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Arthur Bernstein Liverpool Institute for the Performing Arts, UK Naoki Sekine Epic Records Japan, Inc. Dick Weissman University of Colorado - Denver, Emeritus Routledge Routledge Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group 270 Madison Avenue 2 Park Square New York, NY 10016 Milton Park, Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bernstein, Arthur. The global music industry : three perspectives / Arthur Bernstein, Naoki Sekine, Richard Weissman. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-415-97579-7 -- ISBN 978-0-415-97580-3 1. Music trade. I. Sekine, Naoki. II. Weissman, Dick. III. Title.

ML3790.B39 2007 338.4’778--dc22 2006039004

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the Routledge Web site at http://www.routledge.com CONTENTS

About the Authors vii

1Introduction1

2 The Music Business in the United States 15

3 The Music Business in Canada 65

4 The Music Business in Latin America and the Caribbean 75

5 The Music Business in Africa 97

6 The Music Business in Europe 113

7 The Music Business in Asia 199

Conclusion: Loose Ends, Final Thoughts, and the Future 265

Index 271 This Page intentionally left blank ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Arthur Bernstein is American born but has lived in Europe since 1976. A professional musician, he has worked as a guitarist and bassist in the United States and Europe playing pop, rock, jazz, blues, folk, country, and show music on guitar and bass. In 1978 he cofounded the “L’Aula de Música” in Barcelona, Spain. This was the first private music school of its type in Spain, with a curriculum focusing on contemporary pop music. In 1995 Bernstein was appointed head of music by the newly founded Liver- pool Institute for Performing Arts (LIPA) in Liverpool, United Kingdom. LIPA is an innovative, world-class, university-level arts institution, whose lead patron is Sir Paul McCartney. An active international education con- sultant, he has been an adviser to industry and government bodies such as the European Music Offce and the European Commission on matters relating to music, training youth, and the music industry. He is a found- ing member and vice president of the Brussels-based European Modern Music Education Network. Naoki Sekine is Japanese but studied music business at New York University. He works for Epic Records Japan, Inc., and is a company liai- son to ten Asian countries, including China, India, and South Korea. In this capacity, he is deeply involved with contemporary music styles in Asia in a company that has a worldwide presence. He has written an extensive paper on the Asian music industry for the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). He can be reached at [email protected]. Dick Weissman has an extensive background in studio work, record production, songwriting, and music business education. He was a mem- ber of the folk-pop group The Journeymen and has also recorded numer- ous solo instrumental albums. He has worked in the industry in New York and Los Angeles and is probably the most published American author writing about the music industry. This is his twelfth book on music and the music industry. His Web site is www.dickweissman.com. This Page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 1

Introduction

It is a bit of a mystery to us why there is currently no book available that deals with the music industry as a global phe- nomenon. There are several dozen books about the American music industry and a half dozen on the music business in England, and a recent volume deals with the Australian music business. The groundbreaking bookBig Sounds from Little Peo- ple: The Music Business in the Third World by Krister Malm and Ralph Wallis deals with the music industry in the third world. The book is now twenty years old, and no one has followed up this work, other than the same authors, who published a much less ambitious volume several years later. There are a dozen or so generally academic books that discuss the relationship between music and politics. Many of these books are fascinat- ing, dealing with such matters as the underground transmis- sion of rock and roll in communist countries, but they seldom are very specific about the business aspects of the industry. We included the subtitle “Three Perspectives” because we not only cover different areas of the world but truly do have three different perspectives. We have each written according to our own style, with our own voice. It is interesting to note that our writing styles depict something of the music industry. The more informal tone in the chapters regarding the United States is, in fact, indicative of the more casual business envi- ronment, whereas the presentation of material in the chapters regarding Asia and Europe properly suggests more formal work relationships. 2 The Global Music Industry

