provision of new skills Schools and literacy are a sign of progress. and knowledge necessary for dealing with those new challenges. The approach would have to be culturally sensitive, bilingual and Rainforest Foundation Norway does not share this view. Schools definitely innovative. and educational systems can also serve as extremely efficient mechanisms of oppression and cultural disintegration. Most of In many cases an initial step was to establish – with the help the schools that reach out to traditional communities in the of linguists – a way of putting into writing what had until then depths of the rainforest actually have this function, to a greater been a purely oral language. In no cases could we take the or lesser extent. They become instruments for making the orally official Brazilian curricula and teaching methods as the start- transmitted local knowledge irrelevant, for creating the fiction ing point. None of the projects were formally endorsed by the that what is put in writing is more important than what is not. government at the outset, although some were viewed with Badly prepared teachers from the majority culture may not have sympathy, and all of them gradually obtained materials and other so much success in teaching their ethnic minority pupils math- support from federal or state-level education authorities. In the ematics and writing, but they often succeed in shattering their end these pioneering projects became models for the official, self-esteem. When a youngster who is able to stutter his way culturally differentiated approach to indigenous education in through a written text considers himself more important than a today’s Brazil. previously respected elder, then that community is in real danger of succumbing to the pressures from the surrounding national An enormous amount of energy, creativity and sacrifice has gone society. into transforming visionary ideas into a multitude of long-term processes benefitting some 40 ethnic groups throughout the Bra- Teacher Julio Barbosa Kaxinawa in front of his class at the Kaxinawa school in the Paroá village in Acre, 1985. Skills, knowledge and mastery of the world do not depend on zilian Amazon. The true heroes of those stories are the innumera- This school was among the first that were organized by nongovernmental organizations in Brazil. Photo: Nietta formal schooling. To be convinced of that, it is enough to take a ble tireless, gifted, respectful and dedicated staff members of our Lindenberg Monte / CPI-Acre walk in the rainforest with a local youngster who has never seen Brazilian partner organizations. Fortunately, they were often able a school, and then start asking questions. On the other hand, if to find invigorating inspiration in their interactions with enthu- levels who made this all possible. Special mention must be made ing the Brazilian experience beyond Brazil. In the end, she ended you live in the rainforest, reading, writing and becoming familiar siastic indigenous teachers who were not only receiving training, of the ODW Project Council, which has meticulously studied up writing this book herself, in dialogue and discussions with the with the knowledge systems of the Western world may also be but who used the training courses to become authors and artists, annual plans, budgets, reports and accounts for all the projects Brazilian demographer Marta Azevedo, who for several years also important, even necessary, instruments for defending your own developing new teaching materials for their own village schools. as long as there remained a single Norwegian krone in the ODW served as a highly competent coordinator for one of the projects rights and interests. It all depends on the way it is done – and project account. Our thanks also to the Norwegian Agency for being evaluated. Eva has, with great pedagogical skills, managed the kinds of challenges that your community is facing. It is a tribute to Norwegian youth and to the amazing interna- Development Cooperation, Norad, for their generous willingness to present four complex and diverse projects in a way that is tional solidarity and fund-raising campaign called “Operation to extend that period, by providing co-funding when ODW funds easy to read, highlights lessons learned, but also challenges, and When Rainforest Foundation Norway, as a small and recently Day’s Work – ODW”, organized and administered by Norwegian were running low, thereby enabling more indigenous teachers to stimulates reflection. created organization, started to engage in education projects for secondary school students themselves for more than 40 years, complete a full training cycle and more villagers to benefit from indigenous peoples in Brazil in 1992, it was not because we felt that the projects described in this book could be realized. They these innovative projects. It is our hope that this book can be an inspiration for educators, that education was inherently good or necessary. It was because would simply not have been possible without the consistent, NGOs and governments in other countries – especially those with many indigenous communities, as well as their pro-indigenous long-term funding provided by the ODW campaigns in 1992 and First of all, although I’ve saved this till last, I wish to thank the culturally distinct indigenous peoples or other ethnic minorities. supporters, expressed the need to handle the interaction with 1997. On behalf of Rainforest Foundation Norway and our Brazil- author of this book, Eva Marion Johannessen. As the Norwegian and the pressures from the outside world in a better way. Our ian partner organizations I wholeheartedly thank all those who team member on four international third-party evaluations of ambition, together with our Brazilian partner organizations gave the income of their day’s work to these projects, as well as Rainforest Foundation Norway’s indigenous education projects in (some of them already involved in such projects for several all those unpaid organizers at the school, district and national Brazil, Eva became so inspired that she launched the idea of tak- Director, Rainforest Foundation Norway

4 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 5 Preface

The main ideas in this book have been developed through numer- ous conversations with the demographer Dr. Marta Azevedo, in Brazil and in Norway. We first met in 2003, when she was the coordinator of the Rio Negro project. She has been involved in indigenous education ever since she was a young student. My thanks to Marta for sharing her vast knowledge with me, for inspiring discussions, for encouraging and critical comments, and also for writing the chapter on the recent history of indigenous education in Brazil.

The support of Lars Løvold and Torkjell Leira of the Rainforest Foundation Norway has made the production of the book pos- sible.

Finally, my thanks to the Norwegian youth initiative, Operation Day’s Work (ODW), which has financed the writing of the book.

Although Marta has read and commented on the chapters, I myself am responsible for any errors or shortcomings.

Eva Marion Johannessen Oslo, March 2009

Yanomami girls in the Demini village. Rainforest Foundation Norway has supported the Yanomami education project since 1997. Photo: Thomas Nilsson / VG

Schools in the rainforest

has the right and opportunity to education, ODW is an attempt used some of the experiences in developing a model for indig- Editor: Torkjell Leira Design: Speed Design to show solidarity with those that are not as fortunate. enous education in general. More recently, the successes of the One day of solidarity Print: Grøset Rainforest Foundation Norway’s work has led to great interest On 23rd of October 1997, 180.000 pupils entered the streets, And it works! far beyond some few education projects. The current debate on Published by Rainforest Foundation Norway with financial support from Operation Day’s Work gardens, homes and workplaces all across Norway to do one climate and forests and the immense importance of preserving day’s labor. Instead of attending regular class, they chose to earn ODW 1997 contributed to funding education for underprivileged what is left of the Amazon Rainforest, clearly shows the signifi- Rainforest Foundation Norway money to support education of indigenous people in Brazil. By indigenous peoples in the Amazon, at a time when few others cance of supporting the people who actually live there. Grensen 9 b would. As a result, the empowerment and knowledge of these 0159 Oslo the end of this day, 23 million kroner was collected to fund the Norway Rainforest Foundation Norway’s work in the Amazon Rainforest. peoples, the Baniwa, the Wãiampi, the Yanomami, the Tukano It’s a long way from selling cinnamon rolls in the streets of Nor- Tel +47 23109500 and many others, has greatly improved. It has strengthened their way, to the classrooms and schoolbooks of people in the Amazon. This annual tradition started in 1964, and is the single larg- struggle to survive, to fight external pressures and to preserve Still, distance was never an issue. Solidarity was. www.rainforest.no [email protected] est solidarity campaign for youth in Norway. Each year, a new the forest and their way of life. In fact, it proved so successful partner is selected and awarded the income from Operation Day’s that Norwegian authorities soon after decided to co-finance sev- Work (ODW). The funds are to be spent exclusively on education eral of the projects. Later on, the Brazilian education authorities Knut Olav Krohn Lakså projects in the South. Living in a wealthy country where everyone approved of the particular education models utilized, and also President of Operation Day’s Work 1997

6 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 7 Chapter 1: Introduction

Introduction

This book is about small education projects with impressive results and great potentials. Similar projects have also been developed in many countries of Latin America. Here the focus is on four projects among indigenous people in the Amazon rainforest of Brazil:

- the Yanomami in Roraima - indigenous peoples in Upper Rio Negro in the state of Amazonas - various tribes in the Xingu area in Mato Grosso - indigenous peoples in Acre

The author has participated in the Education is regarded as crucial for One important and stable donor has been evaluation of these four projects. Through development; today we cannot imagine a the Norwegian Operation Day’s work the evaluations I came to realize that the society without education. But what is (ODW), which is a youth initiative whereby findings have relevance far beyond Brazil ‘development’? And does it mean the same Norwegian secondary school students give and Latin America. Through this book I to people all over the world? Recent years one day’s work every year to support wish to share my experiences with others. have brought greater global awareness of education projects in other countries.­ The the negative effects of the destruction of projects in focus here have received reliable nature and the over-exploitation of funding from ODW for several years, natural resources and people in the name allowing them to start out as pilot projects of ‘development’. How can education be and gradually develop into examples for developmental in a broader sense, other states and local communities. combining the preservation of traditional Rainforest Foundation Norway (RFN) has ways of living and learning with knowl- administered and supervised these projects, Young yanomami girl during class in the “maloca” – the communal house where all families in the community live. The strong involve- edge from modern technology? How can which have been carried out by local ment by the community in the organization of the schools has been a key success factor in the indigenous education projects presented education contribute to a more culturally nongovernmental organizations in Brazil. in this publication. Photo: Torkjell Leira / RFN diversified world? How can it sustain development in rural areas? And how can This book is especially meant for teachers, The four projects differ in their strengths and weaknesses. Some inspiration to others, wherever they are. They show alternatives education embrace all aspects of human students and others who believe that an of the projects have produced many written texts, others not. to the uniform global idea of what ‘education’ is supposed to be. development? education that respects socio-cultural One single book cannot do justice to the richness and diversity in It is my hope that the experiences from these projects may diversity can bring human benefits for all the lessons learned over the years. The information presented inspire you in your work, as indeed they have inspired me. These fundamental questions are at the the people in the world. The main here is based mainly on the external evaluations carried out very heart of the work described here. In objective is to present and discuss some of between 2001 and 2007.1 Since that time, the projects have Chapter 3 deals with global challenges regarding education for this book I want to show you how these the lessons learned, in the hope that these continued to develop, but this book makes no attempt to cover all and the importance of local initiatives. Chapter 4, written by projects have succeeded and the challeng- may prove useful for organizations, the very latest developments. Marta Azevedo, covers the history of indigenous education in es they are facing. educational authorities and individuals Brazil. Chapter 5 gives an overview of common features of the The four projects have published a who are involved in or planning to embark The intention is to present some ways of education that differ four projects, which are elaborated upon in chapters 6-9. ­Chapter number of school books in indigenous The projects have been run with a range of upon similar projects in other settings from the mainstream in Brazil, Norway and other countries. 10 summarizes and analyses the lessons learned, and indicates languages and Portuguese. different international and national donors. around the world. Although the projects are small, they still may serve as sources of some of the challenges for the future.

1 The Yanomami project was evaluated in 2001, Rio Negro in 2003, Xingu in 2004 and Acre in 2007.

8 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 9 105OW 90OW 75OW 60OW 45OW Longitude West 30O of Greenwich

Chapter 2: PROJECTS

The evaluations were carried out between 2001 and Brief presentation of the projects 2007. Most data in this overview are from 2005.

