Regional Cooperation and Environmental Issues in Northeast Asia An IGCC study commissioned for the Northeast Asia Cooperation Dialogue La Jolla, California, 8–9 October 1993 Peter Hayes • Lyuba Zarsky Policy Paper 5 October 1993 Copyright © 1993 by the Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainable Development. Reprinted by permission. CONTENTS Regional Environmental Issues ...................................................................................................1 Transfrontier Air Pollution....................................................................................................2 Marine Pollution...................................................................................................................5 Migratory Animals—Fish......................................................................................................8 Regional Economic Integration, Trade, and Environment .....................................................9 Regional Environmental Management Regimes ........................................................................13 Northwest Pacitic Action Plan (NOWPAP)..........................................................................13 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC/WESTPAC)......................................14 Northeast Asian Environment Program (ESCAP/UNDP) ....................................................14 Subregional Technical Cooperation and Development Program (UNDP) ...........................16 REGIONAL COOPERATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN NORTHEAST ASIA by Peter Hayes and Lyuba Zarsky n this paper, we describe the rapidly emerging agenda for regional collaboration on environmental issues in Northeast Asia. In Part One, we describe briefly some of the Imajor transfrontier or regional environmental issues in Northeast Asia that represent a menu of opportunities for cooperation (and potential conflict) between states. These is- sues include transfrontier air pollution (acid rain only), marine pollution (radionuclides and oil only), migratory species (fish only), and trade-environment linkages related to increasing regional economic integration. In Part Two, we examine the emerging and somewhat overlapping regional environ- mental management regimes. These include UNEP’s Northwest Pacific Action Plan or NOWPAP, the IOC WESTPAC, the ESCAP/UNDP Northeast Asian Environment Pro- gram, and the UNDP Subregional Technical Cooperation and Development Program. Regional Environmental Issues In this section, we present brief profiles of critical environmental issues that are ame- nable to regional cooperation. These are • Transfrontier air pollution (acid rain only) • Marine pollution (radionuclides and oil only) • Migratory animals (fish only) • Trade-environment linkages (including forestry) 2 • HAYES AND ZARSKY Transfrontier Air Pollution Many scientists believe that the Korean peninsula and Japan suffer from transfrontier Transfrontier air pollution at a regional level acid rain originating upwind from Manchurian in Northeast Asia refers primarily to the “rou- China. Some have also noted that Mongolia may tine” atmospheric transport and deposition of receive acid rain originating over its northwest- particulate matter emitted mostly in the course of 1 ern border with Russia. Depending on the time energy production, known as “acid rain.” of year, some countries may be originators and High levels of sulfur emissions from coal- recipients of acid rain, especially North Korea. burning power plants and factories in China, The precise scale and impact of transfrontier North Korea, and elsewhere in the region are the acid rain deposition remains unclear, in part due main sources of acid rain. One study of China’s to the lack of monitoring stations and ecological largest coal-fired power plant showed that sulfur studies. China itself has noted the possibility that dioxide concentrations frequently exceed the acid rain may be transmitted long distances and state’s permissible releases because the coal that 3 2 that it has seriously affected areas of China. In is burned contains more than two percent sulfur. Figure 1, the relative density of total annual However, even low sulfur coals can result in emissions of about 16 million tonnes of sulfur absolutely and relatively high levels of sulfur dioxide emissions, by province, is shown for dioxide emissions when the coal is burned in 1980.4 In the area adjacent to the Yellow Sea, inefficient plants. This acid rain may decrease Chinese industry has been estimated to emit biomass productivity and thereby reduce its car- about 700,000 tonnes of sulfur dioxide per year, bon uptake, and it may degrade existing forests some of which could be transported across the (thereby causing the recipient country’s carbon Yellow Sea to