At the time of publication we are in the middle of the first decade of the twenty-first century. The record business really dates back to the early twentieth century, so it is only a hundred years old. During this time many profound changes have taken place. From a technological stand- point we have moved from cylinders to 78-RPM records, the long-play- ing record, eight-track tapes, cassettes, the aborted compact cassettes, the compact disc, enhanced compact disc, CD-ROMs, DVDs, and two-sided CDs that contain a CD side and a DVD side. Along the way we have graduated from “direct to disk recording” to the use of analog tape and various digital formats, such as A DAT tapes and Pro Tools. Many early recordings were done on location, wherever the artists were living, rather than in recording studios as such. These set- tings ranged from folkloristic recordings done in prisons, at work sites, or in people’s homes to rented hotel rooms and radio stations. By the 1930s many record companies had built expensive and large studios and used those facilities to record their artists. Although field recordings continued to be done by folklorists, and still are, in most instances record companies preferred to use their own stationary facilities. Prior to the introduction of multitrack recording, all recording sessions were done live, with singers and musicians working at the same time. The master recording was made direct to disk, and a simple mistake, such as an incorrect bass note, could require a large orchestra to record the same material over and over again. Multitrack recording began during the 1950s, pioneered by guitarist Les Paul and Mitch Miller. It was initially done by recording a piece over and over on different machines in a process called overdubbing, and as the number of available tracks proliferated, parts were recorded, often sepa- rately, on a single multitrack machine. By the time sixteen and twenty- four tracks had become available, artists were essentially compelled to use expensive urban facilities that were either owned by the companies or rented by them. Because of this high-level technology, most of these stu- dios were located in such large cities as New York, London, Paris, Tokyo, and Los Angeles. When rock and roll became an important part of the record business, musical accuracy was often sacrificed to powerful rhythms and perfor- mances that focused on emotion rather than on technical musical excel- Introduction 3 lence. Of course in popular music this had always been the case to some extent, but it was accentuated in rock-and-roll records. In the early Elvis Presley records, for example, the musical content of the recordings is gen- erally simple, but the energy and emotion communicated are profound. As a consequence the music began to be recorded in places such as Mem- phis or New Orleans, cities large enough to have recording facilities but far from the headquarters of the major record companies. Initially rock and roll was primarily an American phenomenon, but the British bands, notably the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and Led Zeppelin, quickly con- verted what was a phenomenon based on a marriage of American roots music styles into what by now is a worldwide vocabulary. By the end of the 1960s the smaller early American music centers had declined, and the American music business was headquartered in New York and Los Angeles, with the relatively new country music center of Nashville on the rise. Although many British rock-and-roll bands came from such cities as Liverpool and Newcastle, in England the London stu- dios prevailed. In India the music scene became, and to a large extent remains, connected with the “Bollywood” movie industry, which centers in Mumbai (Bombay). Each country or area of the world has its own indigenous musical styles and tastes. One of the many revolutionary aspects of the Beatles’ music was that they brought Indian music to worldwide attention. The Rolling Stones and Led Zeppelin also plowed this ground, integrating Middle Eastern and North African music styles into their music. At the same time some new pop music styles arose and spread far beyond their origins. Reg- gae, born in Jamaica, was one example. One man, Chris Blackwell, was largely responsible for the spread of the music, turning Jimmy Cliff and, even more notable, Bob Marley into worldwide superstars. Many of the sidebars of rock and roll, such as art rock and punk rock, owe their origins to British rock bands. Salsa is a musical style that arose in New York and resulted from the large Puerto Rican and Cuban exodus to New York City and Miami. Heavy metal music developed in New York and Lon- don, and Bhangra rock is a musical style that fused rock-and-roll music with Indian musical idioms. It is particularly popular in London and has been exported to India. Bhangra is also partly a function of the large-scale 4 The Global Music Industry immigration from India and Pakistan to England. Dance music has been particularly popular in Germany, and Europe in general has been active in the electronic pop music, which is synthesizer driven. African American musical styles became increasingly important not only in the United States but also internationally. Among these styles were rhythm and blues, which evolved out of a combination of folk-blues and band styles, followed by soul music, which added gospel music vocal styl- ings to the mix. During the 1980s rap music began to emerge as an impor- tant musical style, which remains today. Rap music has developed in many seemingly unlikely places. In North America there are American Indian rap groups, Chicano rap groups, and even Chinese rappers. Of course foreign-language rappers have appeared in various parts of the world. Experiments in integrating the music of different cultures into pop music were occurring as early as the Weavers’ folk-pop recordings of the early 1950s, notably the South African song “Wimoweh,” a hit recording not only in their version but also in a slightly rewritten American version called “The Lion Sleeps Tonight.” Paul Simon’sGraceland album of 1986 integrated South African music into American pop, with worldwide suc- cess and repercussions. Peter Gabriel and David Byrne each started record labels devoted to world music styles, and world music assumed a place in record bins and record-company advertising. It has never been entirely clear what world music is; as publicized it appears to involve integrating the music of various cultures into a pop framework, so that musicians from different cultures play their musical styles together. Musical styles that were once restricted to a particular area and culture, such as Hawai- ian slack-key guitar, become combined with other musical styles in a way that might have been regarded as unimaginable twenty years ago. Ameri- can musicians such as Bob Brozman, Ry Cooder, Corey Harris, Henry Kaiser, Taj Mahal, and David Lindley have played with musicians from Africa, Norway, Hawaii, and India. The emergence of musical hybrids is a never-ending process, and the latest flavor is reggaeton, a Panama-originated fusion of reggae, Jamai- can dancehall, American rap, and varied helpings of other Latin rhythm patterns. Introduction 5