Rio Negro Yanomami • only area in Brazil with indigenous majority population • last major indigenous people in South America to have limited • continuous indigenous territory of 106,000 km2 created in 1998 contact with ‘modern’ society • 22 ethnic groups • 30,000 people in Northern Brazil and Southern Venezuela • 30,000 inhabitants GUY • Brazil: Dramatic contact history, road construction and illegal gold mining • strong Roman Catholic missionary presence from the 1920s ANA FR. • high level of literacy in Portuguese COLOMBIA GUIANA • 15 % of total population died 1987–89, leading to social collapse Boa vista SURINAM Regnskog 2 • cultural and linguistic alienation • 96,000 km continuous territory established in 1991

Wajapi AMAPÁ • monolingual population, four major Yanomami dialects spoken The project (Evaluation: 2003) Yanomami • initiated in 1999 and has received RFN support since the beginning Quito Rio Negro RORAIMA The project (Evaluation: 2001) Yanomami Belém • restructure existing education system ECUADOR • initiated in 1995 and has received RFN support since 1998. Manaus • develop political-pedagogical plans and curricula Rio Negro • basic literacy (initially with non-indigenous teachers) • respect for indigenous cultures and languages • establish Yanomami written language(s) • integration with economic activities AMAZONAS Timbira • train indigenous teachers for village schools • local project partner: Instituto socioambiental (ISA) PERU MARANHÁO • develop political-pedagogical plans (PPP)* and curricula ACRE • develop bilingual teaching materials Results • teach Portuguese language Ashaninka Rio Branco • schools serving 59 communities, 570 pupils BRASIL • local project partner: Comissão Pró Yanomami (CCPY) • full community participation in management RONDÔNIA Lima Yine • new curricula developed, but not yet officially recognized Results Acre XinguXinguTOCANTINS • 36 schools in five regions, 470 pupils • school calendar adapted to local traditions and circumstances BOLIVIA MATO GROSSO • 25 indigenous teachers, 15 teacher • 3 indigenous languages introduced as medium of instruction Brasilia • indigenous teachers’ organizations created • new curriculum developed, but not yet officially recognized • 3 local languages recognized as official in the municipality • teaching materials in native language • teacher exchange visits to other projects • Portuguese training through exchange programmes with • project pilot school model became official model for all Portuguese-speaking indigenous groups 200 primary schools in the municipality in 2006 • teacher exchange visits to other projects • Yanomami indigenous organization (Hutukara) created in 2004 Rio de Janeiro São Paulo Acre Xingu

• state in the Western Brazilian Amazon Results • multi-ethnic indigenous territory established in 1960s Results 2 • 34 relatively small indigenous territories covering 24,000 km • 40 graduated teachers from 7 indigenous groups • continuous area of 27,000 km2 • 47 indigenous teachers recognized by authorities • indigenous population 14,000 = 2% of total population • 40 schools in 15 indigenous territories, 6,700 pupils • 14 ethnic groups: 11 original, 3 from neighboring areas were • 40 village schools operating with local indigenous teachers • 15 ethnic groups • close connection with training of indigenous agro-forestry agents moved into the territory by the state • Written forms of all 14 indigenous languages developed by • rubber extraction since late 1860s, many indigenous people • approximately 100 books and publications prepared, in • 14 indigenous languages spoken indigenous teachers and linguists fled or were forced to work in rubber extraction indigenous languages, bilingual and Portuguese versions • 4,600 inhabitants • 35 school books, in Portuguese and indigenous languages, • 8 indigenous languages spoken, 6 indigenous groups have • teacher training curriculum and specific indigenous education • common belief: only Portuguese can be written produced with active participation of indigenous teachers lost their native language due to contact with ‘modern’ society policies approved by state authorities • many future teachers were semi-illiterate • teaching materials produced in all 14 languages • indigenous teachers hired by the state The project (Evaluation: 2007) • teacher training, curricula and political-pedagogical plans • the Forest People Education Centre established by CPI/Acre, the The project (Evaluation: 2004) • initiated in 1983 and has received RFN support since 1993 officially recognized only institution in Acre allowed to authorize indigenous teachers. • initiated in 1994 and has received RFN support since the • train indigenous teachers for village schools • public salary for teachers • teacher exchange visits to other projects beginning • revitalize and strengthen indigenous languages • 15 indigenous teachers graduated from university, 4 in post • organization of indigenous teachers (OPIAC) founded in 2000 • train indigenous teachers for village schools • publish teaching materials developed by indigenous teachers graduate courses • organization of indigenous agro-forestry agents (AMAAIAC) • develop political-pedagogical plans (PPP)* and curricula • develop political-pedagogical plans and curricula • teacher exchange visits to other projects founded in 2002 • teaching materials in local languages and Portuguese • lobbying activity aimed at local and state-level authorities • Indigenous Education Council created in 2005 • local project partner: Instituto Socioambiental (ISA) • local partner organization: Comissão Pró Indio do Acre (CPI/Acre)

10 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 11

Orcadas (Argentina)

Antarctic International Stations (Argentina-Brazil-Chile-China-Korea-Poland-Russian Fed.-Uruguay) Capitán Arturo Prat (Chile)

Esperanza (Argentina) General B. O'Higgins (Chile)

Marambio Palmer (U.S.A) (Argentina) 105OW 90OW 75OW 60OW 45OW Longitude West 30O of Greenwich Chapter 3: G l o b a l c h a l l e n g e s a n d local initiati v e s

Global challenges and local initiatives

Education for all or teachers, long distance to school, un- The first campaign on ‘Education for all’ affordable school fees, and the pover- (EFA) was launched at the Unesco con- ty that forces children to work. Girls are ference of the same name, held in Thai- less likely than boys to be able to attend land, in 1990. Since then, various strat- school. egies have been developed to provide basic education for all and eradicate il- Global challenges and local initiatives literacy in the world. In 2000 the revised In order to reach children in rural ar- goal was set to be reached by 2015. eas, more and better schools are need- ed. Many people look upon rural life as Many international efforts and cam- backward, outdated and not attractive paigns have been launched. Howev- to young people, and migration to urban er, they have not yet yielded the results areas has become a major problem. Ac- expected, and countries vary widely in cess to school and health care are among terms of goal achievement. According to the factors that can make it more attrac- a World Development Report ‘If coun- tive to stay. tries continue at only their recent rate of progress, universal primary completion The indigenous schools presented in this would come only after 2020 in the Mid- book are local: they are found in villag- dle East and North Africa, after 2030 in es where people live. They have been es- South Asia, and not in the foreseeable tablished according to the villagers’ own future in sub-Saharan Africa.’1 wishes as to how they want their chil- dren to be educated. The modern, uni- Globally, primary school enrolment in- form, theoretical, urban type of educa- creased dramatically between 1960 and tion does not respond to the needs of all 1997, but it has proven difficult to sus- children. Many pupils drop out – whether tain such rapid growth rates. Between they live in urban areas in highly devel- 1999 and 2004 the number of children oped countries or in rural less-developed not attending school fell by around 21 communities in poor countries. Even million, but still 77 million children are Norway has a high drop-out rate in sec- either not in school or have dropped out. ondary education. Of course, neither the stream formal education can be found all The schools in the Amazon rainforest represent something unique. They offer an education that is closely linked to the needs of the com- Two-thirds of these children are living in uniform urban school nor the local in- over the world. But the various school re- munity and to the culture and traditions of local people. Kinsedje girls in the Ngowêrê village in Xingu, 2006. Photo: Carsten Thomassen sub-Saharan Africa. Not only are there digenous solutions described in this book forms and alternatives have not resulted many children who are not enrolled, should be seen as the right answer for in a radically different type of school ed- there are also far too many who never all children. If we are to achieve educa- ucation suited to the needs of all learn- In most discussions on education for and villages all over the world. Histo- Quality of education complete primary school.2 tion for all, a variety of educational ap- ers. The schools in the Amazon rainforest all, it is taken for granted that school ry shows us that the first formal edu- Merely building more schools and hiring proaches will be needed. represent something unique. They offer education is a blessing to everyone. It cation of indigenous peoples intro- more teachers is not enough: the quality Particularly hard-hit are children from an education that is closely linked to the has become synonymous with being duced by European missionaries aimed of the education provided must be good. poor families in rural and remote ar- Alternative schools for children who have needs of the community and to the cul- ‘civilized’ and ‘modern’. Few are will- at destroying values and customs con- There are many reasons why children eas. Reasons include lack of schools and/ no access to or do not fit into main- ture and traditions of the local people. ing to listen to voices that are criti- sidered primitive and uncivilized. These drop out from school or never enrol: poor cal to formal education, voices arguing schools taught the local people that quality is one of them. But the mean- that it destroys and endangers the di- they should discard their old life and ing of quality of education varies from 1 World Bank, 2004, p 112. versified informal education of children feel ashamed of their language and one country to another and also within 2 EFA Global monitoring report 2007, Unesco that has always taken place in families culture. the same country. It may relate to school

12 Schools in the Rainforest regnskogens tilstand 13 Chapter 4: Indigenous education in Brazil

buildings, schoolbooks and education- al materials, teachers, teacher education, teaching methods, relevance of the con- tent, the language of instruction and dis- tance to school, among other things. It also relates to how the education provid- ed in a formal school corresponds with the traditional way of teaching children in the family and the community.3

It is a common finding that parents’ support and interest in their children’s schooling improve the quality. But what is less often considered is whether the quality improves when it is better adapt- ed to the community’s way of thinking and living. Instead, illiteracy among par- ents is considered a hindrance for their children’s success in school, because the parents ‘do not understand the impor- tance of education’. It is not true that il- Students, teachers and elderly study the architecture of a traditional Panará house. literate parents do not value formal Nãsêppotiti village, Xingu. Photo: Paula Mendonça / ISA school education – but it is hardly sur- prising that they should be sceptical to separated from the environment, ethics midst of the jungle along the river Ti- an education that looks down on their and a spiritual life. Transfer of knowledge qué in Brazil. The buildings are uniform, culture and values. has not gone the other way around: from whether you happen to be in Africa, illiterate, ‘poor’ people to the wealthy, Asia or Latin America, and so is the way When it comes to the spread and trans- highly industrialized world. All aid work- classroom teaching is organized. The Historical photo, probably from the 1930s, of indigenous boys at a missionary boarding school in the Iauaraté village, Rio Negro. In this fer of knowledge, it is common to think ers in education and other sectors should walls of the school buildings also serve photo, the boys are separated according to indigenous group. The strong Roman Catholic missionary presence from the 1920s caused of how to offer advanced modern tech- start by asking what we can learn from to mystify what teaching and learn- severe cultural alienation and the disappearance of many indigenous languages in the region. Photo: Dom José Dopritrovitz. nology and inventions to ‘less developed’ the people of traditional societies, and ing are, distancing life inside the school people and countries. The tradition- not take it for granted that we possess from life outside. And what goes on in- al knowledge and resources that served the best answers to their needs. side is seen as more important than what Indigenous education in Brazil: them well before the colonizers and mis- The indigenous people of the Brazilian goes on outside. School buildings are sionaries came have rarely been subject rainforest lead very simple lives by Nor- practical arrangements, but they should to serious study, and wegian standards. But they do not con- not be sacred (like most church build- History and recent developments even today we are vir- sider themselves poor as long as they ings) and separate learning from the sur- have enough to eat, and there is game in rounding society. Teaching and learning by Marta Azevedo Quality must be defined the forest and fish in the lakes and riv- do not know such boundaries. The in- in terms of what the local ers. They have chosen to continue their digenous schools described here have in ­communities want, and whether traditional way of life because they like many ways come closer to ‘quality of ed- Change of paradigms: indigenous rights changed: the native populations were By the late 1970s and early 1980s, global the education can support the it, and they find it more attractive than ucation’ than other prestigious education recognized seen as remnants of the past, social tendencies of recognizing ethnically and goal of a sustainable life for moving to the cities. This is reflected in projects. Quality must be defined in terms Throughout the history of Brazil, schools groups that would need to be integrated culturally differentiated peoples resulted future generations. the kind of education they want for their of what the local communities want, and for the indigenous peoples have been in- into the new national society. In the 20th in greater awareness and the emergence children. That is what ‘quality’ means to whether the education can support the struments for evangelization and civiliza- century, up until the 1980s, the SPI (Indi- of a movement to promote the indigenous them. goal of a sustainable life for future gen- tion. Their original objective was to trans- an Protection Service) and its successor cause in Brazil. Indigenous leaders as- tually ignorant about these matters. In erations. form the local populations into manual FUNAI (the Federal National Indian Foun- sumed a protagonist role in defending today’s industrialized countries, writ- In most countries, a school can be rec- labourers who would work for the ad- dation) supported the creation of non-re- their rights, and thus the new Brazilian ten, theoretical knowledge is valued over ognized at a long distance, the way I The next chapter presents the historical vancement of the colonies, for the coloni- ligious schools in the villages, but still Constitution came to recognize and re- practical knowledge, and technology is learned to recognize churches in the lines of indigenous education in Brazil. al towns. In this period of Brazilian colo- with the objective of integrating the in- spect the rights of the peoples who had nial history, missionaries had the job of digenous people into mainstream national inhabited the continent before the arrival ‘educating’ indigenous children and adults. society. of the Portuguese colonists. The text of 3 Johannessen, E.M. Basic education – also a question of quality. Save the Children Norway 2006. With Independence (in 1822), very little the 1988 Constitution replaced the former

