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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress

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Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress Updated September 23, 2021 Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov R41153 Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress Summary The diminishment of Arctic sea ice has led to increased human activities in the Arctic, and has heightened interest in, and concerns about, the region’s future. The United States, by virtue of Alaska, is an Arctic country and has substantial interests in the region. The seven other Arctic states are Canada, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark (by virtue of Greenland), and Russia. The Arctic Research and Policy Act (ARPA) of 1984 (Title I of P.L. 98-373 of July 31, 1984) “provide[s] for a comprehensive national policy dealing with national research needs and objectives in the Arctic.” The National Science Foundation (NSF) is the lead federal agency for implementing Arctic research policy. The Arctic Council, created in 1996, is the leading international forum for addressing issues relating to the Arctic. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) sets forth a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world’s oceans, including the Arctic Ocean. The United States is not a party to UNCLOS. Record low extents of Arctic sea ice over the past decade have focused scientific and policy attention on links to global climate change and projected ice-free seasons in the Arctic within decades. These changes have potential consequences for weather in the United States, access to mineral and biological resources in the Arctic, the economies and cultures of peoples in the region, and national security. The geopolitical environment for the Arctic has been substantially affected by the renewal of great power competition. Although there continues to be significant international cooperation on Arctic issues, the Arctic is increasingly viewed as an arena for geopolitical competition among the United States, Russia, and China. The Department of Defense (DOD) and the Coast Guard are devoting increased attention to the Arctic in their planning and operations. Whether DOD and the Coast Guard are devoting sufficient resources to the Arctic and taking sufficient actions for defending U.S. interests in the region has emerged as a topic of congressional oversight. The Coast Guard has two operational polar icebreakers and has received funding for the procurement of two of at least three planned new polar icebreakers. The diminishment of Arctic ice could lead in coming years to increased commercial shipping on two trans-Arctic sea routes—the Northern Sea Route close to Russia, and the Northwest Passage close to Alaska and through the Canadian archipelago—though the rate of increase in the use of these routes might not be as great as sometimes anticipated in press accounts. International guidelines for ships operating in Arctic waters have been recently updated. Changes to the Arctic brought about by warming temperatures will likely allow more exploration for oil, gas, and minerals. Warming that causes permafrost to melt could pose challenges to onshore exploration activities. Increased oil and gas exploration and tourism (cruise ships) in the Arctic increase the risk of pollution in the region. Cleaning up oil spills in ice-covered waters will be more difficult than in other areas, primarily because effective strategies for cleaning up oil spills in ice-covered waters have yet to be developed. Large commercial fisheries exist in the Arctic. The United States is working with other countries regarding the management of Arctic fish stocks. Changes in the Arctic could affect threatened and endangered species, and could result in migration of fish stocks to new waters. Under the Endangered Species Act, the polar bear was listed as threatened on May 15, 2008. Arctic climate change is also expected to affect the economies, health, and cultures of Arctic indigenous peoples. Congressional Research Service Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Background.................................................................................................................... 1 Definitions of Arctic .................................................................................................. 1 Arctic Circle Definition ......................................................................................... 1 Definition in Arctic Research and Policy Act (ARPA) of 1984..................................... 2 Other Definitions ................................................................................................. 2 Population of Arctic ................................................................................................... 3 Eight Arctic States, Including Five Arctic Coastal States.................................................. 5 U.S. Identity as an Arctic Nation .................................................................................. 5 U.S. Arctic Research .................................................................................................. 6 Arctic Research and Policy Act (ARPA) of 1984, As Amended.................................... 6 FY2021 NSF Budget Request for Arctic Research ..................................................... 6 Major U.S. Policy Documents Relating to Arctic ............................................................ 7 Overview ............................................................................................................ 7 Specific Documents .............................................................................................. 7 U.S. Coordinator for Arctic Region .............................................................................. 9 Arctic Council........................................................................................................... 9 Arctic and U.N. Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) ........................................... 10 House and Senate Arctic Member Organizations .......................................................... 11 Issues for Congress ....................................................................................................... 12 Climate Change and Loss of Arctic Sea Ice.................................................................. 12 Geopolitical Environment ......................................................................................... 15 Renewed Great Power Competition....................................................................... 15 Arctic Governance.............................................................................................. 18 Relative Priority of Arctic in U.S. Policymaking ..................................................... 20 U.S., Canadian, and Nordic Relations with Russia in the Arctic ................................. 21 NATO and European Union in the Arctic ............................................................... 25 China in the Arctic.............................................................................................. 28 Extended Continental Shelf Submissions, Territorial Disputes, Sovereignty Issues ....... 37 U.S. Military Forces and Operations ........................................................................... 37 Overview .......................................................................................................... 37 Navy and Coast Guard ........................................................................................ 47 Polar Icebreaking..................................................................................................... 49 Polar Icebreaker Operations and Current Polar Icebreaker Fleet................................. 49 Polar Security Cutter (PSC) Program..................................................................... 50 Search and Rescue (SAR) ......................................................................................... 51 Overview .......................................................................................................... 51 May 2011 Arctic Council Agreement on Arctic SAR................................................ 53 Commercial Sea Transportation ................................................................................. 55 Background ....................................................................................................... 55 Destination Traffic, Not Trans-Arctic Traffic .......................................................... 56 Unpredictable Ice Conditions Hinder Trans-Arctic Shipping ..................................... 57 Basic Navigation Infrastructure Is Lacking ............................................................. 58 Regulation of Arctic Shipping .............................................................................. 59 New Arctic Polar Code........................................................................................ 59 Oil, Gas, and Mineral Exploration .............................................................................. 60 Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration ......................................................................... 60 Congressional Research Service Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress Extent of the Continental Margin .......................................................................... 64 Onshore Energy and Mineral Development ...........................................................
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