Music and Censorship

In some instances the migration of musical styles had roots in political situations. For example, the Algerian rai music scene grew and developed in Paris, which has a large Algerian population. The music was heavily discouraged by the Algerian government, because Algeria is a fundamen- talist Muslim country that considered rai to be suspect and tinged with immoral sentiments. African music also frequently included political sentiments that dis- pleased many of the local governments. The music and lifestyle of Afro- pop artist Fela Kuti proved troublesome to the Nigerian government. They invaded his communal compound, incensed at his open political opposition to the government and his offbeat lifestyle of polygamy and open drug use. South Africa had its own system of musical censorship, and the government refused to play music that even suggested any opposi- tion to apartheid, prior to the current political leadership of Nelson Man- dela. Some musicians, such as Hugh Masakela, went into voluntary or forced exile in the United States or England. A similar situation prevailed in Chile, where singer–songwriter Victor Jara was murdered by the fascist Pinochet regime, and the group Quilipa- yun fled to Paris. Brazil also undertook musical censorship, and Gilberto Gil and Caetano Veloso were exiled in England for several years in the late 1960s. At various times musicians in the United States have also had their bouts with censorship. During the McCarthy period of the 1950s, musi- cians suspected of connections to the Communist Party were banned from television, through the efforts of a magazine called Red Channels. The Weavers lost their recording contract with Decca, had their records taken off the radio, and were picketed in live performances for their alleged radical ties. Two members of the group were threatened with prison after appearances before the House Un-American Activities Committee, and the group’s career was effectively diminished if not demolished. In more recent years American censorship has revolved around so- called moral issues, the use of four-letter words, and misogynist records advocating violence against women or the use of drugs. A women-led 6 The Global Music Industry parental music group, the Parents’ Music Resource Center (PRMC), advocated putting stickers on records that use sexually charged words. Some of the early political rap artists were censored on political grounds, notably artist Ice-T for his song “Cop Killer,” which created a storm of protest among police officers and led to the artist’s losing his contract with Warner Brothers. In some other countries, notably Singapore, the government strongly controls what sort of music is played on the radio. American readers need to understand that in most countries of the world, radio is controlled by the government, so this sort of control is much easier to exercise there than it is in the United States, with its thousands of radio stations. Chinese media are under tight government control, and music clips played on TV must be approved for broadcasting. Korean media, because of the histori- cal conflict between Korea and Japan, are still reluctant to play Japanese music on radio and TV, although broadcasting J-pop is not prohibited in the Korean market. Malaysia and other countries that have even a modest number of Islamic people try to limit the broadcasting of video clips that show men smoking cigarettes or women in bikini swimsuits. Another example of censorship is the fines levied against a French rap group for slandering the police. In Cuba the government controls the music scene because it offers employment and even a comparative amount of economic security to musicians by controlling where and under what terms musicians can work.