14 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 15 Chapter 4: Indigenous education in Brazil

they would to operate. We found this con- ples2 became well-known and was pub- cific usages and customs of each people, cept very useful for thinking about the in- lished on posters, as well as being cited including their social, political, and eco- digenous schools with which we were be- and discussed in the National Curriculum nomic organizations. With regard to ginning to work. Statement for the Indigenous Schools, schooling, it specifically guarantees to the published by the Ministry of Education in indigenous peoples of Brazil the same In 1979, a first meeting on indigenous ed- 1998. right to a basic education as that of all ucation was held in São Paulo in which other citizens, including the right to use this group of people who were engaged in While the teachers in the North were their mother tongues and their own spe- alternative projects participated. During gathering in these reflection meetings, in cific processes of learning. Thus it guaran- the 1980s, the Operation Anchieta (OPAN, the state of Acre and in the Xingu region tees the right to cultural otherness in now known as Operation Native Amazo- (in the state of Mato Grosso), training school education. nia), an indigenist NGO, facilitated four courses for indigenous teachers gained meetings of people engaged in indigenous momentum. They were imbued with a new In 1991, on the eve of the United Nations education projects. During these meetings, philosophy that focused on in-depth par- Conference on Environment and Develop- the professionals involved with these ticipation of the local communities, in- ment (also known as the Rio Summit, projects in the most diverse indigenous cluding the languages and knowledge of Earth Summit, or, in Portuguese, Eco ‘92) areas worked on formulating the princi- the peoples and reflecting on the role of in Rio de Janeiro, the Brazilian govern- ples of specific and differentiated school the teachers and the schools in the com- ment finally transferred responsibility for education. Main topics discussed at these munities during the process of training. indigenous school education from the FU- meetings included: a) literacy of indige- These courses, promoted by nongovern- NAI to the Ministry of Education. That nous children in their own languages (and mental organizations, established a new meant that members of indigenous groups the importance of this in child develop- philosophy for teacher training that was came to be the holders of the right to ment); b) the training of indigenous (as later taken up by the Brazilian state. All school education like all other Brazilian against ‘outside’) teachers; and c) whether the ensuing courses in training indigenous citizens, safeguarding the specificities of or not to make indigenous schools official. teachers were inspired by these first expe- the rights of indigenous peoples. A book was published with the results of riences. Young students at the Katukina school in the Kamanwa village in Acre, 1985. This school was among the first that were organized by these reflections, which also contained a From that time onward, the Ministry of nongovernmental organizations in Brazil. Photo: Nietta Lindenberg Monte / CPI-Acre chapter on each of the indigenous educa- Principal changes in legislation in the Education assumed responsibility for for- tion projects1 discussed during the meet- late 1980s and early 1990s mulating and publicizing a national policy integrationist perspective with respect for do not speak the language; demanding enous schools, in the belief that education ings. All recent texts on indigenous school edu- for indigenous school education. In 1993 ethnic diversity, recognizing cultural plu- that the parents speak Portuguese in the for the local populations would become cation build on the new principles about it issued the ‘Directives for the National rality, and securing the right to be differ- schools; making school uniforms obligato- better without ‘colonizing’ schools. A cen- This practice of holding meetings on the the relation between the Brazilian state Policy of Indigenous School Education’, ent – and the state had the duty to guar- ry; requiring the pupils to read and write tral principle was that the school was not questions confronting the different teams and indigenous peoples, and seek to be in prepared by anthropologists and other antee these rights. The Constitution about irrelevant and alien urban subjects: a good institution in itself: that is, the for- of nongovernmental organizations was accord with the principal international specialists in indigenous school education recognized the social organization, cus- all these practices were heavily criticized. mal school had been, and had continued much utilized also in the 1990s. With the mechanisms for defence of the rights of who were consultants for the Ministry of toms, beliefs, traditions and original rights They had proven themselves useless in to serve as, an instrument of socio-cultur- beginning of the training of indigenous traditional peoples. All the legal measures education. In this publication, the princi- of the indigenous peoples over their lands. terms of education, besides being destruc- al and economic massacre of the indige- teachers, who gradually replaced the non- are based on respect for the ways of ples of the new indigenous school educa- It guaranteed to all the full exercise of tive of traditional values. This new move- nous peoples in many countries. The major indigenous teachers, a movement of in- knowing, the practices and the intellectu- tion are set out in detail. It must neces- their cultural rights and access to the ment was based on the recognition that inspiration for these projects was the phi- digenous teachers began in the north of al heritage of the indigenous peoples, and sarily be specific and differentiated, sources of national culture. And that schools for the indigenous peoples of the losopher of education Paulo Freire. In the Brazil. In 1989 a first meeting was held in respect for the differing social, political, intercultural and bilingual. The document meant that the school system would have villages still had the same old objective of 1970s, his philosophy was widely diffused Manaus in the state of Amazonas. Over economic, and cultural organizations of states that the indigenous school has so- to be re-structured. colonizing them and civilizing them. The among Brazilian educators, despite all the the next decade, teachers from Amazonas each indigenous group. cio-economic and cultural autonomy of idea that emerged was that these people political repression of that time. One of met each year to discuss questions of in- each people as a main objective based on Role of nongovernmental organizations and their way of life should be respected, Freire’s fundamental ideas was that those digenous school education. At their third The Brazilian Constitution of 1988 ac- the recovering of their historical memory, and international cooperation that their schools would have be based on who are to be educated, the pupils, do not meeting, in 1991, the teachers prepared a knowledges that the indigenous peoples the re-affirmation of their ethnic identity From the 1970s, indigenous and indigenist quite different objectives and should in- come to the schoolhouse with no prior Declaration of Principles, with 15 points inhabited this territory before the coloniz- and the study and appreciation of their leaders (non-indigenous people working clude the indigenous languages and tradi- knowledge or training; they are not ‘emp- detailing their demands and ideas on vil- ers arrived. In consequence, it recognizes own language and their own knowledge. with indigenous peoples to promote their tional knowledge in their curricula. ty boxes’ to be filled with knowledge lage schools. This Declaration of Princi- the rights to indigenous lands, to the spe- This is synthesized in their various ways of cause) began to express their criticism of brought in from outside. Therefore, the schools established by the Christian Various anthropologists and indigenists schools ought to include discussions and 1 missions and the FUNAI. Conducting created alternative education projects reflections about the kinds of knowledge A Conquista da Escrita – Encontros de Educação Indígena. Loretta Emiri e Ruth Monserrat (organizadoras) . OPAN, Editora Iluminu- classes in Portuguese, when the children aimed at structuring other types of indig- and training in the communities in which ras, São Paulo, 1989. 2 On this see the book by Rosa Helena Dias da Silva, Encontros de Professores Indígenas, Editora Abya Ayla, Manaus, 2000

16 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 17 Chapter 4: Indigenous education in Brazil

and programmes; d) prepare and system- atically publish specific and differentiated teaching materials. With the new concep- tual and legal paradigm, schools in the lo- cal communities should have changed. The indigenous communities should now be discussing new objectives for their schools, new projects for their villages and, thus, new pedagogical projects for their schools.

However, although the laws have changed, Brazil is a vast country. Most of the indig- enous areas are situated in Amazonas, and even in the South and South-eastern re- gions, the villages are little known and lo- Historical photo, probably from the 1930s, of young indigenous girls at missionary board- cal governments do not like to have indig- ing school in Rio Negro. Photo: Unknown enous groups in their territories. Prejudice remains rampant; the idea that the native knowing, as well as in access to the infor- in formulating Political-Pedagogical Plans peoples are savage, undeveloped, unso- mation and technical and scientific – the basic school documents describing phisticated or lazy still holds among pub- knowledge of the larger society and of the philosophy and pedagogical principles lic school educators in many states, in- other societies, indigenous and non-indig- of the school.3 cluding São Paulo. enous. The indigenous school has to be an integral part of the education system of The new National Law of Directives and Current context: statistics, evaluation each people ensuring and strengthening Bases for education (1996) establishes a and great challenges both the traditions and indigenous way of series of general principles for teaching, The Ministry of Education remains the being and the elements necessary for a among which are the pluralism of ideas agency in charge of formulating public The duck is flying to another lake to eat fish. So that he can live all the years. Forever.” Practicing drawing and written Portuguese. positive relation with other societies. and educational concepts; recognition of policies for indigenous school education. Photo: Eva M. Johannessen. the school education professional; recog- Although small, the staff responsible for In 1998 a group of specialists working on nition of extra-curricular experience; and this within the Ministry has worked to the elaboration of the national policies for the linkages between school experience, stimulate the state and municipal authori- ­peoples, their history, social organization, with perhaps only those of the Xingu area to 9. Only 91 schools, less than 4%, offer indigenous school education together work and social practices. Regarding in- ties to improve primary schooling among way of life and traditions. Without such surviving. The specialized staff of the state post-primary education. Although this with the staff of the Ministry of Education digenous education in particular, it com- the indigenous communities. The priorities knowledge, they lack the most basic pre- and municipal education authorities are ­figure has increased in recent years, it is proposed a first version of the“National plements the formulations of previous have been to train teachers and to build conditions for even thinking about the generally not even aware that there are still low in terms of what is needed. Curricular Reference for the Indigenous laws, determining the development of in- new schools in the communities. ­development of the indigenous schools; indigenous groups living in all states of School” (RCNE/Is). This is a curricular pro- tegrated programmes for teaching and re- and when they visit the communities they modern Brazil. On the other hand, indigenous schools posal that provides references for discus- search, for the provision of bilingual and Much has been done by nongovernmental approach the indigenous children with should not simply continue to grow in sion and curricular practice for the indige- inter-cultural school education for the in- organizations along with international co- preconceived notions and with a top/down The most recent data on indigenous number without heed to the quality of the nous schools. The document was revised in digenous peoples of Brazil. These integrat- operation, to transform the schools into Western worldview. schools are from 2006, and come from the education that they provide. As history 2004, and widely distributed to all indige- ed programmes of teaching and research institutions that are of value to the com- School Census, a survey carried out by the has demonstrated, a school that fails to nous schools and teachers. Although it are to be planned with the participation of munities, rather than working against the Important here is the fact that in the Ministry of Education. According to the take into account the specificities of the may be outdated now, it stands as a docu- the indigenous communities, and must traditions of the indigenous peoples. How- mainstream schools, the history of the 2006 survey, Brazil has 2,417 indigenous people it is meant to serve may become ment that marked the change in the para- aim to a) strengthen the socio-cultural ever, a great deal still remains to be done ­indigenous peoples has not been taught; schools, with 172,256 enrolled pupils. an instrument of socio-cultural de-struc- digm of curricular content for indigenous practices and the mother-tongue of each – especially in those areas where non- and the indigenous question has not been There are about 10,000 teachers working turing. schools. It established central principles indigenous community; b) maintain pro- governmental organizations have not been discussed in primary education or at high- in these schools, of whom 90% are indig- like the inclusion of traditional knowledge grammes for training specialized educa- active, and where the technical staff of er levels. Subjects like history and geogra- enous. However, only 467 (less than one in the curricula, and the participation of tional personnel to work in indigenous the state and municipal authorities are to- phy have been taught as though the in- fifth) of these schools provide the upper the communities and indigenous teachers communities; c) develop specific curricula tally unfamiliar with the indigenous digenous peoples of Brazil were extinct, level of primary education, from grades 5

3 See chapter 9 for further details on these documents.

18 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 19 Chapter 5: Indigenous schools in the rainforest

Watching the mountain from the circular communal house at the Demini village. The Yanomami education project started here in 1995. Photo: Siri Nærland / RFN. Indigenous schools in the ­rainforest This chapter gives an overview of the educational background and philosophy of the four projects dealt with in this book. The main issues will be further elaborated and analysed in the next four chapters.