Korea by the predominantly emissions to increase). northwesterly winds.5 In winter (January), the air flows are gener- ally from the Asian land mass to the ocean, while 1Transfrontier atmospheric radioactive contamination from accidents at nuclear power plants or elsewhere in in summer (July), the opposite is the case. The the nuclear fuel cycle is the subject of global conven- Asian Development Bank has mapped the likely tions established in the aftermath of the Chernobyl geographical distribution of acid rain by using disaster. Some states also have bilateral nuclear reac- regional sulfur dioxide emissions and regional tor emergency response agreements (South Korea and atmospheric circulation as proxies to suggest Japan) or bilateral nuclear decommissioning agree- where acid rain may occur (see Figure 2). Acid ments (Russia and Japan). It is known, for example, conditions (that is, low pH values such as 4.5) that four small Chernobyl-style reactors in the Russian occur in Japan and southern China; elsewhere, Far East operate without adequate regulatory guid- pH values are much higher.6 ance. These reactors are known as GBWR-l12, Model EGD-6, and are graphite-moderated boiling water reactors used for heat and power production. Each 3 People’s Republic of China, “National Report of the reactor is 11 MW and uses fuel enriched to 3-3.6 per- People’s Republic of China on Environment and De- cent uranium. They are located at Bilibino. The State velopment,” report to the U.N. Conference on Envi- of Alaska recently sent a delegation to Russia to in- ronment and Development (translation), August 1991, vestigate this situation. Many local governments are 30. working with MINATOM to promote new nuclear 4 J. Sinton et al., China Energy Databook, Lawrence reactors in the Russian Far East. We note here the Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-32822. Rev. 2, UC-350, atmospheric dimension of this issue, but do not ex- June 1993, VII-8. pand on the possibility that a regional approach may 5 M. Valencia, Chen Lisheng, Chen Zhisong, “Yellow be the appropriate way to respond to it. See Associated Sea Marine and Air Pollution: Status, Projections, Press, “Gates Warns of Contamination in Former So- Transnational Dimensions and Possibilities of Coop- viet Union,” Washington Post, 17 August 1992, A7; eration,” mimeo, East-West Center, Honolulu, Febru- W. Potter, “The Future of Nuclear Power in the Rus- ary 5, 1991, 5. sian Far East,” paper presented to the Conference on 6 Note that this map does not include the sulfur U.S.-Japanese Cooperation in the Development of dioxide emissions of North Korea nor Russia. North Siberia and the Russian Far East, Monterey, Califor- Korean sulfur dioxide emissions have been estimated nia, 22 July 1993. at about 15.6 million tonnes per year arising from the 2 Fang Dong, Xu Feng-Gang, and Qui Da-Xiong, burning of about 78 million tonnes of coal per year in “Shentou Thermal Power Station: China,” in Hills and power plants. Environmental Resources Ltd, “Draft K. V. Ramani, eds., Energy Systems and the Environ- National Report: Democratic People’s Republic of ment (Kuala Lumpur: Asia and Pacific Development Korea,” U.N. Conference on Environment and Devel- Centre, 1990), 146. opment, September 1991, 57. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN NORTHEAST ASIA • 3 Figure 1. China’s Sulfur Dioxide Emissions, 1989 Source: J. Sinton et al., China Energy Databook, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-32822. Rev. 2, UC- 350, June 1993, VII-9. Fortunately, the problem is amenable to Institute of Environmental Studies in Japan has technological controls at the source, at a cost. A convened a number of regional workshops on modern power plant with glue-gas desulfuriza- acid rain. (The last one was held 27–29 January tion equipment can remove more than 90 percent 1993, in Tsukuba City to estimate an inventory of the emissions with ease. of pollution and determine regional monitoring Also, countries in the region are moving to protocols for acid rain, especially for SOx and establish the requisite monitoring of acid rain NOx.) Much remains to be done in terms of es- deposition. South Korea, for example, maintains tablishing common monitoring methodologies, a network of 65 acid rain monitoring sites and is comprehensive baseline monitoring, and eco- opening new sites on the southwest coast and on system impact studies. Cheju Island in the near future.7 The National 7 The key South Korean institutions involved are the Forestry Research Institute; the National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) of the Ministry of Environment; the Applied Meteorology Research Department of Atmospheric Physics at Yonsei Univer- Laboratory in the Bureau of Meteorology; and the sity. 4 • HAYES AND ZARSKY Figure 2. Acid Rain Distribution in