Government Encouragement of Local Music

In a number of countries the government has taken steps to promote the national music industry. There are two fundamental approaches that gov- ernments have taken. One approach is to make some sort of investment in the field of popular music, and the other approach is to exercise some control over what is played on the radio. In England, for example, the government uses music as a training tool for unemployed youth as a way of combating unemployment. In Canada the government realized that American records were flooding the Canadian airwaves, so they instituted the Canadian Content Laws. These rules required radio stations to give Introduction 7

35 percent of their airtime to Canadian records. These recordings were defined as having two of three Canadian elements: songwriters, producers of the record, and artists. France requires a certain percentage of program- ming that is in the French language. This is an attempt to combat the prevailing use of English as the language of pop music. New Zealand has also taken steps to encourage local music on the radio. Former South Korean president Kim Dae Jung announced in 2001 that Korean entertainment should be developed to compete in the world market. The government then established a budget for developing and exploiting Korean local music, as well as movie and drama. Thanks to this fund, Korean music has been gaining in popularity in Asia, and thanks to the increasing quality of the music, the Korean music industry sells more locally produced repertoire than music imported from other countries.

Business Consolidation and Mergers

There have always been a few large record companies that dominated the production and distribution of records. Independent companies have peri- odically arisen in various countries that reflect cutting-edge musical styles that originated in these countries. Starting in the 1980s many of these independent labels were purchased or absorbed by the large multinational record companies. By the 1990s these companies began to affiliate with one another. At the present writing there are only four large companies that are left. The 1990s and early 2000s saw the demise of such large independent labels as A&M, Chrysalis, Virgin, and Zomba Records. The ownership patterns of the companies also became transformed at the same time. The bulk of the large companies—Columbia, Decca, and then MCA, RCA, and Warner Brothers—were American owned. Only Capi- tol, a subsidiary of British-owned EMI, was not an American-owned com- pany. Columbia was subsequently bought by Sony of Japan, MCA was acquired by Vivendi, and RCA was bought by the German Bertlesmann Music Group. RCA and Sony are in effect one company, operating under a joint ownership agreement. Universal, the successor of MCA, swallowed up many companies. It is currently owned by what was originally a French sewer and water exploration company, Vivendi. Warner Brothers is the 8 The Global Music Industry only American-owned company left of the major labels. For several years now it has been anticipated that Warner Brothers and EMI will merge, and as we conclude this book in the summer of 2006, each company has offered to buy the other one. So far neither one has accepted the other one’s offer. Vivendi and Sony BMG are so much larger than the others that this merger seems to be a natural outcome of all of this merger mania. The future of BMG is also cloudy, and there have been numerous conflicts between BMG and Sony over how the joint venture should be operated. BMG is in the process of selling off its music publishing operation, and it is conceivable that it will eventually divest itself of the record company as well. A Korean IT company recently purchased more than 50 percent of a local Korean record company. The Korean music industry is by far the world’s leading market in digital music distribution. In 2004 nonpack- aged sales exceeded package sales by 60 percent. Given the growth of the market, further Korean acquisitions appear likely.