All four projects share the same overall conflicts between the indigenous groups School is not more important than com- philosophy, but a differentiated and cul- and non-indigenous people who live in or munity life: in fact, community life must turally specific education is encouraged. close to the territories. The threats have come first. Children are not merely pu- The various schools are different, and come from the government, from private pils – they are community members. They should develop according to what the lo- enterprises and individuals who invade the must be able to participate in cultural cal community wants indigenous lands in search of gold, tim- events as well as assist in practical work ber, and other natural resources, as well as according to the needs of their communi- Background from rich and politically influential farm- ties and families, and of the season. Most of the indigenous schools in these ers whose agricultural practices pollute projects cover the first grades of primary the rivers. Indigenous people need to be Formal and informal education education – 1st to 4th grades – and some able to voice their opinion in the majority Informal education plays a more impor- also 5th to 9th grades. They are subject to language (Portuguese), they need to know tant role than formal schooling among in- the same official rules and regulations as more about their rights and how to defend digenous people. The fathers teach their other primary schools, and the municipal- them, and they need to know more about sons and the mothers their daughters the ity or the state pays the teachers’ salaries. how to develop and take care of their nat- skills that they will need. The knowledge The majority of the indigenous teachers ural resources. of elderly people is highly valued; they are are male. Nongovernmental Brazilian or- masters of their history and traditions. ganizations provide teacher education and Overall goal and principles follow-up in the villages as well as semi- The overall goal of these education- This informal education from parents nars for the communities. al projects is to support the continuation to children is practical and specific. The and development of the indigenous cul- ‘teacher’ shows how a task is carried out, Indigenous education is part of the larger ture and ways of living in the rainforest. and then the child copies what the adult society: it cannot live and develop in iso- The teaching and learning, the organiza- does. Young children in Rio Negro said lation. There is a constant struggle to find tion of the school day and the administra- the informal teaching they got from their a balance between an education based on tion of the school should all contribute to mothers and fathers was easier to under- the wishes of the local communities, and this overarching goal. stand than the teaching in the classroom. the non-indigenous school system. After all, the indigenous schools are dependent The education offered is differentiated and The indigenous school tries to reconcile on support from political authorities out- specific. Each community recognizes that formal and informal education by inviting side their territories. its school is different from other village elderly people into the classroom. Objects schools as well as from non-indigenous and tools used in the community are stud- Do the indigenous people need their own schools. The inter-cultural aspect means ied in school. The teaching starts with the formal school? that the children need to learn about the children’s practical experiences or with a The most important education takes place language, culture, science and technology practical lesson, for example planting in in informal settings and not in a formal of the larger society and the world. the field. school. Indigenous schools were estab- lished primarily to teach children how to School and community In one of the Yanomami schools, the read, write and do arithmetic. In some of Teaching and learning in the school should merging of formal and informal educa- the states where these projects are be- be in harmony with the education that the tion has been demonstrated by the very ing carried out, there have bee recurrent child gets in the family and the village. way in which the school is defined. The

20 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 21 Chapter 6: A multicultural classroom

Students, teachers and guests at the formation at the Tuyuka school in the São Pedro Community, Rio Negro, 2005. Photo: Beto Ricardo / ISA Teachers and students in the São Joaquim village, Acre, 2007. Photo: Eva M. Johannessen. Yanomami live in huge communal hous- by the teachers or by the teachers and pu- reaching agreement on the meaning and es (maloka,) and in one such house a spe- pils together. The pupils may be involved use of words and expressions. The second cial place has been indicated for school in project work and write reports that lat- language taught is Portuguese, the lan- activities, with a blackboard and desks. er serve as textbooks. These written prod- guage of the majority population of Brazil. The school is not separated from normal ucts are not primarily prepared for the A multicultural classroom household activities by walls or partitions teacher. They are the cherished and visible Teacher education – but this arrangement did not disturb the fruits of the children’s performance, for All four projects involve teacher educa- The indigenous school aims to be bilingual. A local language should be the medium of teaching and learning in the “classroom”.. everyone to observe and admire. Drawings tion during school holidays. This train- are essential parts of these books. ing has the same characteristics as the ­instruction, whereas the second language is Portuguese, which is the majority language in Teaching and learning education of the children: people work Brazil. The teaching is flexible, active and re- One example of locally made education at their own pace, and it may take many spects the child’s autonomy. In the indig- material was observed in a school where years to train a teacher. Teacher education The importance of local languages in the only municipality that has declared enous school, the pupils are involved in the pupils and the teacher studied the has been gradually expanded, and teach- teaching is recognized, in Brazil as well as Medium of instruction three equally official local languages. The a learning process that is not strictly de- natural resources of their community, and ers may now continue their studies at the internationally. All the same, it is still Which languages to use in instruction is a municipality has a 90% majority indige- fined by time and age. They work at their then drew a map showing the local names university. common to look at a child’s mother major political and educational issue. Bra- nous population and highly organized in- own pace. The children’s achievements are and where these resources are located. tongue as inferior to majority languages zil has recognized the Universal Declara- digenous movements. evaluated in terms of their theoretical and In the following chapters we look more like Portuguese and English. Local lan- tion of Linguistic Rights. According to the practical work, as well as with respect to Bilingual/multilingual education closely at four main issues: a) bilingual/ guages tend to be valued only if they fa- federal Brazilian Constitution of 1988, the The choice of the medium of instruction is behaviour in a broader sense. A major aspect of indigenous education multilingual education, b) teaching, learn- cilitate the acquisition of the majority country’s language policy is determined by a political issue because it defines the re- is the active use, development or revital- ing and evaluation, c) teacher educa- languages that dominate science, litera- the government, but indigenous people lationship between individuals, between Self-made books and education material ization of local languages. Some projects tion and the role of the teacher and d) the ture and politics. In the four projects de- have the right to determine the languages the teacher and the pupils, between dif- All four projects feature self-made books. have engaged linguists and social anthro- school in the community. scribed here, the role of local languages is of instruction and how to organize teach- ferent groups of indigenous people, as They may be based on investigations of pologists who work closely with the local a broader one, closely linked to identity ing and learning in their schools. As yet, well as between the Portuguese-speaking indigenous history and culture carried out people and indigenous teachers, gradually and cultural awareness. Sao Gabriel da Cachoeira in Rio Negro is and non-Portuguese-speaking people. The

22 regnskogens tilstand regnskogens tilstand 23 Chapter 6: A multicultural classroom

Young Kuikuro students carrying out research on natural resources right to be taught in one’s mother tongue lengthy process. Teachers in some of the It is a sensitive and complex task to around the Ipatsé village in Xingu. Photo: Rosana Gasparini / ISA is closely linked to identity and culture. projects said that they did not feel com- transform oral languages into written Lessons learned from all the projects in fortable teaching in their mother tongue languages. Oral and written languages focus here show that teaching and learn- as they still working to learn it them- are two different modes of expression, ing in the local languages enhance the selves. and some nuances get lost in the process motivation and understanding of teachers of conversion. In the process of creating and pupils alike. It seems to instil a deeper Some areas are multilingual, with several a written language, it is important to al- interest in the indigenous culture and is local languages spoken. Many of the low ample time for a thorough reflection thus a key factor in efforts to protect and children know two or three local lan- on language styles, including oral poetry, promote the continuation of the life in the guages. In these cases it has to be decid- recitation, songs, discourses and many rainforest. ed which one should be the medium of other styles that need to be studied spe- instruction. Some children belonging to a cifically for each local language. During a conversation with young people minority group may not be able to be in Acre, it became clear that both girls taught in their mother tongue. In a mul- Some have even questioned whether in- and boys wanted to stay on in the vil- tilingual area, the people may even de- digenous people need to know how to lage, exploring and learning more about cide that Portuguese should be the lan- read and write in their local language. their peoples’ history and traditional guage of instruction. One thing is clear: If they do not need ways of living. The more they learned such skills for survival, and do not prac- about these matters, the more interested To succeed with teaching in an indige- tise reading and writing, the new skills they became. In a school in Xingu, the nous language it is crucial to find com- will fade away. pupils were busily engaged in learning petent teachers. A teacher who has not about old house construction techniques mastered the local language may slow In all four projects, the transformation transmitted to them by the elderly men down the children’s learning process: to written ways of expression seems to of the village. The terms and expressions likewise if the instruction is conducted have contributed to the further devel- they used were difficult to translate cor- only in Portuguese. In villages where opment of local languages, as well as to rectly into Portuguese; they had to be there is little awareness of the role of the revitalization of languages that may explained in the local language. the language of instruction, it may be have been oppressed and nearly forgot- that the teacher masters neither the lo- ten. For example, in a small village in International research has shown that cal language nor Portuguese. Xingu the local language was not in the way to bilingualism starts with the use. There was only one old woman mother tongue. Several indigenous A problem in areas where the indigenous who spoke it – and she devoted her teachers have also mentioned this. As languages have not been well preserved time to teaching and advising the stated by one teacher in Acre: ‘In my is that there are few fluent speakers. Eld- teachers and the children. If they had opinion we first have to learn to read erly people may claim that they do not any questions, they would come to her and write in our indigenous language be- know enough to transmit their mother for clarification. fore we move on to learning Portuguese.’1 tongue correctly to the young genera- tion. The local languages are perfect in- The process of revitalisation of local lan- Research has also documented that the struments for history and traditions, but guages has been educational to the com- results are better when the mother are less suited for describing the new, munities. Those who still speak the local tongue is the medium of instruction and modern world. More words and expres- tongue find themselves discussing the not only taught as a subject. The four sions need to be developed or borrowed meaning of words and expressions, and projects described here have shown that from the majority language. trying to reach agreement. Engaging lin- the study and use of local languages guistics and anthropologists in this proc- strengthen the indigenous people’s cul- In some areas, few of the non-indige- ess is an investment that has contributed ture and identity. On the other hand, it nous Brazilian teachers and advisers to to the progress and results achieved. In takes a long time to master a local lan- the projects speak the indigenous lan- some indigenous communities that have guage that is in the process of being re- guages. This has restricted their commu- not profited from this type of support, vitalized. If a language has not been ac- nication with the indigenous people and the teachers are not able to teach in the tively used for many years, and has few the understanding of their culture. local language, nor do they have educa- speakers, achieving proficiency is a From oral to written language tional materials in their language. The

1 Caderno de reflexao do professor indigena, OPIAC, CPI Acre 2005

Schools in the Rainforest 25 Chapter 6: A multicultural classroom

has historically been very strong and many methods may be improved, but we do not speak it. It may be the teacher’s first lan- know how much that will help if there is guage. The challenge is then to re-estab- otherwise little opportunity to practise the lish the local languages. In the Yanomami second language. The Baniwas seem to villages, by contrast, few spoke Portuguese have been most successful regarding par- and the local language was in active use. allel teaching in the local language and in Portuguese. The Baniwa school starts with Through news and communication with 5th grade, when the children are 11 to 12 the Portuguese-speaking world outside years old. At this age they are generally the indigenous territories and through capable of reading, speaking and writing non-indigenous teachers and advisers in in both the Baniwa language and Portu- the projects as well as through contact guese. But more research is needed to with the municipal government, people in show why the Baniwa project has suc- all the projects are living in a bilingual ceeded in parallel teaching. and multilingual context. When the chil- dren write small stories and texts in Acre How to learn the second language for example, they write in Portuguese. A major challenge in some areas has been That is the only way to communicate with that there are too few occasions for using the non-indigenous advisers and trainers the second language (Portuguese), as few if they do not know the local language.2 in the villages speak it. This is particularly The indigenous teachers also learn to difficult for tribes who live isolated from practise Portuguese through the teacher the non-indigenous people, like the training sessions, as nearly all of the Yanomami. In an attempt to solve this trainers are Portuguese-speaking. Thus, problem, teachers in training have been contact with non-indigenous Brazilians in given the opportunity to go outside the the project represents a continuous lan- territories to learn Portuguese. This ar- guage exercise in Portuguese. rangement has been only partly success- ful, as they do not need to use Portuguese When to start teaching the second in their daily life once they return to the ­language village. Sending the Yanomami teachers to There is no right answer as to when the live in the city for a period has also been a second language should be introduced in challenge. Many find it difficult to adapt school. One finding from other countries to urban life and are negatively influenced where children are taught in their mother by it. The solution has been to arrange ex- Drawings on the walls of the centre of the Tuyuka Utapinopona Indigenous School Association (AEITU) in the São Pedro community in Rio sceptical they were as to the influence of tongue is that their performance scores in change visits to other indigenous groups Negro. AEITU was created as a result of the Rio Negro education project to lead the administration of the school together with the commu- the majority language. the second language are not as good as where Portuguese is more commonly nity. Today AEITU is a solid organization and receives funding directly from Rainforest Foundation Norway. Photo: Beto Ricardo / ISA expected.3 Some claim that the teaching ­spoken. In the Baniwa school (a boarding school of both languages should take place in from 5th grade) in Rio Negro there has parallel. This is actually what goes on in Becoming proficient in a second language, written language is used primarily to de- mainstream society. The Portuguese lan- have revitalised their local language, been an ongoing discussion since the be- some areas today, when the teaching is in in this case the majority language Portu- scribe feelings, situations, local history guage enjoys high status. It is the lan- there has been discussion as to the right ginning of the project on how to maintain Portuguese and words and sentences are guese, is a long process. Indigenous teach- and traditions. It is also used to write guage spoken in the cities and schools time to start teaching Portuguese. Tuyuka Baniwa as the medium of instruction. They translated into local languages, or when ers who have studied for a while become letters and messages to friends and fam- outside the territories. In Xingu the main is the medium of instruction the first four are engaged in developing their language the pupils are asked to write stories and gradually more competent through the ily in neighbouring communities, as well reason why many were positive to the years of school, with Portuguese gradual- to include, for example, universal scientif- sentences in Portuguese or in the local training they get, which also includes ex- as poems and stories. In all the projects, introduction of a village school was that ly being taught from grade 5. It has been ic terms in mathematics and in computer language. In the evaluations of all four tensive writing and reading in Portuguese. books and educational materials have it would allow them to learn Portuguese, considered more important to develop technology. projects, the issue of teaching methods been written in local languages. the language they need in their contact the local language than Portuguese. has been raised and suggestions made on with mainstream. In fact, some parents Those who recognized the link between a In other areas, as in Acre and some villag- how to improve the teaching of Portu- The majority language in Xingu send their children to school strong indigenous identity and mother es in Xingu, the influence of Portuguese guese. There is no doubt that teaching In all the projects there has been a outside the indigenous territory because tongue wanted to postpone the introduc- strong wish among the villagers to learn they think it is more useful for them to tion of Portuguese until the local lan- the national and majority language, Por- master Portuguese than to be taught in guage had been firmly established. The 2 In other areas like the Yanomami and Rio Negro, external advisors have learned to speak the local language. tuguese. None of the indigenous peoples the local language. more aware they became of the impor- 3 Johannessen, E.M. Basic Education – also a question of quality. 2006. in the projects live totally isolated from Among the Tuyukas of Rio Negro, who tance of the local language, the more

26 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 27 Chapter 7: Teaching, learning and evaluation

Teaching, learning and evaluation

Through observation of the four projects in different classrooms, the meaning of a social and ­culturally specific and differentiated school becomes readily apparent. Although they have ­several things in common, each school is unique.

Active and flexible teaching and Respecting the autonomy of the child blackboard, absorbed with his drawing. ­learning Generally the children are eager to learn. The teacher was teaching another subject Teaching and learning in the village The teacher and the teaching respect the to the other pupils. I thought the boy was school is active, flexible and varied. It autonomy of the children, and active being punished for not having done his takes place inside and outside the teaching methods are common. The homework, but the teacher explained classroom. Some schools have tried to children come to school because they afterwards that he had allowed the child group the pupils according to age and want to, not because they are ordered to. to finish yesterday’s work, which he ability, whereas in other classrooms As one teacher in Acre explains: found very interesting. It was about there are wide disparities in age. In The indigenous school is differentiat- snake patterns and he was now studying practice, it is difficult to use the age ed because it lets the pupil be them and copying from a book. criterion that is so widely applied autonomous. If the pupil wants to go otherwise in non-indigenous schools. to the mathematics class, he will Concentration Many classrooms also have adults who be well received, but if he does not In some of the schools I visited, a lesson want to become literate, and the teacher want mathematics and prefers could go on for two hours without a will not refuse an eager learner. Younger indigenous language, he will also be formal interruption. When the children sisters and brothers and even babies may received there, and not regarded as a needed a break, they left the classroom accompany their siblings to school. The pupil who is frequently absent. And if (very few did) or they just relaxed in the Teacher Yapariwa Yudja and young students in the Pequizal village, Xingu, 2006. Photo: Paula Mendonça / ISA schools are ready to accept all learners. he has to go fishing or do any other classroom, and this did not disturb the In the Yanomami villages for example, service for his parents and develop learning atmosphere. Even after school girls marry early and have babies at a through other work, he is allowed to hours, many came to the classroom to young age. Many of them have been do so. The school is not disturbed if work on their own or together with the teachers and advisers often worked won’t get discouraged to realize that his teacher writes on the blackboard and the well received in school with their little the children learn through other non-indigenous teachers. closely together with the local teacher friends are all reading, and so that the pupils copy. In one village school, we ones. activities. Afterwards, they come to trainees, demonstrating practical disparity between those who know and observed a teacher who was writing on school and will be well received. (...)1 Guidance and advice participatory methods. The same type of those who don’t will not become too the blackboard for nearly an hour. He These practices show that the communi- In the traditional apprenticeship model gentle guidance of pupils was observed great.’2 Teachers should not use methods was presenting the results of an investi- ty at large is interested in the school – Although most classrooms have desks, the in the villages, teaching goes from in the Pamáali Baniwa school in Rio in the classrooms that are not accepted gation into local history, and this was while also allowing social control of children may decide to lie on the floor master to trainee. The same pattern can Negro. in the community. They have to know part of the development of a textbook. A what is going on in the classroom. This is – writing, copying from the blackboard, be observed when the teacher is and respect how parents educate their lot of time is spent on writing because an inclusive education where the working individually or with their friends. lecturing and guiding the pupils in the The teachers recognize that it is impor- children. In one school in Rio Negro, the teacher and pupils alike want to improve boundaries between age groups and Some schools have tried to follow a classroom. In the Yanomami school, for tant to encourage the pupils and get teacher said that under the influence of their writing. Being able to write shows abilities are flexible. The classroom may 45–minute timetable, but apparently example, the young indigenous teachers them to participate. They observe what the missionary schools they had used that they are literate. They write in the appear disorganized compared to the without much success. It is more common did not lecture in a traditional way. They each and every child likes to do. One physical punishment to discipline the local indigenous language or in Portu- rules in schools outside indigenous to see children working concentrated at wrote tasks on the blackboard and the teacher in Acre explains: ‘If a pupil does pupils, but that such methods were not guese. Copying is also in line with the territories: but would be more correct to their own pace until they are finished. pupils worked on them, individually or not understand a text and it is difficult in line with traditional indigenous apprenticeship model. The apprentice say that it is differently organized and in in groups. The groups of learners were for him/her to learn, I arrange another education and they had stopped doing it. learns a skill through observing and harmony with the heightened communi- In one school I observed the following small and the teachers spent more time activity for him which he likes, or find copying the master until he or she knows ty involvement that the project seeks to example of respecting a child’s autono- advising and guiding their pupils than another and more simple way of Copying and writing it just as well or even better than the promote. my: A little boy was sitting close to the on lecturing. The non-indigenous teaching him. I do this so that a pupil Blackboard teaching is also common. The master.

1 p. 11 Caderno de reflexao do professor indigena, OPIAC/CPI Acre 2005. 2 Caderno de reflexao do professor indigena, OPIAC/CPI Acre 2005.

28 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 29 Chapter 7: Teaching, learning and evaluation

The children are taught to observe and remember. Drawings help them in this, and their perceptiveness regarding characteristic details is impressive. They also make drawings and texts about customs and spiritual events. This method is actively used as a way of teaching the children to read and write.

In the Baniwa as well in the Coripaco Pamáali school in Rio Negro, drawings are used extensively as a way to learn about something that has been observed, or to learn how to organize ideas and concept and present a map. For example, pupils systematically investigated rivers and igarapés (waterways navigable by canoe) in the school region and made drawings of them at different times during the year in order to observe environmental changes according to the Drawings of animals of the rainforest, Xingu, 2004. Photo: Eva M. Johannessen. seasons.

Practical lessons produced during teacher training participation on the part of the learners Teaching and learning take place also sessions. The books are written in the - It makes the learning enjoyable and fun outside the school building, as can be local languages (some in both a local - It serves as a way of documenting the seen from the following example from a language and Portuguese) and may have development of the project village in Acre. Practical lessons in the stories about the origins of the people, - It facilitates communication between Ethnomathematics class in the Tuyuka Utapinopona school in Rio Negro. Photo: Beto Ricardo / ISA field are organized at least twice a week. history, customs, indigenous languages, local and non-indigenous teachers, as On the day we visited, the pupils were medical plants, body-painting and well as between local knowledge and The love of writing in the local language important carriers of oral tradition Drawing learning how to grow vegetables. They handicrafts, music and poems, stories non-indigenous knowledge. was noticeable in the Yanomami village through the way they express themselves. In one classroom in Xingu, the teacher started by clearing and preparing a small and ethno-mathematics,3 to mention a school. There was a lack of textbooks, They have different specialities. One may was very keen on drawing. He used this plot of land in the village. Their regular few topics. The production of books is a It seems to me that the most important but, after regular school hours, pupils be an expert on myths and stories, method extensively to teach the children, teachers, other community members, collective work carried out by teachers thing about the production of such books engaged in endless study of what they another teaches traditional music, while and this was often the point of departure traditional leaders, health agents and and other members of the community. In is the process of making them and then had written in their notebooks. They also others are experts on medical plants or for further studies. He and his pupils had parents took part, working side by side some of the projects, pupils also use the having a result to be proud of. How wide- wrote letters and messages to friends and on fish and other animals. done investigations regarding the natural with the children. Some of the older same textbooks as in the mainstream, spread the actual use of these books in teachers. resources in their local community, and pupils were observed in the field writing non-indigenous schools. teaching is has not been documented. Interdisciplinary teaching this had resulted in a colourful map of a summary of the event in their note- Older people as teachers In the Tuyuka school an interdisciplinary animal life, rivers, lakes and mountains books. After lunch, they gathered in the In the evaluation of the Yanomami Intercultural education Older people are invited to the classroom approach was common. The pupils did for everyone to consult and admire. maloka for group discussions, writing, project, the following summary was made Intercultural education takes place when to tell about traditions that are not found project work and investigated communi- drawing and presentation of their of some of the advantages of locally the children learn about other countries, in the books. In one school, three old men ty-oriented issues – for example, the The extensive use of drawing is a striking experiences. produced books and material: languages and cultures. Some schools are had been invited to tell the pupils about natural resources in the community, the feature of the teaching. Based on their - It ensures that the knowledge produced also intercultural in that they have pupils the construction and decoration of old old names of rivers and mountains, birds own experience and on close studies, the Self-made books and education and transmitted is locally based, relevant from different indigenous groups with communal houses (maloka), and the and fish, handicrafts, music and dances. children produce detailed and colourful material and interdisciplinary different languages. The non-indigenous children listened and asked questions. This approach draws upon a range of drawings of animal life, plants and trees In all four projects, books and other - It stimulates the creativity and peda- trainers and advisers in the projects are The pupils may also visit community subjects, like geography, history, art and and their natural surroundings. It is learning materials are produced, based gogical methods of the local teachers important transmitters of knowledge members in their homes and ask them language, and this is in line with how essential for them to know about these on the teachers’ and pupils’ own - It motivates and stimulates active from the world outside the indigenous about medical plants, animals, myths, traditional knowledge is transmitted in things, so that they can recognize edible, investigations. Most of this material is spiritual life and customs. The elderly the village. After the project work was medical and poisonous plants, observe people often tell stories when they are finished, the results were presented in animals and their behaviour, and learn teaching the children, and serve as text and drawings. how to preserve their natural resources. 3 Ethno-mathematics is based on indigenous ways of understanding and using mathematical concepts.