Changes in Record-Company Operations

Record companies have been hard hit by two technological develop- ments. One is outright piracy—the illegal duplication of recordings. In certain parts of the world, notably China, there is virtually no legitimate music business. The moment a new pop recording is issued, it is illegally duplicated, down to the original album cover. There are several African countries where the multinationals have closed offices because it is literally impossible for them to do business in such an environment. The other threat to record companies is the use of file sharing on com- puters. Millions of music fans all over the world have become used to getting their music from various file-sharing services that do not charge the consumer for music. The American record manufacturers’ organiza- tion, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), has sued individuals and companies, such as Grokster, that make music available without charge. The notion of going after individual users of these sys- tems is obviously inefficient and time-consuming. A recent decision by the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that the services are liable for the illegal Introduction 9 transmission of music, and we can expect that the RIAA will be tak- ing action against them. This in turn has led to many debates about the future of copyright and the right to use the Internet freely. We will take up some of these issues later in this book. The most recent data, revealed by Big Champagne, a company that monitors file sharing on the Internet, indicate that the RIAA’s various legal challenges have not in fact reduced illegal downloading of recordings. The consolidation that we have described is not limited to record com- panies. The world’s two largest publishers, EMI and Warner Chappell, control hundreds of thousands of copyrights. Over the years each com- pany has acquired numerous publishing catalogs that originally belonged to other companies. Even in the business of printing sheet music, there are only a handful of companies that control most of the written music pub- lished in the world. Alfred Music, an independent music print publishing operation, recently acquired the print division of Warner Chappell, and Hal Leonard and Music Sales have gobbled up various music publishing companies over the past ten years. As is the case with record companies, there are few independents of any consequence left. All of these compa- nies sell sheet music around the world.

The Effects of Consolidation

When record companies consolidate their operations, many employees lose their jobs. Record companies often combine the sales and promotion departments of each label into one group. On the face of it this appears to be an efficient and cost-effective move, but sometimes it has negative effects on the operation of the new company. Because of cuts made in pro- motion departments, the latest trend is for personal managers to assume some of the traditional record-company functions of promoting records. The market for music has become increasingly fragmented and driven by niche marketing, so sometimes the larger companies are not effective in promoting music styles. The multinationals have recognized this problem in several ways. One is to operate independent record distribution net- works that exist outside of the company’s regular distribution network (the multinationals all own their own distribution). Often the large company 10 The Global Music Industry simply buys into an existing distribution company and will even funnel some of its own records through it. For example, Sony recognizes that Caroline, which it partly owns, is better equipped to distribute alternative rock music than the mother label is. There are several other strategies that the majors have employed. One is to become involved in the ownership of independent labels. Warner Brothers bought a stake in Sub Pop, the label that was the pioneer in the marketing of the Seattle sound. It then bought the rest of the company but retained its Seattle headquarters. Another ploy is for record compa- nies to go into business with an artist or producer and to give that person their own imprint. In such instances the large company usually finances the label and offers promotion, manufacturing, and distribution help. Madonna’s Maverick Records was an example of such an alliance. Mav- erick had great early success through the recordings of Alanis Morissette, but eventually Warner Brothers bought her out of the label after a series of disagreements. There are a number of instances where the labels discover successful artists but do not always have the business acumen to operate a label or make commercially valid choices of the artists that they sign. The other method used by the majors is called upstreaming. In upstream deals the major picks up recordings from an independent label, either based on a specified sales figure or through some sort of option deal. Upstream deals provide an independent label with better promotion and financing. In return the major gets cut in on the profits. This follows a fairly common attitude of the large labels. They often prefer to let the independent stake a risk on new musical styles or controversial artists, stepping in only when these artists become proven sellers. An interesting change has been taking place in the way that major labels operate their businesses. During the 1970s and 1980s record compa- nies acquired more and more music-related businesses. Columbia Records owned Steinway Pianos and Fender Guitars for a time, as well as the New York Yankees baseball team. All of the major labels owned record-pressing plants, and many of them, such as Polygram and RCA, were active in the electronics business, and RCA was involved with the defense industry. Record companies were also involved in the ownership of radio networks, all of which have now been liquidated. A similar situation occurred with Introduction 11 cable television. Some multinationals were also involved in the film busi- ness, but Sony is the only company still active in this area. Bertlesmann is the largest book publisher in Western Europe and also owns Random House. Current unsubstantiated rumors indicate that the Random House operation may be sold off from the rest of the operation. The current trend is for the majors to sell off many of these assets. They are doing this because they want to get cash for their assets and because they are discovering that operating multiple businesses under the same managerial umbrella is sometimes a distraction from focusing on music. At present all of the majors still own their own music publishing operations, although as we have already mentioned Warner Brothers has retained its copyrights but sold its print division. Warner Brothers was the only major record company that was active in the print business. Should Warner Brothers and EMI reach an agreement to amalgamate, there is a strong possibility that one or the other company will have to liquidate its music publishing operation, because many industry observers believe that the European commission that regulates monopoly would balk at seeing the creation of a single music publishing operation that is several times the size of the next largest company. The most current development in terms of the industry-wide trend to consolidate is that the European regulatory commission has decided to look into the Sony BMG agreement. This agreement was approved by the commission in 2004 but is being reviewed once again at the request of European independent record labels. The prevailing industry senti- ment is that the commission will not rescind its approval, but nevertheless this development has put something of a damper on the EMI–Warner Music negotiations. At the time of this writing, BMG had sold its music publishing division to Universal. If the European Anti-Trust Commis- sion approves the sale, Universal Music Publishing will become the largest music publishing company in the world.