30 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 31 Chapter 7: Teaching, learning and evaluation

legislation, but such national tests and In Rio Negro, the criteria for pupil Criteria were applied differently from one exams are particularly ill-suited to the evaluation stress qualitative descriptions teacher to another. They had therefore indigenous education system. In the four over quantitative measures (formal developed their own definition of literacy, projects, various ways of evaluating the marks) and the importance of involving as follows: ‘in addition we consider a pupils have been tried out. In the Tuyuka the local community and their organiza- person literate when he/she is able to and Baniwa schools, it is emphasized that tions in verifying the children’s educa- express clearly an idea in writing and the parents should be provided with tional results, as well as evaluating the when s/he is able to understand clearly evaluations of how their children are teacher’s work and the school’s political- another person’s writing’. This shows that doing in school, as well as seeing to it pedagogical plan.6 It is specifically a definition based on their own experi- that the school itself is constantly being underlined that children should be ence of the social use of literacy is more evaluated. This will help to prepare the encouraged to work together in order to useful than a technical definition. indigenous community for taking over gain new knowledge. the administration of the school, and In Xingu, literacy development was secure its pedagogical as well as its The criteria used to evaluate the pupils in divided into four stages, and a child’s financial and administrative autonomy. the Pamáali school (Baniwa and Coripa- level was evaluated before he or she co) in Rio Negro are specific and clearly could pass on to the next stage. A An overall concern expressed by teachers indicate the academic achievements requirement introduced by the state is that the children should not be divided expected of the children each year. A education authorities was to include on the basis of their academic results, special module has been developed for personal documents, like written individu- thus creating a wider gap between those those who need additional support. al evaluation and the educational history who are more advanced and those who of each pupil. This might be necessary in are lagging behind in school. There is also The Tuyuka school has developed an large urban schools, but not in a village scepticism to tests, as they focus on rote archive of each pupil’s products, drawing, school, and is another example of how learning. The teacher should guide the texts and collective work. The teacher indigenous education is influenced by pupils gently, always seeking not to evaluates the children regularly, not on mainstream society. The evaluation of the discourage or intimidate them, and ready the basis of tests, but on various types of Xingu project concluded that the pupil’s to correct them at the right moment. work handed in over time. In Xingu, they academic results were weak, since they use an individual fixed evaluation sheet spent three or four years in the first stage, Process evaluation that the teacher has to complete every learning to read and write. Some of the The teachers undertake a process evalua- three months. The questions are few and teachers claimed that the results in terms Connecting drawings of birds, plants and human physical attributions with the written words in the Yanomami language, 2006. tion observing a pupil’s profile, develop- simple, focusing on what the children of how many pupils succeeded after ten Photo: Torkjell Leira / RFN ment, attitude and behaviour inside and have learned in the various subjects, what years were very disappointing. outside the classroom. It is important to difficulties each child has had, and how recognize each individual child’s own way the child has participated in the class- This may be due to poor teaching territories. Textbooks on history and modern science and draws comparisons low-scoring children to better perform- of working, and evaluate him or her with room. Examples of each pupil’s work are methods and low teacher qualifications, geography are also used. In this context, between the two. The Baniwa school is ance, unless they are also given more this in mind, rather than comparing the to be attached to the evaluation sheet. as some teachers were more successful libraries are essential. Some projects have currently finalizing a comprehensive specific advice. pupils with each other. Pupils are evaluated than others. It may also be related to succeeded in establishing comprehensive Atlas Baniwa based on local field Traditional Western evaluation tends to not only according to academic perform- Evaluating literacy conflicts between village life and formal libraries with dictionaries, educational studies, drawing upon knowledge from be synonymous with tests on narrowly ance, but also in terms of practical skills When the evaluation of the Yanomami schooling, which would indicate that it is materials, encyclopaedias, photo books, the modern world on how to analyse defined items of knowledge at a specific and traditional knowledge. It is possible to project was carried out, the degree of necessary to pay more attention to geographical atlases, etc. In some of and present the findings. time. The test results may be important make brief evaluations every now and then, literacy was defined according to a set of strengthening the community school. the projects computers are available, for a child’s future in the educational to find out what the children have learned. criteria that categorized pupils into four and the Internet is used to search for Evaluation system outside the indigenous territories. For instance, the teacher may write on the different levels: ‘pre-syllabic’, ‘syllabic’, In Rio Negro, the evaluation concluded information about other countries and Evaluation of the pupils is essential in As there are few other models of blackboard and ask the pupils to read these ‘syllabic-literate’ and ‘literate’. This had that the pupils’ academic results were modern technology and science.4 Learn- order to guide them in the learning evaluations, indigenous schools may copy texts. If they are not able to do this, that is been adopted from the non-indigenous good, and that this was due to the ing through investigation allows a process. But this is a sensitive issue. It this basically alien way of evaluating an indication to the teacher to improve his school system in Brazil, and was not at quality of the teaching and teachers, but dialogue between traditional and often means competition: moreover, this children’s school performance. or his teaching. In addition to daily all suitable for use in an indigenous also to the close and supportive contact non-indigenous knowledge. A genuine way of ranking individual performance is observations, some teachers say they also society. The non-indigenous teachers between the local community and the intercultural education makes investiga- not in line with cultural patterns in all Regular evaluations of pupils are arrange formal tests in various subjects found that the criteria were not exact school. tions of traditional science as well as societies. Nor will it necessarily motivate mentioned in the national school every second month.5 and needed further interpretation.

5 Caderno de reflexao do professor indigena. OPIAC/CPI Acre. 2005. 4 Today Escola Páamila even has a blog 6 The political-pedagogical plan is further explained in chapter 8.

32 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 33 Chapter 8: Teacher education and the teacher’s role

Teacher education and the ­teacher’s role

Since the beginning of all the projects, ed- provided this education and training. seminars, upgrading and advice to teach- ucating and training teachers has been a ers and the community. This is an essen- major priority. Formal schooling based on How the education of teachers has been tial part of the teacher education, ensuring the wishes of the indigenous people needs organized varies from one project to an- that theoretical knowledge is transformed to be carried out by people who speak the other. In Xingu, teachers from 14 different into practical teaching. Advisory visits local languages, live in the villages and tribes were gathered for five to six weeks. also allow inspection of how the school is know the culture. It used to be the task In Acre, they come together during sum- functioning. The ambulant advisers pre- of knowledgeable elders and parents to mer holidays for further courses. In the pared detailed written reports, describ- teach the children. When schools were in- provincial capital Rio Branco in Acre, the ing how the schools are administered and troduced, it became necessary to appoint nongovernmental organization Commisao the status of the teaching and the teach- teachers. This was new and unfamiliar to Pro-Indio Acre has succeeded in buying er. These visits have an important evalu- the community. How should these people land and constructing a Centre of Educa- ation function, and have uncovered cases be selected? tion for indigenous teachers where sem- of teachers with long absences and non- inars and trainings are held. In Upper Rio functioning of schools. Regular follow-up Selecting teachers Negro, teachers from various communities of teachers in the field has not been rec- In most cases there were few, if any, literate gather for further training during summer ognized and accepted by the state author- people in the villages, making it impossible and winter holidays. ities as an essential part of the teacher to choose candidates on basis of their skills education in all the projects. Local non- in reading and writing. The existing hierar- A common characteristic of this form of governmental organizations have carried chy was based on quite different criteria. teacher education is its participatory out the follow-up visits, which have been And so, it became the members of the com- character. The teachers are not passive re- financed by the international community. munity who decided who should become a cipients but actively take part in the learn- teacher. That had to be a person who was ing process. They become involved in in- Informal training of teachers trusted and respected, but further criteria vestigations into their history and culture. The traditional education between genera- could vary from one project to another. As In Acre and Xingu, the teachers are en- tions is also visible in the informal training yet, there has been no systematic research couraged to reflect upon the teaching in of teachers. In Acre, the local teachers in on the selection of teachers and the role of their class diaries and to engage in oth- Sao Joaquim village would often refer to a the community in this respect. This is a per- er types of writing. The project focuses on more experienced colleague as a mentor. ‘I tinent issue, as some of the challenges that helping the local teachers to become writ- was trained by him’ was a common state- arose (which we will return to later) have ers and owners of their own history. ment, meaning that the colleague had tak- been related to the teacher’s role and posi- en responsibility for supporting the novice. tion in the local community. In Upper Rio Negro, some teacher educa- Such informal training of new teachers was tion workshops also involve other members also common in Xingu. In the Yanomami Many of the teachers are young, and they of the community, in collective events that territory, the schools spread to other villag- receive a regular salary. These two factors strengthen the ties between the school es through teachers who had only a brief have tremendous effects on the traditional and the community. training (multiplicadores) and were guid- indigenous society. ed by more experienced colleagues. Inter- Teacher education is mostly organized by estingly, in the Pamáali School in Rio Ne- Teacher education subject, as it is elsewhere in Brazil. How- gro, the coordination exercised among the Teaching and teacher education have been ever, some of the four projects also use an teachers did not involve hierarchical au- parallel activities since the beginning. The interdisciplinary approach. thority, which breaks somewhat with tra- teachers got a basic introduction, start- ditional patterns in which the chief or reli- ed to teach and develop the schools, and Follow-up gious leader exercises vertical authority. continued to participate in courses in spe- Follow-up is another important part of the Graduate student Erivaldo during the first cific subjects and teaching methods. Non- training. Non-indigenous trainers and ad- Teacher qualifications graduation ceremony at the Pamaali school in indigenous advisers and teacher trainers visers travel regularly to schools and give In many states of Brazil there are possibil- Rio Negro, 2004. Photo: Jan Thomas H. Odegard / RFN 34 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 35 Chapter 8: Teacher education and the teacher’s role

Indigenous teachers during teacher training course in Acre, 2003. Photo: CPI-Acre. Workshop on identity for teachers and teenagers in the Pavuru village, Xingu, 2005. Photo: Rosana Teacher and students during class in Trumai village in Xingu, 2004. Gasparini / ISA Photo: Eva M. Johannessen ities for the indigenous teachers to move indigenous people’s language and culture, had begun to offer the standardized school respect the traditions, and are expected personality as a community member and a in the Pamáali school (Baniwa and Coripa- on to higher education and even to the and respect their autonomy. lunch to the indigenous pupils and provid- to take part in cultivation, harvesting and model to young people. co) were women. This is a boarding school university.1 The autonomy of each individ- ed tins of biscuits and other food items, as cultural events. In some of the projects, where the pupils do not live close to their ual teacher is guaranteed as each follows Mediators between past and present they did to non-indigenous schools. The the older members of the community com- Female teachers home villages, because there are many his/her own pace. It may therefore take The teacher’s role in the indigenous school indigenous people were not familiar with plained that the younger teachers did not The large majority of the teachers are men. small communities along the river, none of several years before a teacher has received differs from that of a teacher in oth- this type of food; moreover, the tins repre- respect village life and did not take part in In most of the projects there are also more which big enough to host a school. Boys the education deemed necessary. But the er schools. The teacher is not seen as the sented a waste problem. The local people it. On the other hand there are also exam- male pupils than female. Work in the in- and girls share domestic chores and deci- majority of them do not continue to higher only expert in transmitting knowledge to managed to reverse this negative develop- ples of communities that do not fully ac- digenous villages is divided by gender, and sion-making on an equal footing, within a levels, and their formal qualifications may the younger generation. He or she knows ment and started instead to prepare their cept the teacher’s work and do not under- being a teacher has been defined as suita- context where there is a new concept of be poor compared to traditional academic the modern world of reading and writing, own traditional food for the pupils, receiv- stand that a teacher also needs time to ble for men. This traditional division of la- the family, as the teachers are viewed as requirements in regular teacher education. while other ‘teachers’ (parents, other rela- ing compensation from the municipal au- participate in training and prepare the les- bour does not mean, however, that the parents. Interpersonal relations are devel- tives and leaders) in the village provide in- thorities. sons. However, some of the more mature women are without a voice and do not oped within a climate of affection, respect The indigenous teachers are involved in struction in practical life skills, history and and well-trained teachers have become have power in the communities. Their work and companionship. The team of indige- the development of an education founded traditions. These new teachers have an im- Through their knowledge of the non-in- recognized as leaders and as mediators be- is closely linked to their role as mothers nous teachers in the school is balanced in on a different knowledge base and with a portant role as mediators between the past digenous world, the teachers can help the tween the old and the new world. They act and wives. A female teacher needs to get terms of gender. At the time of the evalu- different aim than in non-indigenous ter- and the present, but they are not tradi- people understand how to protect and as important role models in the communi- acceptance from the village chiefs to take ation there were four female teachers and ritories. That means that teacher educa- tional leaders in the village hierarchy and preserve their natural resources for future ties. They are familiar with the life in the up a position as a teacher, and she needs four male ones, while the coordinator and tion has to be differentiated and intercul- may therefore not be recognized as au- generations. As one teacher in Acre re- city and can speak Portuguese. Still they the approval of her father and her hus- two advisors were women. tural in terms of content and methods, and thorities. flects upon differences between life in the value the way of life in the indigenous ter- band. She cannot simply abandon her oth- must be allowed to develop according to city and in the village: ‘In many big cities ritories and have decided to stay there. er tasks in the family and in the commu- In the four projects, the overall attitude is lessons learnt and experience gained. On the other hand, the teacher can serve there are millions of people who are dying nity. Given the traditional hierarchy, it is to respect the social organization of each as an educator to the community when, of hunger although they know how to read The community is supposed to control the even more difficult for a female teacher group of indigenous people. In Rio Negro, Teacher education in the four projects for instance, h/she introduces them to and write. Acquiring written language is teachers and evaluate their performance. than for a male to be respected as a leader for instance, a woman moves to her hus- has not been guided by traditional theo- the non-indigenous world but also is able not enough to solve this problem.’2 Here the main concern seems to be that in the community. band’s village when she marries, and so a ries and pedagogical principles but has de- to warn them against becoming depend- they come regularly and behave well. Most female teacher cannot marry and teach in veloped gradually according to the experi- ent on products from outside. An exam- Teachers in the community setting members of the community are not able When the Rio Negro project was evaluat- her village of origin. ence gained. The over-arching has been to ple from Acre shows the importance of The teachers are first and foremost mem- to judge the teachers’ academic and peda- ed, the gender balance was improving; in- build an education that can strengthen the this attitude. The educational authorities bers of the local community. They have to gogical qualities, only their behaviour and deed, the majority of teachers and advisors

1 Today more than 30 indigenous teachers in Brazil have been able to pursue further studies (at master and doctoral level) through scholarships from the Ford Foundation. 2 Caderno de reflexao do professor indigena. OPIAC/CPI Acre. 2005

36 regnskogens tilstand regnskogens tilstand 37 Chapter 9: The school and the community

capacity building of the school associa- only, for instance. That is the case with the chief of the mourning when we tions. In the Tuyuka villages, the commu- the Pamáali boarding school. Such an ar- can play again. (...) In the month of nity members were well oriented about rangement allows the pupils to visit their August there is a big celebration and the education that took place. The mem- home villages regularly and take part in everybody has to attend. The school is bers of the community participated ac- activities there. closed in this period. tively, visiting the classrooms, getting involved in developing local teaching ma- A PPP is meant to be developed in each This example from Xingu shows how com- terials at workshops, and discussing the school. It is more than a traditional cur- plicated it can be to adapt the indige- contents and methods for lesson plans. riculum defining subjects and require- nous school to a regular academic curric- In the Pamáali school there was an at- ments: it is also political, as it defines the ulum and calendar. Community life and mosphere of companionship and a feel- languages of instruction and the year- events do not proceed in a linear, regu- ing of responsibility and commitment to ly school calendar. A flexible school cal- lar way. This also helps to explain why it the communities, a sense of identity and endar means that the children can have takes a long time to teach a child to read belonging to the Baniwa-Coripaco peo- time to do practical work in their commu- and write, and why it is not possible to ple. Twice a year the school council meets nities, depending on the seasons and cul- impose a fixed calendar on the indigenous with all the parents, community lead- tural events. schools. In the community life described ers and the pupils. During these meetings, above there is not much time for regular which may last from three to four days, The PPP must be developed in cooper- classroom teaching, as there are many in- they discuss pedagogical and administra- ation with the local community: it can- terruptions. On the other hand, teaching tive issues and make important decisions. not be decided by the teacher alone. In and learning do not stop simply because Xingu, impressive work had been done in the school is closed – they go on contin- Strong community commitment also has this respect. The plan sees the Xingu in- uously within the community. A rigid for- positive effects on the teacher’s motiva- digenous territory (PIX) as a political uni- mal school calendar does not fit into the tion for the job. ty, although it covers 14 different eth- traditional rhythm of life in the commu- nic groups and languages. The schools nity. Flexibility is essential. A challenge is to develop new ways of have many cultural customs in common, school administration with specific and but they are also different, and the school Gradually, however, many indigenous Teacher Anselmo during class in the Demini village in the Yanomami indigenous territory, 2006. Photo: Torkjell Leira / RFN different roles for teachers, principals, co- calendar varies from one place to anoth- communities are recognizing the formal ordinators and municipal school secretar- er. The teacher in one of the schools, Ka- school and adapting to it. This is the case ies, among others. This has to be reflected maiura in the village of Ypawu, describes in many villages in Acre, where school in the political-pedagogical plan, showing some challenges regarding the school cal- hours are quite regular and have been in- The school and the community how the schools are innovative not only endar: tegrated into the life of the community. in terms of pedagogy but also with re- Nearly all months have celebrations, A close relationship with the community ensures that the school develops in accordance with spect to administration. games, and fishing in the community. The evaluation from Upper Rio Negro local wishes and values. How much the community’s influence on the school has been empha- (...) The school is very new to us in the found the Pamáali school to be effective- sized varies from one project to another. Political-pedagogical plan community. To present a school cal- ly directed toward strengthening Bani- The national education legislation gives endar we need a lot of discussion un- wa values and citizens. The political-ped- the schools both the right and the duty til the community understands. The agogical plan of this school stands out School administration In Xingu, many community members The Pamáali school (Baniwa and Coripaco) to develop their political-pedagogi- school stops for one or two months as a contrast to the aims of the munici- The teacher is trained primarily to teach, complained that they did not really un- has a similar arrangement with its local cal plan (PPP). This is their own local- when a person dies. The school has to pal and missionary schools. The emphasis not how to administer a school. On the derstand the role of the school and its school council, ACEP. The school council is ly adapted curriculum and school man- respect this traditional custom. The on training people oriented towards com- other hand, many of the project schools teachers. The local people were more in- involved in discussing all matters related agement plan, ensuring that each school village community does not decide munity work is coherent with the vision are small and should be easy to adminis- volved in their community life than in the to the school and in making decisions re- is run in accordance with the other laws on the celebrations but on the fish- of sustainable development envisioned by ter. The most important aspect of the ad- school. The school was seen as the teach- garding the content and administration of and norms governing indigenous educa- ing, the planting and the harvesting the indigenous movement. This is clear- ministration of the village schools relates er’s responsibility. the school, as well guaranteeing its inte- tion. The schools are also to prepare their (...) it is the chief who decides on the ly expressed in the organization of the to how the teacher and the communi- gration with the community. own school calendar, ensuring 200 com- celebrations according to information school and its curricula, calendar and op- ty work together. It is the community’s It is necessary to spend time explaining pulsory school days per year, and adapt- he gets from the spirits; the family in erations. school, not that of the teacher or the mu- and working on the community’s respon- Rainforest Foundation Norway (RFN) has ed to local climatic and economic cir- mourning defines the order of the cel- nicipality. It should be run and adminis- sibility for running of the school. This has signed a contract directly with the school cumstances. There should be at least four ebration. Whenever a person dies dur- The PPP of the Pamáali School integrates tered by the community, so that it can been successfully done in Rio Negro. The associations in Rio Negro, giving them hours of teaching on a regular school day; ing a period of celebration, we have to the study areas around a shared core develop to the benefit of the villagers and Tuyuka school has a local school associ- greater responsibility for the adminis- alternatively, the communities may decide stop. We are not allowed to play foot- including languages, mathematics, their lives, today and in the future. To ation (AEITU) whose task is to adminis- tration of the school’s budget. The local on a more intensive schedule with more ball, play with friends or listen to mu- culture and nature, arts and physical succeed in this respect has remained a se- ter and strengthen the links between the nongovernmental organization, Institu- hours of teaching each day for six months sic during this time; we have to ask education. It also includes a second part rious challenge in several of the projects. school, the teacher and the community. to Socioambiental (ISA), is responsible for

38 regnskogens tilstand Schools in the Rainforest 39 Chapter 10: Conclusions and lessons learned

where practical knowledge is emphasized (environmental management, production and health). This provides a significant Conclusions and lessons learned combination of theory and practice, knowing and doing. The methodology proposed in the PPP is centred on investigation, which allows people to articulate and ­enrich their knowledge of This chapter will be devoted to a summary and analysis of major lessons learned, with some the oral ­traditions of indigenous culture reflections on challenges for the future. with the discipline-based­ knowledge of written scientific tradition. This process of The overall goal of the indigenous school in traditions, history and ways of thinking. the future of these schools. Involving constructing knowledge brings together these projects is to support the continua- Recognition of this fact has proven central community members in various teaching sources of ancestral and discipline-based tion and development of indigenous culture in developing indigenous schools. Through activities and training has been shown to ways of knowing and diverse methods, and life in the rainforest. To which extent the pilot projects, it has been possible to be an excellent way of integrating the for- practices and forms of experimentation has this goal been reached? What are the follow how the strengthening and revitali- mal school into the community at large. and investigation. challenges – now, and in the future? There zation of local languages has helped to fos- are both threats and opportunities regard- ter a heightened sense of identity among Taking part in the administration of the ing the development of these schools and the indigenous people, deepening their in- school through school associations their communities. The future of the terest in their culture and traditions. strengthens community ownership. The first traditional dance performance in schools depends on regional and national Knowledge of the rights and obligations public for a generation! Performed by policies and economic development, as well Another lesson learned is that it is neces- with respect to the school legislation in- students during the first graduation as on school legislation and the teaching sary to strengthen the local languages by creases. Through this work the community ceremony at the Pamaali school in Rio and learning in the schools. expanding their use in the schools. More learns how to deal with municipal and Negro, 2004. The strong missionary texts and stories need to be written in the state education authorities and to argue presence had qualified these dances as The role of nongovernmental organisa- indigenous languages – also the class dia- and negotiate for solutions promoting a ­diabolical, but systematic effort from the tions and international cooperation ries, which are now written in Portuguese. diversified indigenous education. This is, in education project managed to change that TThe development of a differentiated and Greater use of indigenous languages also a broader sense, of utmost importance for conception. culturally specific indigenous education is defines the direction and ownership of the the struggle for other rights as well. Photo: Jan Thomas H. Odegard / RFN the result of close cooperation between projects more clearly. indigenous leaders and non-indigenous Formal and informal education Brazilians since the late 1970s. Their dedi- Bilingual/multilingual education Initially we raised the question of whether cated work and political pressure resulted Respecting, valuing and developing a bilin- the establishment of formal schooling is in criticism of the school systems and ed- gual and multilingual context is crucial in necessary in indigenous territories. Insti- ucation policies practised in Brazil, espe- promoting an indigenous education and tutionalized teaching and learning can be cially the missionary boarding system, and culture. As yet, few in the communities are seen as a threat to the informal education paved the way for an alternative school truly bilingual or multilingual. This is not and educators. The formal school may take and education that could respect the plu- only a technical skill, but requires in-depth over the responsibility for the family’s ed- ralism of culture and languages. This cultural knowledge and understanding of ucation of their children. Is it necessary to group of people represent an ‘expert team’ the different languages. Such cultural invite older people to teach in the class- of advisors to the Ministry of Education, knowledge must be based on a dual and room and thus try to merge the two? Or is which still exerts considerable influence well-integrated experience: knowledge of it better to separate formal and informal on legislation and policy in matters of in- the world outside the indigenous territories education? As yet we do not know and digenous education. International cooper- together with pride in indigenous culture, there may be several answers depending ation and financial support have been cru- languages and values. Some of the teachers on the circumstances in each village. cial for the development of the pilot who possess these qualities have been rec- However, we have seen that greater con- schools in the indigenous territories. It is ognized as leaders in their communities tact between the community and the now up to the government to develop and now serve as important models to the school and between formal and informal these schools further. This is a new chal- young people as well as to other members education appears to make members of lenge for the state and the indigenous or- of the community. the community more conscious of and en- ganizations alike. gaged in developing their language, cul- The local community and the school ture and traditions. It also helps the chil- Language and culture Community involvement in the school and dren understand that their role as pupils The indigenous languages are carriers of its administration are essential to ensure and community members are interrelated.