Role of Independent Labels

It is inaccurate to dismiss independent labels as a force in today’s record business. A number of small labels have found a successful niche by 12 The Global Music Industry marketing very specific genres of music, such as reggae, children’s music, folk music, gospel music, and world music. Some other labels, especially TVT, have recorded more mainstream music but have generally chosen artists with a bit of an edge who major labels are not always comfortable promoting. British-operated Sanctuary Records has a business model of its own. It seeks out acts that it feels can comfortably sell 50,000 to 100,000 records. Many of these acts are established artists who have a definite fan base, although they no longer can compete for superstar status. Sanctu- ary limits the recording budget so that it can still obtain a profit with this sort of sales plateau. It also follows the model used by Berry Gordy, the founder of Motown Records. Like Gordy, Sanctuary seeks to manage the acts and to control their music publishing and all other income streams, such as tour merchandise. Sanctuary also operates a book publishing com- pany that publishes books about pop music. After a seemingly successful operation in the early twenty-first century, Sanctuary is currently under reorganization, and its future is in doubt. One remarkable success story is the rise of Naxos Records, a budget classical label that operates out of Hong Kong. The classical record busi- ness is currently in dreadful shape, and it represents only a small fraction of record sales in the world. Naxos started in Hong Kong. Its recordings sell for one-third to one-half of the normal price of CDs. No royalties are paid to artists; they receive simply flat fees. At the same time, Naxos has recorded everything from the standard classical warhorses to fresh and new repertoire. It sometimes keeps its costs down by using orchestras in Eastern European and Asian countries, where it has been able to pay lower rates to the musicians. Naxos now sells more albums than any other classical music label, and it has expanded its musical offerings to jazz and world music. Over the years various labels have enjoyed success with New Age music, punk rock, jazz, and folk music. The unexpected success of such musical phenomena as the Singing Nun, the soundtrack of O Brother, Where Art Thou?, and the Buena Vista Social Club album are the sorts of things that are essentially impossible to predict but fun to observe. Introduction 13

Table 1.1 Comparison of Record Sales in Various Countries Market Trade Value Position Country in Millions of US$ 1 United States 7,011.9 2 Japan 3,718.4 3 United Kingdom 2,162.2 4 Germany 1,457.5 5 France 1,248.3 6 Canada 544.3 7 Australia 440.0 8 Italy 428.5 9 Spain 368.9 10 Brazil 265.4 11 Mexico 262.7 12 The Netherlands 246.3 13 Switzerland 205.9 14 Russia 193.7 15 Belgium 161.8 16 South Africa 158.8 17 Sweden 148.2 18 Austria 138.7 19 Norway 133.1 20 Denmark 113.1 This Page intentionally left blank References

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