40 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 41 Chapter 10: Conclusions and lessons learned

Young student in Rio Negro, 1998. The education project that started with funding from Operation Day’s Work became the model for all Schools in the Rainforest. Photo: Arne Nævra / Naturfoto the 200 primary schools in the municipality in 2007. Photo: Arild Hagen.

Non-indigenous society, the community their territories, and work to defend their world, and they are caught in-between ty is challenging. The fact that teachers lenged by the younger generation of for- oversee how the school and the teacher and the school peoples’ rights and future life in the rain- opposing ways of dealing with the chal- are salaried employees also implies obliga- mally educated teachers. On the other are functioning. Contact between the indigenous commu- forest. lenges of life. tions towards municipal and state author- hand, the teachers need to comply with nity and non-indigenous society is una- ities. Teachers are expected to follow rules the traditional rules in their communities. Whether the teacher should be a man or voidable – indeed, it is necessary for the The negative influence of mainstream so- Most of the local indigenous schools pro- and regulations regarding the school that They are expected to use their salary to a woman does not seem to be an issue in survival of the indigenous school. The in- ciety on the minorities is obvious not only vide schooling for the first four years of may have a negative influence on or even the benefit of their extended family and most of the villages. More female digenous people need to know how to in terms of exploitation of natural re- primary education, but provision of grades threaten community life and indigenous to be generous with the money they ­teachers may have a positive effect on voice their opinions, to protect their rights sources but also with respect to the deval- 5 to 9 is growing. This allows children to education. ­receive. the education of girls. Although there are in meetings with non-indigenous authori- uation and destruction of indigenous val- finish primary inside the indigenous terri- very few female teachers today, there ties and also to convey information about ues and lifestyle. The term ‘cultural tories and become better prepared, should Together with health and environmental In a small village school with only one does not appear to be a general negative their lifestyle and their worries about the stress-syndrome’ has been used to de- they want to move on to secondary edu- agents, teachers belong to a new social teacher, the role and position of that attitude towards appointing female future. In Brazil, considerable ignorance scribe the crises that many indigenous cation. On the other hand, the academic class who get paid for their work. Other teacher are vulnerable. Teachers are teachers. It depends on each community remains regarding indigenous people and people experience when they move to ur- requirements from the educational au- community members who contribute to trained individually outside the communi- and its leaders, and also on the women’s their ways of living. Even the state and ban areas or remain in contact with them. thorities become more rigorous at the the development of the community are ty. Back in the village, there may be few or own attitudes, and how teaching can be municipal education authorities know lit- They find that their competence and skills higher levels. That threatens the flexible not remunerated in the same way. This none with whom they can share their combined with being a spouse and a tle about what the indigenous people are not in demand, are considered useless school calendar and the pupils’ obligations may have negative effects on the com- thoughts on teacher education, or the mother who still participates in the want and need. or are exploited. Moreover, many lack the towards their home communities. munity’s hierarchy and power structures, teaching. Creating networks of teachers ­production of food for the extended Contact between the indigenous and non- education, skills, money and knowledge to which are founded on other criteria. It and schools from neighbouring villages ­family. The lessons learned regarding be- indigenous worlds is also important for succeed in the cities. The traditional rules Role of the teacher also affects the traditional relationship has proven effective in providing a sup- ing a female teacher and the effect on the pupils, as some of them may want to and cultural customs of their own socie- The teacher’s role as a mediator between between generations, as the status and port system for the individual teachers.1 the community of having female teachers study in schools and universities outside ties do not serve them in the modern the larger society and the local communi- knowledge of the older people are chal- Formal advisory visits are also needed to should be further explored.

1 This has been done in Rio Negro after the evaluation was carried out. 2 Johannessen, E.M. (2006) Basic Education – also a question of quality.

42 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 43 Chapter 10: Conclusions and lessons learned

learning in all subjects. Drawing is a way also the parents may be consulted. effective network involving different non- of communication that cuts across lan- It is a challenge to defend and develop governmental organisations has the ad- guages, as the children learn to observe evaluation guidelines in accordance with vantage of being able to spreading ideas and to express themselves. indigenous values and not merely copy and solutions to other schools and practices from non-indigenous schools. projects through its members. Another lesson learned is that if the That said, it is also necessary to maintain teaching takes the above-mentioned val- an evaluation of the pupils’ formal school In the literature on pilot projects there is ues into account and respects each child’s achievements, so to enable the possibility an ongoing discussion regarding whether autonomy, individual learning style and of further education for those who so small and successful pilot projects should inclusion in the group, motivation for wish. be up-scaled, or whether the success may learning and concentration on the tasks be lost in the process. Some claim that the seem to increase among the pupils. Dis- Cooperation with education authorities good results stem from the fact that such ruptive behaviour in the classrooms has The success and continuation of indige- projects have been small and managea- not been reported or observed. nous education are highly dependent on ble.2 The intention behind a pilot project is cooperation with the municipal and state to try out something on a small scale be- Locally made books and education educational authorities. Among the les- fore it is applied regionally or nationally. material sons learned is that the project adminis- And indeed, there have been various dis- Material and books based on the teachers’ tration needs to spend time on lobbying, appointing examples of up-scaling, which and pupils’ own investigations have prov- and on involving indigenous organisations should not come as a surprise to anyone. en to be an important contribution to the and local politicians in this process. As a project grows, it changes, especially indigenous cultural knowledge base, to as it is applied by different people in new the active learning methods and ways of Pilot projects contexts and becomes more difficult to documenting the results. Moreover, the These four pilot projects have served as manage. process of developing these materials has examples to the local education authori- clearly increased the self-esteem of teach- ties on how to implement an indigenous The pilot projects in this book have the er and pupils alike. school according to Ministry guidelines. advantage of the philosophy of diversifi- What a diversified, bilingual, culturally cation as a goal. Although there have It is a challenge to continue to develop specific and intercultural school means been common experiences and lessons such materials, as well as to gather infor- has been specified and made concrete. The learned from the four projects and the mation on how they are being used in the results show that there is a diversity of many schools involved, it is neither schools and how they can contribute to schools within each project. A challenge in ­possible nor advisable to proclaim The the documentation of the vast store of this respect is that such diversity may be- Right Way to be slavishly copied. The les- cultural indigenous knowledge. come too wide, at the expense of what sons learned may inspire and guide others. Map of the natural resources around the Yudja village in Xingu, drawn by the teachers and students. Photo: Eva M. Johannessen they have in common. Pupil evaluation Each community will have to start by The way the pupils are evaluated must be The experiences gained over the years ­defining the goals, values and wishes for Teacher education tion includes themes that are relevant for fosters deep concentration and a love for in line with basic values of the communi- have been accumulated and are being education in the village in question. In Continuous education and follow-up of the present and future life of the local learning. ty. It should be process oriented towards shared and discussed in fora like RCA, that way, they may move on to define and teachers is necessary, from the beginning communities, and that it remains in close including academic and practical knowl- Rede de Cooperação Alternativa, a net- prepare their own diversified, culturally and onwards. The teachers in these four contact with indigenous values and ways Another basic value is to look at each in- edge as well as the child’s general behav- work for all the nongovernmental organi- specific, bilingual and intercultural school projects still require considerable training. of preparing children for adult life. dividual pupil according to his or her ca- iour. In this type of evaluation process, zations receiving support from RFN. An within their cultural context. Follow-up on the spot has to be arranged pacity, potential and behaviour in differ- in an efficient and regular manner. It re- Teaching and learning ent settings: at school, at home and in the mains to be seen if and how the govern- The qualities of the learning climate that community. Theory is not valued over ment will take full responsibility for this distinguish indigenous education from practical skills or personal behaviour. A aspect of teacher education. non-indigenous schools need to be high- third value is to teach the children that lighted. This type of education is founded they are dependent on one another, and It takes time to develop an appropriate on core values based on respect for the not exclude or discourage those who learn About the author: system of teacher education, since the autonomy of each child, and the right to at a slower pace. contents, methods and ways of evaluation be different. The children’s autonomy is Eva Marion Johannessen is an educational psychologist with a doctorate in special education. She is a former associate cannot simply be copied from non-indige- respected when they are allowed to work Regarding methods of instruction, it is a professor at the Institute for Special Education, the University of Oslo. Today she works as an independent researcher, nous academic institutions. It is a chal- at their own pace, and continue until challenge to explore how to continue and consultant and writer. lenge to ensure that the teacher educa- they have finished. This way of working develop drawing as a way of teaching and

44 Schools in the Rainforest regnskogens tilstand 45 The Rainforest Foundation Norway » Rainforest Foundation Norway advocates a rights- based approach to rainforest protection. We believe that the peoples who for generations have developed their cultures and societies in balanced interaction Tropical forest: with the highly complex yet vulnerable eco­systems of Present the rainforest have fundamental rights to these areas. Original

Legal recognition of the collective territorial and cul- tural rights of forest-based peoples and commu­nities » Malaysia is crucial to the fulfilment of their human rights. It is » Ecuador » also a major prerequisite for protecting the rainforest. DR Congo » Indonesia

» Peru » Brazil » Papua New Guinea » Bolivia » Paraguay

The Amazon Central Africa Southeast Asia and Oceania

Deforestation continues at a rapid rate in the Amazon. Rainforest Foundation Norway works closely with environ­ Rainforest Foundation Norway started working in The human rights of indigenous peoples are regularly mental and indigenous organizations in the Democratic Southeast Asia and Oceania in 1997, and has since devel­ violated, and the last remaining groups of indigenous Republic of Congo to promote forest-dependent peoples’ oped a range of projects together with local organiza­ peoples living in voluntary isolation are now threatened access and rights to land, and ensure sustainable, commu­ tions. Our work focuses on sustainable forest manage­ with extinction. nity-based management of the rainforest. ment and securing land rights for forest-based peoples. In this work we join with dedicated organizations that Since 1989 Rainforest Foundation Norway has developed Rainforest Foundation Norway, in cooperation with maintain close relationships to communities in danger of close partnerships with a broad network of local organiza­ Rainforest Foundation UK, supports advocacy work by losing their traditional lands and livelihoods if deforesta­ tions throughout the Amazon, including many indigenous local groups. This work seeks to achieve a policy shift – tion continues at the same rate as today. organizations. Together with these partners we run pro­ away from industrial logging as the cornerstone of nation­ jects in bilingual education, management of indigenous al forest policy, promoted and financed by the World Bank, Rainforest Foundation Norway supports legal action territories and improvement of forest laws and indigenous towards a policy that combats poverty through sustain­ against logging companies and campaigns to introduce peoples’ rights. able, rights-based forest management. logging moratoria. We work to help forest peoples obtain exclusive user rights to their traditional lands. Through Our experience has shown that the most effective way to The Rainforest Foundation supports forest-dependent capacity building, alternative education, para-legal train­ protect the Amazon rainforest is by securing the territorial peoples in mapping their traditional forest uses in order ing and by supporting traditional expressions rights of its indigenous peoples. Rainforest Foundation to document their traditional rights and of culture, Rainforest Foundation Norway works to establish new indigenous territories and strengthen their advocacy work towards local Norway seeks to strengthen to protect existing ones. The strengthening of indigenous authorities. the role of forest peoples in organizations is an important part of this activity. Our pro­jects focus on areas protecting their home where forest-dependent territories against In Peru we work to protect the right of isolated indig­ peoples are threatened by destruction. enous groups to maintain their traditional way of life and logging interests, preserve their cultural integrity – which in turn means by non-participatory protecting the forests they inhabit. We also support the conservation poli­ fight against exploitation of natural resources in cies and by large- www.rainforest.no indigenous territories. scale development ­projects.

46 Schools in the Rainforest Schools in the Rainforest 47 “SOLIDS – LIQUIDS – GASES”. Studying the physical elements in Portuguese and the Kuikuro indigenous language in Xingu, 2004. Photo: Eva M. Johannesen.

“The schools in the Amazon rainfor- est represent something unique. They ­offer an education that is closely linked to the needs of the community and to the culture and traditions of local people.”